Independent ideas for an independent Independent ideas for an independent Africa: Sustaining AfricaAfrica: Sustaining Africa’’s development in s development in

a post 2015 Landscapea post 2015 Landscape

Alternative ideas for Africa’s development: Alternative ideas for Africa’s development: Harnessing indigenous knowledge for international Harnessing indigenous knowledge for international development partnerships: The case of Nhimbe in development partnerships: The case of Nhimbe in

ZimbabweZimbabweDr Cathrine MadzivaDr Cathrine Madziva

London Metropolitan UniversityLondon Metropolitan University

Introduction Introduction

• ““Partnership”: the favoured discourse for Partnership”: the favoured discourse for north- south aid relationsnorth- south aid relations

• No society is a tabula rasa on which northern No society is a tabula rasa on which northern agencies can write a prescription for mutual agencies can write a prescription for mutual aid & partnershipaid & partnership

• Indigenous cultural resources can be assets Indigenous cultural resources can be assets for mutual aid & partnership – this calls for for mutual aid & partnership – this calls for an understanding of society’s ability to an understanding of society’s ability to provide mutual aid to its members provide mutual aid to its members

• Africa’s independence: partly lies in Africa’s independence: partly lies in fostering and applying culturally competent fostering and applying culturally competent knowledgeknowledge

Introduction Introduction

• NhimbeNhimbe– a traditional framework for “knowing that and knowing how” among a traditional framework for “knowing that and knowing how” among

Shona people of ZimbabweShona people of Zimbabwe– How it can be harnessed in development partnerships under the politics How it can be harnessed in development partnerships under the politics

of recognitionof recognition– Northern development actors, including INGOs practice and policy making Northern development actors, including INGOs practice and policy making

in the direction of indigenous knowledgein the direction of indigenous knowledge• LiteratureLiterature

– Much devoted to partnership theory Much devoted to partnership theory – Little attention to the role of indigenous knowledge and traditional Little attention to the role of indigenous knowledge and traditional

cultural resourcescultural resources– Little empirical case materialLittle empirical case material

• Alternative view Alternative view – Kaseje’s analysis (1987) on the importance of indigenous cultural Kaseje’s analysis (1987) on the importance of indigenous cultural

resources in development aid partnerships between north and south resources in development aid partnerships between north and south – Empirical case material (Madziva 2009-10)Empirical case material (Madziva 2009-10)

• Transferability - While evidence is derived from the use of Nhimbe in rural Transferability - While evidence is derived from the use of Nhimbe in rural Zimbabwe, development actors can potentially identify Zimbabwe, development actors can potentially identify Nhimbe Nhimbe analogues in analogues in other African contextsother African contexts

Development : A definition Development : A definition

Development is a process which enables human Development is a process which enables human beings to realise their potential, build self confidence beings to realise their potential, build self confidence and lead lives of dignity and fulfilment. It is a and lead lives of dignity and fulfilment. It is a process which frees people from want and process which frees people from want and exploitation. It is a movement away from political, exploitation. It is a movement away from political, economic, or social oppression. Through economic, or social oppression. Through development, political independence acquires its development, political independence acquires its true significance…true significance… it is a process of growth, it is a process of growth, a movement essentially springing from a movement essentially springing from the society that is developingthe society that is developing ((South South Commission 1990: 10)Commission 1990: 10)

Background: Development Background: Development PartnershipsPartnerships

• Until the early 1990s, development aid Until the early 1990s, development aid was underpinned by conditionalitywas underpinned by conditionality

• ““Partnership” infiltrated every sphere of Partnership” infiltrated every sphere of development in the mid 1990sdevelopment in the mid 1990s

• No single international framework spelling No single international framework spelling out what partnerships involveout what partnerships involve

The Rise and Rise The Rise and Rise PartnershipsPartnerships• UK’s White Paper on International Development: UK’s White Paper on International Development:

partnership, as a new approach in north south development partnership, as a new approach in north south development activities (DfID 1997). activities (DfID 1997).

• The World Bank’s ‘Comprehensive Development The World Bank’s ‘Comprehensive Development Framework’ of 1999 (World Bank 1999): partnership Framework’ of 1999 (World Bank 1999): partnership emphasizing national ownership. emphasizing national ownership.

• The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative: partnership The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative: partnership fosters responsibility of poor countries for their own poverty fosters responsibility of poor countries for their own poverty reduction strategies with support from the IMF and WB. reduction strategies with support from the IMF and WB.

