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INDEX
Abadan, 82, 139Abassi, Mahmoud, 66Abba Beileh, xxii, xxiii, 122Abbas Video. See Akbar, Abbas
Abd-al-RazzaqABC’s “Nightline,” 7, 239Abd-al-Aziz, Ali, 111, 112Abd-al-Qader, Faridoun
and first Iraqi CW use against PUK, 96and negotiations with Iranian regime,
90–91, 92, 111leading PUK negotiations with Iraqi
regime, 88–89Abd-al-Rahim, Mu’ath, 159Abd-al-Rashid, Maher, 7, 37Aberdeen Proving Ground, 195, 196, 198,
263n18Abu Abbas, 214Abu Ali, 112Abu Nidal, 233Abu Zeinab, 112Achille Lauro hijacking, 214Afghanistan, 23, 148aflatoxin, 194, 200Aghaei, Taghi, 70Aghjalar, 131Ahl al-Haq, xxiAhmad Awa, 122Ahvaz, 33Akbar, Abbas Abd-al-Razaq, 104–105Akoyan valley, 130, 132Al-‘Amard, 32, 170Alaan region, 88al-Anbari, Abd-al-Amir, 7, 8, 173
Al-Bakr airbase, 179Albright, Madeleine, 243, 250n3al-Duri, Izzat Ibrahim, 225al-Duri, Sabr, 133, 180, 244al-Fakhri, Hisham, 7, 37al-Gailani, Yaser, 158, 167, 177, 187, 188Ali, Kosrat Rasoul, 114, 129, 135al-Khazraji, Nizar, 160, 179
acknowledging Iraqi role in Halabjagassing, 179
Allawi, Iyad, 159al-Majid, Ali Hassan
and fate of Anfalakan, 134, 135Ali Hassan al-Majid
standing trial for Anfal campaign,244
and Halabja gassing, 178, 179appointment of, 13, 93issuing key orders in June 1987, 99ordering chemical strikes, 180overseeing 1987 counterinsurgency
campaign, 93–101, 108threatening Kurdish doctors, 189
al-Naqib, Jawdat Mustafa, 178–179Al-Qaeda, 242Al-Qurna, 32Al-Rashid hospital, 159al-Saeidy, Abd-al-Wahhab, 25, 66, 142,
145, 159al-Samarra’i, Wafiq
and alleged VX use, 141and Arabization in Kirkuk, 134as interlocutor with DIA, 78as security advisor to Talabani, 180
293
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al-Samarra’i, Wafiq (cont.)aspiring to lead opposition to Saddam,
180denying role in Anfal killings, 133mum on Anfal, 179, 180not standing trial for Anfal, 244on “special” strikes, 99, 176on alleged Iranian CW use, 157on authority to order CW attacks, 180on fate of Anfalakan, 134on Halabja attack, 180on US satellite intelligence, 42questioning Iranian CW capability,
179–180relations with Saddam Hussein of, 180relationship with PUK of, 133role at Military Intelligence of, 133, 180
al-Zubeida, Muhammad Hamza, 93Amadiya, 100Amin, Jamal Aziz, 189, 225Amin, Latif, 189Amin, Neywshirwan Mustafa, 89, 92, 106,
121Amn, xxii, 93, 98, 112Amn Qawmi, 169amyl nitrite, 67, 197Anab, xxiv, 118, 121, 122Andropov, Yuri, 58Anfal campaign, 31
amnesty at end of, 133, 137, 190, 207,210, 214, 265n5
and destruction of rural Kurdistan, 245as Ali Hassan al-Majid’s brainchild, 95as counterinsurgency operation, xivas genocide, xiv, 17, 135, 205, 213, 227,
243as killing campaign, xiv, 99, 132, 133as logical conclusion to Arabization in
Kirkuk, 134CW use during, xxiii, 11, 14, 16, 17,
129–135, 173, 208, 209, 210, 224,240
final stage of, 130, 133, 136, 199, 206,207, 208, 214
fueling Kurdish quest for independence,226–227
glorified in Iraqi media, 18, 129, 135,136, 207
in Aghjalar area, 132
in Germian, 130, 131, 133, 246in new Iraqi constitution, 226in Qaradagh, 130, 131, 173in Smaquli, Balisan, and Akoyan
valleys, 130, 132long–term impact of, 227Military Intelligence role in, 180role of jahsh in, 108, 136Saddam Hussein’s rationale for, 133similarities to Barzanis massacre of, 31start of, 128survivors from killing grounds of, xiv,
xxv, 246trials of perptrators of, 244US knowledge of, 135–138victims of, 132–135, 225
Anfalakan. See Anfal campaign, victims ofAnnan, Kofi, 58Anraat, Frans van, 62Ansar al-Islam, xxi, xxii, 255n1anthrax, 222Aqaba, 49Aqaba pipeline project, 50Arab Gulf states, 64, 107, 148, 234
protected by Iraq from Iran, 219threatened by CW proliferation, 229threatened by Iran, 43
Arab League, 216Arabization, 134, 243Arbat, 102Armitage, Richard, 79, 184, 218, 239arsenic gas, 164Arvand river, 23, 70, 139Ashkohol mountain, 121Askar, 131, 132, 209Aslani, Ja’fer, xvii, 71, 142Aspin, Les, 75atropine, 3, 34, 35, 71, 120, 131, 132, 140,
142, 170, 197, 238Aun Shirikyo, 223Australia, 53Australia Group, 212, 229Aziz, Tariq, 48, 56
accusing Iran of CW use, 10, 174admitting Iraqi CW use, 14, 75, 219alleging that Iran used CW first, 261n55and loss of Halabja, 173at White House ceremony (1984), 55denouncing the UN, 73, 126
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denying Halabja accusation, 9denying Iraqi CW use against Kurds,
219meeting with Rumsfeld, 49, 52negotiating with PUK, 89pledging compliance with the Geneva
Protocol, 209protesting CW allegations, 166suffering politically from Iran–Contra
affair, 77threatening chemical weapons use, 9warning against US policy on Iraqi CW
use, 54warning of Iraq’s breakup, 236
Azmar, 95
Ba‘ath party in Halabja, xxiiBa‘ath party’s Northern Bureau, 93, 96Ba‘ath regime, seizing power (1968), 86Baban, Heresh, 188Badinan, 87, 88, 97, 130, 132, 134, 206,
209, 235Badr Corps
fighting at Faw (1988), 140fighting at Haj Omran (1983), 29fighting in Badr offensive (1985), 65role in Halabja liberation of, xxii, 112,
115Baghdad
CW casualties in hospitals in, 10, 159,166, 174–175
Iranian air raids on, 65struck by Iranian Scud missiles, 80, 82,
107threatened by flood waters, 7
Baghdad–Basra highway, 32, 37, 65Baghyatollah hospital, xviiBakhtaran, 98Balad airbase, 177Balagjar, 130, 131, 174Balambo mountain, xxii, 115, 117, 118,
124Balisan valley, 97, 98, 130, 188, 189,
209Bandar Khomeini, 50Baneh, 83, 98, 143, 164Barzan, 86, 87Barzani revolt, collapse of (1975), 31Barzani, Idris, 29
Barzani, Masoudand Anfal, 136as KDP leader, 29as president of Kurdish region, 114labeled “offspring of treason,” 107reported to be included in amnesty, 207succeeding his father, 29, 87
Barzani, Mustafa, 86as father of Kurdish national movement,
86–87as leader of 1970s revolt, 21, 29, 207death in exile of (1979), 207facing leadership challenge, 87in cahoots with Shah of Iran, 107
Barzanis1983 disappearances of, 31, 138massacre of, in new Iraqi constitution,
226rivalry with Bradostis of, 29, 32, 88
Barzinji, Ja’far, 189Barzinji, Mahmoud, 86Basiji volunteers, 105, 109
and Halabja operation, 123fighting at Faw (1986), 70fighting in Badr offensive, 65participating in human wave attacks,
25Basra
as Iranian war objective, 25, 46, 69, 80,109, 234
battles in proximity of, 28, 166, 170CW casualties in hospitals in, 166Iranian artillery attack on, 65oil installations of, 90struck by Iranian Scud missiles, 80
Bayanjan, 163, 164Bayes, Miqdad, 91bin Laden, Osama, 104binary chemical weapons, 221biological agent, suspected attack during
Khaybar operation with, 34biological weapons, 15, 17, 152Biological Weapons Convention (1972),
230Biyara, 116, 124, 191Biyari, Ali, 112blowback problem. See Iraqi chemical
casualties, from Iraq’s own CW useBoleh, 191
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Boteh, 132botulinum, 222Bradosti tribe, 29, 30, 31, 88Bradosti, Karim Khan, 29Brezhnev, Leonid, 23, 148Bubiyan, 63, 217Burck, Gordon, 197Bush I administration
