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Index

Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures, tables and boxes.

Abney level 377abundance

absolute 311amphibian data 283bird surveys 174–5, 311, 312

timed species counts 313–14change monitoring in invertebrates 214–15electrofishing 256plants 186–7

relative 188quadrats 191random distribution 172relative 311, 312

plants 188standardisation of time for observations 174underwater observation of fish 254

abundance indices 174bird surveys 76, 325fish 250mammals

footprint tracking 365herbivore-feeding signs 364line transects 357runways 365

species frequency 178accuracy 14acoustic sampling of amphibian calls 290–1

scan searching 287activity

codes for bird-mapping censuses 317mammal

footprint tracking 365runways 365

adaptive management 67–70adaptive sampling 51–4

analysis 54

aerial countsline transects from air 322–4mammals 351–2, 358–9, 366seals 366tree-nesting bird colonies 334–5vegetation mapping 198–200

air, mammal counts 352Akaike’s information criterion 76–7, 119

POPAN software 182alcohol solution 219

malaise traps 230alert programmes 78

alternative hypothesis tests 80filters 78–9red/amber/green 79–80significant 79

alert systems 77–80algae, benthic 209–10alligators 300

tail-scute removal 305ammonium ions 389

measurement 391, 394water-testing kits 399

ammonium probes 390–1Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative

(ARMI) 290amphibians

abundance data 283aggregations 278

netting 287scan searching 286–7trapping 288–9

artificial cover 288, 289breeding activity 278–9breeding sites 278

encircling 285–6

411

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412 Index

amphibians (cont.)calling 284, 287

surveys 290–1data collection 293decline 279–80, 293detection probability 281–4drift fencing 285, 285–6eggs 278–9, 287, 291enclosure sampling 289extinction 279–80habits 278individual-recognition methods 280–1, 282infectious diseases 293larvae 278–9mark–recapture methods 280–1, 291multiple-method use 291, 292netting 287, 291

removal studies 290patch sampling 289–90PIT tags 281, 282pitfall traps 285, 285–6, 288quadrats 289recognition, individual 281removal studies 290scan searching 286–7skin-pattern recognition 280, 282spawn strings 287toe-clipping 280, 282transects 289–90trapping 288–9, 291

removal studies 290visual recognition 281

Analysis Browser utility 145analysis of covariance 161analysis of variance 62

multiple, randomised observations 158two-way 159–60

anemometers, cup 372angling see hook and lining, fishANOVA 4aquatic systems, sediment characteristics

399–405aquatic vegetation mapping 200–1artificial substrates, invertebrate censusing 220aspirators, invertebrate capture 220–1assemblages, change monitoring in invertebrate

species 215assumptions, testing 15–16augers 399

autoanalysers, continuous-flow 390, 391phosphorus-compound measurement 396

auto-titration machines 386average number estimates, precision 25

Baermann funnel 240bait traps

aquatic invertebrates 243crocodiles 303–4fish 269

baitsbias 237footprint tracking 365invertebrate censusing 236–7mammal traps 361reptiles 303

crocodiles 303–4small lizards 301

bands see ringingbankside counts for fish 251–3basking sites, turtles 303bat detectors 355–6, 360bats

call counting 360roosts/nurseries 354–6

beam trawl 261beating, invertebrate censusing 228Beaufort scale 372, 373beetles, nocturnal 215behaviour impact of census methods

marking 95, 136trapping 136

belt transects 197plants 196

benthic cores, invertebrate censusing 244–5Berlese funnel 240bias

behavioural impact of marking/trapping 136frequency of occurrence 174–5handling 16mark–recapture studies 125–6sampling 20

unavoidable 23sources 15–16Wileyto et al. mark–recapture method 132

biomass, plants 187harvesting 193–4quadrats 190–2, 193–4

biomass estimation of fish 263






Index 413

hydroacoustics methods 272spawning stock 274–5

bird surveysabundance 175, 174–5

indices 76, 325abundance measurement 311

relative 312activity codes for mapping censuses 317burrow-nesting 332–3capture techniques 328–31census method choice 309–11cliff-nesting 332colony-nesting 331–5complete census 309design 308–9detection probability difference correction

326–8distance estimation 319, 320, 321distance sampling 319–20, 321, 323dropping counts 339–40flock counts 336–7flocking birds 313flush counting 334footprints 340frequency of occurrence 171–2ground-nesting species 333–4high bird densities 325indirect methods 339–40line transects 323, 319–24listing methods 311–13

time-periods 312mapping censuses 317marking methods 344migrant counts 337–8mist nets 329, 342monitoring 308nest counting in colonies 331–5number of counts 325–6point counts 319, 323, 324–6

playback of songs/calls 341–2population index 308population size 308radio tracking 344reporting rate 311response to playback 333, 341–2

point counts 341ringing 329, 330roost counts 335–6sample 309

seabirds 322synchronous breeding 332territory mapping 314–19

playback of songs/calls 341singing 314, 318–19

timed species counts 313–14tracking strips 340transects 319–26

playback of songs/calls 341tree-nesting 334–5UK indicators 81vocal individuality 342–4waterfowl 322see also calls, bird; songs, bird

black plastic sheets, reptile capture 298boats, electrofishing 255–6Bob James Pointy Stick (BJPS) method 400, 401bootstrapping 32

adaptive sampling 54stratified sampling 51

Bouyoucos method 402, 403bowl colour, water traps 233box traps, reptiles 303branding, reptiles 305Braun–Blanquet scale 191

plant quadrats 190breeding, synchronous in birds 332Breeding Bird Survey index 84breeding season

