Indentured Indian Migration : an historical investigation into the possible reasons for
Indians emigrating from their places of origin (with particular reference to the United
Provinces and the Madras Presidency) to the Colony of Natal
By
J H Lalla
1984
INUENTUllED: I N D I A N hZIGRATION
An h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o the p o s s i b l e rears,ons
for I n d i a n s emigra t ing from t h e i r p l a c e s of o r i g i n ( w i t h par t icu1o. r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e Uni ted P r o v i n c e s
,and t h e M ~ d r a s p r e s i d e n c y ) t o t h e Colony o f Nata l .
JeH. LALLA
ACKNO YJLEDGEMENTS t
A s much a s s i s t a n c e , b o t h p u r p o s e f u l and i n c i d e n t a l , w a s r e c e i v e d , i t m i g h t seem i n v i d i o u s t o l i s t names; s o I hope a g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t l i anks w i l l b e a c c e p t e d as a t o k e n o f a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h o s e n o t ment ioned below.
S p e c i a l tklarko a r e due t o P r o f e s s o r S o Bh,ana and D r J.13. Drain ( b o t h o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Durban-Westvi l le ) f o r t h e i r
a s s i s t a n c e , p a t i e n c e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and gu idance ; t o
Bridgemo11a.n YdsLharaj and Yraveen Ram f o r t h e i r warm s u p p o r t
and h e l p d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of r e s e a r c h and w r i t i n g ; t o
Dan Sew, my bro ther - in - l aw, and M r s l ieena G o b i n d l a l , my s i s t e r , f o r t h e i r s a c r i f i c e s and t o l e r a n c e d u r i n g t h e c h o r e
o f t y p i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t ; t o t h e library s taf f , o f b o t h t h e
U n i v e r s i t y of DurbLul-Westville and U n i v e r s i t y o f Natal, v~ho
,yuided me t owards r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l ; t o t h e s taff o f t h e Natal Arch ive s ( l ' i c t e r n ~ n r i t z b u r g ) f o r t h e i r co -ope ra t i on , a i d f i l i a l l y -to the nie~nbcrs o f my f a m i l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y my
lvife ruid m y mother , f o r t h e i r suppor- t a d c o n s t a n t
e n c o u r a ~ e m e i i t d u r i n g o u r p e r i o d s 01 g r i e f a d h a p p i n e s s .
60 qJcd quuaT.jrrd,-rc T: auioa;)q oh\:y su-urpu~ p-[no:.: 'i;l[(l?:;t:oci 'JOU '1cq.1:~ ,yo q~od a:,? uy ~?I:L: qas Janau ~)AUI[ ~CUUI
x Iloq.urzurn,, pur: XIX ,,~~olJuo~,, '?.:~pu~ rrroJj Jn0qc-l: .rosy
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jo sy ~,c?q.u~ u? A~qsnpur ~u2ns ayq jo A-roqsyrl ayj
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yans ur pm amoa Kay? p?~? Lyh\ ~ntirrq q.t:qq. 3ur;cnp ~qts~
ur papaau E;u??~~uI ;)IT$ ~JOA'; *s:tlorq:::;ln~1 .TO ,IacIurnT.r I:
sasr-e.x sry~, *s~a,~noqz~ paJnq.clallur S-G 'p16~-0q$~ por.~aci
oyq 3ur~np '-pq,r:jq oq. aw:a c;trz:yprr~ ?sour qcl..(q 1x:jrorrq s!: $1
t h e I i c c u b l i c oi' Sou th A f r i c c ~ ~ s p o p u l a t i o n . Thus, C h a p t e r
Onr :it-Lcmpts t o rl.riswer t h e r4ue:;tion "Were I n d i a n s needed
i l l Nnta l?" The b c _ ~ i n n i n e ; s o f t h e su,ga.r i n d u s t r y ,
t l i c need fo r ' I n d i n n Lnbour, t t l e co l i c l i t ions o f i n d e n t u r e , '
t h e - temporary h a l t i n i m n i g r a t i o l l i n t o N a t a l , t h e
y l . n n t e r l s n l e n t o resume immigr: :~. t ion o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r ,
t h e e v e n t u a l t e;-~min:: t i o n of inciel i tured i m u i e r n . t i o n a r e
d i ~ ~ c u s s e d as %hey a11 form t h e b a s i s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e
of I n d i a n s i n N n t t ~ l , L ~ L I I n t e r , i n t h e I i e p u b l i c o f
Soutl l A f r i c n .
Chrtyter TVJO d e a l s ,.;ene17nlly w i t h t h e p a s s e n q e r s th.t c t r r ived abo:lrd t l ~ e two :;liips, "Pongolan % I X and
"Umzinto" X. A b r i e f a n a l y s i s 01' t h e c o m p o s i - b i o ~ o f t h e
!)a:;;engexBs, t h e i r c:xs-te group:-; and ernpl.oyers i s d e a l t
6 5 t h i n t h i s chn.p ter as t h i s sample g r o u p j l rovided t h e
s t i m u l u s oi ' t h i s stucly, and t h e corm~len-ks h e r e are
p e r t i n e n t -LC? i:j::ues dct- i l t w i - L l 1 i n 1;llc. t h i r d c h a p t e r .
The main t h r u ~ t o f t h i s s t u d y i s c o n t : ~ i n c d in C h a p t e r
T h r c e , where m ,?-l;tcmp-I; i s sn:lde t o :I-nnr-;\;lcl- some o f t h e
, . ~ u : ~ s t i o n s r : ~ . i s e d above ; t h e most i m p o r t a n t o f which
i s "iVhy d i d t h e p e o p l e 1 e : i . v ~ t h e i r rnotiibr c o u n t r y t o
wol-lc i n f o r e i g n lnn[ ls?" A s most ol . t h e n n s - e n c e r s a b o a r d t l le two nbove-nent i o n c shil,:: o r i : ~ i n : l . t e d f rom t h e
U n i t e d P r o v i n c c s (now Ut-t:tr ~r : -~ .dc .sh) and t h e 3indr:-is
P r c s i d - e n c y , t h i s s t u d y t r i e s t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n on t h e s e
;~ l . : lccs , : ~ l t l x o u g h it is n o t nlv~:.tys l~o: : r : i l ) lc . Thrrefor i : , t h e f : ~ c t o r : : ~ th31; cre:r ted t h e " , p ~ ~ j h " cc~.nno-1; be d i s c u s s e d
on:l?: w i t h r e f e r e n c e -lo -I;hese .tv~o p l ~ t c e s . I t r u s t be boxme i n mind . t l i : ~ t most f: lctor:; th.1-t ;ilrc? corm~entecl on
e l , 2s t h e y r e l a t e t o most p a r t s o f Ind ia , i l i ~ l - ~ d i ! l ~ : t l ic l1n.i t c i i 1'1-ovirlcl:;; :n~r'l Lila M Lira,:; Yresi,.]r:ncg.
; i l~c: .e i t I.:: l7i):;:;iblc -I;o conllr .ct t l ~ c , "pu;;hfl f:-,.-.tors
::!)l'ci:'ic;l..l.:Ly t o i? i th(?r* of t l ~ n : ; c ' t,;ro I - , , o r b o t h , i - l ! : , ? i : L I P I , I I [ ! o ~ ~ t t .
INTRODUCTION :
Slavery, indenture ztnd conscription are a few alternative
techniques for incorporating foreigners (or locals) and
organising them in the service of a dominant political
povrer. The system of indenturing Indians came about
chiefly as a result of the abolition of slavery in the
British Empire in 1834, and was part of a planned
emigration-cum-labour H. Tinker holds the view that, the planters, in the British Empire (and elsewhere), ,
deprived of their slnve labour, "turned greedily to the.,
millions of India, \vho they believed could be induced to
labour in the cmefiolds for a pittance no greater than
that awarded to the slaveOfl2 IIo called the indenture system "a new system of slavery."
Calcutta mld ll1adras bec~une tho "Coolie cntchmentn centres
for the world's trade in indentured labour in the
nineteenth century and recruiters from British and
European colonies set up their offices and vied to dispatch
their orders. 3
1. L. Kuper: 'Indentured labour and other forms of
recruiting and controlling strangera' in
L. Kuper and M.G. Smith (eds.) :
Pluralism in Africa, p. 255.
2. H. Tinker: A New System of Slaverx: The Export of Indian
Labour Overseas 1830 - 1920, p.18.
3. Y,S, Meer, et al: Documents of Indentured Labour, Natal
1851 - 1917, p . 4 .