and National Security DecisionDirective 26, 217
reaction to Kuwait invasion of, 222receiving advice from Shultz, 218relations with Iraqi regime of, 217threatening nuclear response in Gulf
War, 222, 242Bush II administration
and war in Iraq (2003), xxiv, 223, 244canceling US signature to Rome treaty,
244gutting multilateral engagement, 244
Bush, George H. W., 201, 217, 220Bush, George W., 16, 56
and Iraqi CW use against Kurds, 183announcing WMD find in Iraq, 224
Camp David accords, 41, 42, 232Carlucci, Frank, 79, 184Carter, Jimmy, 41Carus, Seth
and cyanide claim, 198as authority on Iraqi CW use, 161Congressional testimony on Iraqi CW
alpha, 237on difficulty of using hydrogen cyanide,
198on Iraqi and Iranian CW use, 161on Iranian WMD strategy, 231on US knowledge of Iraqi CW program,
239CBS’s “60 Minutes”, 243Central Intelligence Agency
alleged to be pro-Kurdish, 202alleging Iranian CW use, 161–162and evidence of Iraqi WMD programs,
183and Iran–Contra affair, 76aware of developments in Kurdistan,
100, 137aware of Iraqi CW use, 235, 238
believing “Curveball” data on IraqiWMD programs, 183
daily intelligence reports of, 203dissenting from 1990 Pentagon study,
202Foreign Broadcast Information Service
of, 136, 207monitoring war of the cities, 144on CW as force multiplier, 13on cyanide as key ingredient of tabun,
198on decreasing effectiveness of Iraqi CW
use, 236on importance of Iraqi CW use to
world, 215on Iranian aim to capture
Darbandikhan dam, 108on Iranian missile attacks on Baghdad,
107on Iranian war strategy, 107on Iraq’s blowback problem, 167on Iraq’s problem with leaking CW
munitions, 169on Khomeini, 139on limitations of Geneva Protocol,
216on role of CW in ending Iran–Iraq war,
145on routine nature of Iraqi CW use, 181on scale of Iraqi chemical warfare, 14on self-reliance of Iraqi CW program,
237predicting chemical war of the cities,
145presence in Baghdad embassy of, 74questioning efficiency of Iraqi CW use,
75replaced by DIA in Baghdad, 78sharing intelligence with Iraq, 42warning of preemptive Iraqi CW use,
101Chadergah, 118Chemi Palania, 112Chemical Agent Monitor, 67Chemical Ali. See al-Majid, Ali Hassanchemical defense training, 26chemical weapons
alleged use by Italy in Ethiopia, 12as force multiplier, 203, 236
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as terror weapon, 13, 16, 215, 228battlefield utility of, 234different uses by Iraq of, 13–14used in World War I, xvi, xvii, 12, 14,
30, 209, 229Chemical Weapons Convention (1993),
16, 161, 216, 230challenge inspections under, 231,
242Iranian declarations under, 153signed by Iran, 230, 231trampling of, 242violations by Clinton administration of,
242chemical weapons proliferation, 75, 152,
229China
as Security Council member staying onsidelines on Iraq, 43, 57
chemical weapons arsenal of, 230Chuarta, 95, 110Clinton administration
and Kurdistan airlift (1996), 245and position on Chemical Weapons
Convention, 242and reconstruction of Kurdistan in
1990s, 245evacuating witnesses of genocide, 246signing Rome treaty, 244
Clinton, Bill, 242Cold War, 148collateral damage, 243comint. See communications intelligenceCommittee for the Defense of Anfal
Victims’ Rights, 134Commodity Credit Corporation, 45communications intelligence, 187constructive engagement, 217, 218Contras, 76Cordesman, Anthony, 162crimes against humanity, 4, 124, 151,
243CS tear gas, 27, 28, 161
alleged use at Faw of (1988), 140Curveball, 183cyanide gas
alleged use at Faw of (1986), 71alleged use at Halabja of, 5, 6, 8, 185,
186, 193–201, 205
alleged use by Iraq of, 67–68, 151, 161,228
alleged use during Badr campaign of, 67,68
alleged use near Marivan of, 144as ingredient of tabun, 197, 198causing red lips, 196, 199present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221
cyanosis, 195, 196, 199, 200cyclosarin, 221
Daei, Ali, xviDara Rash, 118Daratu, 190Darbandi Bazian, 111Darbandikhan, 102, 111, 113, 120Darbandikhan dam, xxi, xxiii, 7, 111, 197
as Iranian target, 108–110Darbandikhan tunnel, 110Dastani Rezgari, battle of, 95Defense Intelligence Agency
alleging Iranian CW use, 161and cyanide claim, 200–204and Iraqi CW use at Faw (1988), 139,
140and photographic evidence from
Halabja, 198and relations with Iraqi military
intelligence, 78, 137, 139, 191, 195as having best analysis of Iran–Iraq war,
202assessment of Iranian CW use of, 202claiming Iranian culpability in Halabja,
186, 202, 204ignorance of Anfal of, 137on developments in Kurdistan, 137on Iran’s CW capability, 162opposing CW use against civilians, 184predicting continued Iraqi CW use, 63presence in Baghdad embassy of, 74providing satellite intelligence to Iraq,
79, 139replacing CIA in Baghdad, 78supporting Iraqi war effort, 140, 201taking Iraqi CW use for granted, 74
Defense Policy Board, 81Delamar, xxii, xxiii, 112, 113, 118, 123Denmark, 160Dibs, 133
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Diyala river, xxi, 7, 109Dizli, 110, 114, 117, 122, 143Dohuk, 87, 100, 225Dojeileh, 5, 192, 193Domınguez Carmona, Manuel, 174Draper, Morris, 41, 42Drumheller, Tyler, 183Du Awa, 117dual containment policy, 234Dukan, 96, 132Dukan dam, 108, 111, 132Dukan lake, 96
Eagleburger, Lawrence, 47Eagleton, William, 42, 50, 51Effendi, Hamid, 112Egypt
allied with US, 217suspected of CW capability, 228
electronic intelligence, 187electronic intercepts, 185, 186–188elint. See electronic intelligenceErbil, 31, 87, 98, 100, 111, 123, 132, 134,
178, 225capture by Iraqi forces of (1996), 245
Estrella rockets, 91Euphrates river, 70European Community, 53, 127Exocet missiles, 45, 46
Fakeh, Najmaddin, 132Farajvand, Hadi, 66, 109Fathi, Munqedh, 28, 33, 158Fatma e-Zahra hospital, 71, 73Fattah, Omar, 121Faw
Iranian capture of (1986), 69–72, 73,75, 77, 80, 92, 165, 167, 176, 197
Iraqi CW use at (1986), xvii, 69–72Iraqi CW use at (1988), 11, 139–142,
238Iraqi recapture of (1988), 138, 139, 145,
169, 238Fayli Kurds, 226Finally Evaluated Intelligence, 21Fish lake, 141, 142, 264n32Ford, Gerald, 49Foreign Broadcast Information Service
(FBIS), 136, 207
Foroutan, Abbas, 30and cyanide claim, 6, 194, 196, 199and Haj Omran CW victims, 28, 30and Penjwin CW victims, 32and VX claim, 142at Faw (1986), 70–72at Halabja, 122claiming Iraq used tear gas in 1980, 28in Badr campaign, 66–67in Khaybar campaign, 33, 34–35on Iraqi CW attacks near Marivan,
143–144on Iraqi CW use in 1984–85, 62writing book about Iraqi CW use, 250n7
Franceand negotiations with Iran over
uranium enrichment, 231as post-Ottoman power, 85opposing UN CW investigation, 125possessing nerve gas stockpiles, 64supporting Iraq, 24, 41, 45
Francona, Rick, 263n18and Anfal, 137and battlefield intercepts, 187, 188and CW use at Faw (1988), 139–140and cyanide claim, 195on alleged Iranian CW use, 161present at Faw (1988), 238
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 3,19, 20, 248n3