bird-nest counting in colonies 331–2territory mapping 314–15

Buchner funnel, Hartley form 381, 381buffers, pH measurement 376bulb types, light traps 234–5Burnham and Overton method 114–18, 128burrows

colonial-bird-nest counting 332–3mammal counts 354

line transects 357butterfly cone trap 237

calculations 16–18precision 17terminology 17

calendars 5–6with divisions 6–7

calibrationdouble sampling 168frequency of occurrence 172–3






414 Index

calibration (cont.)indices 165, 163–6, 167

biologically based 167calls

amphibians 284scan searching 287surveys 290–1temperature effects 162

bat 355–6bird

burrow-nesting species 333nocturnal-songbird migrant counts 338response to playback 341–2singing in territory mapping 314, 318–19vocal individuality 342–4

cameras, miniatureburrow-nesting species 333tree-nesting-bird colonies 334

capturebird-survey techniques 328–31invertebrate censusing 220–1probability constant 114–15and recapture, continuous 132–3, 134–5stress 361

CAPTURE program 103, 108, 115, 118, 129, 140closed populations 181–2mammal trapping 362trapping webs 151–2

capture–mark–recapture methodsbird surveys 328, 330–1

burrow-nesting birds 333vocal individuality 343

see also mark–recapture methodscapture–recapture software packages 181–2

closed populations 181–2open populations 182see also CAPTURE program; MARK program

carapace, notch cutting in reptiles 305carding, Lepidoptera preserving 219–20catchability, mark–recapture studies 100, 103,

108–10catching without release 91catch per unit effort (CPUE) 110, 112, 250

bird surveys 328–30fish 263

electrofishing 256gill-net catches 268hook-and-line capture 266trapping 269

CCA/CANOCO ordination technique 215chaining method 74change-in-ratio method 130, 131chemical abbreviations 385chemical analysis 390–1

phosphorus-compound measurement 396chemocline 405chlorinity measurement 382cliffs, colonial-bird-nest counting 332climate, plant phenological differences

188clumped distribution 168cluster sampling 35, 33–5, 36–7

adaptive 52–4costs 34designs 39population-size estimation 54–7precision 34

clusteringterritory mapping 317–18variance 30

collecting, invertebrate censusing 216colonies, bird-nest counting 331–5colour variation in mammals 359Common Bird Census index 84community, science in 68conductivity measurement 381–2

conversion to salinity 382dissolved-oxygen meters 389

conductivity meter 382confidence intervals 25–7confidence limits 14, 32

calculation 26–7cluster sampling 55–7random sampling 46–7stratified sampling 51two-level sampling 44–5

Constant Effort Sites (CES) scheme 328continuous-flow autoanalysers 390, 391

phosphorus-compound measurement 396corers

benthic invertebrates 244–5cylindrical samplers 399–400

correction factors, indices 161correlation analysis 4correlation coefficient, Spearman’s rank 96–7costs

cluster sampling 34multi-level sampling 38






Index 415

precision balance 14stratification 48

countsannual 73attempted complete enumeration 91catching without release 91change-in-ratio method 130complete 90–2

general 90–1plotless sampling 91–2

density estimates 157habitat sampling 90–1incomplete 90mammals, total 351–2marking methods 91observed 155part of population 156–7plant 188–9removal method 129–30repeated at same site 58–62sample 94–129sampling whole area 136see also bird surveys; mark–recapture methods

covarianceanalysis of 161spatial-variation-of-numbers modelling 66–7spreadsheets 16–17

coverartificial for amphibians 288, 289plants 186–7

quadrats 190, 193transects 197visual estimates 190, 191

Craig and du Feu continuous capture-and-recapturemethod 132–3, 134–5

crocodiles 300tail-scute removal 305trapping 303–4

cue counting 157cylinder samples, invertebrate censusing 242–3

DAFOR (dominant, abundant, frequent, occasionalor rare) 189, 196

aquatic-vegetation mapping 200damselflies 221data

analysis 16–18back-transformation 32calculations 16–18

collection 10presentation 3–4protocol design 4–5required detail 8requirement 4security 8–9storage 8–9time for collection 5–7transformation 30–2

Data Explorer utility 145data logger 375data sheets

creation 8–10, 10types 9

DCA/DECORANA ordination technique 215Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force

(DAPTF) 279–80Fieldwork Code of Practice 293

density estimationcounts 157distance sampling 141–2, 148

bird surveys 327hydroacoustics methods for fish 272line transects 146, 147, 321, 323

comparison with point transects 148phytoplankton 208–9plants 186, 187

quadrats 190, 192visual 193

plotless sampling 92point counts 148, 150, 326territory mapping 318trapping grid 361trapping webs 149–50T-square sampling 92, 92, 93underwater observation of fish 254variance 148visual 193

density index, timed species counts 178depth gauges, aquatic vegetation 200dessication funnels

bias 240invertebrate censusing 239–40

detectabilitybird surveys 327estimation 148function 73

gradient 148–9detection of animals, distance sampling 142






416 Index

detection probabilityamphibians 281–4difference correction in bird surveys 326–8

diet, mammalian herbivore feeding signs 364digging in invertebrate censusing 238–9

benthic 244–5dip nets, aquatic turtle capture 300discriminant functions 119displacement sampler 388disposal procedures, water chemistry 384–5dissolved-oxygen measurement 386, 385–9

percentage concentration 389water-testing kits 399

distance bandsline transects 321–2point counts 325

distance estimationbird surveys 319, 320, 321, 325line transects 319, 321point counts 325