TI-IE DESTINATION
The r o l e p l a y e d by su>qar i n t h e h i s t o r y o f Natal i s
import ,ant . One of t h c M i l n e r b r o t h e r s b r o u g h t t h e first cane t o p s from Mauritius as e a r l y as 1047. E.P. Rathbone
i n F e b r u a r y 1 8 4 9 , p l m t c d f i v e a c r e s c l o s e t o t h e
Umhlo t i R i v e r . He u s e d as l a b o u r f o u r I n d i , m s b r o u g h t
f r o m nlauritius, t h e p i o n e e r I n d i a n imnligrants i n t o Natal. 4
The deve lopments o f t h e sugar i n d u s t r y p r o c e e d e d a p a c e 5 a f t e r t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t s b y Edmund Morewood (1850-1852) ,
i n t r o d u c i n g t h e first s u g a r m i l l , o n has e s t a t e a t
"Compensation".
By 1058 f u l l s u g n r lx roduc t ion had begun. Over t h r e e
t h o u s m i d s a c r e s i n Durb:m and V i c t o r i a c o u n t r i e s were
d e v o t e d t o s u g a r c u l t i v n t i o n . Ilowever, t h e g r e a t e s t
d i f f i c u l t y t o be overcome was -the s h o r t a g e o f l a b o u r . A s
L.M. Thompson p u t s it:
" f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n , r e a p i n g and m n n u f a c t u r e o f
sugar, a c e r t a i n t y p e o f l a b o u r i s n e c e s s a r y . . . .
T h a t a l a b o u r problem s h o u l d have e x i s t e d i n Natal may at firs-l; s i g h t seem i n c o n c e i v a b l e . But
t h o u g h t h e r e were a h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d N a t i v e s i n
N a t n l t h e r e was n o t enough l a b o u e r s . 11 6
4. EoII. Broolces nnd C . d c 73. Webb: A H i z t o r y o f Natal, p.80. -
5 . A . J . C h r i s t o p h e r : S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , p.05.
I 6 . Quoted i n E.11. Broolrcs ~ u l d C. d e E). Webb: A H i s t o r y o f
N n t n l , p.81.
Natal n e v e r h a d s l a v e r y , as s h e w a s n o t annexed u n t i l e l e v e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n t h e B r i t i s h dominions . It i s p o s s i b l e tha t h a d s l a v e r y e x i s t e d , s h e
may have u s e d it. H e r s h o r t a g e o f l a b o u r , however, was due t o d i f f e r e n t c a u s e s . C l o s e r a c q u a i n t a n c e by t h e B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s w i t h t h e l a n d r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e l o c a l
n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n h a d n o t r e a c h e d an economic s t a g e . They c o u l d noi; b e t e m p t e d t o work f o r t h e . E u r o p e a n f o r any
It becnme c1cp.r t h n t some o t h e r s o u r c e o f d o c i l e , r e l i z b l e l a b o u r had -to be found, i f t h e c o l o n y were t o p r o s p e r 'and d e v e l o p . 0
V ? z i c u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s were c o n s i d e r e d , i n c l u d i n g c o n v i c t
l a b o u r f rom B r i t a i n , A f r i c a n s f rom P o r t u g u s e Mozambique, 2nd t h e s e t t l e r s even l ;un l ly t u r n e d t o India, b e c a u s e
t h e r e were men among them who had had e x p e r i e n c e o f s u g a r
p l z n t i r i g i n M a u r i t i u s m d t h e B r i t i s h West I n d i e s . Indians
i t was r e s J ' i s e d , had s a v e d s u g a r i n d u s t r i e s e l s e w h e r e , t h e y
m i g h t p l a y a c r u c i a . 1 r o l e i n c r e a t i n g a s u g a r indus1;ry i n ~ a t n l . ~ The f i r s t r e c o r d e d r e f e r e n c e t o t h e Natal c o l o n i s t s demand f o r i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n l a b o u r i s t r a c e d t o a r e p o r t
i n t h e D u r b a n O b s e r v c r , l 7 O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , No. 9, a t a m e e t i n g
o f l e a d i n g c i t i z e n s h e l d at Durban Government S c h o o l H a l l . 10
G.H. N i c h o l l s : . S o u t h A f r i c a i n my t i m e ,
6. Fi7a P a l m e r : Economic ,and P o l i t i c c a Background t o t h e
H i s t o r y of I n d i a n s i n M. P a l m e r , e t al.:
The I n d i a n as a S o u t h A f r i c m , p . j
9. L. Thompson: Co-opera t ion 'md c o n f l i c t : The Zulu
Kingdom and N a . t : ~ l ~ i n M. Wi l son and L.17. Thompson ( e d s . ) : Oxford H i s t o r y o f S o u t h A f r i c a , pp. 387-380.
10. Y.S. Meer, e t n l . : Documents of I n d e n t u r e d Labour,
p, 4 and 22.
India1 labour was by no means forced upon Natal. The
innigrat ion of the Indisns into Natal was no "spontaneous
migration on the part of the Indian people but from an artificial movcment promoted and fostered by the European inhabitants themselves" 11
The Government of British India which by 1858 had experience of the emigration of labourers to Mauritius, British Guiana
aid four of the Viest Indian 1slnnd.s c?yld which had worked out suitable conditions for their employment, was nbt at first
willing to sanction emigration to Natal. But Natal
persisted and in 1859 three Laws were passed (Nos. 13; 14 and 15 of that year) and forwarded by Lieutenant-Governor John ~cott(~vho called the scheme Itan experiment" and aaid
that the scale of Indian immigration to Natal would be
small13) to the Colonial Office which confirmed them. The most important was Law 14 of 1859 which proviued for Government-sponsored indentured labour from India.
The labourer was bound for five years. Thereafter he might
enter into an ordinary contract of labour, or not work at all, and might chmge his residence. After 10 years he was
entitledto a free passage to India, which he might subject
to the approval of the Lieutenant-Governor, cornmate for a
grant of land equal in value to the return passage, &d whether this approval was obtained or not, he was entitled
to remain in Natal if he so wished.14 The complicated
11. E. Bradlow: 'Indentured Indims in Natal and the L3 Tax* in South African Historical Journal, No.2,
p.38. 12. E.11. Brooltes and C. d c B. Webb: A Elistory Of N~ltal,p.82
13. L. Thompson: Co-operation and conflict: The Zulu
Kingdom and Natal' in M. Wilson and L.M. Thompson (eds.) : Oxford History of South Africa, p. 388.
14. E.B. Brookes and C. d e B. Webb: A History of Natal,p.83
The complicated n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e t oo v a s t t o m a l y s e he re ,
but i t can be added t h a t t h e n c o o l i e s w rece ived 10 s h i l l i n g
a month w i th r a t i o n and q u a r t e r s , t h a t r u l e s forbade co rpo ra l punishment, t h a t t h e p ropor t ion of women i n each
p a r t y w a s t o be f o r t y t o every hundred males, and t h a t i n each p a r t y a c e r t d - n number of personsof h ighe r ra& wGre inc luded i n accordance wi th t h e p o l i c y of t h e Land and
Emigrat ion Commission. 15
The Ind ian Act a u t h o r i s i n g crnicyra.tion t o Na ta l (No. XXXIII of 1860) rece ived t h e a s sen t of t h e Viceroy on 24 J u l y 1860. F i n a l l y t h e system got under way, and t h e
' T r u r o ' w i th t h e f i rs t sh ip load of I nd i an inmigran t s a r r i v e d a t Durban on 17November 1860.
The Ind ians a r e t h e only p a r t of t h e popula t n of Natal
which cnme by s p e c i n l and urgent i n v i t a t i o n , is
A f t e r t h e a r r i v a l of t h e *Tru ro l , n ine t een o t h e r s h i p s fol lowed
b r i n g i n s t o Nztal approximately 6 000 sou l s . Thus even at t h i s e a r l y s t a g e t h e Ind i ans were a much h ighe r p ropor t ion t han has o f t e n been thought.
Table 1.1. POPULATION STRUCTURE I N NATAL,' 1861 - 191118
YEAR EUROPEANS p e r cen t AFRICANS per c en t INDIANS p e r cen t 1861 1 2 538 8.2 139 625 90.9 1 5 1 i 0.9 187; 17 380 6.0 266 817 92.2 5 070 1.8 1881 28 483 7.6 329 253 87.1 20 196 5.3
1891 46 788 8.2 483 690 84.6 41 142 7.2 1904 97 109 8.8 904 041 82.1 100 918 9.1 1911 98 114 8.2 953 398 80.4 133 420 11.4
1 . 14-Palmer: lEconomics m d P o l i t i c a l Background t o t h e
H i s to ry of I nd i ans ' i n M-Palmer, e t . a l : The Indicm as a South Afric;m,p.4.