Ft. Detrick, 195, 263n18Fursan, xxii, 87
Galbraith, Peter, 101and attempt to prevent genocide, 214and Halabja claim, 205and Iraq sanctions debate, 213as author of Prevention of Genocide
Act, 213reporting on Iraqi CW use, 211visiting Kurdistan in September 1988,
211Gali, Hamid Haji, 111, 112, 113, 120, 121,
122Gemayel, Amin, 241Geneva Conventions (1949), 81, 155,
156, 212, 235trampling of, 242
Geneva Protocol (1925), 15
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and lack of investigations, 58, 59and UN failure to enforce, 60, 152applicability in Iran–Iraq war of, 98, 212arising from CW experience in World
War I, 12, 229as human rights convention, 52Iran’s registering temporary reservation
to, 152Iran’s invocation of, 56, 149, 150Iraqi pledge to comply with, 209Iraqi violation of, 212Iraqi violation of, at Halabja, 7lacking mechanism to investigate
alleged CW use, 252n46lacking provisions governing internal
armed conflict, 98need for Iraqi compliance with, 48receiving international support, 229right of retaliation under, 171, 216signed by Iran and Iraq, 126trampling of, 242violation of, as grave infringement of
international norms, 15violation of, by targeting civilians, 126
Gera, Gideon, 228Germany
and negotiations with Iran overuranium enrichment, 231
as source of precursor chemicals, 235Germian, 105, 109, 130, 131, 133, 136,
174, 246Ghotsian, Yaghoub, 84Glaspie, April, 208, 214, 217
meeting with Saddam Hussein,219–220
Goktapa, 131, 132, 209Golan, 132Goldblat, Jozef, 64Golpy, Faiq, xxiii, 130–132, 173Gorbachev, Mikhail, 148Gowra Deh, 163GRAD rockets, 91Great Britain
and negotiations with Iran overuranium enrichment, 231
and relations with Iraq after 1967, 41as post-Ottoman power, 85banning presursor exports to Iraq, 53developing VX in 1950s, 141
requesting clarification on Halabja fromUS, 126
supporting Iraq, 24Guam, 246Gulf Cooperation Council, 45Gulf War (1991), 138Gulf War Syndrome, 248n3Gulflink, 248n3
Haass, Richard, 218Haig, Alexander, 42, 43Haj Omran, xvi, 28, 33, 88, 96, 111Halabja, 104
Iranian capture of, xxi, xxii, 1, 5,106–120, 123–124, 143, 178, 185
Iranian looting of, 122, 123liberation by Kurdish rebels of, xv, xx,
xxiii, 5, 6, 106–120, 123–124, 185Halabja chemical attack, 149, 150, 209,
235acknowledged by Iraq, 175aftermath of, xxiv, 2, 6, 105, 122–123,
224alleged Iranian role in, 4, 7, 8–12, 106,
126–128, 172–181, 183–205, 236,237–240
alleged Iraqi role in, 6, 176, 177, 181,185, 192
antecedents in 1984 of, 64antecedents in 1987 of, 84, 92as act of genocide, 151as confirmed by CIA, 162as crime against humanity, 124, 243as dangerous precedent, 15as pretext for 2003 Iraq invasion, 183as turning point in escalating CW use,
230as witnessed by Ahmad Nateghi, 1–3as witnessed by Kurdish rebels, 113,
120–122compared with Serdasht attack, 84, 85fueling Kurdish quest for independence,
226–227in new Iraqi constitution, 226instilling deep fear, 224Iranians’ awareness of, 139Iraqi culpability of, 178–179, 180Kurdish survivors of, 2, 6, 104, 114, 122,
123
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Halabja chemical attack (cont.)long-term impact of, 227media reporting on, xiii–xiv, 172, 180,
190, 193trial against perpetrators of, 244victims of, xiii, 2, 5, 126, 176, 184, 186,
189, 194Halabja demonstration effect, 17, 215, 240
and Anfal, 129–130, 135and Kurds in 1991 and 2003, 224–225and threat to gas Tehran, 144
Halabja monument, 226Halabja–Suleimaniyeh road, 112, 178Hama Saleh, Omar, xxiiHamdoon, Nizar, 39, 45, 54, 55, 61, 74, 77Hammadi, Sa’doun, 42, 45, 209Hanon, Mohamad, 142, 159Hashim, Ahmed, 161Hassan Awa, 118Hawar, 112, 190Hawara Kon, 118, 122Hawargey Boynian, 118Hawayza marshes, 33, 65, 170Hawk anti-aircraft missiles, 77, 166, 168Hay, Alastair, 172, 196, 239Haybat Sultan, 110, 111Helaleh, Ahmad Shaker Ahmad, 262n75hemo-perfusion, 200Hersh, Seymour, 55Heyndrickx, Aubin, 68
and cyanide claim, 194–195, 199–200and photographic evidence, 196visiting Halabja, 194
Hezbollah, 41, 57, 148, 149attacking US Marine barracks in Beirut,
240, 241choice of methods of, 241
Hiroshima, 15, 51, 64, 84, 152, 219, 243Hirst, David, 6Hirweh, 117Hollen, Christopher van, 211Hosseini, Ghoncheh, xviii–xixHosseini, Sheveen, xviii–xixHouse Armed Services Committee, 75Hoveyza, 33Howe, Jonathan, 47Howeizi, Sherdel Abdullah, 90, 91, 96, 97,
118Howramani, Nader Ali, 112
Hughes helicopters, 45Hughes, John, 53human intelligence, 21Human Rights Watch, xiv
Anfal study of, xivdetermining Anfal to be genocide,
135estimating number of Anfal victims,
134estimating number of CW victims in
Badinan, 210evacuating eyewitnesses to genocide,
246interviewing Halabjans, 117, 119interviewing Kurdish rebels, 188on Balisan valley gassing, 97on village destruction campaign, 94researching Iraqi secret police
documents, xiv, 247n1humint. See human intelligenceHunta, Bareq al-Haj, 91Husein, Muhammad Ali, 29Hussein, Saddam, 50, 93
affected by loss of Halabja, 178and alleged Iranian CW use, 158and fate of Anfalakan, 134and Halabja gassing, 178and human-wave assaults, 25and Mehran debacle, 75and possible CW use in, 145, 223appointing Ali Hassan al-Majid as
overlord of Kurdistan, 13as man who gassed his own people, 16,
183, 243as target of war on terrorism, 81as Wahington’s friend, 183building WMD arsenals, 218challenged over Iran invasion setbacks,
24criticized over loss of Faw, 72decision to invade Iran of (1980), 22decision to invade Kuwait of (1990), 17,
220, 222delegating war strategy to military
commanders, 79demonization of, 202deterred from using CW in Gulf War,
242killing of Barzanis of (1983), 31
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late 1988 perception in Washington of,218
losing Washington’s support withKuwait invasion, xiv
manipulating CW evidence, 167meeting with April Glaspie, 219–220meeting with Rumsfeld, 49–50, 241meeting with Talabani, 89on Kirkuk, 89on trial for crimes, 246ordering chemical strikes, 179, 180overthrow of, as Iranian war objective,
24political survival of, thanks to Iranian
offensives, 24proclaiming amnesty at end of Anfal,
207rationale for Anfal of, 133regional ambitions of, 215relations with Bush I administration of,
217relations with Reagan administration of,
56relationship with Mukarram Talabani
of, 158relationship with Wafiq al-Samarra’i of,
133, 180seizing power (1979), 41sentenced to death in Dujeil trial,
244sounding conciliatory on Middle East
peace, 43threatening to attack Israel with CW,
184threatening to attack Tehran with CW,
10threatening to use insecticide, 39, 235using CW against Kurds, 214
hydrocyanide. See cyanide gashydrogen cyanide. See cyanide gas
Imam Riza, 114Imam Zamen, 191International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA), 231, 232International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC), 36position on CW of, 56
International Court of Justice, xiv