DISTANCE program 15line transects 146point transects 148trapping webs 151–2

distance sampling 141–52analysis 143–5ancillary information 145bird surveys 319–20, 321, 323

detectability 327–8density estimates 141–2, 148detection of animals 142field methods 141–3line transects 145–6, 319–20, 321, 323measurement accuracy 142–3mobile animals/stationary observer 146passive 148–52point transects 148principles 141–3

DISTANCE software 144–5distribution

normal 30not normal 30–2two-dimensional 21zero counts 32

DNA recovery 136amphibian toe-clipping 280mammals

dung 363hair 366

recognition 137

Domin scale 191plant quadrats 190

double-observer method 137, 138–9detectability in bird surveys 327mammal counts 351scan searching for amphibians 287

double sampling 168, 169–71detectability in bird surveys 327

double-survey method 140dragonflies, counting along transects 221drift fencing

amphibians 285, 285–6pitfall traps 285, 285–6, 302–3reptiles 302–3

dropping countsbird 339–40mammals 363–4

line transects 357drum nets, reptiles 303dung piles

mammal counts 363–4mammal line transects 357

D-vac samplers 226

echosoundingaquatic vegetation 200hydroacoustics for fish catching 271–2

edge clusters, territory mapping 318edge effect

point transects 148, 149sample-unit size 25territory mapping 315, 318

eggsamphibians 278–9, 291

scan searching 287fish 252

density 274–5emergence traps 275plankton nets 274–5preservation 274visual estimates 273volumetric estimates 273–4

Ekman grabs 245electrodes

oxygen 386, 389, 406pH measurement 376–7redox-potential measurement 405

electrofishing 254–7advantages 257bias 257






Index 417

disadvantages 257environmental factors 256water conductivity 256

emergence traps 238fish eggs 275invertebrate censusing 237–8

aquatic 243–4enclosure sampling, amphibians 289endoscopes, burrow-nesting species 333energy-flux measurement 379enumeration, attempted complete 91environmental-variable measurement 370–1

selection 370–1technique 371

estimates, reliability 14–16ethics, reptile studies 306ethyl acetate fumes 219ethylene glycol 223

Malaise traps 230water traps 233–4

euphotic zone 380estimation 380

eutrophication, nitrogenous compounds 389evaluation surveys of invertebrates 214extent of scale 371extinction, amphibians 279–80extraction of animals from habitat sample 90–1extractors, mechanical 91exuviae counting 221–2

feeding signs, mammalian herbivores 364field survey monitoring of bats 355figures 1

drawing 4number required 2

filters 78–9fish

abundance indices 250bankside counts 251–3biomass estimation 263capture methods 250–1catch removal from nets 258catch per unit effort 250, 256, 263commercial catch data 250eggs 252

density 274–5emergence traps 275plankton nets 274–5visual estimates 273volumetric estimates 273–4

electric fishing 254–7water conductivity 256

frightening 256gill netting 266–9habitats 251hook and lining 265–6hydroacoustics 271–2lift netting 263–5number estimation 263observation methods

bankside counts 251–3bias 254underwater 253

push netting 263–5sampling methods 250–1seine netting 257–60swimbladders 272throw netting 263–5trapping 269–71trawling 260–3underwater observation 253

fishinghook and lining 265–6small lizards 301

fixation, invertebrates 219flight-interception traps 232flipper tags, turtles 305floats 372flock counts, bird surveys 336–7

estimation bias 337flotation, soil cores 239flow meters 372–4flush counting of birds 334fogging, invertebrate censusing 228–9footprints

bird surveys 340mammal counts 364–5

formaldehyde, fish-egg preservation274

frequency of occurrence 33, 173, 168–73,179–80, 181

bias 174–5calibration 172–3correction 176estimate of true frequency 180–1habitats 175methodology 174–6plants 186, 187

quadrats 190, 192random distribution 172






418 Index

frequency of occurrence (cont.)samples

location distribution 177size 176–7subdivision 177–81

sampling strategy 176–7standardisation 174–5, 176statistical manipulation 177subsamples 177–8timed species counts 178transects 143–4unstandardised observations 174

freshwaterammonium-ion measurement 391nitrate-ion measurement 391nitrogenous compounds 391phosphorus-compound measurement 398phytoplankton 207–8Winkler titration 386

funnel traps 288reptiles 303

funnel-box traps, reptiles 298fur clips, seals 366fyke nets 270, 269–70, 271

gamebirds, dropping counts 339Gantt charts 7gaps between samples 23generalised models

additive 76–7linear 75, 74–6

Geographical Information System (GIS)functionality of system 15vegetation mapping 198, 199

GEOMEAN program 82germination tests, seedbank sampling 205gill netting 267, 266–7, 269

advantages 268bias 268–9disadvantages 268selectivity 268

glassware for water chemistry 385Global Amphibian Assessment (IUCN) 279Global Positioning System (GPS)

aquatic-vegetation mapping 200gradsects 196lake-vegetation mapping 201pitfall-trap randomisation 224vegetation mapping 198, 199

glue, lizard catching 301–2, 304Go Flow Flask 381goodness-of-fit tests, mark–recapture studies