16. E.H. Brookes and C. de B.Webb: A His to ry o f Natnl,p.83
10. Y.S. M e o r c,t al.: Documents of Indentured Labour, p.16.
The e a r l y i r m n i , q r , u l t s were main ly from t h e Madras P r e s i d e n c y ,
s p e a k i n g T m i l and Te lugu languages. A few were r e c r u i t e d
f rom Calcut ta . . Between 1860 and 186G abou t 6 000 i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s a r r i v e d i n Natal f rom M:l.dras and 300 f rom
C a l c u t t a . 1 9
The s u g a r p l a n t e r s were d e l i g h t e d t o g e t t h i s l a b o u r and t h e
Natal Mercury w a s a lmos t l y r i c a l about it. 20
I n d i m i m n i g r a t i o n ceased f o r a t i m e i n 1866. The i n i t i a t i v e
cane from t h e p l a n t e r s , who were d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e
a p ? ~ o r t i o n m c n t of t h e f i n m c i r i l bu rden of -the irnrnigrat ion c o s ~
between t h e Government and themse lves and who were
s u f f e r i n g w ide r t h e d e p r e s s i o n of 1865. But it must be
a d m i t t e d t h a t i n t h e f i rs t s i x y e a r s o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r sys tem, Natal f a i l e d markedly t o a c c e p t t h e
r e s ~ o s i b i l i t i e s o f h e r p o s i t i o n . 2 1
In 1870-1, t h e first I n d i a n s who had a r r i v e d i n Natal became
e n t i t l e d t o a f r e e r e t u r n passage t o I n d i a . Most o f them e-
l e c t e d t o s t a y i n b u t t h o s e who d i d r e t u r n
complained t o t h e I n d i a n a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t t h e y had been
b a d l y t r e a t e d . By tha - t t ime , t h e Natal p l a n t e r s were
wan t ing t o impor t more I n d i a n s , b u t t h e I n d i a n Government
p r o h i b i t e d f u r t h e r r e c r u i t m e n t f o r Natal u n t i l t h e
compla in t s had been i n v e s t i g a t e d .
19. L. Thompson: Co-operat ion and c o n f l i c t : The Zulu
Kingdom a d Natal' i n M. Wilson and
L.M. Tlzompson (eds . ) : Oxford R i s t o r y o f South Af r i ca , p.389.
20. R.E. Gordon and C . J . T a l b o t : From D i a s t o V o s t e r :
Source M a t e r i a l o n South A f r i c a n H i s t o r y ,
1488-1975, pp. 287-288. 21. E.H. Brookes and C. de B. 'Vebb: A H i s t o r y o f N R ~ R . ~ ,
p.87. 22. L.Thompson: Co-operat ion and c o n f l i c t : The Zulu
Kingdom and Natal1 i n M. Wilson and L.M. Thompson ( eds . ) : Oxford H i s t o r y o f South ATr ica , p.383.
Colonel Miles , who w a s a c t i n g Lieutenant-Governor a t t h a t
t ime, appointed a cornmiasion of two, t o enquire gene ra l l y
i n t o t h e cond i t i ons of I nd i ans i n N a t a l and p a r t i c u l a r l y thecompla in ts made by t h e l abou re r s who had r e tu rned t o
I nd i a . One of t h e members w a s Michael Gallwey, Attorney-
General of Natal and t h e o the r w a s Colonel Bann i s te r
Price-Llyod, a member of t h e Ind i an C iv i l Se rv ice , who w a s i n Natal on s i c k leave . Price-Llyod spoke some of t h e
Ind i an languages and w a s t h e r e f o r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o
communicate more e a s i l y wi th t h e Ind i an l aboure r s . The
cormiss ioners , cognizcmt of t h e importance of a renewed supply of l abour t o t h e sugar i n d u s t r y , recommended t h e
c o r r e c t i o n of t h e more obvious abuses such as f logg ing ,
f i n e s f o r s i cknes s and inadequate medical s e r v i c e s and
f a c i l i t i e s . The L e g i s l a t i v e Council of Natal passed
l e g i s l a t i o n embodying t h e recommendations o f what w a s
c a l l e d t h e "Coolie Comniasiong' i n Law 12 of 1872. 23
The most important p rov i s i on of t h e Law of 1072 w a s t h a t
a fit person should be appointed P r o t e c t o r Of Ind ian Irmuigrmts, wi th m a , r i s t e r i : ~ l j u r i s d i c t i o n over Ind ians . 24
The r e g i s t r a t i o n of I nd i an marr iages w a s provided f o r .
Medical , o f f i c e r s were appointed by t h e Government i n each
d i s t r i c t . Flogging w a s abol i shed f o r " f r e e w Ind i ans f o r
breaches of t h e Masters and Servan t s Act. Employers were
requ i red t o keep wage-books. Amendments t o t h e Law were
made i n 1874, including; t h e s e t t i n g up of an Ind i an
Immigration Trust Board t o superv i se t h e f i n a n c e s of t h e
scheme. 25
In 1874 t h e Government of N a t a l r eques ted t h e Government.
of I n d i a t o permit t h e resumption of emigra t ion on t h e
ground t h a t Na ta l w a s t h r ea t ened with p o s i t i v e r u i n . The
23. CC. Ba l l a rd : 'Migrunt Labour i n Natal 1060-1879, i n t h e
Jou rna l of Na ta l and Zulu His torx , I ,p .30 .
24. E.H. Broolcesand Cede B. Webb:A Hi s to ry !'Gf Nata l ,pm90
25. I b id . , p.90
Wragg Commission r e p o r b e d t h a t " i n 1U74 c r o p s were r o t t i n g o n " *' T h i s d e a t h o f l a b o u r f o r c e d t h e p l a n t e r s t o t h e g round .
r e b i l i s e t h e v a l u e of I n d i a n l a b o u r . The I n d i a n Government
was e v e n t u a l l y s a t i s f i e d w i t h N a t a l ' s a t t e m p t s t o remedy the
more b l a t a n t a b u s e s <and o n July 28, 1874, t h e f i rs t I n d i a n s
u n d e r t h e new scheme a r r i v e d i n Natal. I m m i g r a t i o n was
c o n s i d e r a b l e . Approxi rnnte ly 800 m:tlcs e n t e r e d Natal i n 1874.
By 1875, t h e I n d i t u l p o p u l a t i o n had r e a c h e d t h e f i g u r e o f
9 914, by 1385 of 30 159e27 A t o t a l number o f 1 5 2 1 8 4
i n d e n t u r e d a r r i v e d from I n d i n be twecn 1860 and
1 9 1 1 as w e l l as a c o n s i d e r a b l e number of uPaaoengerM I n d i a n s ,
who had come o u t a t t h e i r own e x p e n s e u n d e r t h e o r d i n a r y
i r n y ~ i t ~ r a t i o n l a w s o f t h e co lony .
From 1 8 6 0 , when t h e f i r s t s h i p l o a d s a r r i v e d , u n t i l 1 9 1 1 t h e 1
s u g a r i n d u s t r y depended u1)on i n d e n t u r e d s e r v i c e , and i t s d i f f i c u l t t i rnes were , f o r t h e most p a r t , t h o s e y e a r s when
p c r n i i s s i o n t o r e c r u i t i n I n d i a nra,s t e m p o r a . r i l y wi thdrawn. 29
Tlle B r i t i s l i Inc1ic.m ena.hlcc1 Nn.La1 -Lo T)r.osj)er. The demand f o r
Ind i sm Labour was alwAys p;re:xter t h a n t h e a u p j ~ l y . Natal
a g e 3 t s 1 ' s e a r c h e v e r y nook nnd c o r n e r " o f Madr:~~; f o r i m r ~ . i g r x n t s
viil : l . ing t o cone t o t h e p l s n t : a t i o n s , snd a r e f o r c e d t o a c c e p t - nien who "do n o t compare f n v o w : ~ . b l y v l i th t h e c l a s s o f I n d i a n - r e c r u i t e d i n p a s t yenrul ' . 30 The Indian!.> were s h i p p e d t o
N~i ta .1 i n i t i a . 1 1 ~ f o r l a b o u r o n t h e s u g a r p I _ ~ . n t ~ . t i o n s b u t ,
l a t e r , a s t h e s y s t e m was s e e n t o b e p r o f i t ~ . b l e , f o r work i n r a i l w a y s , c o a l mines and i n d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e . 3 1 They
bec2me s n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t i n a l m o s t e v e r y s e c t o r o f t h e
- --
26. C. Kondapi: I n d i a n s O v e r s e n s , p. 21.
27. E.H. Brookes and C . dc B. Webb: A H i s t o r y o f Natal, p.90. - d --
28. J . B . B r i a n : C h r i s t i n n 1ndi:lns i n N a t a l 1860-1911: An - I - I i s t o r i c a l and S t a . t i o t i c a 1 S tudy , p . 4
29. A . F . H a t t e r s l e y : The B r i t i s h Se t t l e rncn- t i n 1Jato.l: A -- - Stucly i n Irnper-io.1 Migrat Ton, p. 241. -
30. Quoted i n L.E. Neme: The A s i s t i c Danger i n t h e C o l o n i e s , pp. 18-19.
31. L.Kuper: ' I n d e ~ i t u r e d l a b o u r rlnd o t h e r fornls o f r e c r u i t i n g
and c o n t r o l l i n g s t r r ln{:crs l i n L. Kuper m d f,l.G.Smith ( e d s . ) : Pl.ura,lism i n . A f r i c a p.255.