• The New Partnership for African Development and the Paris The New Partnership for African Development and the Paris Declaration of Aid Effectiveness (2005) laud partnership Declaration of Aid Effectiveness (2005) laud partnership working as the way forward.working as the way forward.

Exploring Nhimbe: Exploring Nhimbe: Research findingsResearch findings

• Quotes are drawn from research Quotes are drawn from research carried out in 2009 – 2010carried out in 2009 – 2010

• Research participants: Zimbabwean Research participants: Zimbabwean development professionals.development professionals.

Nhimbe Concept Nhimbe Concept

• … … It recognizes that households have different resources and It recognizes that households have different resources and livestock, in terms of human labour...The traditional Shona culture was livestock, in terms of human labour...The traditional Shona culture was not ego centric… there was a greater interconnection and not ego centric… there was a greater interconnection and interdependence ...(KI E) interdependence ...(KI E)

• The whole idea is about food security…a person with a field was the The whole idea is about food security…a person with a field was the one who called for a Nhimbe… when ploughing, planting, weeding, one who called for a Nhimbe… when ploughing, planting, weeding, harvesting and threshing… so that all these activities were done on harvesting and threshing… so that all these activities were done on time… to avoid birds and locusts- destroying the crops, as well having time… to avoid birds and locusts- destroying the crops, as well having too much work to do on your own...(KI W)too much work to do on your own...(KI W)

• The overall framework is working together… it’s very task orientated. The overall framework is working together… it’s very task orientated. If we are doing a nhimbe to roof a house, I am going to call upon If we are doing a nhimbe to roof a house, I am going to call upon males, with someone who has the skill of roofing. If its about weeding males, with someone who has the skill of roofing. If its about weeding we are saying please bring your hoes.. it has a concept of merry we are saying please bring your hoes.. it has a concept of merry making, people eat and drink at the end of a working day, it’s an making, people eat and drink at the end of a working day, it’s an opportunity for people in the villages to network, because you will opportunity for people in the villages to network, because you will hear someone saying this information you are asking for, I heard it at hear someone saying this information you are asking for, I heard it at so and so Nhimbe, they share information, because then you will the so and so Nhimbe, they share information, because then you will the people in the village coming together, if there are some problems people in the village coming together, if there are some problems going in you will hear about it at the Nhimbe (KI S)going in you will hear about it at the Nhimbe (KI S)

Nhimbe : A multifunctional Nhimbe : A multifunctional RoleRole• ...its not just a process where people are just not ...its not just a process where people are just not

there working on a plot, its like women meeting at there working on a plot, its like women meeting at a well, experiences are shared and ideas are a well, experiences are shared and ideas are generated, at the nhimbe when people sit down to generated, at the nhimbe when people sit down to drink... they discuss issues affecting them, to say drink... they discuss issues affecting them, to say – what did you make of that meeting at Batsiranai – what did you make of that meeting at Batsiranai [CBO] or what is happening to so and so, [CBO] or what is happening to so and so, it ...allowed communities to maintain oneness, a it ...allowed communities to maintain oneness, a sense of community , this was what strengthened sense of community , this was what strengthened the sense of community; like these are our ideas, the sense of community; like these are our ideas, this is how we do things, we share the same this is how we do things, we share the same burdens and our way of life is like this...(KI E)burdens and our way of life is like this...(KI E)

Nhimbe proceduresNhimbe procedures

Nhimbe proceduresNhimbe procedures

Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

• … …when you go to a nhimbe, people can express their when you go to a nhimbe, people can express their views, but it’s not on what to do, it can be on how to do it …views, but it’s not on what to do, it can be on how to do it …what to do is prerogative for me who has invited you to the what to do is prerogative for me who has invited you to the nhimbe but now on how to do it – because we have nhimbe but now on how to do it – because we have different levels of expertise, if we are threshing sorghum different levels of expertise, if we are threshing sorghum they use those long sticks, someone may be very good at they use those long sticks, someone may be very good at identifying those good long sticks, but we are very clear identifying those good long sticks, but we are very clear about the task we have here- and the task itself is not going about the task we have here- and the task itself is not going to change… KI Sto change… KI S