103–7gouge auger 399–400grabs, invertebrate censusing 244–5gradsects 197

plants 196, 197grain of scale 371graphs 1

drawing 4required 2–3

grass tussocks 220vacuum sampling 226–7

grids, points on 22–3ground-nesting species, bird surveys

333–4groundwater, nitrate-ion measurement 391

habitatsdisturbance in reptile capture 298–9fish 251frequency of occurrence 175sampling for complete counts 90–1

hair catchers, mammal 365–6hair tubes, mammal 365–6hand nets 287hand-capture of reptiles 297–301

advantages/disadvantages 300bias 300–1

hazards, water chemistry 383–5Heath traps 234–5hibernation-site monitoring of bats 355hides, tower 334histograms 3, 4home range of mammals 365hook and lining, fish 265–6humidity measurement 375–6hydroacoustics, fish catching 271–2hydrographs 375hydrometers 383hygrometers 375–6

identificationaccuracy 137invertebrates 215

immigration, trapping webs 149–50index of numbers 13, 155–67

abundance 174






Index 419

calibration 165, 163–6, 167biologically based 167

correction factors 161counts

density estimates 157part of population 156–7

cue counting 157double sampling 168, 169–71extrapolation 167ideal 155–6minimum known to be alive 157multiple, randomised observations 158non-linear relationships 164, 167ratio 155–6

estimators 167population density 161–3variation 158–61, 167

regression techniques 161standardisation of methods 158timed species counts 179two-way analysis of variance 159–60value comparison 158variation 158–67

allowing for 159–61see also population indices

indicator paper, pH measurement 376indicators 80–3

multi-species population 83indigocarmine staining 206infectious diseases

amphibians 293bat colonies 356mammal handling 362

information criterion of Akaike 76–7, 119POPAN software 182

Integrated Population Monitoring programme 70interception methods for sample counts 152–4interception traps, invertebrate censusing 231–2,

237inter-observer variability

bankside counts for fish 252cover estimates 197

invertebratesabundance-change monitoring 214–15aquatic

bait traps 243direct searching/observation 240–1emergence traps 243–4kick sampling 245

beating of foliage 228benthic cores 244–5capture 220–1censusing techniques 216–20cylinder samples 242–3dessication funnels 239–40digging 238–9

for benthic 244–5direct searching/collecting 216direct searching/observation 220–2emergence traps 237–8evaluation surveys 214extraction from substrate 216–19exuviae counting 221–2fixation 219fogging 228–9grabs 244–5identification 215interception traps 231–2, 237kick sampling 245killing 219–20light traps 234–6litter samples 239–40preserving 219–20as prey 215prey abundance 215sampling 215soil cores 238–9sorting 215storing 219–20survey commissioning 215–16sweep netting 225–6trapping 216vacuum sampling 226–8water traps 232–4wet sieving 244–5window traps 231–2see also Malaise traps; pitfall traps

IUCN Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA) 279

jack-knife methods 32Jolly–Seber mark–recapture method 89, 120–2,

128bird surveys 330–1capture histories for batch-specific marks 122goodness-of-fit test 126–7main calculations 123–5preliminary calculation 120–1software packages 182






420 Index

kick sampling, invertebrate censusing245

killing, invertebrates 219–20killing bottles 219Kipp solarimeters 379knowledge of species 13kriging 67

labelling, invertebrate specimens 220lag of scale 371lakes, vegetation mapping 201larvae, amphibian 278–9Lepidoptera

counting along transects 221preserving 219–20

lift netting 264fish 263–5

light measurement 378–80aquatic 380percentile absorption 380

light meters, underwater 380light traps


likelihood ratios 119Lincoln index 330–1line intercepts

animals associated with definite tracks154

counts 153–4cover 153differences from line transects 146plants 196tracks 153

line transects 145–6, 147advantages 323–4from the air 322–4bird surveys 323, 319–24

ground-nesting 333–4counting instructions 319density estimates 321, 323detection function 356–7disadvantages 323–4distance bands 321–2distance between 321distance estimation 319, 321distance sampling 319–20, 321frequency distribution 143length 321

mammal counts 354, 357, 356–7, 358aerial surveys 358

methods 320–2perpendicular distance 145, 356, 357,

358point counts 324

comparison with 148, 326recording 321–2routes 320–1at sea 322, 324trapping 152triangular 321visit numbers 321walking speed 319

lines, fishing 265–6litter samples, invertebrate censusing 239–40lizard grabber 301–2lizards

arboreal 304glue traps 301–2, 304hand-capture 297–301noosing 301–2

Longworth traps 360–1Lugol’s iodine solution 208Lund counting chamber 209lures, small lizards 301

McKinnon lists 178, 312macrophytes, aquatic 200Malaise traps 230

bias 231invertebrate trapping 216, 229–31window–trap combination 231

mammals 351aerial surveys 358–9aquatic 157, 351, 359, 360

colony counts 366–7bat roosts/nurseries 354–6call counting 360colour variation 359decision tree for census techniques 352DNA recovery

dung 363hair 366

dung counting 363–4footprint counts 364–5hair tubes/catchers 365–6herbivore feeding signs 364home range 365






Index 421

individual recognition 359–60infectious-disease risk 362line transects 354, 357, 356–7, 358

aerial surveys 358nesting structures 354photography 351–2, 358quadrats 354

dung 363resting structures 354runway counts 364–5strip transects in aerial surveys 358territoriality 365total counts 351–2trap types 360–1trapping 360–2

dung-count calibration 363undercounting 352, 358–9

management change monitoring 72Mann–Witney tests 4mapped variables, spatial variation of numbers

modelling 66mapping censuses

bird surveys 317individual plants 210–12

maps 3MAPS (Monitoring Avian Productivity and

Survival) programme 328–9marine coastal systems, water-flow measurement

374MARK program 127, 182

mammal trapping 362ring-recovery models 182

marking methodsbatch-specific 120–2behaviour effects 136bird surveys 344counts 91at each capture 114–15individual 114–15, 122

plants 210–12loss of marks 94–5mark–recapture techniques 94–5not needed 98reptile 305–6resighting 95–8seals 366without capture 136