-9
growing economy, but t h e c o n d i t i o n 3 o f t h e i r s e r v i c e c o n t r a c t s
r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r f r e e d o m o f movemelit and b a r r e d f rom a s s o c i a . t i n f : as e q u a l s v ~ i - t h Europe,ms. 32
Anti-Indian f ~ e l i n g i n t h e Colony becLme v o c n l i n t h e 1 8 8 0 s
T h i s w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e h o s t i l i t y o n t h e p a r t of
E u r o p e a n t r a d e r s b a s e d on t r a d e r i v a l r y and o n f e a r s C h a t t h e Indian p o p u l n t i o n w a s s p e c d i l y o v e r t a k i n g t h e European
p o p u l a t i o n . 33
The p o s i t i o n grew worse d c c a d ~ b y d e c a d e s i n c e 1 8 7 0 , t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f o r g a n i s e d ,and f i e r c e anti-Indianism i n Natal. The Natal Wi tness , m o u t h p i e c e o f White N a t n l i a n s i n t h e mirllavlds and u p l a n d s c a s t i g a t e d t h e i m m i g r a n t s i n no w l c e r t a . i n t e r m s : "The I n d i a n s were n o t i n need o f p r o t e c t i o n .
d
It i s r n t h c r t h e European comrauni.ty t h a t r e q u i r e s p r o t e c t i o n against t h e h e a t h e n c o o l i e s " . 34
I n d e n t u r i n g w a s t e r m i n a t e d i n 1 9 1 1 by t h e B r i t i s h Government
of I n d i a i n res r lonse t o p r o t e s t s by Indians a g a i n s t bad
t r e a t m e n t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f i n d e n t u r e and t h e
n o n - f u l f i l l m e n t o f p r o m i s e s t o t h e frtbe o r e x - i n d e n t u r e d . 35 -
32. * t P 0 I b i d
33. B.Pachai : ' A l i e n s i n P o l i t i c a . 1 H i e r a c h y l i n B . p a c h a i ( e d . ) : S o u t h A f r i c a ' s I n d i a n s : The E v o l u t i o n
0 1 a n ' I inori ty , p.9. 34. : C Did, ,pp.g-lO. 35. L.Kuper: ' I n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f
r e c r u i t i n g c o n t r o l l i n g s t ran{:crn ' i n
L.Kuper :m[l M. C. Smj.th ( e d s . ) : P l u r a l - i s m i n A f r i c a , p . " 5 7 .
CHAPTER 11: THE PASSAGE
The I n d i a n i m m i g r a n t s were b rought t o t h e Colony o f Natal
by s h i p vrhiclz d e p a r t e d from one o f t h r e e p o r t s , namely,
Bombay, C a l c u t t a o r Madras. Two s h i p s - one from C a l c u t t a ,
t h e o t h e r Madras - wcre chosen s o t h a t a c r o s s - s e c t i o n of
two l a r g e a r e a s o f I n d i a cou ld be u sed as what may be c a l l e d
t h e " r e s e a r c h groundI1 o f t h i s s-tudy. An a t t e m p t i s made t o
a n a l y s e and comment on v a r i o u s a . spec t s r e l a t e d t o t h e two
s h i p s and t h e i r p a s s e n s e r s . S p e c i f i c d e t a i l s r e g a r d i n g
r e g i s t r a t i o n number, n a n e s , age , sex , c a s t e , h e i g h t and
p l a c e of o r i g i n c a n be found i n Appendices A and B.
The n i n e t e e n t h ( 1 9 t h ) voyage o f S.S. " P ~ n g o l a ~ ~ took 26 days.
The voyage began a t t h e P o r t o f C a l c u t t a on 30 March 1895 and
ended i n t h e P o r t o f Natal on 25 A p r i l 1895.
TABLE 2.1 : l 'Pongolnn X I X - B~?EN(!JO\\~N OF PASSENGERS.
PONGOLA X I X (58548-50091) ( C a l c u t t a )
(344 P a s s e n g e r s )
TABLE 2.1. :
NIII!RBEII PER CENT
IT a1 e
Female
Boys
G i r l s
200
80
31 23 -
TOTAL 342
'2 gassen-e rs - no i n f o r m a t i o n
-
344 Emigrants boarded t h i s s h i p . T h i s number i n c l u d e d
200 men, 88 women, 31 boys and 23 g i r l s . ( ~ n f o r t u n a t e l ~ ,
i n f o r m a t i o n on two p a s s e n g e r s - ~ e ~ i s t r a t i o n Numbers 50584
and 58664 - could n o t be found as t h e micro- f i lm w a s u n c l e a r , and, f u r t h e r m o r e , no t r a c e cou ld be found i n t h e
Employer 's R e g i s t e r s t h a t a r e k e p ~ r at t h e ~ r c h i v e s ) . One
man d i e d on t h e voyage, t h u s b r i n g i n g t h e number t h a t
l a i d c d t o 343, a s no c h i l d r e n wcre b o r n :+,board t h i s s h i p .
Amongst t h e s e I n d i a n s , t h e r e were ~nany heavy-bu i l t men and
t h e Dep8t Surgeon ( a t P o r t Natal) f e l t t ha t t aken as n whole,
t h e s e men, would prove a " s e r v i c e a b l e l o t of labourers". ' H e a l s o f e l t t h a t t h e women were of It the u s u a p y p e t 8 . Women were
i n t h e p r o p o r t i o p of 44 p e r cen t of t h e number of men. One
of t h e s t i p u l a t i o n f o r indentured l a b o u r l a i d down i n 1860 w a s
t h a t women i n t h e p ropor t ion of 35 p e r cen t of t h e t o t a l
nnm b e r of men should be brought t o Natnl , bu t t h i s
p r o p o r t i o n was l a t e r inc reased t o 50 pe r cent.' Th i s shows
th:-it tlie r e c r u i t e r s had n o t been a b l e t o f u l l y s a t i s f y t h i s requirement.
The Surgeon Super in tendent (G.P. S taunton) of t h e S.S.
"Pongola" X I X repor ted t h a t measles were brought on board by
a c h i l d , who showed symptonis of t h e d i s e a s e on t h e f i f t h day
a f t e r l e a v i n g Ca lcu t t a . Mumps a l s o occurred on board t h i s
v e s s e l , and on a r r i v a l t h e r e were 25 c a s e s of mumps, and
measles r e q u i r i n g cont inued t r e a t m e n t e 3 No c a s e s of h e a r t d i s e a s e viere found among t h e passengers . The I n d i a n
Imnigra t ion T r u s t Board of Natal, i n i t s T h i r t e e n t h Annual
Report ( ~ u l y 1894-June1835), f e l t t h a t t h e I n d i a n s who had
a r r i v e d from C a l c u t t a have been s u p e r i o r t o t h o s e in t roduced
i n former y e a s , bu t because they a r r i v e d i n t h e summer
months of Jznuary , February and March, t h e y were more l i a b l e
t o siclcness t h a n a t any o t h e r t ime of t h e y e a r , which i s n o t
so marked i n t h e case of I n d i a n s a r r i v i n g from Madras. 4
The S.S. ttUmzinto" on i t s t e n t h ( 1 0 t h ) vdyage l e f t t h e P o r t of Madras on 23 November 1895 and a r r i v e d a t Durb ,an(~or t ~ n t a l ) on 1 4 Dccc~nbcr 1895. Thc voyage took 2 1 daye.
1. Report of t h e P r o t e c t o r of Irnniigrants, June1895, p.A24.
2. E.H. Brookes cnrl Code B. :Yefib: A i3istory of Natal, p.86 3. Report of t h e P r o t e c t o r of I m m i g r n u l t s , June18g5,pmA3.
