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Index

Abrahamsen, R. 24absolute vs. relative costs 109abstract collective goods 125, 135, 155abstract objects 7, 70accidents, Vale railway 25accountability 22, 48–49, 75, 155

see also assigning responsibilityact-utilitarianism 105–6action, agent-neutral reasons for 67–69,

68 (Table 2), 79–80action, agent-relative reasons for 42, 53,

67–69, 68 (Table 2)activism 25, 29activists

Alien Tort Claims Act 152anti-oil operations 24and contemporary policy 32environmental 19, 25European jurisdictions 55risks facing 107Shell 19Vale Brazil 25

see also protesters; Shi Tao caseactors see non-state actors; public

actors; state vs. non-state actorsAdams v. Cape 49–52, 56Afghanistan 109agent-centred errors (type-1 errors)

111–14acceptability and desirability 141autonomy 142roles and responsibilities 149, 157unjustifiable responsibility 6,

111–12vs. victim-centred 116, 150

agent-neutral reasons for action 67–69,68 (Table 2), 79–80

agent-relative reasons for action 42, 53,67–69, 68 (Table 2)

agential costs 108–9absolute vs. relative costs 109Afghanistan 109assigning responsibility 110autonomy and roles 139de facto political authority 149definition 108justifiability and TNCs 149respecting human rights 109–10responsibility types 111, 115TNCs vs. individuals 107

agents of responsibility see moralagents; responsibility-bearers

agents, public, identifying 6agreement method, to locate human

rights practices 77aid projects 64Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA) 17–18,

56, 152Alien Tort Statute (ATS) 20

see also Alien Tort Claims Act(ATCA)

Alston, Philip 64Amazon rainforest 26, 123Amazon region 127, 132

of Brazil 123, 125–27, 132–33Amnesty International 17, 21–22, 90, 160anarchist perspective 42–43anarchy 12, 41, 44Annan, Kofi 31anti-globalisation protesters 24appeal-court justice decisions (US) 29,

153–54see also Breyer, Justice; Roberts,

Chief Justice

177

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arbitrary detention 75Arendt, H. 78, 142arrests 107asbestos, Adams v. Cape 49–52assault 21, 24, 87assigning blame 26

see also blame responsibilityassigning responsibility

errors in 6to individuals 46–47starting point 155

see also accountability; agent-centred errors; victim-centrederrors

ATCA (Alien Tort Claims Act) 17–18,56

ATCA-style legislation 22, 152ATS (Alien Tort Statute) 20

see also ATCAAustralia, mining companies 55authority, knowledge based 43

see also political authorityautonomy 76, 108, 136, 138–42

‘bad norms’, diffusion of 23Barry, C. 111Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and

US Foreign Policy (Shue, H.) 78Basques 160Berlin Wall, Germany 137–38best interests of the public 128, 133Bhopal, India, Union Carbide gas leak

21–22blame, assigning 26blame responsibility 110–13, 156bloggers 23, 38borders, freedom of movement 125,

127Brazil

Amazon region 123, 125–27, 132–33Carajás 25, 127gangs 160government 149virgin rainforest 26

see also Vale BrazilBreyer, Justice, Kiobel v. Royal Dutch

Petroleum Co. 20, 51brute costs 104–8, 110brute luck individuals 67 (Table 1)

Bull, H. 41burdened societies 46, 124–25Burma (Myanmar) 21, 127business and human rights, vs.

corporate social responsibility52–55

business and human rights policy 4,16–17, 35

ATCA-style legislation 152current status 1–2delinquent states, conflicting

authorities 37first wave (1970s) 30–31future analysis and research 91, 136,

154, 160–61non-state actors 26, 37responses 30–34second wave (1990s–present) 31–34TNC-specific policy 84TNC vs. state 3universalist position 63

Canadaactivism 25international law 55

capacitiesmainstream assumptions 92–94non-state actors 1TNCs 47–48

capacity approach 3, 5–6, 94–99, 156agential costs 108–9assessment of 114–15biggest mistake of 114brute costs 104–8costs 103drowning child analogy 94–95,

104–5epistemology of responsibility

109–14vs. publicness approach 114–15, 118,

150, 158role-based capacity 99–103strengths 5–6, 102, 114, 159TNCs vs. individuals 47–48universalist account 63, 114weaknesses 5–6, 103–4, 159

see also ideal-theory mode; moralphilosophy; non-ideal theorymode

178 Index






capacity principleagential costs 108balancing costs 113brute costs 104–6defence, in the case of invasion

108drowning child analogy 94–95,

104–6excessive costs 106general form 89non-ideal theory 156parental roles 100–1publicness approach 158state–non-state actors 99type-1/type-2 errors 113utilitarianism 104–6, 113

Cape 49–52, 56Carajás, Brazil 25, 127Carr, E.H. 92Catholic Church 144, 160causal questions, definition 12causality 74–77Center for Constitutional Rights 18charity 64Chevron 24

threats to 18China

arrests 17collective goods 125freedom of expression 123, 125internet access 147Tiananmen Square uprising 17, 133

see also Yahoo China; ‘YeehawChina’

choice theories of rights 54church 136–37

see also Catholic Churchcitizenship responsibilities 67 (Table 1)civil-political rights see liberty rightscivil-society organisations 22, 118, 131,

160–61civilisation, standard of 122‘civilised’ states 123Cold War 137–38collective goods

concept 148political communities 125–28publicness approach 117sovereignty and TNCs 120–22

see also abstract collective goods;empirical collective goods;public goods

collective public resistance 133–34see also political responsiveness;

protesterscollective responsibility 1, 129–30colonialism 41, 122–23, 154common good, common conception

of 128communitarians 108communities

forced relocation 21, 25, 127legal obligations 25–26mining companies 24–26political, membership in 117,

125–28representing organisations 132rural 24–26, 133

Companhia Vale do Rio Doce see ValeBrazil

companies 50see also corporations;

transnational corporationscompany employees

indigenous rural communities 24–26local youths 24responsibilities 86TNC spheres of influence 133

company law 50, 139compliance, regulatory 32complicity, of TNCs with the state

4, 22–24, 31, 129, 132conceptual responsibilities framework

63, 65, 69–70, 81 (Table 3)future analysis and research 160–61general/special and universal/specific