mark–recapture methods 94–129amphibians 280–1, 291

ancillary-information use 127availability for trapping 99bias 125–6Burnham and Overton method 114–18, 128burrow-nesting birds 333capture

histories for batch-specific marks 122occasions 98

catchability 100, 103, 108–10differences 99–100

choosing between methods 118–19closed populations 98Craig and du Feu continuous

capture-and-recapture method 132–3,134–5

goodness-of-fit tests 103–7hook-and-line fish capture 266individual recognition of mammals 359mammals

individual recognition 359–60trapping 362

modelsmodified 127robust 128

multiple recaptures in closed populations102–19

open populations 98population estimates 100, 101, 102–3primary periods 128proportion captured 99, 100–1radiotelemetry 127reptiles 306resightings 127robust model 73Schnabel method 112–14seals 366secondary periods 128simulation models 119simultaneous 132trap responses 99–100trappability

differences 99–100heterogeneity 115

trapping effort 107–8trapping-grid area 128–9trapping webs 151–2two-sample methods 100–2, 101Wileyto et al. method 132, 133without capture 98, 136–40






422 Index

mark–recapture methods (cont.)see also capture–mark–recapture methods;

Jolly–Seber mark–recapture method;pseudo-removal method; removal method

maternity colony monitoring of bats 355maximum-likelihood estimates

N-mixture models 141POPAN software 182

mean (statistical) 26, 25–7calculation of geometric 82cluster sampling 55–7random sampling 46–7sample-size estimation 29stratified sampling 48two-level sampling 44–5

metal sheets, reptile capture 298migration

bird counts 337–8diurnal species 337–8nocturnal songbirds 338

continuous 154–5funnels/bottlenecks 337–8sample counts 154–5stop-over sites 155

minimum known to be alive (MNA) 157mirrors, tree-nesting-bird colonies 334mist nets 329, 342monitoring 67–85

adaptive management 67–70birds 308filters 78–9indicators 80–3indices 158management changes 72multiple sample sites 74population

estimates 158long-term trends 72short-term variation 72

programmeconsistency 84–5method changes 84planning 83review 83–4

single sample sites 73–4statistical significance 79–80surveillance 68–70target setting 68

moon-watching, nocturnal-songbird migrant counts338

mortality, marking potential impact 95mouse glue, lizard catching 301–2, 304mudflats

penetrability 400redox potential 405

multi-level sampling 43costs 38optimal distribution 38precision 38two-level 43

multiple-catch traps 361multi-state models 183

National Vegetation Classification (UK) 198negative binomial distribution 30

zero-inflated 32nest counting

bird colonies 331–5failure rate in bird surveys 332mammals 354

net bags, vacuum sampling 227net traps, tortoises 303nets

cast 263drum 303electrofishing 255fyke 270, 269–70, 271hand for amphibian netting 287invertebrate capture 220–1, 225–6lift 263, 264mesh size 268, 271

fish-egg collection 274mist 329, 342monofilament 268–9, 274multifilament 268–9plankton 208, 208, 274–5purse seine 258–60push 263–5selectivity 268trammel 267, 268turtle capture 300twine 268–9water-transported seeds 202see also gill netting; seine netting; trawling

nettingamphibians 287, 291

removal studies 290pond 241–2

New Jersey trap 236Niskin Flask 381






Index 423

nitrate ions 389measurement 391, 392

nitrate probes 390–1nitrogen, soluble 389nitrogenous-compound measurement 389

water-testing kits 399N-mixture models 140–1noosing, reptiles 301–2noosing gun 301null hypothesis 79–80numbers

changes with repeated counts at same site 60spatial-variation modelling 65–7tests of equality 103–4tests of trends 104–5

observation-based methods 183amphibian individual-recognition methods

280–1, 282fish

bankside counts 251–3egg visual estimates 273underwater 253

invertebrate censusing 220–2aquatic 240–1

occurrence see frequency of occurrenceorthophosphate 396otter trawl 261, 262Owen emergence traps 237, 238oxidation–reduction potential 405oxygen

dissolved 386, 385–9percentage concentration 389water-testing kits 399

soils/sediments 405–6solubility in water 390water sampling 388

oxygen electrode 386, 389

paint marksreptiles 305seals 366

passive-integrated-transponder (PIT) tagsamphibians 281, 282reptiles 305

patch sampling, amphibians 289–90patchiness, plants 187–8penetrometers 400, 401percentage relative precision (PRP) 14, 15

population trapped 108

pseudo-removal method 111removal method 111sample size 27

random sampling 28–9two-level sampling 42–3

percentile absorption 380Petersen method 330–1pH measurement 376–7

dissolved-oxygen meters 389soil 404–5

pH metersammonium/nitrate probes 390–1redox-potential measurement 405

phosphorusdissolved 396particulate 396soluble reactive 396, 396, 398

phosphorus-compound measurement 396–8water-testing kits 399

photographyaerial vegetation mapping 198–200amphibian skin-pattern recognition 280birds

migrant 337–8nest counting of colonial 332

mammal counts 351–2, 358, 366individual recognition 359

plant mapping 212seals 366see also cameras, miniature

photometers 379–80photon flux density 378–9

energy-flux conversion 379equipment 379underwater light meters 380

photon irradiance 378–9photosynthesis, limitation by turbidity 380photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) 379phytoplankton 207–9

density estimates 208–9preservation 208

pie charts 3–4pilot study 13pinning, Lepidoptera preserving 219–20PIT tags see passive-integrated-transponder (PIT)

