INAUGURAL ADDRESS

By PERCY GOOD, C.B.E., President.*

"THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF STANDARDIZATION"(Address delivered before THE INSTITUTION 9th October, 1947.)

May I first thank you for electing me President of this greatInstitution. I recognize that to have been chosen is a highhonour, and I will do my utmost to justify the trust you haveplaced in me.

I have watched the growth of the electrical industry first frominside and later from a position which has enabled me to com-pare its progress with that of other industries. As a result Iam convinced of the truth of S. Z. de Ferranti's statement, madein 1910 and referred to in last year's Presidential Address, thatwherever coal or gas is used for the production of heat or power,everything for which it is used would be better done wereelectricity the medium of application. I believe the day is notso far away when alt energy for industrial and domestic con-sumption will be in the form of electricity, and also that electric-battery vehicles will be in general use in our big cities.

Although the financial saving to the nation by the general useof electricity would be substantial as a result of a reduction inthe damage to buildings, furniture, books, etc., caused by fuelconsumption, the financial side is not the only consideration.The dominant feature of our industrial towns is sordidness, theresult of our acceptance of grime and soot as an inevitable con-dition of town life. This, I believe, has a bad effect on ourproductive capacity and on our ability to enjoy leisure. Cleanbuildings and a healthy atmosphere are two important needs ofto-day, and the only practicable way of achieving these is bythe universal use of electricity generated at appropriate places. Ido not wish to decry the efforts which are being made to-day tosecure the most efficient use of any kind of fuel, but I do urgethat we should consider more than technical efficiency. Wemust also consider all the conditions which surround its use andassess value on the basis of the total contribution to humanwelfare and happiness.

The electrical industry, though still young, has already placedits mark on the world. Living conditions have greatly improvedas a result of the development of electrical science. That therewill be an enormous increase in the use of electricity is certain,for electricity has no rival in sight, and there is nothing to sug-gest, even dimly, that the consumer of the future will be suppliedwith the heat, light and power he needs other than in the formof electricity by whatever means that is produced. If there isto-day an appliance which is still being operated by some othersource of power, then there is an electrical problem to be solvedand one which I am confident can be solved.

With this vast consumer-capacity to be provided for, thereneed be no anxiety as to the future prosperity of the electricalindustry. The electrical industry, however, in common withothers, is faced with the difficulties of the time and must planfor its future development. This year two new Acts of Parlia-ment of far-reaching importance to the electrical industry havebeen passed—the nationalization of that great organizationknown as Cables and Wireless, and the nationalization of theelectric supply industry. It is gratifying to have with us to-nightthose who have been appointed to take charge of these two

* British Standards Institution.

branches of our industry. I am sure that every member of TheInstitution will join with me in wishing them success in theimportant tasks which have been entrusted to them.

In my opinion there is no substantial case against some formof public control where the service must be nation-wide andwhere competition is unwarrantable. The supply side of theindustry should, however, be confined to generating and dis-tributing electricity and should not manufacture the machineryor equipment it uses. The Authority ought not to be subject tothe temptation to embark on competition with the manufacturingsection of the industry with the knowledge that it can meet itslosses out of the pocket of the innocent consumer. Also, a typeof mind is required for the generating and distribution side verydifferent from that required for the manufacturing side, becausethose responsible for running machinery and equipment have tobe satisfied with it for many years, whereas the successful manu-facturer must be temperamentally desirous of improving hisproduct. A great deal of technical progress is made as a resultof what might be called the "competition" that goes on in themanufacturer's mind in his desire to make progress. I need notlabour the point further except to say that, as the Act gives powerto the Supply Authority to manufacture the goods it uses, it isto be hoped that the right will not be exercised if for no otherreasons than the ones I have given and the need for this countryto offer for export the very latest designs in technical equipment.

This is our century, and we are in the middle decade of it. Itwill be known to history as the electrical century, and many ofus are fortunate in being a party to what, in effect, is a processof breaking-in and harnessing one of nature's most vicious powersfor the beneficent use of mankind.