67 (Table 1)reasons for action 67–69, 68

(Table 2)theoretical combinations 67

conflation of responsibilities (politicalphilosophy)

costs to victims and agents 115political philosophy 111

conflation of responsibilities (UNGP)153

of refraining from harming andrespect 64, 82, 84–85

Index 179






conscripted militaries 108considered judgments 14, 90constitutive questions, definition 12constructivism 11, 137consumerism 141context-sensitivity 114, 146contextual method, to locate human

rights practices 77contractors 23–24, 98contracts

Cape 51companies 50legality 44residency 51responsibility category 67 (Table 1)

control theories of rights 54corporate agents 9, 143corporate entities vs. individual

persons, international humanrights law 49

corporate liability 153corporate moral agency 8–11, 85corporate person 85Corporate Responsibility Coalition

(CORE) 22corporate responsibility to respect

human rights (UNGP) 62conflation of responsibilities 153conflation of refraining from harming

and respect 64, 82, 84–85corporate social responsibility (CSR)

53, 159vs. business and human rights 52–55Escola que Vale programme 25moral principles 140Vale Brazil 133withdrawal from 146, 148, 157

corporationsUN Guiding Principles 4

see also companies; incorporation;transnational corporations

corporations vs. states, UNGP view of4, 33

costsabsolute vs. relative costs 109acceptable-cost-to-responsibility-

bearer threshold 112agents vs. victims, balancing 115–16,

149–50

excessive 106–9to self 110

see also agential costs; brute costscrimes against humanity, accountability

26criminal law 26, 49criminal negligence 25, 27criminal offences, human rights

violations 27criminal responsibility 87, 159

agent-centred (type-1 errors) 112–13vs. human rights responsibilities

110–11public vs. private agents 138victim-centred (type-2 errors) 112

CSR see corporate social responsibility

de facto political authority 28–29conflicting authorities 37conflicts of judgement 58justifiability and TNCs 149political agents, flexibility of 143political-sociological perspective

144primary political roles 150rule of law problem 40, 45, 61, 154socio-political context 144state–non-state assemblages 24term 6, 50TNC agential costs 149transforming into 147

see also legitimate authority;political authority

De Schutter, O. 30deaths 18, 21, 25, 107‘decent peoples’ 128decision-making agents 54–55

complexity 60insider/outsider status 125–26

see also discretionaryduties; duty-bearers; non-discretionary duties

defence, in the case of invasions,agential costs 108–9

delinquent companies 55–59delinquent states 4, 37, 154

capacity to act 107legality levels 45–46public representatives 129

180 Index






Rawls’ theory 46refraining from harm 155‘Yeehaw’ 38–40

see also imperfect states;quasi-states; weak states

democracy 17, 130descriptive sovereignty 46detention, arbitrary 75diplomatic situations, political

responsiveness 128discretionary choice 80, 147discretionary duties 10, 40, 53–55

analytical and normative perspective54

definition 86humanitarianism 159vs. non-discretionary 45, 53–54private moral agents 42respect/agential cost 109–10responsibility to respect 146theories of rights 54–55transnationality 52–54

dislocation, forced 21, 25, 127dissidents see activists; protestersdoctors’ responsibilities 67 (Table 1)Doe v. Unocal 21domestic criminal law, corporate entities

vs. individual persons 49domestic politics 30, 41domestic sovereignty 41, 121domestic/foreign duality see insider/

outsider statusDoobee, Saturday 18due diligence 5, 34, 83, 152duties

moral agents 47negative/positive distinctions

65, 75to protect human rights 7, 33to respect human rights 77

see also discretionary duties;non-discretionary duties

duty-bearersdiscretion 54multiple 132–34

see also responsibility-bearers

e-mails 17, 23, 38, 147EarthRights International 18, 21

economic actors 41, 133–34, 145–46see also companies; corporations;

TNCseconomic agenda, neo-liberal 93economic costs 107

see also brute costseconomic migrants 84, 96, 125economic power 25, 90economic rights 25–26, 73economic role, TNCs 145–46Eichmann, Adolf 129, 142Eide, Asbjørn 64electronic communications

bloggers 23, 38e-mails 17, 23, 38, 147surveillance 23, 39

Elf 24empirical collective goods 117, 122–25,

148empirical sovereignty, vs. juridical

sovereignty 123employees, company

indigenous rural communities24–26

local youths 24responsibilities 86TNC spheres of influence 133

empowerment, levels of 26,28–29

England and Wales 27Enlightenment era see ‘What is

Enlightenment?’ 85Enquiry Concerning the Principles of

Morals (Hume, D.) 85environmental activists 19, 24–25environmental interests 132, 134environmentalism 160epistemology of responsibility 109–14,

141moral responsibilities 114protect and provide 110respect/agential cost 109–10statistical language 111value pluralism 160

see also agent-centred errors;conflation of responsibilities;victim-centred errors

errors, agent-centred see agent-centrederrors

Index 181






errors, victim-centred see victim-centred errors

Erskine, T. 8, 85, 93ethics

capacity approach 6, 159discussions 7frameworks 80, 88global governance 1globalisation 41inner and outer spheres of morality

85–86practices 159special/general responsibilities 66TNCs 85value pluralism/monoism 160

see also moral philosophyethics, discussions

and human rights 7inner and outer spheres of morality

85–86special responsibilities 66

EU (European Union) 160European jurisdictions 123

ATCA-style legislation 22, 152human rights activists 55NGO campaigns 22

evolution, of state-centred authority144

excessive costs to responsibility-bearers106–9

executions 18exploited groups 67 (Table 1)expression, freedom of 123, 125,

161extraterritorial jurisdictions 25extraterritorial law

delinquent states 50, 59global rule of law 55non-discretionary duties 53‘Yeehaw’ 55–59

extraterritorialityactivists 55ATCA-style legislation 22delinquent states 37, 45, 59Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co.