tagspitfall traps 223

advantages 224amphibians 285, 285–6, 288baited 224






424 Index

pitfall traps (cont.)bias 224–5disadvantages 224drift fencing 285, 285–6, 302–3emptying 224invertebrate trapping 216, 222–5mammals 361methods 222–4nocturnal beetles 215positioning 224preservatives 223randomisation 224reptiles 302–3tortoises 303

plankton nets 208, 208for fish eggs 274–5

planningreverse 1, 2, 10revision 10time availability 7–8

plant pots, mesh-based 202, 202plant-available water 403–4plants 186–8

abundance 186–7belt transects 196, 197classification 188counts 188–9cover 197gradsects 196, 197line intercepts 196mapping/marking of individual 210–12phenological differences 188photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) 379quadrats 189–94

gradsects 196point 194–5

rare species 195seed traps 201–3sessile 187–8taxonomic groupings 188transects 196–7see also algae, benthic; phytoplankton;

seedbanks; seeds; vegetation, mappingplayback, response to in bird surveys 341–2

burrow-nesting species 333point counts 150

bird surveys 319, 323, 324–6playback of songs/calls 341

density estimation 148

distance bands 325distance estimation 325distance sampling 148edge effect 148, 149frequency distribution 144subdivided 140underwater observation of fish 253

point frame 195point quadrats 152, 194–5point sampling, electrofishing 255–6Poisson distribution 30, 75, 105

continuous capture and recapture 133goodness-of-fit test 105–7N-mixture models 141zero-inflated 32zero-truncated 105, 107

Poisson equation 168poles, fishing 265pollutants

nitrogenous compounds 389phosphorus compounds 396, 398

pond nettingaquatic invertebrates 241–2bias 242

pooters 221invertebrate capture 220–1

POPAN program 182population

absolute size 272closed

continuous capture and recapture 132continuous mark–recapture method 132mark–recapture 128mark–recapture studies 98, 125–6multiple recaptures in mark–recapture studies

102–19testing for 96–7

comparing two or more areas 62–5counts of part 156–7long-term trends 72loss from 120mean and repeated counts at same site 60–2monitoring process 69multi-species indicators 83open

mark–recapture studies 98, 125–6, 128multiple recapture 119–27testing for 96–7

peak and repeated counts at same site 60–2






Index 425

recruitment to 120short-term variation 72size estimation

cluster sampling 54–7territory mapping 318

unified analysis across sites/times 73population density

index ratio 161–3mammal trapping 362

population estimatesinvertebrates 221mammal trapping 362mark–recapture studies 100, 101, 102–3monitoring 158precision 19software packages 181–3total size 27

population indices 155–67birds 308

playback of songs/calls 341–2capture techniques in bird surveys 328

population sizebird surveys 308

capture techniques 328, 329, 331playback of songs/calls 342

mammal trapping 362total 27

pot gear 270, 269–70, 271precision 14

average-number estimates 25cluster sampling 34cost balance 14measurement 14multi-level sampling 38population estimates 19repeated counts at same site 58sampling 20, 27stratified sampling 49–50

preservatives, pitfall traps 223preserving, invertebrates 219–20prey abundance, invertebrate censuses 215probability (statistical)

critical 79N-mixture models 141

process models 77productivity, post-fledging 329propylene glycol 223

Malaise traps 230water traps 233–4

protocols 1design 4–5

pseudo-removal method 108, 107–10, 111goodness-of-fit test 110–12percentage relative precision 111

push netting, fish 263–5

quadrat boxesaquatic habitats 289invertebrate censusing 221

quadratsabundance measures 191advantages 192–4amphibians 289bias 194disadvantages 192–4ground-nesting-bird surveys 333–4mammal counts 354

dung 363multiple 190nested 192–3permanent 211plants 189–94

gradsects 196individual mapping 211

point 152, 194–5quantum radiometers 379questions, research 1

results required 2–4specific 2

radar, bird counts 338radio tracking, bird surveys 344radiometers 379

quantum 379radiotelemetry 127rain gauges 374rainfall measurement 374random distribution

abundance 172occurrence 172T-square sampling 93

random sampling 36–7, 53plotless sampling for complete counts 91–2sample size 28–9

random strips 24randomisation

comparing two or more study areas 65computer-intensive 32






426 Index

randomised blocks 66complete 65

randomness 20deviations from 20–3

raptors, migrant counts 337–8ratio estimators 167reagents for water chemistry 385recapture

multiple in open populations 119–27software packages 181–2

recognition, individualamphibians 281, 280–1, 282mammals 359–60

DNA in dung 363vocal in bird surveys 342–4without capture 136–7

recruitment, multiple-recapture methods 120redox potential 405regression analysis 4

data from single site 73–4generalized linear models 74–6route 77

regression techniques, indices of numbers 161RELEASE program 182remote sensing

gradsects 196vegetation mapping 198–200

removal method 108–10, 130, 129–30amphibians 290detectability in bird surveys 327goodness-of-fit test 110–12, 112percentage relative precision 111

representativeness in sampling 19–20reptiles

activity periods 299aquatic species 300autotomous 299bags for holding 300baits 303black plastic sheets 298box traps 303branding 305capture 297drift fencing 302–3drum nets 303ectothermy 297ethics of studies 306funnel traps 303habitat disturbance 298–9

hand capture 297–301individual marking 305–6mark–recapture methods 306nocturnal 299noosing 301–2paint marks 305pipes in capture 299PIT tags 305pitfall traps 302–3scale clipping 305searching techniques 298sticky traps 304surveys 297tattooing 305tin sheets 298toe-clipping 305trapping 302–4