4. -. I b i d 9 p.A46.
5. Report of t h e P r o t e c t o r of I~nmipantr:, Dec.1895, p.A6O.
TABLE 2.2. : "UMZINTO" X - BRENCDO'?/N OF PAS:;ENGERS.
UMZINTO X - (59942 - 60213) ( ~ a d r a s )
(272 p a s s e n g e r s )
TABLE 2.2. : BRiLV(DO':'iN OF YAS:jFIJGERS
NUMBER
Male 1 7 1
Pernitle 59 P
Boys 18 G i r l s 24
TOTAL 272
A t o t a l of 272 emigrn.nts boarded t h i s sh ip . The p a s s e n g e r s
i n c l u d e d 170 men, 60 women, 18 iloys m d 24 g i r l s . No-one
d i e d o r w a s b o r n wh i l e aboard t h i s s h i p . Thus t h e number of
p a s s e n g e r s , t h a t l anded at Durban, remained a t 272. Here ,
a g a i n , it should be n o t e d t h a t t h e women were i n t h e
p r o ? ~ o r t i o n o f 34.5 p e r c e n t o f t h e number of men.
According t o t h e r e p o r t o f t h e Medica l Board on t h e
I rnKigran ts , t h e I n d i a n s i n t h i s shipment were l anded i n a
v e r y c l e a n c o n d i t i o n . The med ica l o f f i c e r s were p l e a s e d t o
f i n d t h a t t h e r e were no c a s e s o f h e a r t d i s e a s e , and s t a t e d
t h a t t h e physique of t h e Immigrants were " q u i t e up t o t h e
average" , and t h a t t h e r e w a s a f a i r s p r i n k l i n g o f except-
i o n a l l y w e l l - b u i l t m d b i g men ,mone;st them, and t h a t - t he
women were c l e a n ,and a b e t t e r l o t t h a n u s u a l . 5
The dellland, f o r I n d e n t u r e d Ind i ru l s , from a l l p a r t s of t h e
Colony ( o f N a t a l ) w a s v e r y g r e a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d June-
December 1895, especially f o r Madras men, p r i n c i p a l l y f o r
elnployinelit on t h e c o ~ ~ s t . The p r o t e c t o r of I n d i a n Immigrants
r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s u p l ~ l y of l n b o u r from. t h e Madras
Frcs i r lency h r ~ d f o r some montlis F a l l e n c o n s i d e r a b l y s h o r t
o f t l le i n d e n t s s e n t t o t l ~ e M;-~drns Agcnt, Meo:;rs P a r r y and
Cornp:uiy, owin,.: t o t h e g r e a t d i f . l ' i c u l t y i l l r e c r u i t i n ( ; t h e
--
5. Rcnor-t o f t h e F r o t e c t o r of I~!lrni!:l-;.uz-l;s, I )ec .1895.p .~60.
c l a s s o f p e o p l e r e q u i r e d , and 3 1 ~ ~ 0 t o t h e s c a r c i t y o f women.
The Madrns Agen t s hnd remnrkecl t h a - t h a d it n o t b e e n f o r t h e
s c l x r c i t y o f nromen, t h c y wou1.d have s h i p p e d many more
~ a b o u r e r s . ~ With r e g a r d t o -thc s u p p l y o f l a b o u r f rom
C a l c u t t a , M r M i t c h e l l , t h e E m i ~ r : . ~ . t i o n Agent at t h a t p o r t ,
s t a t e d t h a t h e h a d no d i f f i c u l t y w h a t e v e r i n o b t a i n i n g t h e
numbers i n d e n t e d f o r , t h e s u p p l y b e i n g a l m o s t u n l i m i t e d . 7
Ilad i t n o t b e e n f o r t h e g r e n - t e r p r e f e r e n c e shown by most
of t h e C o a s t e m p l o y e r s f o r Madras I n d i a n s , t h e I n d i a n
I n u n i g r a t i o i ~ T r u s t Bo:~rd c o u l d h a v e s e c u r e d more l a b o u r f r o m
C a l c u t t a . 0
TABLE 2.3: "PONMILA" X I X - EhlPT'YERS AMY ALLOCATION. .
LeonLvd A c u t t
B a k e r B r o t h e r s
H.H. B o l a s e
PONGOLA X I X
S.W. B i s h o p 5 B. Cro i -~p ton
G. Cbvery
J o h n C r o s s
M a r i e L.P.A. Cheron
P e t e r P . I . Dav idson
W i l l i a m G i l l e t
E . W. Hawksworth . ..- '17 H.P. H a r r i s o n 17 J.11. H u t t o n 4 J .L. H u l l e t & Sons L td .
\Y. Ilenwood
J. Ing l i s
G u s t a v e J a c q u e l i n
'VY. Ladds
J . M . M o r r i s o n
J.J. M i l l i c a n
Natal Goverlmen-t R a i l w a y s 5
6. R e p o r t of t h e I ' r o t e c t o r of I m r n i g r m t s , Dec .1895,p.A61. 7. I b i d . , p.AG1
8. R e p o r t of t h e P r o t e c t o r of I m m i g r a n t s , J u n e 1895,p,A46.
TABLE 2 . 3 : "PONGOZA" X I X - EJ"PT.OYERS AND ALLOCATIONS
PO ''TGO L 4 X I X
O t t a w a E s t a t e
P r o s p e c t H a l l E s t a t e
Reyno ld B r o t h e r s Ltd .
A . S i n c l a i r
St:-i inbank B r o t h e r s
C . E m T h r a s h
Willi,m T. Woods
Yi. Wilson
Unknown
Most of t h e p a s s e n g e r s f r o m t h e s e two s h i p s were i n d e n t e d t o
sugar -cane p l a n t a t i o n owners . I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s h a d b e e n
p r i m a r i l y b r o u g h t t o work o n t h e s u g a r - c a n l a n t a t i o n , and .ia s o o n t h e i r l z b o u r becarnc a k e y f a c t o r i n t h e deve lopment o f
t h e N:itnl Sungr i n d u ~ t r y . ~ Ao t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m became
p r o f i t a b l e , t h e Indiz-tns were a l s o s h i p p e d f o r work i n r a i l w a y :
c o a l m i n e s and i n d o m c s t i c s e r v i c e , 1 ° A p o i n t i n c a s e i s t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e Natal Goverlmelit R a i l w a y s employed a s i g n i f i c a n - 1
number o f I n d i , m s , and i s one o f t h e more c o n s p i c i o u s
non-sugar employer .
TABLE 2.4: - "UbIZINTO" X - EMPLOYER AND ALLOCATIONS
Uii4ZINTO X ,-
13Q LOY E. 1 NrntlB ER Joh? B a z l e y R S o n s 1 3 Horace Balcomb 1 0
Blac l tburn C e n t r a l F a c t o r y 2
H u ~ h L a n c a s t e r C a r b u t t 5 Chicli B r o t h e r s 5
9. L. Thomp::on: ' C o - o p e r a t i o n and C o n f l i c t : The Zu lu
Kingdom ,md Natal1 i n M.'~Yilson & L.yhompaon:
Oxford H i s t o r y o:€ S o u t h A f r i c a : p.389. 1 0 . L.1Cuper: ' I n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r and o t h e r f o r m s o f
r e c r u i t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g s t r a n g e r s t i n 11.Iiupe.r and PK. G. S m i t h ( e d s ) : P l u r a l i s m
i n A f r i c a , p .255.