51policy 59UN Global Compact 31UN Norms 31

US legal mechanisms 31see also international human

rights law; jurisdictions; ruleof law problem

fallibilist perspectives 111false convictions 18feminist perspectives 118–19filial responsibilities 67 (Table 1)food, prisoners without 74–77forced labour 17, 21, 107forces see military forcesfreedom from arbitrary detention

75Freedom from Extreme Poverty

as a Human Right(Pogge, T.) 90

freedom from poverty 74–75, 90freedom of expression 123, 125,

161see also Yahoo; ‘Yeehaw China’

freedom of movement 125, 127French, P. 8, 85Fuller, L.L. 44future analysis and research 91, 136,

154, 160–61

G4S 98gas, natural, Doe v. Unocal 21Gbokoo, Daniel 18General Comment 12 of the UN

Committee on Social,Economic and Cultural Rightsin 1999 64

general publicbest interests of 133collective responsibility 129–30common conception of good 128dissidents/activists 107institutions 130revolts 107

general responsibility 66–67, 67 (Table 1),70, 129–30

general/special responsibility 66–67(Table 1)

genocidal mobs 9, 140Germany, Berlin Wall

137–38Germany, HR principles 27

182 Index






Germany, Nazi 47–48see also Holocaust

global governanceethics 1public and private literature 118

global institutions, non-staterepresentatives 130

global resource extraction 134global rule of law 37, 55, 57, 60globalisation

Amnesty International 90violence, monopolising 144

good of society 128, 133Good Samaritans 76–77Goodin, R.E. 99goods see collective goods; empirical

collective goods; objects,abstract and material; publicgoods

Google 2, 147governance

global 1, 118public and private literature 118respecting human rights 129state–non-state assemblages 24

see also institutions of authority;regulation

governmentsBrazil 149as bureaucratic committees 131limiting regulation 29role in violations 23

Griffin, J. 70–71Grudge Informers 46–47

accountability 48agent-relative reasons for action 53Grudge-Informer-type intervention

47individual capacity 48responsibility to refrain from

harming 78, 129Guidelines for Multinational

Enterprises (OECD) 30Guiding Principles see UN Guiding

Principles on Human RightsGuinea 25

Habermas, J. 131Habermasian model 134

harm, responsibility to refrain fromsee responsibilities to refrainfrom harming

harming human rights see violatinghuman rights

Hart, H.L.A. 44higher-order principles and values

140–41Holocaust 16, 23, 78horizontalism 27host communities see communitieshostage-taking 25house-arrest 24human rights

and human rights responsibilities62–63, 148

and international law 26, 49vs. normative rights 7–8, 70

human rights discussions, nature of 8human rights activists

Europe 55Shell 19Vale Brazil 25

human rights law, international 26, 49human rights policy see business and

human rights policyhuman rights practice 63–77, 160

list of current practices 159methods to locate 77‘What is Enlightenment?’ 142–43

human rights principles, applicationmethods 27

human rights responsibilities 71vs. general responsibility 70vs. legal duties 54–55vs. other types of responsibility

110–11starting point for discussions about 22

see also conflation ofresponsibilities

human rights responsibilities theory,necessary criteria 6, 91

Human Rights USA 17human rights violations

criminal offences 27governments’ roles 23human rights advocates policy/

action guidance 52responsibilities 63

Index 183






human rights violations (cont.)state and non-state actors 24victims 115–16, 149–50

human rights vs. human rightsresponsibilities 1, 7

humanitarianism 64, 159Hume, D. 85hunger strikes 76Hurd, I. 41

ICC (International Criminal Court) 12,26, 111

ICISS (International Commission onIntervention and StateSovereignty), Responsibility toProtect 46, 123

ideal states 46, 92–93ideal-theory mode 5ideal-theory mode (capacity approach)

91, 156and non-ideal 91–94, 101, 114, 156sovereignty 123

see also non-ideal theory modeideal-theory mode (publicness

approach) 118, 149identity/identities 8–9

abandoning 136, 139company, nature of 84constructivism 11disclosure of 38–39individual, separation from 139insider identity 126–27moral agents 136, 139multiple 136political 80political, shared 66vs. roles 8–9salient 137social 84vs. social roles 135

see also insider/outsider statusimperfect states 13

Rawls’ theories 46rules to cater for 45–46

see also burdened societies;delinquent states; non-idealstates; outlaw states;quasi-states; states; weak states

incorporation 50

India, Bhopal, Union Carbide gas leak21–22

indigenous people 24–26, 130, 132individual-like transnational

corporations, vs. state-like47–49, 60–61, 154

individualists, methodological 141individuals 27, 136–37

agential costs 108–9autonomy 108, 137–38monarchs 114, 144multiple identities 136non-natural persons 85political responsiveness 130public vs. private agents 138publicness 136, 139role abandonment 137–38self (individual self) 8, 85, 140–41stateless 126–27

see also public leaders; TNCs asindividuals

individuals vs. corporate entities 49,60–61, 139

individuals vs. state, human rightsstandards 60–61

information-technology companies 161freedom of expression 123

see also Google; Lavabit; Yahooinner/outer spheres of ethical life 85insider/outsider status

delinquent states 59of individuals 117, 125–26rule of law problem 59state decisions on 125–26TNC decisions on 125–28of TNCs 47, 49, 52, 154

institutional capacity 94institutionalism, liberal 11institutionalist theories of rights 54institutions of authority

as corporate agents 143delivering outcomes 72fallibility 111mainstream assumptions about 58non-state representatives 130objects needed 72political institutions 111, 143political responsiveness 128respecting human rights 129

184 Index






inter-governmental organisations160

interest theories of rights 54internal sovereignty 41International Covenant on Civil and

Political Rights 26International Covenant on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights 26International Criminal Court (ICC) 12,

26, 111international criminal law 26, 49

corporate entities vs. individualpersons 49

international human rights, currentpurpose 79

international human rights law 26, 49,55, 59

academic analyses 1, 26–30, 152ATCA-style legislation 22, 152corporate entities vs. individual

persons 49global rules 37, 55, 57, 60philosophy 1policy perspective 4, 31, 59Ruggie, J. 65TNCs and human rights 4

see also extraterritorialityinternational-interventionism 47International Labour Organization

(ILO) 30international political theory 1,

11–15typical definitions 11–12working definition 12–15

international public policy, ATCA-stylelegislation 22, 152

international relations, bindingagreements with TNCs 93

internet companiesdelinquent states 107–8freedom of expression 123, 125,

161responsibilities 161surveillance roles 39

see also Google; Lavabit; Yahoo;Yahoo China; ‘Yeehaw China’

internet surveillance 23, 39see also Yahoo; ‘Yeehaw China’

invasions 108–9, 129

investment agreementsneo-liberalism 28, 93TNCs (transnational corporations) 93

Iraq, invasion of 129Ireland, non-state actors 27

Jackson, R. 93, 122, 131juridical sovereignty

definition 123vs. empirical sovereignty 123international law 123not providing empirical collective

goods 124protect and provide 123

jurisdictionseffect on legal assignments 27jurisdiction levels 25positive law 27sovereign 50TNC mobility 28–29TNC structures 45and transnationality 49–52

Justiça nos Trilhos 132justice, social, corporate functions

29

Kant, I. 45, 78, 136–43Kantian constructivism 137kidnappings 18, 24Kiobel, Barinem 18Kiobel, Esther 19Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co.