advantages 304bias 304disadvantages 304

researchto action 70design 1questions 1, 2–4surveillance 68–70

resightings 127bird surveys 330–1marked-animal mixing 95–6

resting structures, mammal counts 354results, required 2–4reverse planning 1, 2

revision 10ring-recovery models 182ringing

capture–mark–recapture methods 330constant effort in bird surveys 329,

330response to playback use 342

river banks, invertebrate censusing 220rivers

kick sampling 245vegetation mapping 200

Robinson traps 235, 234–5rocky shores, zonation patterns of taxa 374rods, fishing 265roost counts

bats 354–6bird surveys 335–6

rotational sampling 72






Index 427

route regression 77runway counts, mammals 364–5

safety, water chemistry 383–5salinity measurement 382–3, 384

conductivity conversion 382salinity meters 383

hand-held 383sample(s) 13–14

cluster numbers 38gaps between 23layout 33–67

sample counts 94–129distance sampling 141–52double-observer method 137double-survey method 140interception methods 152–4migrating animals 154–5N-mixture models 140–1subdivided point counts 140trapping methods 129–36whole area 136see also mark–recapture methods

sample sitesarea differences 63–4, 65

randomised blocks 66management-change monitoring 72multiple 74multiple visits 58–60single 73–4unequal area 31unplanned loss 71–2

sample sizeestimation 27–9random sampling 28–9

sample units 18, 20clustering 34distance travelled 24size 24–5two-dimensional distribution 21unequal 29–30units to sample 27–9

samplingadaptive 51–4bias 20

sources 15–16unavoidable 23

cluster 36–7population-size estimation 54–7

definitions 18design 14–15

for surveillance 71–2distribution

normal 30not normal 30–2

effort-optimal allocation 49–50frame 18, 19inaccessible areas 22intensiveness 22invertebrates 215location distribution 177multi-level 43objectives 13plotless 91–2points on grids 22–3precision 20, 27random 20, 36–7

deviations from 20–3statistics 46–7

regular 21–2replication need 18–19representative 19–20rotational 72strategy for frequency of occurrence 176–7stratified 49, 43–50, 51

precision 49–50two-level 41–3, 43, 101–2, 177

percentage relative precision 42–3statistical calculations 44–5

unified analysis across sites/times 73using same location for surveillance 71see also cluster sampling

sampling-unit shape 23–4sand tracking 364–5satellite imaging, vegetation mapping

198–200scale, ecological 371scale clipping, reptiles 305scan searching, amphibians 286–7scattergrams 3, 4, 29–30scents, footprint tracking 365Schnabel method 113, 112–14, 115

goodness-of-fit test 116science, community relevance 68SCUBA diving 253, 254

aquatic vegetation 200fish-egg collection 274roving transects 253–4






428 Index

sea/seawaterconductivity measurement 381–2line transects 322, 324nitrate-ion measurement 391nitrogenous compounds 391phosphorus-compound measurement 398phytoplankton 207–8salinity measurement 382–3Winkler titration 386

seabirdsline transects 322, 324

from the air 322radar migrant counts 338

seals/sea lionscall counting 360colony counts 366–7

searching in invertebrate censusing 216,220–2

aquatic 240–1standardised 221

Seatest Specific Gravity Meter 383Secchi disc 380sediments

benthic algae 209–10characteristics 399–405marine 405oxygen content 405–6particle-size measurement 402–3redox potential 405seedbank sampling 204shear strength 400–2water-transported seeds 202

seed rain 203seed traps 202, 201–3seed trays 202

germination tests 205seedbanks

germination tests 205, 206–7sampling 204–7seed counting 206soil samples 204–5

seedschilling 205, 206–7counting 206distribution in soil 207dormancy 205, 206–7germination 202–3

tests 205, 206–7identification 202–3

predation 203viability 203, 206

seine netting 259, 257–9, 260advantages 260amphibians 287bias 260disadvantages 260purse nets 258–60

shear vane 400–2Sherman traps 361shore

height above 378, 377–8zonation patterns of taxa on rocky shores 374

simulation models, computer-based 16simulations 17skin-pattern recognition, amphibians 280, 282Skinner traps 234–5slope angles 377–8smoothing techniques 74snake tongs 299snakes

hand-capture 297–301venomous 299–300

snorkelling 253, 254snow

mammal tracking 364–5measurement 374

soilBouyoucos method 402, 403characteristics 399–405classification of types 399–400clay fraction 403moisture 403–4organic content 404–5oxygen content 405–6particle size 402, 402penetrability 400, 401pH measurement 377, 404–5profiles 399–400silt fraction 403surface hardness 400textures 402, 404

soil cores 204bias 239invertebrate censusing 238–9

soil pits 399soil samples, seedbanks 204–5solarimeters 379sonar, hydroacoustics for fish catching 271–2






Index 429

songbirds, nocturnal migrant 338songs, bird

response to playback 341–2vocal individuality 342–4

sonograms 342–4sorting, invertebrates 215sound spectrograms 342–4spatial patterns, kriging 67spawn, amphibians 287Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

96–7critical values 97

speciesassemblage-change monitoring 215indicator 82–3knowledge of 13

species detection, McKinnon lists 178species distribution 168

clumped 168, 171species diversity, underwater observation of fish

254specific gravity 383, 384spectroradiometers 379spreadsheets 16–17

simulations 17standard deviation, sample-size estimation 29standard error, calculation 26, 25–7standardisation of methods, index-ratio variation

158statistical significance 79–80statistics 4

frequency of occurrence 177normality assumption 30not normal distribution 30–2random sampling 46–7spreadsheets 16two-level sampling 44–5