• … …you are the lead figure [Nhimbe host], you simply you are the lead figure [Nhimbe host], you simply share the information- what needs to be done and once share the information- what needs to be done and once people know what they are suppose to do they work on it – people know what they are suppose to do they work on it – it’s like ants really – how they all work together and know it’s like ants really – how they all work together and know what each ant is suppose to be doing… KI Vwhat each ant is suppose to be doing… KI V

Countering Countering DependencyDependency......whether you had very little or much, what whether you had very little or much, what

was important was that you demonstrate was important was that you demonstrate that you are not just being dependent on that you are not just being dependent on others, by showing that you were putting others, by showing that you were putting your own effort into the task… So in order your own effort into the task… So in order to aid this demonstration, I would cook to aid this demonstration, I would cook food, perhaps brew some beer but then it’s food, perhaps brew some beer but then it’s my own contribution, so what would my own contribution, so what would happen is that during the nhimbe, people happen is that during the nhimbe, people would come with their ploughs and cattle would come with their ploughs and cattle and start working on the plot. (KI E )and start working on the plot. (KI E )

Division of Labour and Division of Labour and skillsskills• … …in essence you had a clear cut division of labour …KI Win essence you had a clear cut division of labour …KI W

• … … if I wanted my house roofed, I may not even have the if I wanted my house roofed, I may not even have the roofing expertise myself but then I identify those among us roofing expertise myself but then I identify those among us who are good at it, I inspect the competence of those doing who are good at it, I inspect the competence of those doing the job, but that does not mean I just stand by, I and others the job, but that does not mean I just stand by, I and others who are not roofers will be passing on the grass to those on who are not roofers will be passing on the grass to those on the roof, so everyone knows what they are doing…KI Sthe roof, so everyone knows what they are doing…KI S

• … …depending on the task, lets say you wanted your field depending on the task, lets say you wanted your field ploughed; you would have people bring in their plough, like ploughed; you would have people bring in their plough, like each family and their draught power… each family would each family and their draught power… each family would then concentrate on a specific part of the field … the then concentrate on a specific part of the field … the plough would be handled by a person who knows exactly plough would be handled by a person who knows exactly how to keep it steady behind the cattle... KI Vhow to keep it steady behind the cattle... KI V

Nhimbe UnderpinningsNhimbe Underpinnings

Nhimbe UnderpinningsNhimbe Underpinnings

Solidarity, Respect, Trust, Solidarity, Respect, Trust, Allegiance and Allegiance and Reciprocity...Reciprocity...• ... those who call for nhimbes trust that people will show up and ... those who call for nhimbes trust that people will show up and

those who show up also trust that should they need to do a those who show up also trust that should they need to do a nhimbe in the future others will show up too, so there is respect…nhimbe in the future others will show up too, so there is respect…it’s also like ... funerals, people help to bury the dead because it’s also like ... funerals, people help to bury the dead because they trust that when it happens to them others will arise … KI Wthey trust that when it happens to them others will arise … KI W

• … … there is an element of trust and respect, [you] trust that they there is an element of trust and respect, [you] trust that they will come and do the work, and they will come because they will come and do the work, and they will come because they respect you, labour and time are very scarce in the rainy seasons respect you, labour and time are very scarce in the rainy seasons and if you get these from people, they certainly respect you… KI Vand if you get these from people, they certainly respect you… KI V

• … … the notions of trust and respect are also embedded in the notions of trust and respect are also embedded in reciprocity and how people share the tasks…you trust people will reciprocity and how people share the tasks…you trust people will come and eat your food in good faith… and you must do the task come and eat your food in good faith… and you must do the task properly, we say if we are weeding, please lets do it properly, properly, we say if we are weeding, please lets do it properly, don’t bury the weeds … KI Sdon’t bury the weeds … KI S

Solidarity, Respect, Trust, Solidarity, Respect, Trust, Allegiance and Reciprocity...Allegiance and Reciprocity...