19–21, 29, 51, 153–54Kolstad, I. 90Kpuinen, John 18Krasner, S.D. 41Kuper, A. 129–30

labour standardsforced labour 17, 21, 107International Labour Organization 30Southeast Asia 29sweatshops 29Vale Brazil 25

Lavabit 23, 147law

benefits of 44and economic power 25international criminal law 49

Index 185






see also company law;extraterritorial law;international human rights law;rule of law; rule of law problem;tort responsibility

law of nations 18, 20, 153see also Alien Tort Claims Act

legal duties, vs. human rightsresponsibilities 54–55

legal institutions, fallibility 111legal obligations

jurisdiction levels 25rural communities 25–26

legal personalities, transnational 50legal-positivist approach, mainstream

view on states 2, 92legal precedents, accountability 22legal systems

vs. non-legal political rule 44territorial 51

see also international humanrights law; jurisdictions

legal theory 1, 3legalistic theory 3legality 44legislation, ATCA-style 22, 152legitimate authority 58–59, 128, 137–39

political–sociological perspectives143–44

see also de facto political authority;political authority

legitimate migrations 125liability, limited 139liberal-democratic ideal, political

responsiveness 133–34liberal institutionalism 11liberty rights 73–74

arbitrary detention 75protect and provide 73–74refraining from harm 74universal duties 75vs. welfare rights 74

limited liability 139living standards, raising 123loss of human life 18, 21, 25, 107lower-level rules, practices and

decision-making procedures140

Luban, D. 63

Marxist perspectives 131see also neo-Marxist perspectives

material objects see objects, abstractand material

media companies 161methodological individualists 141methods to locate human rights

practice(s) 77migrant workers 84, 96, 125military forces

conscript military vs. volunteermilitary 108–9

invasion defence 108–9mainstream assumptions 24militias 132

see also policing; private securityoperations

military regimes 19, 21Miller, D. 106, 128mining companies 24–26, 55, 127

see also Adams v. Cape; Vale BrazilMobil, threats to 18monarchs 114, 131, 144money see settlementsmonism (values) 160moral agency

changing thresholds 64corporate 8–11, 85higher thresholds 10, 64, 82, 85Kantian standard 140–41

moral agency, minimal thresholds10–11

criteria 64discretionary duties 10protect and provide 11responsibilities 63

moral agentsagent-neutral reasons for action

67–69, 68 (Table 2), 79–80,agent-relative reasons for action 42,

53, 67–69, 68 (Table 2)anarchist perspective 42breaching responsibilities 79, 81, 85duties 47higher-order/lower-order attributes

140–41individual residents 46–47multiple 132–34, 149non-physical agents 23, 107

186 Index






role-independent 136, 144–45roles and autonomy 138–42roles and identities 139–40social stigma 112sovereign agents 101state vs. non-state actors 22TNCs as 47, 69, 141TNCs vs. states as 3

see also agential costs; duty-bearers; responsibility-bearers

moral judgements, quality of 146moral philosophy 155

agential costs 108–9corporate social responsibility

(CSR) 140‘do no harm’ discussion 78, 82human rights vs. human rights

responsibilities 1material and abstract objects 7moral importance 104–6objects, abstract and material 8responsibility to respect 64universality, of human rights 62–63views on military 108

see also ethicsmoral responsibilities

capacity approach 114and objects of fundamental moral

importance 7public vs. private agents 138

Movement for the Emancipation of theNiger Delta 132

Movement for the Survival of theOgoni People 132

movement, freedom of 125, 127Mozambique, Vale Brazil 25multiple identities, individuals with 136multiple moral agents 132–34, 149Myanmar (Burma) 21, 127

NAAC (North American AsbestosCorporation) 49–52

NATO 109, 160natural gas, Doe v. Unocal 21Nazi Germany 47–48

see also Holocaustnegative duties 65, 75, 83neo-liberalism, investment agreements

28, 93

neo-Marxist perspectives, politicalresponsiveness 131, 134

New York courts 18–19news reports, BBC 2, 19, 23

Tiananmen Square uprising 17NGOs see non-governmental

organisationsNickel, J.W. 64Niger Delta oil companies

brute costs 107collective goods 123–25insider/outsider status 127political responsiveness 130,

132political roles 145–46private security operations 18–21, 24,

124senior management 24TNC sponsorships 127, 133universal responsibilities 87

see also Kiobel v. Royal DutchPetroleum Co.; Shell; Wiwa v.Royal Dutch PetroleumCompany

Nigerian governmentKiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co.

