Index

Abrasion testing, 353--4 ball cratering test, 354 particle air-blast test, 354 rubber wheel test, 353 Taber test, 353

Abrasive wear, 56, 57 macromechanical wear analysis, 161

Accelerated testing, 355-9 levels of simulation for, 355-6 statistical approach, 355-6 test parameter monitoring, 358-9

film thickness measurement, 358-9 oil sample particle analysis, 359 radionuclide technique (RNT), 359 temperature monitoring, 359

wear and lubrication maps, 356-8 wear track analysis, 359

Acoustic imaging, adhesion evaluation, 342 Adaptive (smart/intelligent) coatings, 316-17, 436

high temperature operation, 316-17 Adhesion:

adhesion characteristics, 320-1 adhesion energy/interfacial fracture energy, 131 adhesion friction, 44, 47 coating to substrate, 130-3

Adhesion evaluation, 336--42 acoustic imaging, 342 body-force methods, 342 indentation tests, 337 laser techniques, 341-2 pull-off tests, 336-7 scratch tests, 337--41

Adhesive and fatigue wear, macromechanical analysis, 153-7

about adhesive/fatigue wear, 153-5 DLC films, 156 thickness effects, 155 for thin soft coatings, 155-6

Adhesive wear, 55-7 and asperity deformation, 57

Adsorbate vibration modes, 51 Agglomeration of particles see Debris generation

and particle agglomeration Aluminium oxide coatings, 246-7 Amonton's laws/equations of friction, 49-50, 52 Applications of coatings tribology, 383--439

about the applications, 383--4 summary table, 437-8

biomedical,431-5

erosion and scratch resistance, 414-17 gears, 393-7 magnetic recording devices, 422-7 microcomponents, 427-31 oscillating contacts, 417-22 rolling contact bearings, 387-93 sliding bearings, 384-6 tools for cutting, 397--413 tools for forming, 413-14

Asperity deformation, 45, 47, 57 Asperity fatigue, friction effects, 150-1 Asperity fracture, macromechanical wear analysis,

159-60 Asperity matching, macromechanical wear analysis,

157 Asperity tribology, 141 Atomic Force Microscope, 324 Atomic scale friction, 50-2

atomic force microscopy, 50-1 Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), 217, 343, 346

Ball crater thickness measurements, 325-7 Ball cratering abrasion test, 354 Beilby layer, 43 Biased activated reactive evaporation (BARE) system,

15-16 Biomedical applications, 431-5

about medical implants, 431-2 artificial heart valves, 434 bioactive calcium phosphate coatings, 433 dental applications, 435--6 friction issues, 433--4 heart valves, 434 hip joint implants, 432 surgical needles, 434

Boride coatings, 248-9 iron boride, 248-9 titanium diboride, 248

Boron carbide, sliding contacts, 244-5 Boron nitride coatings, 237-8 Boundary lubrication see Lubrication, boundary

lubrication issues Brinell indentation test, 87

Cadmium coatings, 210-11 Cadmium oxide coatings, 247 Carbide coatings, 243-6

about metal carbides, 243 abrasive wear resistance, 245

549

I

550 Index

Carbide coatings (Con/d. )

erosive wear resistance. 245 rolling contact wear, 245-6 sliding contacts:

boron carbide, 244-5 chromium carbide, 244 titanium carbide. 243-4 vanadium carbide, 245

Carbon and carbon based coatings, 249-99 diamond coatings, 253-66 diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, 266-99 see also Diamond as a coating material; Diamond

coatings; Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings Carbon nitride coatings, 238 Carbonitriding surface treatment, 32 Carburizing surface treatment, 30-2 Ceramic coatings, and residual stresses, 108-9 Ceramic film deposition, 9 Characteristics of coatings, 319-23

adhesion, 320--1 composition, chemical, 322 morphology, 321-2 residual stress, 323 surface. 41-5, 319-20 thickness. 320 wettability.322-3

Characterization see Properties of coatings, charac­terization and evaluation

Chemical solution deposition, 24-5 chemical conversion coating, 25 chromating, 25 electroless deposition of nickel, 25 phosphating, 25

Chemical vapour deposition (CVD), 9-12 comparative characteristics, 10 deposition pressures, 9 deposition temperatures, 9 hot-wall CVD layout, II process derivatives, II reaction zones, 11-12

Chemical wear, 56, 60 Chemically reacted layers, 44 Chromating, 25 Chromium carbide sliding contact, 244 Chromium coatings, 210 Chromium oxide coatings, 247 Chromium-nitrogen compound coatings, 239 Coating characteristics see Characteristics of coatings Coating fracture, macromechanical wear analysis,

157-9 Coating selection see Selection of coatings Coating structures see Structures of coatings Coating to substrate adhesion, 130--3

adhesion definition, 131 adhesion energy/interfacial fracture energy, 131 adhesion strength issues, 131-2 coating delamination/spalling/flaking. 130

common failure modes, 132 interfacial fracture toughness, 131

Combined coatings, 299--317 adaptive coatings, 316-17 duplex treatments, 311-16 multicomponent coatings, 299-303 multilayer coatings, 304-11 nanocomposite coatings, 303-4

Component tribology/decitribology, 142 Composite structures, process effects on, 33-9

about composite structures, 33-4 chemical reactivity issues, 34-5 glassy metal films structures, 38-9 mechanical property issues, 35-8