... in the Shona culture, we pay our allegiances to ... in the Shona culture, we pay our allegiances to people we respect and trust in our communities; so people we respect and trust in our communities; so people would say if there is a nhimbe at Y’s and if I people would say if there is a nhimbe at Y’s and if I don’t go to this nhimbe; how am I going to look at Y in don’t go to this nhimbe; how am I going to look at Y in the eye when I didn’t attend her nhimbe when she the eye when I didn’t attend her nhimbe when she needed my help. ..it also ties with things like Zunde needed my help. ..it also ties with things like Zunde ramambo and funerals – if you don’t come to mourn ramambo and funerals – if you don’t come to mourn with others, why should they come to mourn with you? with others, why should they come to mourn with you? If other men go to dig the grave for the deceased and If other men go to dig the grave for the deceased and you don’t participate, people will be watching, when it’s you don’t participate, people will be watching, when it’s at yours [the funeral], people will do the same ... And I at yours [the funeral], people will do the same ... And I know even in this day, while we can say we live in know even in this day, while we can say we live in England, I can’t touch hands with those mourning in England, I can’t touch hands with those mourning in Zimbabwe but when I go home I know there is a round Zimbabwe but when I go home I know there is a round to be done ...(KI S)to be done ...(KI S)

Nhimbe AdvantagesNhimbe Advantages

• ……people come in as equal partners whether you have 15 people come in as equal partners whether you have 15 cattle and I have a hoe, it doesn’t make you any superior… cattle and I have a hoe, it doesn’t make you any superior… we will perform the task and we will part as equals, there is we will perform the task and we will part as equals, there is no one bigger than the other… there is also the no one bigger than the other… there is also the understanding in terms of accountability….If you come to a understanding in terms of accountability….If you come to a nhimbe and do a shoddy piece of work then it’s a nhimbe and do a shoddy piece of work then it’s a reputation that is at stake… (KI S)reputation that is at stake… (KI S)

• ... you lessen the task, the more the people the less time ... you lessen the task, the more the people the less time you spend on a task, two, sharing of information and you spend on a task, two, sharing of information and learning- when I come to the nhimbe I might actually learn learning- when I come to the nhimbe I might actually learn to do other things, e.g. if I attend a threshing nhimbe, I to do other things, e.g. if I attend a threshing nhimbe, I may become a very good thresher of corn, wheat ... (KI)may become a very good thresher of corn, wheat ... (KI)

Nhimbe DisadvantagesNhimbe Disadvantages

• … … because it’s a mass production, the because it’s a mass production, the quality may be compromised, I think one quality may be compromised, I think one might have that because it might be might have that because it might be sensitive to blatantly supervise … you will sensitive to blatantly supervise … you will always have those elements- people who always have those elements- people who don’t do things right… (KI S)don’t do things right… (KI S)

• … …while nhimbe helps those who are while nhimbe helps those who are respected, it doesn’t help those who are at respected, it doesn’t help those who are at the periphery of society… suppose you are the periphery of society… suppose you are a witch, who will come to your nhimbe and a witch, who will come to your nhimbe and eat your food? (KI )eat your food? (KI )

Harnessing Nhimbe Harnessing Nhimbe Knowledge as a Traditional Knowledge as a Traditional

Cultural Resource?Cultural Resource?

Harnessing Nhimbe Harnessing Nhimbe Knowledge as a Traditional Knowledge as a Traditional

Cultural Resource?Cultural Resource?

Nhimbe & Development Nhimbe & Development Partnership Linkages Partnership Linkages • The whole concept of The whole concept of nhimbenhimbe would be applicable at any would be applicable at any

time, because you are talking of community contribution, time, because you are talking of community contribution, what is the contribution of this community in this what is the contribution of this community in this endeavour? You find that in all partnerships, you don’t go in endeavour? You find that in all partnerships, you don’t go in with nothing and expect to be given everything, going back with nothing and expect to be given everything, going back to what I said, in to what I said, in nhimbenhimbe it is important to demonstrate that it is important to demonstrate that you are just not be dependent… Even when I was working you are just not be dependent… Even when I was working at CRS, we used to have a proposal appraising committee at CRS, we used to have a proposal appraising committee and if CBOs handed in a proposal to us, we would ask, does and if CBOs handed in a proposal to us, we would ask, does this CBO want to dependent on CRS for everything? We this CBO want to dependent on CRS for everything? We would look at what they were bringing to the table, so that would look at what they were bringing to the table, so that we could beef it up, so the concept of nhimbe is applicable we could beef it up, so the concept of nhimbe is applicable because you are bringing something to the table.… ( KI E)because you are bringing something to the table.… ( KI E)