153publicness threshold 149

Nigerian military 19political responsiveness 132Wiwa v. Royal Dutch Petroleum

Company (Shell) 131Nigerian society, political

responsiveness 132Nigerian state

bureaucracy 24criminal law 27political responsiveness 132

non-discretionary duties 10, 40complexity 60delinquency 56vs. discretionary 45, 53–54moral choice 53point of 58vs. profit motives 113role-holders as role-holders 138rule of law 56transnationality 55universality/specificity 65

Index 187






non-governmental organisations (NGOs)Amnesty International 160ATCA-style legislation 22, 152European campaigns 22perspectives 64political responsiveness 131–32Shi Tao case (China) 17UN Norms 32

see also civil-society organisationsnon-ideal states 46, 92–93

see also delinquent states;imperfect states; weak states

non-ideal theory mode, definition 5non-ideal theory mode (capacity

approach) 91, 102, 114, 156, 159brute costs 107and ideal theory 91–94, 101, 114, 156need for 91primary political roles 157–59and publicness approach 151, 157–58Shell 102Vale Brazil 102

see also ideal-theory modenon-ideal theory mode (publicness

approach) 118, 149–51, 157–58non-legal political rule 44non-natural persons 85non-physical agents 23, 107non-political roles, definition 150non-responsiveness, political

responsiveness 130non-state actors 26

analysis of responsibility 3capacities 1complicity with the state 23criminal offences 27dualities 161Ireland 27legal obligations 37mainstream assumptions 93mainstream capacity assumptions 93other than TNCs 161positive law 27roles 1

non-state authority 1non-state vs. state actors

capacity principle 99positive law 27–28

non-state vs. state functions 24, 29

normative questions 12–15normative responsibilities, associated

with normative rights 71normative rights

agent-neutrality 80vs. human rights 7–8, 70and human rights responsibilities 8multiple duty-bearers 134, 149vs. normative responsibilities 71responsibilities associated with

72, 74universalist theory/universalism

70–72see also objects, abstract and

materialnormative sovereignty 46normative standards, shifts in 123Nuate, Felix 18Nussbaum, M.C. 70

objects, abstract and material(of normative rights)

current view of 69delivering outcomes 72important 7, 155moral philosophy 8and moral responsibilities 7need for institutions 72‘ought to have’ list 70–72, 155universal duties 78

Ogoni peoplecollective responsibility for HR

violations against 130Movement for the Survival of 132

Olympic Games, 2012 98O’Neill, O. 7, 69, 72–73, 99order (collective goods) 121, 123Organization for Economic

Co-operation and Development(OECD) 30

outlaw states 46

Palestinian Authority 160Pará see Carajás, Brazilparent companies

insiders/outsiders, political 52transnationality and jurisdiction 9,

22, 45, 49–52, 55see also Yahoo; ‘Yeehaw’

188 Index






parental responsibilities 67 (Table 1),100–2, 150

persons, non-natural 85philosophical perspectives see moral

philosophy; political philosophyphilosophy of international law 1Pinochet, Augusto, President of Chile

138piracy 18, 20pluralism (values) 160Pogge, T. 47, 65, 69, 75, 77, 82, 90,

128–29, 142policing

G4S, 2012 Olympics 98Niger Delta 87, 102, 123–24private security operations 87, 123public policing 102public vs. private 124spy police 24

see also military forces;surveillance

policy agenda/projects see businessand human rights policy; futureanalysis and research

political authorityaccepting 145–47anarchist perspective 42–43blurring of boundaries 133delinquent states 60domestic politics 41erosion of sovereign authority 41evolution of state-centred 144gaps/unanswered questions 41vs. individual discretion 42institutional assumptions 58legitimate 58–59, 137–39non-state 1public vs. private agents 133quality of moral judgements 146Raz-based account 43–44and social contexts 43state-non-state assemblages 24TNCs in a weak state 145Waldron account 44–45

see also sovereign authoritypolitical community membership 30,

117, 125–28political identity see insider/outsider

status

political insiders 52, 59see also insider/outsider status

political institutionsas corporate agents 143fallibility 111

political membership 30, 117, 125–28political philosophy 2

conflation of responsibilities 111human rights vs. human rights

responsibilities 1legitimate authority 58–59role of 42views on military 108

political power, of TNCs 26, 28–29political representation

conflation of theories 130vs. political responsiveness 129–30public leaders 128public representatives 129

political responsiveness 117, 134–35collective goods 128–35environmental interests 134general responsibility vs. specific

responsibility 129–30ignoring host communities 133–34issues 130liberal-democratic ideal 133–34multiple moral agents 132–34Niger Delta oil companies 130non-responsiveness 130vs. political representation 129–30protestors 133–34punishing protestors 133spheres of influence 133

political roles 136, 142–48accepting political authority 145–48publicness 117responsibility to respect 146–47TNCs 145–46TNC sponsorship 125, 148weak states 145withdrawing from political authority

146–48, 150political rule, non-legal 44political–sociological perspectives,

legitimate authority 143–44politics (domestic), TNC involvement

30positive duties 65, 75

Index 189






positive lawcase for ignoring 47, 147jurisdictions 27state vs. non-state actors 27–28Yahoo China 96, 147‘Yeehaw’ 41

poverty, freedom from 74–75, 90power, economic 25, 90power of TNCs 26, 28–29Price, R. 23prima facie responsibilities 66–67, 89, 129primary political roles 143, 157

definition 150non-ideal theory 157–59political theory 99Shell in the Niger Delta 145state losing its 144withdrawal from role 145, 149

primary violators, mainstreamassumptions 22, 24

prisoners, autonomy 76prisoners, without food 74–77privacy rights 161private and public functions,

boundaries 29private owners vs. public corporations

139private security operations

G4S, 2012 Olympics 98Niger Delta oil companies 18–21, 24,

87, 123private vs. public agents 116–17, 161

Augusto Pinochet 138policing 124

private vs. public authority 118–20blurring of boundaries 133privatisation 29state–non-state assemblages 24

privatisation 29privileged groups 67 (Table 1)profit motives

CSR discourse 140ethical self 85foreign investment 29historical perspectives 28home-based companies 30imperfect political contexts 26vs. non-discretionary duties 113shareholders 53, 85, 140, 145

Shell 145tax jurisdictions 29TNC brute costs 107type-2 errors 113

promises 67 (Table 1)Protect, Respect and Remedy,

(Ruggie, J.) see Ruggie, J.;Ruggie reports on business andhuman rights

protect-respect-fulfil trichotomy 64protecting human rights

idea behind 63–64Protect, Respect and Remedy 33–34Rawls theory 46Responsibility to Protect (ICISS) 46UN Guiding Principles 4–5

see also responsibilities to protectand provide

protestersanti-globalisation 24collective public resistance 133–34costs borne by 107ignoring 133–34political responsiveness 133punishing 133Vale Brazil, railway accidents 25

see also activists; politicalresponsiveness

public actors 117public corporations vs. private owners

139Public Eye Awards, Vale Brazil 25the public (general public)

best interests of 133collective responsibility 129–30common conception of good 128dissidents/activists 107institutions 130revolts 107

public goods 120–21examples 120–21production 121protection 25provision 25–26, 121Vale, Brazil 25–26working definition 122

see also collective goods; empiricalcollective goods; objects,abstract and material