International Criminal Court, 244International Crisis Group, xxvinternational humanitarian law, 149, 150,
152, 154, 155, 156, 203international prohibition on targeting
civilians, 242, 243Iran
admitting CW program, 231biological weapons program of, 152commitment to multilateral
non-proliferation conventions of, 230Kurdish population of, 86nuclear quest of, 227–232receiving Kurdish refugees, 225
Iran–Contra affair, 6, 76–77, 78, 80, 166,219, 220, 234, 238
Iranian chemical attacks, 18alleged by Iraq, 9, 10, 157, 165, 166,
167, 171, 261n55alleged by Iraqi officers, 159, 160alleged by Kurdish rebels, 162–165alleged by US government, 7, 165alleged by US intelligence agencies,
161, 162alleged by US military experts, 162alleged by US officials, 160, 161, 264n32doubted by UN, 172lack of evidence of, 157–159scepticism about, 157, 181–182
Iranian chemical casualties, 142as live laboratory for study of chemical
warfare, xviat Faw (1986), 72from mustard gas, 228in European hospitals, 67, 200in Tehran hospitals, xv, xviii, 56numbers of, 13, 228visited by UN, 59
Iranian chemical defense, 82, 162involvement of doctors in, xvi, 31, 67,
98, 143, 200Iranian chemical weapons program, 152,
153, 161, 172, 203, 230as legacy of Iran–Iraq war, 231suspected illegal existence of, 231
Iranian Kurdish rebelsattacked by Iran, 110, 124, 163, 190attacked by Iraq, 132Iraqi intelligence files on, 122
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Iranian Kurdish rebels (cont.)questioning an Iranian role in gassing
Halabja, 192role in Halabja of, 190–193
Iranian Kurdistan, as site of chemicalattacks, 83
Iranian military campaigns, 24, 25Badr (1985), 65–67, 196failure of, 146Fatah I (1986), 91Karbala V, 264n32Khaybar (1984), 33, 37–38, 51, 67,
89Val-Fajr IV (1983), 32, 164Val-Fajr VIII (1986), 69–73Val-Fajr X (1988), 4, 5, 111, 114,
115–117, 203Zafar VII (1988), 115
Iranian military forces, treating chemicalcasualties, 3
Iranian nuclear program, 152, 228,231–232
following Japanese model, 232inspired by Iran–Iraq war experience,
231Iranian POWs, 140Iran–Iraq war, 1, 18, 58
aftermath of, 201and attacks against civilians, 81–82as imposed war, 227ceasefire in, 11, 78, 147, 170, 207fueling international debate on CW
proliferation, 230human-wave assaults in, 12, 25, 26, 27,
52, 215, 219Iran’s prolongation of, 228start of (1980), xvi, 12, 22, 87
Iraqi Armed Forces Chemical CorpsDirectorate, 26
Iraqi census (1987), 100Iraqi chemical attacks, 25, 28, 75
acknowledged by Iraqi officers, 159,160
admitted by Iraq, 14airforce involvement in, 1, 5, 83, 121,
131, 132, 164, 167, 168, 177, 179,180, 181, 210, 221
and international community’s silence,228, 229, 231
as necessary in war, 157as proven by UN, 172at Faw (1986), 70–72at Faw (1988), 139, 203, 238at Haj Omran, xvii, 12, 29–31, 32,
150at Khurmal, 116at Majnoun, 33–34, 35at Penjwin, 32, 46at Serdasht, xviii–xix, 83–85, 150, 152awareness by US intelligence of, 14–15,
47, 53confirmed by State Department, 208contributing to end of war, 145, 146,
147, 221during Anfal, 4, 130–132, 135, 174,
204, 224, 240during Badr, 66–67, 196during Khaybar, 33–35, 259n21during Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah, 139–143,
153during Val-Fajr II, 29, 30during Val-Fajr IV, 32during Val-Fajr X, 5ensuring Iraq’s survival, 234expected in 1991 Gulf War, 221, 222ignored by Reagan administration, 233in 1983, 46in Badinan, 204, 206, 208, 209, 210,
235in experimental stage, 27, 28, 51, 63,
235in Iranian Kurdistan, 143–144in Iraqi Kurdistan, 94–99, 100–101,
145in Qaradagh, 261n59involving “special” munitions, 96, 99,
129, 169, 175, 188mentioned by Rumsfeld to Saddam, 50objective of, 12–13, 14operational detail about, xxvpivotal role of, 18psychological impact of, 13referred to as “special” strikes, 73, 99,
168, 175, 176, 178sporadic use of, between Khaybar and
Badr, 61spurring proliferation, 229targeting civilians, 82
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use of helicopters in, 141, 197, 221use of Ilyushin cargo aircraft in, 141weakening US policy on CW, 229
Iraqi chemical casualties, 10, 72, 142, 159,166, 171, 181, 182, 254n5
from Iraq’s own CW use, 72, 140, 160,165, 166–168, 174–175, 178, 182,262n75
from leaking munitions, 168–170Iraqi chemical defense, 143Iraqi chemical warfare capability, 26, 27,
47, 62, 141, 153, 162, 218, 221, 237as justification for 2003 war, 223initial dependence on Soviet Union of,
230Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), 23Iraqi constitution, 226Iraqi High Tribunal, 244Iraqi Interests Section in Washington, 41,
45Iraqi Military Intelligence Directorate, 42,
133, 137, 139, 141, 157, 176, 179admitting chemical attack, 131and relations with DIA, 78, 191presence in Halabja of, xxii, 112
Iraqi National Accord, 159Iraqi nuclear weapons program, 216, 218,
222Iraqi oil fields, 33, 69, 72, 90, 91, 234Iraqi POWs, 1, 9, 56, 59, 73, 119, 156, 177
testifying to Iraqi CW use, 262n75Iraqi regime
and chemical defense training, 26and Mullah Mustafa revolt, 21condemning Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan, 23WMD capabilities of, 248
Iraqi secret police documents, 3, 175, 176,177, 180
seized by Kurdish rebels, xiv, 247n1Iraqi tribunal, 243, 246Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA),
1, 5, 70, 115, 116Islamic revolution (1979), 12, 22, 41, 44,
45, 148, 201as target of Western containment,
233interrupting WMD development in
Iran, 230
Islamic Unity Movement of Kurdistan(IUMK), xxi, xxiv, 87, 111
role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 115,176
Israel, 53, 76, 103, 165, 215alleged to have downplayed Iranian CW
use, 203and Iran–Contra affair, 45, 76and Palestine conflict, 43, 49, 148, 242,
243and restoration of US–Iraqi diplomatic
relations, 55as US strategic asset, 40, 232Egypt’s peace treaty with, 41enjoying Western support, 41invading Lebanon (1982), 148Iron Fist policy of (1985), 148killing civilians, 242policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 76striking Osirak nuclear reactor (1981),
42suspected of CW capability, 26, 228suspected of planning military strike
against Iraqi CW facilities, 54targeted by Scud missiles in 1991, 17,
143–144, 241threatened by CW proliferation, 229weapons of mass destruction of, 12
Israeli Military Intelligence, 146Istikhbarat, See Iraqi Military Intelligence
DirectorateItaly
alleged to have used CW in Ethiopia,12
as source of chemical rockets, 169
Ja’fari, Muhammad, 90Jabel Spi, 95Jafati valley, 104, 112, 121, 128, 129, 163
and Battle of Dastani Rezgari (1987),95
chemically attacked, 96Iraqi assault on (1988), 95, 111, 115,
209PUK headquarters in, 14, 88, 92, 106,
110PUK return to, in 1985, 89reconnoitered by Iranians, 90
Jafeir, 33, 34
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jahshas tribal regime recruits, 87helping the PUK, 91in Halabja, xxii, 112, 118participating in village destruction
campaign, 94role in Anfal of, 130, 132, 136role in Halabja of, 190role of, played up by Iraqi media, 108,