Southern OwnershipSouthern Ownership

• … … the first thing would be about ownership, if the north could the first thing would be about ownership, if the north could understand that I am going to the south for their understand that I am going to the south for their nhimbenhimbe, I from , I from the north must not identify the task to be done, they must identify the north must not identify the task to be done, they must identify the task because they know best what task needs attention, then the task because they know best what task needs attention, then what they may bring from the north may be the expertise which what they may bring from the north may be the expertise which we will apply- but the task is mine and…. for this period we are at we will apply- but the task is mine and…. for this period we are at my nhimbe I am in charge, regardless of the expertise that you my nhimbe I am in charge, regardless of the expertise that you have, but I will have respect for you and expertise because of that have, but I will have respect for you and expertise because of that mutuality, I will respect your views and you must respect mine but mutuality, I will respect your views and you must respect mine but ultimately the ultimately the nhimbenhimbe is mine and mind you the reason why I am is mine and mind you the reason why I am calling you from the north …is that I have a task and I admit that calling you from the north …is that I have a task and I admit that this task is too overwhelming for me, I can’t complete it, I do want this task is too overwhelming for me, I can’t complete it, I do want and need your help, but the fact that I need your help doesn’t and need your help, but the fact that I need your help doesn’t necessarily mean you must take over, that is why I was saying necessarily mean you must take over, that is why I was saying what to do remains mine, the how to do it we can always what to do remains mine, the how to do it we can always discuss ... you are simply filling the gap on what I already have, discuss ... you are simply filling the gap on what I already have, you are not leaving gaps for me to fill.. (KI S)you are not leaving gaps for me to fill.. (KI S)

Everyone knows Something & Everyone knows Something & TrustTrust• … … the connection to that is about trust, our modern day the connection to that is about trust, our modern day

partnerships have to be based on trust of what you want to partnerships have to be based on trust of what you want to do, as we do in do, as we do in nhimbe nhimbe and we have to believe in what we and we have to believe in what we want to achieve because if one party is pulling in this want to achieve because if one party is pulling in this direction and the other, in that direction then we can not direction and the other, in that direction then we can not achieve what we want to achieve ... (KI E)achieve what we want to achieve ... (KI E)

• … … everyone knows something, people in the south have everyone knows something, people in the south have their own way of life and in that way of life, they have their own way of life and in that way of life, they have knowledge which they can contribute rather than knowledge which they can contribute rather than privileging certain people as having superior knowledge… It privileging certain people as having superior knowledge… It is true that INGOs bring in very good ideas but like in is true that INGOs bring in very good ideas but like in nhimbenhimbe, they need to be good ideas because people think , they need to be good ideas because people think they are really good enough to be applied to the task and they are really good enough to be applied to the task and not just because that is the only way people can get help… not just because that is the only way people can get help… (KI V)(KI V)

Research findings resonate Research findings resonate with Kajese (1987)with Kajese (1987)• “… “… the concept expressing the nature of the partnership the concept expressing the nature of the partnership

between northern NGOs and their Southern counterparts is between northern NGOs and their Southern counterparts is that embodied in the idea of the Shona Nhimbe. Nhimbe is that embodied in the idea of the Shona Nhimbe. Nhimbe is a partnership between the owner of the field and the a partnership between the owner of the field and the friends and neighbours who have come to help. …friends and neighbours who have come to help. …

• The nature of the partnership is clearly such that there is a The nature of the partnership is clearly such that there is a recognized, de facto as well as de jure owner of the field, recognized, de facto as well as de jure owner of the field, however limited his resources and skills… and regardless of however limited his resources and skills… and regardless of the vast resources brought to bear in his aid by friends and the vast resources brought to bear in his aid by friends and relatives... I never recall hearing ... that [on the day of relatives... I never recall hearing ... that [on the day of Nhimbe] some big families with lots of resources- cattle, Nhimbe] some big families with lots of resources- cattle, ploughs … came and took over the direction of the work, ploughs … came and took over the direction of the work, deciding what needed to be done, by whom, when …”deciding what needed to be done, by whom, when …”

Independent Ideas for Independent Ideas for an Independent Africaan Independent Africa

Where do we go from Where do we go from here?here?

Learning from the Histories Learning from the Histories of Developmentof Development

• Southern knowledge, traditions and cultures are often Southern knowledge, traditions and cultures are often ignored because they do not fit into northern experiences ignored because they do not fit into northern experiences and perceptions of development, i.e. grand theorization and perceptions of development, i.e. grand theorization (Brohman 2001, Hetten 1995, Escobar 1995).(Brohman 2001, Hetten 1995, Escobar 1995).