190 Index






public governance structuressee institutions of authority

public interests 128, 133public leaders

Augusto Pinochet 138political representation 128role vs. private individual 138

public of private people 131, 134public policy, international, ATCA-

style legislation 22, 152public–private surveillance project 23public programmes, TNC taxation 29public resistance 133–34

see also political responsiveness;protesters; revolts; TiananmenSquare

public roles 149see also autonomy; political roles;

socially constructed rolespublic vs. private agents 116–17, 161

Augusto Pinochet 138policing 124

public vs. private authority 118–20blurring of boundaries 133privatisations 29state–non-state assemblages 24

public vs. private functions 29publicness approach 4, 6, 117–18,

156–58, 161and abstract collective goods 135assessment of 148–51vs. capacity approach 114–15, 118,

150, 158collective goods version 117empirical collective goods 117,

122–25, 148human rights regime 135ideal and non-ideal, distinguishing

135ideal-theory mode 118, 149non-ideal theory mode 118, 149–51,

157–58objections to 151, 158–60political membership 117, 125–28political roles 117, 142–48public actors 117public vs. private agents 116–17responsibility to respect 149–50role version 117, 135–38

short-term vs. long-term 158socially constructed roles 117,

135–38state-centrism 135strands of 117and TNCs 157

see also political responsivenesspunishing protestors 133punishing states financially 139purpose method, to locate human

rights practices 77

quasi-states 93, 122–23

railways, mining company 25rainforest 26, 123

see also Amazon regionrape 21Rawls, J. 14, 30, 46, 120, 128–29, 137Raz, J. 43–44, 58, 71–72, 132realism 11reasons for action, agent-neutral 67–69,

68 (Table 2), 79–80reasons for action, agent-relative 42, 53,

67–69, 68 (Table 2)reflective equilibrium 13–15refrain from harm, responsibility to

see responsibilities to refrainfrom harming

refraining from harm, internationalterminology 64

regulation(s)enforcement capacity 25home-based companies 30limiting 29post state/TNC agreements 93‘rational but not reasonable’ 30weaker levels 25

see also delinquent statesregulatory compliance, monitoring 32relative vs. absolute costs, agential costs

109relocation of communities, forced 21,

25, 127remedial responsibility

fallibility 111–12vs. human rights responsibilities

110–11type-2 errors 113

Index 191






remedy 34see also settlements

research, future 91, 136, 154, 160–61residency 50–51residents, individual, responsibilities

46–47resistance, collective public 133–34

see also political responsiveness;protesters; revolts; TiananmenSquare

resource extraction 134see also mining companies

respectduties to 77international terminology 64official disrespect 129responsibility 79–80

see also responsibilities to refrainfrom harming, vs. respect;responsibilities to respect

respecting human rights (UNGP) 4–5respecting normative rights

see responsibilities to respectresponsibilities, breaching 79, 81, 87responsibilities, conflation of

see conflation of responsibilitiesresponsibilities, forms of 110–11responsibilities, mainstream

assumptions about 65responsibilities to refrain from

harming, vs. respect 64‘do no harm’ discussion 78, 82to human rights 82–87inner and outer spheres of morality 86UN Guiding Principles 82–87

responsibilities to shareholderssee profit motives; shareholders

responsibility, assigning 6to individuals 46–47starting point 155

see also accountability; agent-centred errors; victim-centrederrors

responsibility-bearersaccepting public roles and

responsibility 150cost examinations 110determining 64, 89excessive costs 106–7mainstream assumptions 121

multiple 132–34, 149see also agential costs; duty-

bearers; moral agentsresponsibility, epistemology of

see epistemology ofresponsibility

responsibility for blame 110–13, 156responsibility to protect and provide

(for others’ normative rights)11, 88, 155

causality/causation 75–77juridical sovereignty 123liberty rights 73–74normative rights vs. duty 72Responsibility to Protect 123and responsibility to refrain from

harming 63–77, 87, 155specific responsibility 72–79, 81

(Table 3)TNCs 124–25UN Guiding Principles 65universal responsibility 73weak states 124–25welfare rights 73–74

see also protecting human rightsresponsibility to refrain from

harming (others’ normativerights) 88, 155

delinquent states 155importance to human rights

63–77liberty rights 74and responsibilities to protect and

provide 87TNCs 86, 155as universal responsibilities 70–72,

81 (Table 3), 87responsibility to respect human rights

(UNGP) 4–5responsibility to respect (others’

normative rights) 79, 81(Table 3), 85

agential costs 109–10breaching respect 85discretionary responsibilities 146moral agency 64political roles 146–47publicness approach 149–50specific vs. universal responsibilities

63, 81 (Table 3)

192 Index






universal responsibility 81 (Table 3)see also responsibilities to refrain

from harming, vs. respectResponsibility to Protect (ICISS) 46, 123responsive actors 130responsiveness see political

responsivenessrevolts 107

see also public resistance;Tiananmen Square

right-holders, discretion 54right to food 64, 74–77right to freedom from arbitrary

detention 75right to freedom from poverty 74–75,

90right to freedom of expression 123, 125,

161right to freedom of movement 125, 127right to have rights 78, 125right to liberty see liberty rightsright to privacy 161Rights of Man 77risk management

cost levels 113–14fallibility of institutions 111–12UN Guiding Principles 34

see also agent-centred errors;victim-centred errors

risks facing activists 107Roberts, Chief Justice, Kiobel v. Royal

Dutch Petroleum Co. 20, 51role abandonment, by the individual

137–38role-based capacity 99–103role-holders as role-holders 137–39role-independent moral agents 136,

144–45role responsibility

Kantian constructivism 137term 137

roles (publicness approach) 117abandoning 136autonomy strand 136, 138–42vs. identities 8–9non-state actors 1and the publicness approach 135–38and responsibilities, International

Relations (IR) scholarship 135see also political roles

Royal Dutch Shell see Kiobel v. RoyalDutch Petroleum Co.; Shell;Wiwa v. Royal Dutch PetroleumCompany

Ruggie, J. (UN Representative) 1,33–34

14, Principle 12 8417, Principle 18 84official mandate 33, 65refrain from harm discussion