Electricity is a unique servant; it has neither taste nor smell;it emits neither light nor sound; it is neither rough nor smooth;our five physical senses do not respond directly to it; it has to bestudied in the abstract and developed in the laboratory.

We are inheritors of the results of the thinking of our prede-cessors, and we must see to it that when our successors lookback they do not detect any flagging in our efforts to givehumanity the benefits that electricity alone can bring.

INDUSTRIAL STANDARDIZATION"Standardization," a subject to which I have given half my

life, will be the main theme of this Address. I do not propose todeal with electrical standardization, but to outline the basicprinciples underlying industrial standardization as applied to allindustries, and to place on record some historical steps whichhave been taken by our Institution to encourage its development.That this is appropriate I am satisfied, because The Institutionhas, since its beginning and long before my time, played anactive part in the preparation of standards, and I wish to seetribute paid to those far-seeing members who recognized thenecessity for standardization in those early days.

After Volta, Ampere, Ohm and others did their classic work,and Faraday had interwoven electricity and magnetism into a

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20 GOOD: INAUGURAL ADDRESS

carpet more magical than was ever conceived of by the story-teller of the Arabian Nights, an electrical science came intobeing, and fundamental standards were established on which theelectrical industry has been created.

The records of the work of the British Association in 1861show that a committee of six eminent scientists established thesefundamental standards on an international basis. They rejectedempirical solutions and developed a system of electrical unitsthat would link up directly with a unit of work, and so establishedthe connecting link between all physical measurements. Theyrecognized the need for units of practical size, and their selectionhas stood the test of time.

The importance of standards of quantity was recognized muchearlier than this, as can be judged from an ancient StatutoryOrder, which reads:

Thou shalt not have in thy bag divers weights a great and asmall. Thou shalt not have in thine house divers measures a greatand a small.

In those days the standards of weight, length and volume werededicated to God and were kept by the priests in the Temple.To-day they are kept in the National Physical Laboratory.

These fundamental standards provide the basis for all measure-ment, and it is on measurement that industrial standardization(the subject we are concerned with this evening) ultimatelydepends.

Most people think of standardization as meaning simply thefixing of types and sizes, whereas, important as this aspect is,the main objective of a national standards movement is theestablishment of standards of quality, fitness for purpose andperformance. To understand the reasons for this we must goback some way.

During the middle ages there was a measure of co-operationbetween those engaged in a similar trade, and rules relating tothe quality of their product and to conditions of sale were incommon use. By the beginning of the 19th century, however,trading conditions had developed into something of an inhumanscramble, for there was practically no co-operation within in-dustry; there was war between rival producers; there was warbetween workers for a job; and there was war against technicalprogress, with results which still smear our land.

As tiie century entered its last quarter a change in outlook wasapparent, due, partly to the realization by industry itself thattrading could no longer be carried on according to jungle law,and partly, no doubt, to an awakening of the national conscienceto its responsibility for establishing humane industrial relation-ships. Industry was also recognizing that, just as rules wereessential in the playing of games, so rules or standards wereessential in securing fair competition between traders and toprotect the public against unfair practices.

As an illustration of the changing outlook may be cited theCable Makers Association, which came into being in 1899 andwas followed by the British Electrical and Allied ManufacturersAssociation and the Electric Lamp Manufacturers Association.These, with other Associations, have been concerned with theestablishment of rules for the proper conduct of their trade andthereby have been contributory factors ever since to the orderlyprogress of our industry.

Industrial standardization is concerned with such of thoserules for the conduct of business as relate to the quality of thematerial and the conditions under which it is to be used. Theseconditions are sometimes necessary for the protection of thehealth or safety of the public and are often called Codes ofPractice or Regulations. Our Institution was early in recog-nizing the necessity for such standards, and in 1882 it issuedrules governing electrical installations, the 12th edition of which

is in course of preparation. To-day, standards relating to theinstallation and use of materials and appliances are prepared bythe appropriate Professional Institution and are issued as BritishStandard Codes of Practice after consultation with industry.