Stevenson screen 375sticky traps

reptiles 301–2, 304seeds 201–2, 203

stop-over sites, migration 155storage of invertebrates 219–20stratification 43–51

spatial-variation-of-numbers modelling 65–6technique 47–8

stratified sampling 45, 43–5, 51bootstrapping 51confidence limits 51

costs 48effort allocation 48intensity 48post-stratification 48–51stratum size 51stratum weight 48strip transects 51

streams, kick sampling 245stress of capture 361strip transects 52–3

differences from line transects 146mammal counts with aerial surveys 358stratified sampling 51

stripssampling units 23–4size 25

study-area comparisons 62–5subsampling

frequency of occurrence 177–8mechanical extraction 91timed species counts 178

substrate, invertebrate extraction 216–19sugar bait for moths 236sulphides 405sunshine duration 377Surber sampler 246SURGE program 182

multi-state model 183surveillance 67–70, 85

alert systems 77–80filters 78–9generalized models

additive 76–7linear 74–6

indicators 80–3process models 77route regression 77sampling design 71–2statistical significance 79–80targets 78time scales 78

surveying sins 408–10SURVIV program 137, 182

multi-state model 183ring-recovery models 182

survival rateadult birds 329stop-over sites 155

suspended solids monitor 381








430 Index

sweep netting, invertebrates 225–6swimbladders 272swimming speed, underwater observation of fish

253

t tests 4tables 2–3

number required 2tags, reptiles 305tail-scute removal, crocodiles 305tape loops 341target setting 68targets 78tattooing of reptiles 305temperature

call-rate effects 162conversion 375difference measurement 379measurement 374–5

territoriality, mammals 365territory mapping 166

advantages 318bias 318–19bird surveys 314–19

playback of songs/calls 341singing 318–19

breeding season 314–15disadvantages 318map analysis 315–18scale 314, 315study-plot mapping 314

tetrazolium staining 206thermographs 375thermometers 374–5

wet/dry bulb 375–6thermopiles 379three-point moving average 74throw netting of fish 263–5time

allocation 7–8availability 5–7scales 78

timed species counts (TSC) 178, 179bird surveys 313–14

tin sheets, reptile capture 298toe-clipping

amphibians 280, 282reptiles 305

tortoiseshand-capture 297–301, 303pitfall traps 303

tower hides 334tracking

line intercepts 153sand 364–5snow 364–5

tracking strips in bird surveys 340trammel nets 267, 268transects

amphibians 289–90bird surveys 319–26

playback of songs/calls 341electrofishing 255–6fixed for underwater observation of fish 253invertebrate censusing 221permanent 211plants 196–7roving for underwater observation of fish 253see also line intercepts; line transects; point

counts; strip transectstrap responses, mark–recapture studies 99–100trappability

continuous capture and recapture 133differences 99–100heterogeneity 115

trappingamphibians 288–9, 291

removal studies 290barriers 269–71behaviour effects 136crocodiles 303–4designs 361–2effort 107–8fish 269–71invertebrate censusing 216line transects 152mammals 360–2

dung-count calibration 363multiple sessions 362reptiles 302–4sample counts 129–36selectivity 271see also mark–recapture methods

trapping grid 361, 362area 128–9, 361, 362square 129–30






Index 431

trapping line transects 152trapping webs 151, 148–51, 152traps

baitaquatic invertebrates 243crocodiles 303–4fish 269

funnel 288, 303funnel-box 298mammal 360–1see also baits; named types of traps

trawling 260–3advantages 263bias 263depth 261disadvantages 263nets 262speed 261

tree-canopy fogging 228–9tree-nesting-bird colonies 334–5TRIM program 75T-square sampling 92, 92, 93turbidity measurement 380–1turbidity meters 381turtles 300

basking sites 303flipper tags 305

tussocksinvertebrate censusing 220vacuum sampling 226–7

two-level sampling 43two-sample method 40

mark–recapture methods 100–12, 112

UK indicators for birds 81ultraviolet (UV) light 379

vacuum sampling 226advantages 227biases 227–8disadvantages 227invertebrates 226–8method 226–7

variables, mapped 66variance

calculation 25, 26–7cluster sampling 55–7clustering 30

homogeneity 37spreadsheets 16–17stratified sampling 48

variationnumbers over time 61–2quantification in field 8

vegetationbeating 228groundtruthing 199invertebrate censusing 220mapping

aquatic 200–1ground 198terrestrial 197–200

types 198point quadrats 195quadrats 190transects 197

vacuum sampling 226–7vocal individuality, bird surveys 342–4volunteers, bird monitoring 308

waterconductivity measurement 381–2filtering 381, 381free-draining 403–4light measurement 380oxygen

sampling 388solubility 390

pH measurement 376–7phosphorus compounds 396plant-available 403–4plant-unavailable 403–4reagents for water chemistry 385sampling 208seed transport 202seedbank sampling in sediments 204total nitrogen 389turbidity measurement 380–1see also freshwater; sea/seawater

water chemistry 383–5safety 383–5

water flow 371–2measurement 372–4

water-testing kits 390, 399phosphorus-compound measurement

396






432 Index

water traps 233bias 234invertebrate censusing 232–4

waterfowl, line transects from the air 322wave action 374websites, software packages 181weirs 269–71wet sieving, invertebrates 244–5whales

call counting 360counts 155, 351cue counting 157individual recognition 359

wildfowl, dropping counts 339–40Wileyto et al. mark–recapture method 132, 133

winddirection and wave fetch 374flow 371–2

wind gauges, hand-held 372wind vanes 372wind-velocity measurement 372window traps


Winkler titration 386, 386wire-mesh traps 361

zero counts 32zooplankton, cylinder samples 242–3Zurich–Montpellier vegetation classification 198






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