136under peshmerga pressure (1987), 93witnessing Balisan CW attack, 97
Jalileh, xxivJalilei, Khaled, 112Janbazan Bunyad, xviiiJapan, 53Jasem river, 168Jasem, Latif, 77Jewish settlements, 148Johnson, Douglas, 186, 188, 202Joint Chiefs of Staff
aware of events in Kurdistan, 100on CW use at Halabja, 181on fate of Anfal detainees, 136
Jordan, 69, 136allied with US, 217supporting Iraqi war effort, 23
Jwan Roh, 113
Kaka’i, xxiKam, Ephraim, 146Kani Ashqan, xxii, 108Kani Dinar, 144Kani Khiyaran, 117Karargeh Ramazan, 90, 109, 117, 118Karbala, 119Karim, Jamal Hama, 95Karimi Vahed, Pervin, xviii–xixKarimi, Hashemi, 163, 192Karoun river, 168Katyusha rockets, 91KDP-PUK rivalry, 31–32, 87–88, 245Kermanshah. See Bakhtaran, p. 295Khabur river, 245Khairallah Tulfah, Adnan
acknowledging Iraqi role in Halabjagassing, 179
comparing Iraq to US in WWII, 219ordering chemical strikes, 179
Khalilzad, Zalmay, 218Khamene’i, Ali, 76Kharrazi, Kamal, 4Khateh, 132Khatimat al-Anfal, See Anfal campaign,
final stage ofKheli Hama, 118Khomeini regime
agreeing to ceasefire, 156protesting Iraqi CW attacks, 36, 56, 149relationship with PUK of, 88standing at UN of, 149stating refusal to use chemical weapons,
152taking Western hostages, 149threatening chemical retaliation, 153threatening Iraq, 43
Khomeini, Ruhollah, 12, 76, 145, 234agreeing to ceasefire, 146as target of Reagan administration, 40death of (1989), 25denying permission to blow up
Darbandikhan dam, 109invoked by Pasdaran entering Halabja,
119keeping low profile after loss of Faw
(1988), 139rise to power of (1979), 22seeking international response to Iraqi
CW use, 57Khorramshahr, 82Khoshnaw, 188Khurmal, 5, 112, 117, 118, 122, 191, 193
alleged Iranian CW attack on, 192Iranian capture of, xxii, 115–116, 123,
173Iranian looting of, 122, 123Iraqi CW attack on, 116, 175Kurdish liberation of, 112, 124victims from CW attack on, 5, 193
Khuzestan, 23, 24King Hussein of Jordan, 26Kirkpatrick, Jeanne, 60, 61Kirkuk, 102, 105, 130, 132, 133
and the prospect of civl strife, 227Arabization of, 134as key point of contention, 32, 86, 89,
109as seat of Northern Bureau, 93, 99
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as target of Kurdish territorialambitions, 90, 93, 100, 111, 227
Iranian–PUK attack on (1986), 90–92oil fields of, 90, 91, 109, 227
Kirkuk airbase, xxiii, 173, 177, 179Kittani, Ismat
admitting Iraqi CW use, 51, 60alleging Iranian CW use, 158and restoration of US–Iraqi diplomatic
relations, 55introducing Hamdoon to official
Washington, 45meeting with Shultz, 52swearing in Javier Perez de Cuellar, 57
KLM, 53Komala, 92, 110, 122, 132
targeted in Halabja battle (1988), 190,191
Koppel, Ted, 7, 173, 239Koysanjaq, 188Kurdish army deserters, 93, 99Kurdish autonomous region, 89Kurdish backing forces, 93Kurdish chemical casualties, xvi, 32, 84,
98, 131, 132, 143denied medical care, 189in Iranian Kurdistan, 163, 164
Kurdish chemical defense, 97Kurdish draft dodgers, 93, 99Kurdish insurgency, 4, 13, 18, 21Kurdish national movement, 85–87, 138
quest for independence of, 226–227Kurdish rebels, xxii, 13, 87
accusing Iran of gassing Halabja, 185,188–193
Kurdish uprising (1991), xiv, 247n1Kurdish Workers Party (PKK), 210Kurdistan Communist Party (KCP), 87Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), 107,
111, 136as a Barzani family affair, 87bases in Badinan of, 130, 132, 210breakup of (1976), 87during Final Anfal, 206founded by Mullah Mustafa Barzani,
86growing revolt of, 100guiding Iranian forces in Haj Omran
battle (1983), xvi, 29
headquarters of, attacked with chemicalweapons, 13
role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 115,117, 122, 123
siding with Saddam Hussein regimeagainst PUK, xx, 245
Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran(KDP-I), 88, 163
and Anfal, 136claiming Iranian CW attacks, 163, 164,
165office in Baghdad of, 192presence in Nowsud of, 116targeted in Haj Omran battle (1983),
29targeted in Halabja battle (1988), 110,
122, 190, 191–193targeted in Penjwin battle (1983), 32ties with PUK of, 31, 88, 92
Kurdistan Front, 92, 111Kurdistan Popular Democratic Party
(KPDP), 87Kurdistan Socialist Party (KSP), 87, 109,
111role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 120,
122, 123Kurmanji dialect, 87Kuwait
accused of aggression, 220as ally of the West, 232as US proxy, 220facing Iranian onslaught, 69, 72facing Iraqi pressure, 184facing Iraqi territorial claims, 63, 217Iraqi invasion of (1990), xiv, 17, 19, 56,
78, 102, 152, 155, 183, 201, 202, 214,216, 218, 220, 222, 240
liberation of (1991), 14, 221, 243protected by Iraq from Iran, 233ships of, attacked by Iran, 80supporting Iraqi war effort, 23, 24, 63
Kuzlu, 131
Lang, Walter P., 187and Anfal, 137and Iraqi CW use at Faw (1988),
139and use of VX, 141as source of Halabja claim, 203
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Lang, Walter P., (cont.)claiming Iraq could win battles without
using CW, 236justifying Iraqi CW use, 184on Iraqi capabilities, 146on Stephen Pelletiere, 202opposing CW use against civilians, 203pressing Iranian culpability in Halabja,
186, 202–204talking to media, 202, 203
laws of war. See internationalhumanitarian law
Lebanonbombings in (1983), 41, 65, 233, 240multinational peacekeeping force in,
241US military presence in, 241Western hostages in, 233
Lesser Zab, 96, 131Libya
as potential CW user, 211facing US pressure, 217suspected of CW capability, 228
Mafarez Khaseh, 177Mahabad Republic, xix, 86Mahmoud Beg, Hassan, 112Mahmoud, Muhammad Haji, 109, 111,
112, 120Majnoun islands, 33–34, 63, 65, 141, 142,
194malband, 97Mam Hadi, xxi, xxii, 117, 118, 124Mam Jalal. See Talabani, JalalMama Risha, 89Mamanda mountain, 83Mared, 82Marivan, 110, 113, 143, 144Mawat, 95, 163McFarlane, Robert, 76Medecins sans Frontieres (MSF), 194,
199Medical Association for Victims of
Chemical Warfare, 28Mehran, 75, 79, 92, 141, 142Mergasur, 110Mikulak, Robert, 161Milliano, Jacques de, 199
and cyanide claim, 194
Minoui, Delphine, 254n6miosis, 197Mirawa, 163Mitterand, Francois, 229Mohammadian, Hossein, 255n9Mohtashemi, Ali Akbar, 122Moreels, Reginald, 199
and cyanide claim, 194Mossad, 228Mosul, 133Mowlani, Ali, 111Muhammad, Barzan Qader, 98Muhammara, 168Mujahedin Khalq, 122mujamma’at, 89, 99, 102, 133Murphy, Richard, 47, 50, 68, 76, 78, 210,
218Mushir, Shawqat Haji, 111
and ambition to create free Kurdisharea, 111
and Iranian designs on Darbandikhandam, 109
and KDP-I in Halabja, 190, 191and Komala in Halabja, 191and written agreement with Iran to
liberate Suleimaniyeh region, 110justifying his actions in Halabja, 106,
120–124killed by Ansar al-Islam, 255n1on Iranian role in Halabja, 113, 114role in Halabja liberation of, 118, 119,
120–124mustard gas, 26, 131, 141, 142, 151, 161,
162alleged Iranian use of, 165, 170, 171,