In 1885 our Institution set up a committee to prepare standardsfor electrical materials and appliances. In 1889 it recommendedto the Government the establishment of a laboratory forstandardizing electrical apparatus, though by this was meant thecalibration of electrical measuring instruments. In 1898 theCouncil of The Institution was urged to strengthen its StandardsCommittee by adding to it "representatives of the manufacturer,user, consulting engineer and the user's engineer." During thisperiod, papers on the subject of standardization were invited, inconnection with one of which a speaker expressed the opinionthat standardization should be "an understanding or agreementamong buyers as to ends, leaving means to the manufacturer."Thus were voiced some of the principles of standardizationwhich have been followed ever since.

In 1901 The Institution of Civil Engineers set up a committeeto prepare standards for steel sections. This committee becamean autonomous body on receiving the support of The Institutionof Mechanical Engineers, The Iron and Steel Institute and TheInstitution of Naval Architects, and when the committee enlargedits scope our Institution transferred its standardization work to itand associated itself with the other four bodies in founding theorganization which is to-day known as the British StandardsInstitution. Later, the building, chemical and textile industriesjoined the movement. Thus the engineering industry foundedan organization which enables all sections of industry to co-operate in the preparation of standards having a national appli-cation, each section of industry retaining autonomy in its ownfield, each working under the same self-imposed principles andthereby creating a democratic machine in the fullest sense of theword—a model instrument—available not only to industry butto government of whatever political colour. The growth of theB.S.I, is shown below.

3

1

19001700

1500

1300

1100

900

700

500

300

100

No.

'/-

Mint

Expenditure^

uttt>es-

' //

y'11

/If

r

No.of British

1

!/

Standards

120 000

110 000

100 000

90 000

80000

70000

60000

50 000

40000

30000

20000

10000

05§ 19011906 1916 1926 1936 B47

Number of committee members:

1901 . . . . 81947 . . . . 11300

To-day, twenty-eight countries have set up national standardsorganizations very much on the lines laid down for the B.S.I.,and industrial standardization has become part of the economicstructure of all the industrial countries.

It is sometimes asked why the Professional Institutions con-sidered it necessary to create a separate organization to do thiswork. The answer is, I think, clear. A Professional Institutionis the forum for the expression of individual technical views,

GOOD: INAUGURAL ADDRESS 21

whereas in the preparation of a standard it is necessary to takeinto account commercial considerations and obtain the collectiveviews of industry.

SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL STANDARDIZATIONJust as it became necessary from the earliest trading days to

have standards for comparing or measuring quantity, so to-day,when in a very large number of cases weight, area or volume hasno significance in determining the suitability or value of aproduct, standards are required to enable the properties whichare significant to be assessed in comparable terms. An analysisof the industrial standards in use to-day shows that they takeone or more of the following forms:—

Standards of quality, fitness for purpose or performance.Dimensional standards.Standard methods of sampling, and certification marking.Terms, definitions and symbols (nomenclature).

Standards of PerformanceTo set up a standard of quality, fitness for purpose or per-

formance, it is necessary to start with the answer to the question.What is the material or article required to do? (and, quite often,What must it not do?). Whilst it is not difficult, as a rule, togive an answer in general terms, it is sometimes impossible togive it in a form which is capable of measurement; yet it is notuntil the properties are capable of measurement that a reallysatisfactory standard can be laid down.

An ideal standard will include requirements in terms of thosemechanical, physical and chemical properties which can beassessed objectively. In our present state of knowledge, how-ever, standards often have to include requirements which canonly be assessed subjectively, but research is steadily providingthe necessary data to enable requirements to be expressed withprecision. Then it will be possible to avoid the use of looseexpressions to define quality.

Dimensional Standards

Dimensional standards are, in general, for the purpose ofsecuring interchangeability; to establish a range of types andsizes; or to provide a means of defining function.