T/rBLF: 2.4 : "UI~JXINTO" X - UNFIOY \<It:; AN]) hLJ IOCATION:? --- -- .-
r n ~ TOY 311 NUMBER Maria L.P .A. Cheron 2
T.G. C o l e n b r a n d e r 9 YJ.Colepper 1 A l c i d e C o u l e n 1 Edviin E s s e r y 10
11. P . Hnrri: ;on 5
B.A. Wood I Ioe l 1 L a Mercy E s t a t e 9 L.V. L e d e b o c r 1 6 Andrew D a v i d s o n L e s u r e 1
N z t a l C e n t r a l S u g a r Company 31 Natal Covernrnent R a i l w a y s 31 W i l l i a m P e a r c e 1 6
J .T . P o l k i n g h o m e 17 Reun ion E s t a t e 18 Reynold B r o t h e r s 24
T o n g a a t C e n t r a l S u g n r Company 1 6
Stainb'ank B r o t h e r s 5 M a r i e S c h u t z 1 Ann S e d p a n Symans 3 Unknown 20
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P ro1 ;ec to r o f I m m i g r a n t s , t h e r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n e m p l o y e r s and t h e i r l a b o u r e r s were , g e n e r a l l y
s p e a k i n g , v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y . Men, who a r e w i l l - i n g t o do a
f a i r day's viork and c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s p r o p e r l y , a r e t r e a t e d w i t h e " g r e a t e s t k i n d n e s s a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The
c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e e s t a t e s u s u a l l y v u r i e d w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r
o f ' t h e ovmer, b u t e v e n t h e mos t l i b e r a l d i d n o t go beyond
p e r s o n ~ l i z i n g a f e w ' , o f t h e t t c o o l i e s t t . l2 U s u a l l y , t h e immigrants were m e r e l y r e g a r d e d as t lhands t t t a n d no more. 1 3
11. R e p o r t of t h e P r o t e c t o r of Imrnigrnntn, J u n e 1 8 9 5 , p.Al6.
12 . L.Kuper: ' I n d e n t u r e d l a ,bour :~.nd o t h e r I'orms o f r e c r u i t i n g
Bro
Lma M.G
o k e s
c ontrol . ' l S m i t h (
m d C.do
i.n,y e d s . R.
s l r c ~ n ~ c r s ~ i n L.Kuper m d ) : P l ~ r n l i s r n i n A f r i c a , p. 255 Webb: A H i s t o r y o f Natal, p.
TLIBLE 2 .5 : "FOI'JGOLA" XIX - - ANALYSIS OF CASTI3S.
Ahir
Ahirin
Al i th
Ahur
Ar&h
Babhan
Bhar
Bhnrin
Bhuin
B R ~ S
Barki
Bhoo j
B andarv~an
Bhunikar( ~huimhar*)
Dooadh
Dhobi
Godaryn ( ~ a d a r i ~ a * )
Goo jar ( ~ u j a r * )
Gareria
Gararya
J a t
Haj jam(HajamS)
Kashi ( ~ h a s i * )
Kelwot
Kownt ( ~ e v a t * )
Kalmar ( ~ a l v a r * )
Kurmi
Kohar
Koharin
Kahur
Kuhar Kachu
Kunbi
Sumhc-
Kum,ax
CASTE NUMBER
K o r i 24
K o i r i (Koeri*) 7 Kandoo (Kandu*) 7 L o n i a 5 Lodh 3 Lodhi 1
Lohnr 3 Morai
Marao
M i l l a n Musulm~m P a s i
P a t t a n ( ~ a t h a n * )
R a j p u t
T h W r
Thahar ( ~ h a k a r ? )
Trandoo
V a l l a h
Zimedar in
The Hindu s o c i a l sys tem, founded on t h e d i u i s i o n o f s o c i e t y
i n t , o ' c a s t e s 1 , p r e s e n t s a s o c i a l framework o f g r e a t
complex i ty . The t r a d i t i o n a l l va rna ' sy s t em , modi f i ed i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f I n d i a n s o c i a l p o l i t y ,
d i v i d e s Hindu s o c i e t y i n t o f i v e ma jo r g roups . The f irst t h r e e , namely, Brahmins ( p r i e s t s ,and men o f l e a r n i n e ) ,
K s h a t r i y a s ( r u l e r s and w a r r i o r s ) and Vaishyns ( t r a d e r s ) a r e
r e g a r d e d as l d u i j a l o r ' t w i c e bo rn ' . The f o u r t h g roup i s
composed of numerous o c c u p a t i o n a l c a s t e s who a r e
r e l a t i v e l y c l e a n and a r e n o t c l a s s e d as un touchab le s .
F i n a l l y , i n t h e f i f t h major group we crin p l a c e a l l t h e
un touchnble c a s t e s . Tlle c l ~ t s s i f i c a t i o n was a c c e p t e d by t h e
Hindus a l l o v e r I n d i a . l4 The c a s t e s a r e t o o numerous t o a l l o w a n i n d e p t h a n a l y s i s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t udy . F o r a d e t a i l e d brcalcdown of Cast(?, C a s t e g roups ,and L o c a l i t y i n
which t h e men~ber~s of each c a s t e a r e mos t ly found, t h e
i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o S i r A . Dairies's
Ethnography ( C a s t e s and T r i b e s ) ,
14 . S .C. Dube : ---.- I ~ l l a c , p. 35
Of S ign i f i c ,mce i s t h e s t o , t i s t i c t h a t t h e c a s t e s w i t h l a r g e r
nluribers abo'lrd "Pongola" x i x , namely, A h i r (16.5 p e r c e n t of
t h e t o t a l number of passen[;ers on t h i s s h i p ) , Kurmi (5.5 p e r
c e n t ) , K o r i ( 9 p e r c e n t ) , and Ra jpu t (4 .6 p e r c e n t ) a r e m o s t l y
found i n Upper 1nd ia15 , which i n c l u d e s t h e a r e a known as U t t a r P r adesh . Cons ide r ing l;he f a c t t h a t most o f t h e
Imrnigrmts were brought t o work i n p l a n t n t i o p s , it i s
s u p r i s i n g t o n o t e t h a t most o f t h e s e c a s t e g roups do n o t
b e l o n g t o t h e a : ~ r i c u l t u r a l c l a s s . F o r example, t h e members
o f t h e Ah i r c a s t e a r c c a t t l e - b r e e d e r s , t h e members o f t h e
K o r i c z s t e a r e weavers m d t h o s e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e Ra jpu t a r e
land-oif,mers, o r as S i r Ba ines c a l l s them, vllanded-dominant".
TABLE 2.6: INTO" X - AlTmf'SIS OF CASTES. - - - - - -- --
CASTE
Agambudi j a ( ~ ~ a m u d a i ~ a n * )
B a l i j a
L inga B a l i ja
C h e t t y
C h r i s t i a n
Dhoby
Ediya
C o l l a
Gounden
J h y a r
Kamma
Kapula
Kapulu
K n k k i l a r
K apu
K a.unvc7J_ i m Kondatharulu
K o l l a r
15. S i r A . Baines : Ethnography ( C a s t e s and T r i b e s ) , pp.153-165
CASTE
Kavarai L e t t i g a h
nlohamedan
Mus salman
Marava M u d a l i a r
Muth r i ah
Mudaly
Meth iga
Naik
Naidu
N a t t an
Odda
Panchama
P a l l n r
P o t t e r
P a r i a h
Pa lay igam
P a l l i l u
Reddy
R a j u
Raja
S u d r a
S a l a l o o
S a b c l u
S e t t i g a d u
T e l a g a
T e lugu
Udyun
V annia
VettdcLar
V e l l a l a
Vaduga
Vaniyan
Yelamal in W ( a s t e r i s l c ) deno t e s as s n e l t i n S i r A . B a i n e s l E thnogrnp l iy (Cas tes and T r i b e s ) - s t m a b u r g ,
V . J . TrUener, 1912. v
POSSIBLIi: - REASONS lpOR MIGRATION -
I n d i n , i n t h e n ine t een - th c e n t u r y w a s a vast c o u n t r y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f many m i l l i o n s . With t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
sys tem o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r , t h o u s a n d s o f I n d i a n s l e f t t h e i r
homelands t o s eek " b e t t e r p a s t u r e s t t e l s ewhere , a l t h o u g h many of them b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y would e v e n t u a l l y k e t u r n t o t h e i r
p l a c e s o f o r i g i n . Although t h e s e peop le came from v i l l a g e s
a l l o v e r I n d i a , c e r t a i n a r e a s seem t o have had a v e r y h i g h
conce , n t r a t i o n of emig ra t i on . Two such a r e a s o f p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t a r e t h e Madras P r e s i d e n c y and t h e Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s .
The Madras Pres ic iency was a vast a r e a s t r e t c h i n g ma in ly
a l o n g t h e e a s t c o a s t of I n d i a from Ganjam, i n c e n t r a l I n d i a ,
t o "evelly, i n t h e s o u t h e r n t i p o f I n d i a . The U n i t e d
P r o v i n c e s comprised t h e p r o v i n c e s of Agra and Oudhl and
becane known as t h e s t a t e of Ut tar P r a d e s h i n 1947.