175, 261n55, 264n32as persistent agent, 27civilian casualties of, 83description in literature of, xviiearly use of, 28early use of, in artillery shells, 26early use of, in RPGs, 29Iranian victims of, 13, 69, 200, 228Iraqi casualties of, 159, 166, 174long–term effects of exposure to, xvi,
xvii, 13, 15, 226nonlethality of, 13present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221purchase from Soviet Union of, 27
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reducing Iranian mobility, 27requiring full bodysuits, 167routine use of, 56used against Iranian Kurdish civilians,
164used against Iranian staging areas, 35,
67, 167used against PUK (1987), 96used at Faw (1986), 72used at Faw (1988), 140used at Serdasht (1987), 84used during Khaybar operation, 33, 59,
89used during Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah
operations, 168used in 1983, 32, 40used in Haj Omran, 12used in Halabja, 5, 11, 104, 194,
195used in World War I, xvi, xvii, 12, 30used to counter Iranian human-wave
assaults, 31mustashars, 29, 87, 93, 95, 112mutually assured destruction paradigm,
230mycotoxins, 194, 200
alleged use in Halabja of, 195myosis, 34
Nagasaki, 15, 51, 84, 152, 219Najaf, 119Namdar, Hama Reza, 112napalm, 164, 167Naser al-Din, Ibrahim, 112Nateghi, Ahmad, 1–3, 70National Defense University, 161, 198National Security Agency (NSA), 20,
187National Security Archive, 248n3National Security Decision Directive 114
(1983), 48National Security Decision Directive 139
(1984), 52National Security Decision Directive 26
(1989), 217Nazanin, 132nerve gas, 64, 67, 141, 142, 144, 151, 152,
161, 210alleged use at Serdasht of (1987), 84
as quick–acting highly lethal agent,178
causing blue lips, 196first recorded battlefield use of, 12, 14,
15, 32–36Iranian victims of, 228Iraqi casualties of, 174quickly dissipating character of, 151requiring gas masks, 167search for precursors of, 27, 53use of, marking escalation in Iran–Iraq
war, 56used along front lines, 167used at Faw (1986), 71used at Faw (1988), 140used during Anfal, 131used during Badr operation, 65used during Khaybar operation, 89used in Halabja, 5, 11, 195, 196, 199victims of, treated with atropine, 3,
140New Zealand, 53Newton, David
alleging Iranian CW use, 158, 160aware of Anfal, 136aware of Iraqi counterinsurgency
campaign, 102, 138meeting with KDP-I, 136on courting Iraq, 233on CW discussions with Iraqi regime,
55, 74on Iran–Contra fallout, 77, 78on Iranian threat to Kurdish dams, 108on travel restrictions for diplomats in
Iraq, 19reporting disappearance of anti-US
floats in Baghdad, 51Nijmar, 144Nowroli, 118Nowsud, 113, 114, 116, 124Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT),
230, 231nuclear weapons, 17, 18, 51, 63, 75, 152,
228Nugrat Salman, 132
Oberdorfer, Don, 38, 39Oil Protection Forces, 91Operation Staunch, 44, 50, 76, 78, 79
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Organization for Defending the Victims ofChemical Weapons in Serdasht,255n9
Organization for the Prohibition ofChemical Weapons, 231
Orumiyeh, 30Oshnaviyeh, 143Osirak nuclear reactor, 42, 55Ottoman Empire, 85
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO),148
Palestine question, 217Palme, Olof, 59Paris Conference on the Prohibition of
Chemical Weapons (1989), 216,229
Pasdaran. See Revolutionary Guard CorpsPatriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), 4,
129, 207and Anfal dead, 134and Komala in Halabja, 190–191attacked in Anfal, 136bases in Qaradagh of, 121, 130, 174bases of, attacked with chemical
weapons, 13, 130, 131called “Iranian agents,” 107, 175defeat of (1988), 129, 132fighting Iraqi troops near Jafati valley,
89, 95fighting KDP in internecine conflict, xx,
245fighting near Serdasht in 1987, 83, 144founding of (1976), 87growing revolt of, 89, 100headquarters of, 14, 95, 97, 106, 110,
129, 173intercepting battlefield
communications, 188losing men in Halabja, 129, 175negotiations with Saddam Hussein of,
88–89regional command in Erbil region of, 97relations with Bradostis of, 31, 88relations with Iran of, 88, 90–92relations with Iranian Kurdish parties
of, 31, 190role in Halabja liberation of, xxii,
106–124
role in saving KDP-I of, 191, 192urban base of, 87, 88
Paveh, 113Pell, Claiborne, 101, 211, 219Pelletiere, Stephen, 137, 139
and US Army War College study, 188on Walter P. Lang, 202, 204pressing Iranian culpability in Halabja,
185, 186, 202–203Penjwin, 32, 46, 83, 96, 110, 114, 164Pentagon. See US Department of DefensePeres, Shimon, 55Perez de Cuellar, Javier, 57, 236
and Anfal, 136brokering ceasefire in Iran–Iraq war, 125identifying Iraq as aggressor in war, 155incurring Iraq’s wrath, 126, 155on Halabja, 8ordering investigation of CW
allegations, 9, 15, 58, 73, 82, 125,150, 155
receptive to Iranian complaints, 154saving UN’s reputation, 149visiting Iran and Iraq (1985), 68
Perle, Richard, 81Perry Robinson, Julian, 32, 64, 172, 230Persian Gulf, 100peshmergas. See Kurdish rebelsPhalange militia, 241Phantom bombers, 76phosgene, 166, 170
alleged Iranian use of, 165, 261n55,264n32
alleged Iraqi casualties of, 166alleged use in Halabja of, 195present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221used in World War I, 165
phosphorus, 71, 96, 164, 225Picco, Giandomenico, 58, 61, 100Pilatus planes, 91Piranshahr, xvi, 163Placke, James, 61
and export ban on precursor chemicals,54, 61
and Operation Staunch, 44and tilt toward Iraq, 43, 54on alleged Iranian CW use, 160on Iraqi need for CW to win war, 236
poison gas. See chemical weapons
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Popular Army, 132Portugal, 127potassium fluoride, 53Powell, Colin, 183, 184precursor chemicals
export restrictions on, 53, 54sale of, banned to Iran and Iraq, 229,
236, 237supplied by East Bloc, 236supplied by Western companies, 16, 27,
39, 47, 48, 53, 62, 219, 222, 230, 235,236, 237
Prees, 118Prevention of Genocide Act, 213prisoners of war (POWs), 59, 155pro-Iran lobby, 204
Qader Karam, 131Qal’a Saleh, 170Qala Dizeh, 110, 111, 191Qala’ji, 143Qalaga, 143Qandil mountain, 130, 132, 191Qaradagh, xxiii, 109, 121, 130, 131, 135,
173, 174, 175Qasemlou, Abd-al-Rahman, 29, 31, 88
alleging Iranian CW attacks, 163, 165assassination of, 163residence in Baghdad of, 89
Qasr al-Shirin, xix
Radio Free Iraq, 178Radio Monte Carlo, 173Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi, 40, 76,
92advocating chemical and biological
weapons, 230Rajaie Khorassani, Sa’id, 57–58, 61, 63,
156rajima, 141Ramadan, Taha Yasin, 77Rankin, Haywood, 101Ranya, 111Rassam, Omar, 105Reagan administration
and cyanide claim, 200–201and information about Iraqi CW use,
238and Iran–Contra affair, 77
and Iraq sanctions debate, 211–214,217, 229
and Iraq’s counterinsurgency campaign,103, 206–208
and norm against CW use, 237anti-Iranian animus of, 234concerned about CW proliferation, 62,
211, 215, 216concerned about Halabja fallout, 239demarches to Western allies of, 236opposing CW investigation by UN, 125organizing the Paris Conference (1989),
229policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 40, 41,
42, 43, 76, 79, 100, 204, 239policy toward Iraqi CW use of, 39, 63,
206–218, 234–240, 241, 243policy toward revolutionary Iran of, 234position on Halabja attack of, 7, 8, 126,
128, 181, 205, 237–239restoring diplomatic relations with Iraq,
45, 51–56, 74, 237, 241sharing intelligence with Iraq, 43, 79,
238, 239siding with Phalangists in Lebanon, 241silence on Iraqi CW use of, enabling
genocide, 17strategic objectives in Gulf of, 234tilting toward Iraq, 6, 39, 40–46, 74, 80,
128, 138, 201, 206, 208, 214–218,232, 233
understanding of Anfal of, 135–138,206, 207
Reagan, Ronald, 41, 49, 56, 240meeting with Kittani, 45
Redman, Charles, 7, 173, 201Republican Palace, 178Revolutionary Command Council, 93,
265n5Revolutionary Guard Corps (Pasdaran),
105and Halabja operation, 6, 109, 111, 115,
116, 118, 119, 121, 123and Karargeh Ramazan, 90fighting in Badr offensive, 65founding of, 23involved in Kirkuk attack (1986), 90–91participating in human–wave attacks, 25subject to chemical attacks, 141
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Reza, Ali, 113, 122Reza’ie, Mahmoud, 113Reza’ie, Mohsen, 109, 111, 116Ricciardone, Francis, 250n3
and policy toward Iraqi CW use, 39,47–48, 55, 61
on alleged Iranian CW use, 161on arms transfers to Iran and Iraq, 45
Riza, Iqbaland UN CW investigations, 58–59,
172informing Jeanne Kirkpatrick of Iraqi
CW use evidence, 60on Iraqi response to US pressure to halt
CW use, 62on victims of Balisan attack, 98
Romberg, Alan, 39Rome treaty, 244Rostam Beg, xxv, 65, 112, 240
Rumsfeld, Donaldand Lebanon bombingsand war on terrorism, 240–242announcing alleged WMD find in Iraq,
224expressing concern over potential Iraqi
CW use in, 104, 125, 145first Baghdad visit of (1983), 49–51,
237, 241second Baghdad visit of (1984), 51–52,
237Russell, Mark, 224
Sa’id, Hama Hama, xxii, xxiii, 83, 109,110, 117, 118
offering Halabja interpretation,120–124
Saddam airbase, 179Saddam Hussein regime
accused of wanting to annihilate Kurds,129
acknowledging Anfal, 136admitting chemical attacks, 38, 60, 75and human-wave assaults, 26and Iranian capture of Halabja, 7biological weapons program of, 183,
216, 218, 221, 222concessions on the Israeli–Arab conflict
of, 233
harboring territorial designs, 63, 217launching Anfal campaign, xivnegotiations with PUK of, 32, 88–89ouster of (2003), xiv, xxiv, 240quest for power in Gulf of, 41relations with Arab Gulf states of, 64relations with Reagan administration of,
78, 201, 206, 214, 219, 220responsibility for Halabja CW attack of,
177restoring diplomatic relations with US,
51–56strengthened by Iran–Iraq war, 25threatened by Iranian capture of
Darbandikhan dam, 108threatening to attack Iranian cities with
CW, 9, 14, 144, 145, 146threatening to attack Tehran with CW,
144–145, 153, 241WMD programs of, 52
Salamiyeh, 133Salih, Barham, xxiSalim Pirak, 108SAM rockets, 91Samawa, 133Sandinista government, 76Saqqez, 163sarin, 64
alleged use at Faw of (1986), 71alleged use in Halabja of, 195, 199characteristics of, 71, 199destructive potential of, 64found in Iraqi soil samples, 199, 210greater lethality than tabun of, 71precursor chemicals of, 53present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 74, 199,
221unlikely Iranian production of, 199used along front lines, 12used at Faw (1988), 140used in Tokyo subway attack, 223
Saudi Arabia, 69, 136allied with US, 217as ally of the West, 232facing Iranian onslaught, 69, 72protected by Iraq from Iran, 219,
233supporting Iraqi war effort, 23, 24
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targeted by Scud missiles in, 17,143–144
threatened by CW proliferation,229
Sayed Sadeq, xxi, 113, 114, 120, 191Schifter, Richard, 211Scowcroft, Brent, 217Scud missiles, 17, 80, 144, 146, 241Seif Sa’at, 159Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 101,
211, 247n1Sengaw, 131September 11 attacks, 227, 240Serdasht, xviii, 83–85, 88, 143, 150, 163,
254n6commemorating chemical attack, 255n9
Seyw Senan, 130, 131Shah of Iran, 21, 22, 40, 44, 86, 107
as West’s guardian of Gulf wealth,232
overthrow of, 234starting WMD research, 230
Shakala, 163Shaker, Ahmad, 177Shakh Shemiran, 109, 112, 197Shamir, Yitzhak, 55Shamkhani, Ali, 113Shaqlawa, 132Shatt al-Arab, 23, 70, 168Shatt-e Ali, 33Shaweis, Tahsin, 89Sheikh Mowla, 109, 140Sheikh Wasanan, 97, 104, 188, 189Shinirweh mountain, xxii, xxiii, 117, 118,
124, 192Shirawandi, Shirwan, 111Shouf mountains, 241Shultz, George
accusing both Iran and Iraq of CW use,103
advising Bush I administration on Iraq,218
alleging Iranian CW use, 165, 171and CW proliferation, 241and US policy on Iraqi CW use, 56,
208, 214–218and US policy toward Iran–Iraq war, 43,
44, 79
and US tilt toward Iraq, 44, 215, 218and Zalmay Khalilzad, 218aware of Iraqi CW use, 22, 46, 215condemning Iraqi CW use, 209, 215extracting Iraqi pledge to halt CW use,
209meeting with Iraqi officials, 45, 52on Halabja, 127on restoring diplomatic relations with
Iraq, 55, 56view of Iraqi regime of, 206, 214, 215
Sick, Gary, 204Sidell, Frederick, 196, 198sigint, See signals intelligencesignals intelligence, 186Sirwan, 115, 116, 192, 193Sirwan lake, xxi, xxii, 1, 7, 108, 114, 115,
190, 191Sirwan river, xxi, 122Slivana, 87Smaquli valley, 130, 132Sohrabpour, Hamid, xvi, xvii, xix, 6, 28,
145soman, 64
alleged use in Halabja of, 195Sosan hospital, xvi, xvii, xviiiSoviet Union, 62
Afghanistan invasion by, 23, 41aiding Iraqi CW program, 16, 26, 230and Afghanistan quagmire, 148and threatened arms embargo against
Iran, 125and Treaty of Friendship and
Cooperation with Iraq, 41as Iraqi ally, 24, 41, 42, 43, 54, 77, 233chemical weapons arsenal of, 230possessing nerve gas stockpiles, 64possible use of mycotoxins in Cambodia
of, 194relations with Iraq of, 23
Stahl, Leslie, 243Studeman, William O., 20Suleimaniyeh, 32, 88, 89, 97, 100, 105,
110, 173arrival of Balisan victims in, 189as base of Kurdish national movement,
86as post-1991 oasis of tranquility, xx
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Suleimaniyeh (cont.)as PUK domain, 87set to be liberated by Kurdish rebels and
Iranians, 110, 111threatened with destruction, 129
Suleimaniyeh Health Department, 189Suleimaniyeh–Baghdad road, xxiii, 102,
109, 110Suleimaniyeh–Dukan road, 95Suleimaniyeh–Erbil road, 110Suleimaniyeh–Kirkuk road, 102, 111, 131Sultani, Bahman, 143Supreme Council for the Islamic
Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI), xxii, 29,110, 111
role in Halabja liberation of, 112,115
subjected to chemical attack, 197Suran, 87Surani dialect, 87Swara, Mowloud, 163Syria
facing US pressure, 217Kurdish population of, 86suspected of CW capability, 228
Tabatabaei, S. R., 153tabun, 67, 71, 162, 197
alleged use in Halabja of, 195containing cyanide as key ingredient,
197description in literature of, 34, 35first recorded battlefield use of, 12,