Interchangeability plays an important part in modern industry,where parts from many sources have to come together. It isequally important in domestic life, where it is necessary tofacilitate the replacement of parts which require periodic renewalor are liable to accidental damage. A great deal of work hasbeen done not only on the standardization of parts but also onthe preparation of standard limit systems for the various types offit. There is a great deal of standardization for interchange-ability to be done in a number of industries. There is also muchopposition to it, but I must add that resistance by manufacturersis not necessarily prompted by self-interest; it is often due to adesire on the part of the manufacturer to prevent unsuitable orinferior replacement parts being sold to the user.

Standardization for the purpose of eliminating from themarkets an unnecessary number of types and sizes is sometimescalled "simplification." This aspect of standardization shouldbe approached both from what has been aptly called "the ulti-mate user's level of practical significance" and from the pointat which the economics of the problem indicates that a changein size is desirable. Such an investigation frequently leads tothe selection of a range of sizes following a geometrical progres-sion. This is evidence in favour of the proposition that in orderthat the intensity of a sensation may increase in arithmeticalprogression the stimulus must increase in geometrical progression.

Tables of what are known as preferred numbers are used as anaid in the selection of sizes.

I am satisfied that an inquiry should be made by each industryinto the economics of dimensional standardization from thepoints of view of interchangeability and the elimination ofunnecessary types and sizes. Thousands of different types andsizes are available where hundreds, and in some cases dozens,would meet requirements. Past experience also leads me tourge that each industry should consider how best to secure thegeneral adoption of its standards when it has issued them.

The mention of dimensional standards often leads to thequestion, Why not adopt the metric system? My answer is thatthe English-speaking countries decline to become slaves to atheory or submit to the tyranny of a decimal sub-division. Theyhave continued to use traditional units as well as those almostinstinctive sub-divisions, the half, the quarter, etc. They have,however, accepted decimal sub-divisions and metric units wherethese have been found to be more convenient than the pound-yard units. This characteristic compromise is due partly to anintuitive recognition that there is much reason behind tradition,and partly to an intuitive selection from alternatives of the onewhich most facilitates thinking processes. It perhaps alsoillustrates an unconscious resistance to the view that the scientistis always right.

Sampling and Certification Marking

An inspection of small samples in order to judge the value ofthe bulk is an inheritance of early trading practice, and, to alarge extent, has the character of gambling. It is only in com-paratively recent times that the subject of sampling has beendealt with mathematically with a view to laying down standardmethods of sampling to secure that the samples fairly representthe bulk. This point is illustrated below.

SAMPLING

Number selected Possible number defectivefrom 500 or _

more; all passed itest Once in 10 times 5 times in 10

The study of sampling has made practical the use of certifica-tion marks on goods where testing must be carried out onsamples, either because of the high cost of the test or because thetest is destructive of the product. The use of certification marksis governed by the Trade Marks Act, and, whilst certificationmarking is a concomitant rather than an intrinsic part of indus-trial standardization, it is being associated therewith as a result ofa desire to distinguish standard from non-standard goods.

In the case of marking weight or volume of commodities,control is exercised by a nation-wide army of inspectors. In thecase of certification marking of industrial products, if it can beshown that the producer has in operation an effective system ofstatistical control, the owner of the certification mark can, with-out employing a large inspectorate, give an assurance that thebulk conforms to the standard.

There is a fundamental difference between a trade mark and acertification mark. The former is owned by a trader; the lattercan only be owned by an authorized non-trading organization.A trader's mark identifies the maker and conveys to the pur-

GOOD: INAUGURAL ADDRESS

chaser a measure of quality without necessarily defining, main-taining or guaranteeing it. A certification mark not only identi-fies the trader but also conveys information which the purchaseris entitled to have and which he can accept with assurance of itsvalidity.

Anxiety has been expressed in some quarters that the use of acertification mark to indicate conformity to a standard diminishesthe value of the goodwill of a trader's mark. I doubt if thisis true where the goodwill is legitimately earned.