82–84state-centrism constraint 65UN Guiding Principles 152UN Human Rights Council 4, 33UN Norms 33–34unofficial mandate 33

Ruggie reports on business and humanrights 33

(2007) Mapping InternationalStandards 28, 32–33

(2008a) ‘Sphere of Influence’ and‘Complicity’ concepts 31,33–34, 133

(2008b) ‘Protect, Respect andRemedy’ Framework 1, 4,33–34, 62, 82, 124

(2011) ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’Framework implementation 4,33–34, 36, 62, 82–84, 86

(2013) ‘Just Business’ 1, 33, 84rule, non-legal political 44rule of law

benefits of 44, 46circumventing states 154global 55, 57jurisdictions 51public goods 120

rule of law problem 37, 56, 60delinquency 58legitimate authority 59, 137–39

see also international humanrights law; jurisdictions;transnationality

rules, legal character of 44–45rural areas/communities 24–26, 133

Saro-Wiwa, Ken 18, 87, 124, 130see also Wiwa v. Royal Dutch

Petroleum Co.Sassen, S. 24, 144

Index 193






Schneewind, J.B. 85schools

privately funded 124as public goods 120TNC sponsored 25, 126–27

secondary political agents 157–58TNCs as 146

secondary political roles 143,149–50

security (as collective good) 121, 123,125

public goods 122security measures

anti-terrorism 39–40Myanmar (Burmese) military 21policing 124surveillance 23

security provision 24see also policing

security threats, Niger Delta oilcompanies 18

self (individual self) 8higher-order/lower-order attributes

140–41TNCs 85

settlements (through legal action)Shell 19Unocal 21Yahoo 18–19

shareholdersbalancing shareholder interests 53,

113, 146corporate social responsibility

(CSR) 53operational decisions 10, 86profit motives 53, 85, 140, 145unwilling to sacrifice profit motives

146Shell

capacity approach 102lawsuits 2Nigerian military 131non-ideal theory 102political responsiveness 130political roles 145primary political roles 145profit motives 145responsibilities 87as a state-like TNC 154

threats to 18see also Kiobel v. Royal Dutch

Petroleum Co.; Niger Delta oilcompanies; Wiwa v. RoyalDutch Petroleum Company

Shell UK, cases against 18Shi Tao case (China) 2, 17short-term vs. long-term type-2 errors

151Shue, H. 64, 70, 72, 78, 99, 142Singer, P. 104Snowdon, Edward case (USA) 23social contexts, and authority 43social justice, corporate functions 29social responsibility see corporate social

responsibilitysocial rights 25–26social stigma 112socially constructed roles 117, 135–38society of societies 12society, the good of 128, 133socio-economic rights see welfare rightsSouth Africa, Adams v. Cape 49South East Asia, sweatshops 29South, global 131Southeast Asia, working conditions 29sovereign agents 101sovereign authority 25, 60, 93

blurred boundaries 24, 29erosion of 41ignoring for principled reasons

47–48, 52interventions in 46–48invasion by a foreign power 108–9, 129losing primary political role 144when to disregard 46–47

see also de facto political authority;political authority; weak states

sovereign rules 47, 60sovereign states see delinquent states;

imperfect states; state-centrism;states; weak states

sovereigntycollective goods 120–22colonialism 122–23, 154descriptive 45–46domestic sovereignty 121ideal-theory 123International Relations theory 41–42

194 Index






jurisdictions 50normative 45–46political theory, international 1relationship with human rights 1shifts in meaning 122–25spheres of influence, TNCs 101unique rights 41

Soviet regime (1980s) 144special responsibility 66–67, 67 (Table 1)specific responsibility 67 (Table 1),

66, 69, 68 (Table 2), 81 (Table 3)vs. general responsibility 129–30

specific responsibility-bearers 129spheres of influence (TNCs)

complicity with the state 31political responsiveness 133–34sovereignty 101UN Global Compact 31UN Norms 32

sponsorships see TNC sponsorshipsspy police 24standard of civilisation 122standard of living, raising 123state-centric account 2

vs. universalist account 2–4state-centrism

capacity assumptions 92–93evolution of state-centred authority

144human rights regime 135institutional capacity, assumptions

94mainstream assumptions 22, 92–94,

121publicness approach 135

see also Habermasian model;liberal-democratic ideal;neo-Marxist perspectives;sovereignty; Weberianperspectives

state-controlled media 123state-like transnational corporations

37, 161choosing legal duties 28vs. individual-like 47–49, 60–61, 154vs. individuals 48, 60–61Shell 154

state–non-state assemblages 24state vs. individual 60–61

state vs. non-state actorscapacity principle 99positive law 27–28

statelessness 126–27states (territories) 13

abstract collective goods 125capacity to enforce regulations 25criminal offences 27duty to protect human rights 33ideal vs. non-ideal 46, 92–93vs. individuals 27, 60–61, 136–37insider/outsider status 125–26Kantian perspective 136modern 125–28responsibilities 29supra-states 43UN Guiding Principles 4UN Norms 32

see also burdened societies;delinquent states; imperfectstates; non-ideal states; outlawstates; quasi-states; weak states

states vs. corporations 48UNGP view of 4, 33

statistical language 111see also agent-centred errors;

victim-centred errorsSteinhardt, R.G. 30Stone, C.D. 139Strange, S. 41subsidiary companies

China 2delinquent states 107–8economic and political roles 145insiders/outsiders, political 52transnationality and jurisdiction

9, 22, 45, 49–52, 55see also Yahoo China; ‘Yeehaw

China’suicide 45

see also hunger strikessupra-states 43Supreme Court see US Supreme Courtsurveillance 23, 39

see also Yahoo; ‘Yeehaw China’sweatshops 29

Taliban 109Tamil Tigers 160

Index 195






taxation, TNC mobility 29Taylor, C. 10, 42territorial disputes (state level) 160territory, role of 128terrorist acts, fear of 39–40Texas courts, transnationality 49–52Thailand, Yadana gas pipeline 21theories of political representation,

conflation of 130Thomson, J.E. 144Tiananmen Square, China 17, 133Tibetans 160TNCs see transnational corporationstort responsibility 87