32–36, 64greater lethality than mustard gas of, 67Iraqi rationale for use of, 35Iraqi use of, confirmed by UN, 34potential blowback effects from use of,
35precursor chemicals of, 53present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221production in World War II of, 35used during Badr operation, 66used during Khaybar operation, 59,
259n21victims of, 34, 35
Takiyeh, 174Talabani, Jalal, 15, 180, 207
calling for talks with Iraqi regime, 96
challenging Mustafa Barzani’sleadership, 87
claiming 2,000 dead in Halabja, 5claiming Iraqi CW attacks, 135collaborating with Iran, 7excluded from amnesty at end of Anfal,
207, 265friendship with Qasemlou of, 88leadership of PUK of, undisputed, 87meeting with Iranians, 90, 92negotiating with Saddam Hussein, 32,
89present at CW attack on headquarters,
96pressed by Iran to fight KDP-I, 88, 92traveling in Europe at time of Halabja
attack, 4, 106Talabani, Mukarram, 158, 193Tallil airbase, 238Tanjro river, xxitanker wars, 25targeted assassinations, 242Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah campaign (1988),
128, 139, 158, 159, 160, 169, 236Tawela, 112, 116, 122, 124Tazashar, 131Tehran, 59, 82Tehrani, Muhammad, 113, 121, 122thio-sulphate, 84, 197Tigris river, xxi, 7, 70, 96Tokyo subway attack, 71, 223Topzawa, 132TOW missiles, 76, 77Trainor, Bernard, 222Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
(1972), 23, 41Turkey, 17, 69, 88, 130, 132
as US ally, 210assisting US in Kurdistan, 246blocking access to refugees, 211denying Iraqi CW use, 210Kurdish population of, 86policy toward its Kurdish population of,
210receiving Kurdish refugees (1988), 206,
207, 208, 210, 211, 213receiving Kurdish refugees (1991), 225
Tuz Khurmatu, 131Tyler, Patrick, 184
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and Pentagon study on Halabja,185–186, 202
casting doubt on Iraqi CW use atHalabja, 184
claiming Iraq accused Iran of CW use inHalabja, 10
covering Halabja story, 184questioning evidence of August 1988
CW use, 209visiting Halabja in March, 1988, 144,
184
Um Rsas, 168UN Charter, 154, 155, 156UN Committee on Disarmament, 62UN Conference on Disarmament, 230UN General Assembly, 252n46UN General Secretariat, 98UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 225UN Human Rights Commission, 52UN Security Council, 98
and investigations of CW claims, 58,59
and Resolution (1987), 43, 78, 80, 100,103, 125, 127, 128
calling for ceasefire, 72condemning CW use, 53, 83condemning targeting of civilians, 46considering arms embargo against Iran,
6, 78, 107, 125, 152deaf to Iranian protests, 149, 150, 151,
154distrusted by Iranian regime, 57, 58failure to condemn Iraqi CW use of, 82,
84, 151Halabja resolution of, 4, 11, 128, 148,
204identifying aggressor in Iran–Iraq war,
155policy on Iran–Iraq war of, 23, 41position on Iraqi CW use of, 16, 156presidential statements of, 61, 69, 73,
127, 128receiving CW report, 11, 60resolutions of, 73, 154, 156resolutions of, favoring Iraq, 154resolutions of, ignored by Iran, 149role in international armed conflicts of,
154
tilting toward Iraq, 58, 73, 151, 154tolerating Iraq’s CW use, 156
UN Special Commission on Iraq(UNSCOM), 102, 198, 199, 218,228
dismantlement of Iraq’s WMD programsby
United Arab Emirates, 220United Nations
championing human rights, 149credibility of, 17CW expert reports of, 3, 11, 15, 59–61,
73, 83, 98, 125, 143, 150, 166,170–171, 172, 175, 176, 181, 197
CW experts teams of, See, 9, 10, 11, 15,33, 34, 57, 58–59, 67, 73, 82, 98, 142,150, 151, 155, 156, 166, 171, 174,195, 212
experts team of (1983), 81failure to halt Iraqi CW use of, 149position on CW use of, 60, 61, 68–69undermining of, 242
United Statesaccused of using gas in Vietnam, 219as guarantor of Kurdish rights and
security, 226declaiming virtues of democracy and
human rights, 243developing VX in 1950s, 141hostages in Lebanon of, 76Interests Section in Baghdad of, 41, 42invading Iraq (2003), 223killing civilians, 241, 242possessing nerve agent stockpiles, 64promoting comprehensive chemical
weapons ban, 230propping up authoritarian regimes, 243supporting Iraq, 24supporting Israeli military occupation,
243Tehran embassy seizure of, 36, 40war on terrorism of, 240–244
University of Ghent, 194uranium enrichment, 231US Air Force Intelligence Agency, 175US Army Medical Research Institute,
196US Army War College, 137, 202, 207
study of Iran–Iraq war of, 185, 186, 202
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US Congress, 17US Department of Agriculture, 45, 233US Department of Commerce, 53, 78US Department of Defense
and attempt to frame Iran for Halabjagas attack, 183–205
response to Halabja attack by, 4study of Iran–Iraq war of, 185
US Department of State, 7, 17accusing Iran of CW use, 204acknowledging Iraqi CW use, 39, 208,
211alleged to be pro-Kurdish, 202analyzing Barzani revolt, 21annual human rights report of, 102Bureau of Intelligence and Research of,
208calling Iraqi CW use against Kurds
“convenience use,” 212claiming CW key to Iraq’s survival,
236determining Anfal to be genocide, 213interest in Kurds of, 137interest–based argument against CW
use of, 235labeling the PKK a terrorist
organization, 210Legal Office of, 135on CW proliferation, 229on export ban on precursor chemicals,
49, 62policy on Iraqi CW use of, 39, 46–49,
51, 53, 54, 56, 217policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 44referring to Anfal, 136response to Halabja attack by, 3,
126–129reviewing Iraq policy before Saddam
trial, 243US Export Import Bank, 45, 50, 78, 217US National Archives, 247n1US National Security Council (NSC), 20,
47, 76, 78, 235US New Jersey, 241
Valley of the Parties. See Jafati valleyVelayati, Ali Akbar, 82, 84
on Iranian chemical casualties, 228
village destruction campaign, 93, 100, 101,102, 106, 108, 111, 136, 138, 205,211, 213
Viorst, Milton, 209VX, 64
alleged use in 1988 of, 141–143alleged use in Iranian Kurdistan of, 144alleged use of, 15as a quick–acting highly lethal agent,
141predicted Iraqi use of, 101present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 152, 221present in Western arsenals, 141
war crimes, 4, 15, 59, 81, 82, 151, 155, 243Warba, 63, 217Wareh, 132wars of the cities, 25, 26, 59, 80, 107, 144,
145, 150, 173Warta, 132weapons of mass destruction, 17, 26, 223,
224, 231Weinberger, Caspar, 139Weizman Institute of Science, 165West Germany, 62Willems, Jan, 200WMD proliferation, 17, 39, 75, 153
and international efforts to combat,229–230
in the Middle East, 228Wolfowitz, Paul, 79, 239World War I, 85
CW use in, xvi, xvii, 30, 38, 165, 209World War II, 35
as impetus for human rights norms, 244
yellow rain, 194yperite. See mustard gas
Zahidi, Muhammad, 114, 124Zalm bridge, 112, 114, 116, 118, 122, 123Zalm river, xxi, xxiii, 1, 114, 115, 118, 122Zammaki, 112, 116Zarif, Javad, 231Zarza, Sadeq, 163Zeibari, Babaker, 111Zerda mountain, 174Ziveh, 87
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