TABLE 3.1: ?,.I'ONGOLA" XIX - FI,.ACES OF O R I G I N
PLACliS
* ~ a Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 2 Al lahabad Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 1 4
Azamgarh Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 22
Bahra i ch
Benare s
B a s t i
Burdwan
B a l i y a ( ~ a l l i a )
Ba ra Bxll t i
B ~ x r s i l l y
Chapra
Chanparan
Durbhanga
Damoh
Etwab
F a t i h p u r
U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s 1 0
Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 1 4
U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s 33
West Denegal 1 _--
U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s 9
1 0 Uni tcd Provinces 1 Bihnr 2
B i h a r 1
B i h a r 1
1 Uni ted P r o v i n c e s 1
1 Fyzabad Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 4 1
1. P.Spenr: I n d i a : A Rodern I I i c t c ~ r y , p.316
PLAC!<S OF O R I G I N NUMBER
F a t chpur Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 2
Gaya (Gya) B i h a r 6
Condn ( R ) Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 24
Gwnlin ( ~ w a l i o r ) 1
Ghazipur Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 37 Gor&pur Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 6
IIycic r g n r h 3 H,?rdoi Uni ted Provinces 2
J n y ~ o r e R a j a s t ,m 2
J nunpur Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s 1 0
J u l a n d h a r 2
Luckno w Uni t ed P r o v i n c e s 9 Mozaffe rpur
l l i r z a p u r
P a r t abgrtrh
P a t n a Pl lulpur
P i l i h i l
Roz Barca l l j r
R a i B a r e l i
S a r z n
S i t npur S u l t m p u r
Shahabad Unao ( ~ n n n o )
Unlcno\vn
B ihn r
Uni ted P r o v i n c e s
1
U n i t e r o v i n c e s
B i h a r (f Uni t ed P r o v i n c e s
Uni ted P r o v i n c e s , ,
Bihnr
Un i t ed F r o v i n c e s
These tivo a r e a s are of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t because , f i r s t l y ,
ove r 77 p e r c e n t of -the p3ssenge r s o f "Pongolall X I X came
from t h e d i s t r i c t s of t h e Uni ted ~ r o v i n c e s , whereas o n l y 1 2 n e r cent cane from t h e B i h a r i d i s t r i c t s . The b a l a n c e o f
t h e pnssence r s Prom t h i s s h i p came from o t h e r p a r t s o f n o r t h
I n d i a , rn:my of which cou ld n o t be found on t h e p r e s e n t l y
n v n i l ~ b l c rn:xps. F u r t h e r , f o r t h e yertr J u l y 1894 - June 1895,
t h e C a l c u t t a Agent ( f o r ~ a t n l ) h a d f o u n d t h e r e c r u i t i n g
s e a s o n v e r y f a v o u r a , b l e . 2 S e c o n d l y , o v e r 95 p e r c e n t of t h e
p n : : s c n g e r s 01 llUmzin-to" X were f rom t h e Madras P r e s i d e n c y .
T h i s may n o t b c s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e t h i s a r e 3 c o m p r i s e s many
p r o v i n c e s ( o r d i s t r i c t s ) , b u t it would b e , d i f f i c u l t t o
conce n t r a t e o n a p a r t i c u l a r d i s t r i c t as mos t l o c a l l y
a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s d e a l w i t h t h e Madras P r e s i d e n c y as a whole. O f t h e Madras d i s t r i c t s , N o r t h A r c o t a n d Godavery
h a d t h e h i c h e s t conce n t r a t i o n of e m i g r a t i o n ; 4 3 p e r c e n t
?nd 1 8 . 4 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y .
\my d i d t h e p e o p l e 01 t h e s e two a r e a s m i g r a t e i n s u c h l a r g e
numbers? What; mnde them l e a v e t h e p l a c e s where t h e y h a d b e e n
b o r n ,mii b r o u g h t up? The c a u s e a n d e f f e c t o f m i g r a t i o n i s
b e s t e x p l a i n e d by a c o m b i n a t i o n 01 lupushM a n d " p u l l u f a c t o r s .
The ,area of out -migrrz t ion i s r e g a r d e d as e x e r t i n g a p r e s s u r e
o r '*push1*, w h i l e t h e a r e a 01 i n - m i g r a t i o n a t t r a c t s o r
" p u l l s " . The i n d i v i d u a l migrant we ighs t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d
~ l i s a d v ~ m t a g e s of moving and s t a y i n g p u t . 3
The f:ictor:; wh ich i n f l u e l z c e t h e d e c i s i o n t o m i g r a t e and t h e
p r o c e s s of m i g r a t i o n may b e summarized i n a s i m p l e
frameworlc as f o l l o w s : 4
1. F a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a r e a o f o r i g i n .
2. F a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a r e a o f d e s t i n a t i o n .
3. I n t e r v e n i n g f a c t o r s .
4. P e r s o n a l f a c t o r s .
P e o p l e move f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s - t h e f o l l o w i n g
c n t e c o r i e s of f a c t o r s a r e r e g a r d e d as t h e ma in d e t e m i n m t s : 5
2. R e p o r t of t h e P r o t e c t o r of Immigrants, J u n e 1895,p.A46.
3. J.0 .LT. Block nnd J. d. Webb? A Geography o f Mankind, p428 4 . F.S.Lee: ' A T h e o r y of M i g r a t i o n ' i n G.T. Denko, e t . a l .
( e d s . ) : P o p u l a t i o n Geography, p.292.
5 1 . o r i l l : The S p a t i a l O r g a n i s a t i o n o r S o c i e t y , p.162.
1. Natural c a t a s t r o p h e s ( ea r thquakes , c r o p f a i l u r e s )
2. Man-made d i s a s t e r s ( w a r , r e v o l u t i o n )
3. Economic f a c t o r s (unemployment, p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e )
4 . S o c i o c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s ( t h e q u e s t f o r s p i r i t u a l freedom,
t h e a t t r a c t i o n of a mi ld c1irn:ite o r of u r b a n a m e n i t i e s ) .
However t h e f a c t o r s seldom o p e r a t e i n d i v i d u a l l y , a d
no rma l ly a combinat ion of f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t h e d e c i s i o n t o
move. P o p u l a t i o n mouemento t y p i c a l l y o c c u r i n r e sponse t o two k i n d s of ~nol;ivn.t;ion - econornic w d s o c i a l . According t o M o r i l l :
'lMigrri,.tion o f people i s l i k e t r a d e i n t h e
s e n s e t h a t if t h e p o t e n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n
income o r s a t i s f a c t i o n - t h e v a l u e
d i f f e r e n t i a l - i s p e r c e i v e d as g r e a t e r t h ~ n
t h e economic and s o c i a l c o s t o f moving, t h e n
m i g r a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . 81 6
It i s n e c e s s a r y t o b r i e f l y e l a b o r a t e on i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a b o u r m i g r a t i o n s because of i t s ro l ev tmce .Lo t h e p r e s e n t s tudy . If t h e r e i s a l a b o u r s h o r t a g e i n one coun t ry , as t h e r e w a s i n Natal, and s u r p l u s i n o t h e r s , l i k e i n I n d i a , s t r o n g m i g r a t i o n c u r r c n t s a r c i n i t i a t e d . Of t en , i f t h e rnovement
i s ove r a s e n t d i s t m c e , h i g h t r C m s p o r t n t i o n c o s t s , and
t h e home s i t u a t i o n i s poor , t h e m i g r a n t s o f t e n t a k e up perm=u?ent r e s i d e n c e i n t h e new coun t ry . However, i f t h e r e c e i v i n g coun t ry discourages ,perr ,qnnent s e t t l e m e n t , t h e
worker d e p a r t s f o r a l i m i t e d p e r i o d , depending on s p e c i f i c . , l a b o u r c o n t r a c t s . 1
I n d i a n emig ra t ion i:: as o l d ns I n d i a n mar i t ime e n t e r p r i s e . 8
-
6 . R.1,. M o r i l l : The S p a t i a l Orc.r:l.nioation of S o c i e t y , p.163 I