Alien Tort Claims Act 17–18, 56, 152Alien Tort Statute 20

see also Alien Tort Claims Acttorture

accountability 26non-physical agents 107risk of 107Shell, in the Niger Delta 87spy police 24Viza, Michael Temor 19Wang Xiaoning case (China) 17would-be torturers 53Yadana gas pipeline 21

Total 21transnational, term 28transnational corporations (TNCs)

circumstances for responsibility 154corporate and social functions 29dualities 47, 161duty to protect 33–34economic role 145–46higher-level values/lower-level rules

140–41higher-order, private selves 140individuals within 48–49investment agreements 93as non-state actors 27–30parents and subsidiaries 45standing up to the state 47state regulation 30UN Guiding Principles 4UN Norms 32war situations 49

TNC sponsorships 125–27, 145–46, 148Brazilian Amazon / Vale 126–27, 133

Niger Delta 127, 133political roles 125, 148schools 25, 126–27

TNCs as individual-like entities 154vs. state-like 49

TNCs as individuals 48–49, 60–61TNCs as state-like entities 37, 161

choosing legal duties 28vs. individual-like 47–49, 60–61, 154vs. individuals 48, 60–61Shell 154

TNCs capacity to intervene insovereign states’ affairs 47–48

TNCs vs. states, as moral agents 3transnational duties, states 3transnational legal personalities 50transnationality 28, 49, 52

and discretion, ‘Yeehaw’ 52–55and jurisdiction 49–52Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co.

51TNCs 37

see also extraterritoriality;international human rights law;jurisdictions; rule of law problem

Tripartite Declaration of PrinciplesConcerning MultinationalEnterprises and Social Policy(ILO) 30

type-1 errors see agent-centred errorstype-2 errors see victim-centred errors

UDHR (United Declaration of HumanRights) 26

UK (United Kingdom)Adams v. Cape 49–52Companies Act 22legal assignments 27Parliament, political roles 144–45private security operations 98Terrorism Acts 39transnationality and jurisdiction

49–52see also ‘Yeehaw’; ‘Yeehaw China’

UN (United Nations) 160UN Global Compact 31–32, 157UN Guiding Principles on Human

Rights (UNGP) 4, 82–87corporate responsibility 4–5, 82

196 Index






duty to protect 65main weaknesses 152–53respect vs. not to harm 64, 82–87states vs. companies 33, 152–53

see also Ruggie, J.UN Human Rights Council

endorsements 33John Ruggie’s work 1, 4, 33, 152

UN Norms 31–33John Ruggie 33objections to 34, 41

UNGP see Ruggie, J.; UN GuidingPrinciples on Human Rights

Union Carbide, gas leak (1984),Amnesty International 21–22

United Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR) 26

United States of America (USA)as invader 109legal assignments 27private security operations 98

universal responsibilities 4–5, 66–72universalist account

definition 2vs. state-centric account 2–3

universalist theory/universalism 3,154–56

normative rights 70–72responsibilities vs. rights 62–63, 69TNCs 69

Unocal 21, 127uprisings, Tiananmen Square 17, 133US National Security Agency 23US Supreme Court

and ATCA 152Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co.

20, 51, 153utilitarianism 68, 78, 104–6 Table 2

capacity principle 113

Vale Brazil (Companhia Vale doRio Doce mining company)25, 127

CSR strategy 133non-ideal theory mode 102

value method, to locate human rightspractices 77

value pluralism/monism 160values 24, 109–10, 141

verticalism 27victim-centred errors (type-2 errors)

112acceptability and desirability 141vs. agent-centred errors 116, 150autonomy 142cost of not assigning responsibility

113definition 6, 112publicness 151, 158–60remedial responsibility 113roles and responsibilities 157short-term vs. long-term 151

victimsvs. agents 115–16, 149–50ATCA (Alien Tort Claims Act) 152

see also victim-centred errors;specific cases

vigilantes 24violating human rights

criminal offences 27sovereign authority 52state and non-state actors 23–24

see also responsibilities to refrainfrom harming; victim-centrederrors; victims

violators, primary, mainstreamassumptions 22

violence, monopolising 144virgin rainforest, Carajás, Brazil 26, 123Viza, Michael Temor 19voluntarism, effectiveness of 32volunteer militaries, vs. conscript

military 108

Waldron, J. 44–45, 47, 56, 79Wales, and England 27Walzer, M. 128Wang Xiaoning case (China) 17war crimes, accountability 26wars

TNC implications for 49see also invasions

weak states 152, 154Brazilian Amazon rain forest 123empirical collective goods 124–25political roles 145TNC profit motives 145TNCs and 124–25

Index 197






weak states (cont.)Weberian perspectives 132–33

see also delinquent states;imperfect states; quasi-states

Weber, M. 121–22, 124, 131Weberian perspectives 134

challenges to 122, 131political responsiveness 131–33publicness threshold 149view of state 122, 134

welfare rights 73example 74vs. liberty rights 74poverty example 74–75protect and provide responsibility

74well-ordered societies 128Wenar, L. 90, 99–100, 106, 108Western vs. non-Western judgements,

fallibility 58‘What is Enlightenment?’ (Kant, I.

1784) 136–43will theories of rights 54Williams, M.C. 24Wiwa v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co.

18–19, 131see also Saro-Wiwa, Ken

workforcesindigenous rural communities

24–26local youths 24responsibilities 86TNC spheres of influence 133

working conditionsforced labour 17, 21, 107sweatshops 29Vale Brazil 25

World Organization for Human Rights17

World Summit, 2005 123World War I/II, legal impacts 26, 45, 78World War II 127

Yahoo 17–18, 147Yahoo China

brute costs 23, 107business and human rights policy 1forced labour and torture 1positive law 96Shi Tao case 1, 17type-1/type-2 errors 111–12‘Yeehaw’ example 38–40

see also Shi Tao case; WangXiaoning case; ‘Yeehaw China’

‘Yeehaw’ 38–40‘Yeehaw China’ 38–40

delinquency 55–59discretion 40–41, 45, 52–54ignoring sovereign rules 53policy prescriptions 55role based capacity 103transnationality and discretion 52–55transnationality and jurisdiction 52

Young, I.M. 126young men, able-bodied 108–9youths, Niger Delta oil companies 24

198 Index






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