• Culture is as seen opposed to development even though Culture is as seen opposed to development even though

it is in culture that ideas of the past and future are it is in culture that ideas of the past and future are nurtured and embedded (Appadurai 2004)nurtured and embedded (Appadurai 2004)

• The failure of development actors to reconcile culture and The failure of development actors to reconcile culture and

development has been crippling (Appadurai 2004) in development has been crippling (Appadurai 2004) in delivering a development that is apt for the aspirations delivering a development that is apt for the aspirations of African people. of African people.

Learning from the Histories Learning from the Histories of Developmentof Development• Under the auspices of Under the auspices of alternative ideasalternative ideas to to

development as opposed to an development as opposed to an alternative alternative development model, theory or paradigmdevelopment model, theory or paradigm culture culture and development can be reconciled. and development can be reconciled.

• This could allow development actors to consider This could allow development actors to consider the specific socio cultural, historical, and institutional the specific socio cultural, historical, and institutional factors constituting the context and opens up new factors constituting the context and opens up new horizons for multiple development approaches which horizons for multiple development approaches which are inspired and informed by local traditions which are inspired and informed by local traditions which “ … seek to foster participation and empowerment “ … seek to foster participation and empowerment by creating a sense of self worth among people of by creating a sense of self worth among people of third world nations through rediscovering and third world nations through rediscovering and reinterpreting local histories and cultural traditions” reinterpreting local histories and cultural traditions” (Brohman 2001 : 338). (Brohman 2001 : 338).

The Politics of RecognitionThe Politics of Recognition

• Harnessing indigenous knowledge and traditional cultural Harnessing indigenous knowledge and traditional cultural resources in development partnerships can build on the resources in development partnerships can build on the idea of “recognition” developed in ethical debates on idea of “recognition” developed in ethical debates on multiculturalism.multiculturalism.

• In the “politics of recognition” there is “an ethical In the “politics of recognition” there is “an ethical

obligation to extend a sort of moral cognizance to persons obligation to extend a sort of moral cognizance to persons who share world views deeply different from our own” who share world views deeply different from our own” (Appadurai 2004: 62). (Appadurai 2004: 62).

• This view point gives tolerance political legitimacy thereby This view point gives tolerance political legitimacy thereby making “intercultural understanding an obligation, not an making “intercultural understanding an obligation, not an option and recognizes the independent value of dignity in option and recognizes the independent value of dignity in cross – cultural transactions apart from issues of cross – cultural transactions apart from issues of redistribution.” redistribution.”

Politics of Recognition: Politics of Recognition: Northern Development ActorsNorthern Development Actors

•International agencies, INGOs, northern International agencies, INGOs, northern governments and other emerging governments and other emerging development actors seeking to partner with development actors seeking to partner with African governments, institutions, civil African governments, institutions, civil society organisations have an ethical society organisations have an ethical obligation to take cognisance of African obligation to take cognisance of African knowledge and traditional cultural knowledge and traditional cultural practices such as practices such as nhimbenhimbe . .

African Development Actors African Development Actors and Scholars: Virtuosos in and Scholars: Virtuosos in their cultural heritage their cultural heritage • As we seek independent ideas for an independent Africa past As we seek independent ideas for an independent Africa past

2015, African scholars and development actors must become 2015, African scholars and development actors must become virtuosos in their own cultural heritage, and take the center virtuosos in their own cultural heritage, and take the center stage in showing and telling those that come to support the stage in showing and telling those that come to support the continent’s development, what traditional cultural capital continent’s development, what traditional cultural capital Africa can bring to the table for sustainable developmentAfrica can bring to the table for sustainable development

• Development actors and scholars should seek to identify Development actors and scholars should seek to identify Nhimbe Nhimbe analogues in other African contexts as appropriateanalogues in other African contexts as appropriate

• ““The idea is that the poor need to claim, capture, refine and The idea is that the poor need to claim, capture, refine and define certain ways [Nhimbe] of doing things [partnership define certain ways [Nhimbe] of doing things [partnership working] in spaces they already control and then use these to working] in spaces they already control and then use these to show donors … that these show donors … that these precedentsprecedents are good ones and are good ones and encourage other actors to invest further in them. This is a encourage other actors to invest further in them. This is a politics of politics of show and tell, show and tell, but it is also a politics ofbut it is also a politics of do first and do first and talk later. talk later. (Appadurai 2004: 75)(Appadurai 2004: 75)