An outstanding example of the successful use of a certificationmark in association with a manufacturer's mark is the hall-marking of gold and silver articles. The Working Party Reporton the jewellery trade asserts that the competitive position of theindustry has been appreciably strengthened by the custom, intro-duced in 1300, of hall-marking gold and silver goods. TheReport goes on to say, "there is little doubt that the prestige ofBritish hall-marking has done much to assist British goldsmithsand silversmiths to establish and maintain their very solidreputation in the markets of the world for the high quality oftheir goods generally."

NomenclatureIt can be asserted with confidence, I believe, that at the con-

clusion of the chain of transactions from raw material to ultimateconsumer there is a loss in efficiency as well as in commercialintegrity, due to loose terminology. It would be quite impossibleto secure that each word had only one meaning in our everydaylanguage; indeed, it would be a serious loss to literature if suchwere the case, but each word has an accepted meaning in thecontext in which it is used. In the case of scientific, technicaland trade terms, however, the meaning of a term to describe amaterial or property should not vary. To take care of this,standard glossaries are required. These have a function differentfrom that of a dictionary. The function of a dictionary is togive all the accepted meanings: the function of a glossary is tofix one meaning.

A definition of a term has something of the character of aspecification, and frequently limits the meaning which previouslyhad been loosely applied to the term, thereby requiring disciplinein its future use. As an example of this may be cited the term"switch," which, by glossary definition, should be used only todescribe a non-automatic device for breaking a circuit carryingits normal current.

Some technical terms have come into use by way of analogy,such as the words "window" and "squint." The word "window,"when used in association with the technique of electric wave-guides, means a hole for coupling one cavity to another cavity,and the word squint means the small angle which may existbetween the normal plane and the direction' of maximumradiation.

A much older and more subtle example of the analogous useof words is the word "Jaw" when used in connection with thelaws of gravity, motion, electricity, etc. Its original meaning isauthoritatively defined as "a rule laid down for the guidance of anintelligent being by an intelligent being having power over him."

The standardization of terms for scientific and industrial pur-poses is a process of christening, and there is a need for morecollaboration than is taking place at the christening stage. Thenames of the electrical units are the same in most languages and,according to Ogden, there are some 600 other scientific andtechnical words (not counting the medical use of Latin) whichare sufficiently alike for the written word to be recognized in allWestern languages.

In the case of new scientific and technical terms I would askour Institution to consider whether anything could be done tosecure that, in future, they are the same in all the principallanguages.

SymbolsI do not propose to say much on the subject of symbols, which

is, in itself, a big subject.Letter symbols are in use in every branch of human activity,

and each letter serves many purposes. Graphical symbols, beingpictorial, often convey the meaning where words would not beunderstood. Symbols are essential to the electrical industry,and their standardization has received a good deal of attentionboth nationally and internationally.

To sum up: industrial standardization has its roots in theneeds of commerce; its growth is due to the recognition of itsvalue and to the ever-expanding number and complexity ofarticles of commerce; its fruit is improvement in the products ofindustry and improvement in commercial transactions. I wouldstress that the end of a technical effort is the production of some-thing for someone to use, and that it can reach the user onlythrough the channel of commerce, which is the blood-stream ofnational and international well-being.

One of the greatest aids to business is a satisfied buyer, and itmay be confidently asserted that the community to-day is readyto concede that the producer is entitled to obtain a fair pricefor his product, and that the buyer is entitled to get value for hismoney. Where the pound or the yard applies, the buyer hasassurance that he is getting the quantity he is paying for. Is itnot equally essential that the buyer should have a correspondingassurance that he is getting other significant properties?

CONCLUSIONI will conclude with a few words about our own industry. By

its recognition that standardization is indispensable; by thedevelopment of its trade and research organizations; by itsmerchanting agreements; the electrical industry has been en-deavouring to find a way to combine co-operation with competi-tion.

Let us, as members of this great Institution, live up to themaxim expressed by Francis Bacon in the following words:

I hold every man a debtor to his profession; from the which, asmen of course do seek to receive countenance and profit, so oughtthey of duty to endeavour themselves by way of amends to be ahelp and ornament thereunto.