7. J . O . M . Block cmr l J.W. Webb: A G e o ~ r a p h y o f Mankind, pp436
8. C .Kondapi: I n d i a n s Overseas , p. 1.
E a r l y I n d i a n e m i g r a t i o n w a s l a r g e l y c u l t u r a l and commercial ,
t h e ambassadors o f a g r e a t c i v i l i z a t i o n and r e l i g i o n on'
t r a d e r s i n r a r e commodities. The e m i g r a t i o n o f modern t i m e s
p r e s e n t s a p a t h e t i c ,md s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t . The modern
emigrs.nt i s an u n l e t t e r e d l a b o u r e r s e t t i n g o u t t o sweat and
l i v e on an a l i e n ' s e s t a t e . The c a u s e s o f t h e metamorphosis
a r e main ly e c o n ~ m i c . ~ The t r n n ~ f o r m a t i o n o f t h e u n r e g u l a t e d
spontaneous rnigrp-tion of Ind inna i n t o a n o r g a n i s e d sys tem of
l a b o u r e x p o r t a l s o v i r t u a l l y depended on t h r e e f a c t o r s . 1 0
A demand had t o c o a l e s c e among a group o f employers r e q u i r i n g t h e sane s o r t o f l a b o u r unde r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s : t h i s , we
have s een , a l r e a d y e x i s t e d cmong t h e s u g a r p l a n t e r i n c o l o n i e s where, u s u a l l y , t h e a f t e r m a t h of s l a v e r y l e f t a n economy
w i t h a c u t e l a b o u r s h o r t a g e s . Means o f supp ly had t o be
a v a i l a b l e , and t h i s t o o w a s a l r e a d y p rov ided i n t h e network of European agency houses i n t h e main p a r t s o f I n d i a . P i n a l l y , it w a s n e c e s s a r y tha t any s y s t e m a t i c movement o f
e m i c r a n t s shou ld s a t i s f y t h e e t h i c a l ,and economical b e l i e f s
of t h e i n d u s t r i a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l middle c l a s s o f
B r t t a i n . ,
F o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f I n d i a n s , e m i g r a t i o n was n o t a c c e p t e d
as a n a t u r a l p r o c e s s . So e m i ~ r a t i o n r e l i e d ma in ly upon
"pushn r a t h e r t h a n w p u l l l l f a c t o r s : t h e need o f peop le t o
o b t a i n r e l i e f from a1 u n b e a r a b l e s i t u o . t i o n . The emigrcant s
came main ly from t h e most over-crowded a,.;ricultural"dic;tricts o f I n d i a , where c rop f a i l u r e cou ld p lunge s e c t i o n s o f a
v i l - l a g e conmunity i n t o n e a r .std$a%ion.ll It. muset be borne
i n mind t h a t wh i l e t h e f a c t o r s c r e a t i n g t h e wtpushll a f f e c t t h e whole of I n d i a o r c e r t a i n p a r t s of I n d i a , t h e y were a l s o o p e r a t i v e i n t h e Un i t ed P r o v i n c e s ,and t h e Madras P r e s i d e n c y . Where p o s s i b l e , t h e f a c t o r s have been s p e c i f i c -
a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s e two n rens .
9. C. Kondapi: Indicciis Overseas , pp. 1-2.
10. H . T inke r : A New Syntf'm o f S l n v e r y , p.61.
11. - I b i d : pp. 110-119.
The Industrial Revolution ~ 1 0 the development of large-
scale production in Europe had their repercussions on the existing social economy. Besides attempts at the
exploitation of the colonies already acquired for the supply of raw materials for production and markets for the consumption of manufactured goods, the mercantile and industrial capitalism led to a acr,unble amongst the
European Povrers for territories. 12 The capitalist countries
had vast territories and capital, but their manFower was not equal to the requirements. Further, as shovin in the
first chapter, the abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1033 reopened the problem. An t h o free native
labour could not be secured, m d white labour was out of
question because of climate reasons, the British settlers w.a.nted to adopt the indenture ayntembd the colonial
governments were impelled to explore other avenues of labour supply such as 1ndia.13~hc British Indim Government did
not examine all aspects of the indentured Indian emigration before a green signal because the Governor-General of
India, Lord AucklLmd, was a friend of Andrew Corvill who
needed labour for his large sugar farm. 14
Indizn economy could not escape the fateful effects of the
Industri~l Revolution in England. --.. The industrial and cormnercial needs of England necessitated the transformation
of India from a manufacturine power to that of a market
for the sup~)ly of raw materials and the consumption of British manufactures. l5 In order to understand this, it must be recalled that during the seventeenth and eighteenth
century, India had supplied the markets of Asia and Europe with a number of manufactured goods. Nearly all the
industries were domestic occupations and simple crafts of
the village homlets. Spinning and weaving which constituted
- - -
12. C. Kondapi: Indirlns Overseas, p.2.
13. Ibid. p.2.
14. Dr. J. C. Jhn: 'Indentured 1ndin.n Mis:ction' in
Journal of Indim History, Volume XLVIII, p.:
15. C . xondnpi: - Indinns - . Ovcr::nas, P.2.
a g r e a t n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y gave emp1.oymen-L t o m i l l i o n s
i r r e s p e c t i v e o f a l l c a s t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . 1 6
I n d i a f l o o d e d t h e B r i t i s h m a r k e t s w i t h h e r goods : p e t i t i o n s
went up t o t h e B r i t i s l i P a r l i a m e n t t h a t s u c h i m p o r t s were
d e s t r u c t i v e t o t h e B r i t i s h I n d u s t r y . The B r i t i s h
Government r eponded w i t h h e a v y c u s t o m d u t i e s a n d
p r o h i b i t i o n o n I n d i a n m a n u f a c t u r e s . Thus , g e n e r a l l y
s p e a k i n g , B r i t i s h t r a d e p o l i c y w i t h I n d i a f o l l o w e d t h e b r o a d
p r i n c i p l e s 1 7 accepter1 by a l l E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s a t t h a t
t i m e . The most importcant w a s t r a d e monopoly. The s e c o n d
w a s t h e r e g u l a t i o n 01 f o r e i g n t r n d e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f
B r i t i s h home i n d u s t r i e s , w i t h m e a s u r e t o s u p p l y t h e s e
i n d u s t r i e s wi-tli t l i e i r r a w m a t e r i a l s . The t h i r d p r i n c i p l e
w a s t h a t on b a l a n c e e a c h b r a n c h of f o r e i g n t r n d e b r o u g h t
i n t o t h e c o u n t r y more w e a l t h t h , m it t o o k o u t . Eminent
w r i t e r s , b o t h I n d i a n 'and B r i t i s h , h a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e
I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n i n E n g l a n d w a s i t s e l f "a c o n s e q u e n c e
o f t h e p l u n d e r e d w e a l t h o f I n d i a t ' . l8 Thus t h e i n t e n t i o n
and e f f e c t o f t h e B r i t i s h p o l i c y o n I n d i a w a s " t o change
t h e whole f a c e of that i n d u s t r i a l c o u n r y i n o r d e r t o
r e n d e r i t a f i e l d o f t h e p r o d u c e of c r u d e m a t e r i a l s
s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e rnaluf n c t u r e a of Greal; B r i t a i n t t ,I9 m d
l e d t o t h e d e c l i n e of h a n d i c r a f t s , f o r c i n g t h e I n d i a n s
t o t u r n t o t h e i r a l r e a d y overworked and h i g h l y p o p u l a t e d
l a n d . The B r i t i s h m a n u f a c t u r e r h a d "employed t h e am o f p o l i t i c a l i n j u s t i c e t o k e e p down and u l t i m a t e l y s t r a n g l e
a c o m p e t i t o r w i t h whom h e coulcl n o t hzive c o n t e n t e d
on e q u a l t e r m s u . 20
1 6 . I b i d . , p.3.
17. S i r G. Dunbar: A H i s t o r y of I n d i a fr,om t h e E a r l i e s t
t i m e s t o N i n e t e e n t h 'L1hirty-Nine, p. 217. 18. R.C. Majumdar ( e t . r r1 . ) : An Advnnced H i s t o r y o f I n d i a ,
1 7 n r t 111, p.811.
I!?. L e t t e r quotecl i n R . Dutt: The Econolnic H i s t o r y o f I n d i a i n t h e V i c t o r i < z u Age, p.256
20 . C . Kondsp i : I n d i n n s O v e r s e a s , p.3.
T:IBLE 3.2 . : "UM:<INTO" X - PTJACICS 0 F' O R I G I N . - --
North Arcot Madras P r e s i d e n c y ( tamil d i s t r i c t )
Sou th Arcot Madras Pres idency(Tarn i1 D i s t r i c t )
Ana1.1; a p u -
Bangal o r e
Ch ing lepu t Madras Yres idency(Tami1 D i s t r i c t )
Coirnbntore
Cuddapah
Gan j am
Goadavery
Hyedrabad
K i s t n : ~
K o l a r
Madras
Madras P r e s i d e n c y
Madras P r e s i d e n c y I
Orissa
Madras P r e s i d e n c y
Nizams Dominion
Nizams Dominion
Madras P r e s i d e n c y ( t :un i l D i s t r i c t )
Madura * Madras P r e s idency(Ta.mil D i s t r i c t )
Madras P r e s i d e n c y ( t a m i 1 D i s t r i c t )
N e l l o r e
Salem lrladras P re s idency (Tami1 D i s t r i c t )
Madras P r e s i d e n c y ( T a n i 1 D i s t r i c t )
Madras P rc s idency (Tami1 D i s t r i c t )
T r i c h i n o p o l y
Tuni
V e l l o r e
Vizagapatam Madras Presicierrcy
Mndras P r e s i d e n c y