Composition of coatings, chemical, 322 Computer based modelling, 4 Contact fatigue, 108 Contact tribology, 141-2 Copper coatings, 210 Cracking at surfaces, 117-33

about cracking at surfaces, 117-18 coated surfaces crack growth, 121-7

amorphous diamond-like carbon (DLC), 127 boundary element analysis studies, 124-6 ceramic coatings, 126-7 crack growth process, 121-2 crack parameter analysis studies, 124-6 multilayered surfaces, 123 nanocrystalline-amorphous TiC-amorphous

carbon composite, 127 thin coatings, 122-3 toughness and fracture toughness. 127-8

coating to substrate adhesion, 130-3 crack growth regions, 120-1

Kitagawa-Takahashi curve, 121 crack nucleation, I 18-19

from rolling contacts. J J9 crack patterns, 128-30

some published investigations, 130 crack propagation, 119-22

classification for metallic components, 122 rolling contact, 121

from stress, 76-7, 117 surface microcracks, 119-20 see also Debris generation and particle

agglomeration Cutting tools see Tools for cutting applications CVD see Chemical vapour deposition

Debris, friction effects, 151-3 particle crushing, 152 particle embedding, 151 particle entrapping, 151-2 particle hiding, 152 properties change, 152-3

Debris generation and particle agglomeration, 133-7 agglomeration mechanisms, 134-5

coa deb rate tran wea

Decitr Delam

mac thee

Dental Depos

abot clas:

ta gase moll solie solu surf, see

Design Diamo

abou bulk depo diam

de fri raj

su tet tri

diam grapl poly, struc

Diarnoi abou abras activ coati conu cuttii depo envir erosi nitro; rougl runni scale

m, mi na

slidir ag. ag: ag.

xies, 132 toughness, 131 99-317 316--17 311-16 iatings, 299-303 :,304-11 uings, 303--4 /decitribology, 142 , process effects on, 33-9 ructures, 33--4 , issues. 34-5 structures, 38-9 ty issues, 35-8 ngs, chemical, 322 lelling,4

,1-2 )

,117-33 surfaces, 117-18 ack growth, 121-7 nond-like carbon (DLC), 127 ~nt analysis studies, 124-6 :s, 126--7 'ocess,121-2 r analysis studies, 124-6 rfaces, 123 -amorphous TiC-amorphous nposite, 127 22-3 racture toughness, 127-8 te adhesion, 130--3 ons, 120-1 iashi curve, 121 118-19 ntacts, 119 8-30 investigations, 130

, 119-22 Ir metallic components, 122 121 117

ks, 119-20 eneration and particle .n

ols for cutting applications vapour deposition

;ts, 151-3 152 g, 151 g, 151-2 ;2 ,152-3 id particle agglomeration, 133-7 -chanisms, 134-5

Index 551

coated surfaces, 133 against single crystal diamond, 258-9 debris activity/effects, 133--4 surface graphitization, 256 ratchetting, 133 surface topography, 256-7 transfer layers, 135-7 Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, 266-99 wear mechanisms, 133 about DLC coatings, 266--7

Decitribology, 142 adhesion to substrate and interface layers, 271-3 Delamination wear, 57-60 biocompatibility, 273--4

rnacromechanical wear analysis, 160--1 as computer hard disc protective layer. 266 theory, 59-60 deposition techniques, 23, 269-70

Dental applications, 435-6 friction, 277-9, 281 Deposition processes, 7-30 low friction mechanisms, 175, 295-6

about deposition processes, 7-9 graphitization of the surface, 274-5 classification system, 7-8 hardness, 267-9

table for, 8 humidity dependence, 279-80 gaseous state processes, 8-23 hydrogen content issues, 275-6 molten/semi-molten state processes, 27-30 intrinsic stresses, 270--1 solid state processes, 7 with luhricants, 177-8, 182--4 solution state processes, 23-7 main categories and abbreviations, 267 surface hardening, 30-2 mechanical properties, 267 see also Structures of coatings microstructure, 267-9

Design guidelines, coating selection, 377-9 nanoscale studies, 175 Diamond as a coating material, 249-53 roughness issues, 278-9

about diamond, 249-50 with shearing, 146 bulk diamond, 250 structural parameters, 267-8 depositing methods, 250 superlubricity, 296--7 diamond sliding against diamond, 250--3 temperature dependence, 270

dehris issues, 252 ternary phase diagram, 268 friction properties, 251 topography, friction and wear, 276-9 rough surfaces, 251-2 wear, 277-9, 281 superlubricity, 251 abrasive wear resistance, 294, 295 tetrahedral bonding structure, 250-1 rolling contact fatigue resistance, 294-5 tribological study results, 252-3 Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, doping/

diamond sliding against metals, 253 dopants, 287-91 graphite, 249 effects of dopants. 287 poly crystaline and amorphous forms, 249 florine dopants, 288 structure and property description sources, 249-50 metal dopants, 288, 289-90

Diamond coatings, 253-66 nitrogen dopants, 288 about diamond coatings, 253--4 silicon dopants, 287 abrasive wear resistance, 256-8 Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, scales of: activation techniques, 253 tribological mechanisms, 297-9 coating stresses, 254 macroscale, 298 contact mechanisms influencing friction, 255 microscale, 298-9 cutting tool contacts, 262-3 nanoscale. 299 deposition temperatures, 254 Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, sliding environmental effects, 254-5 characteristics, 280--7, 291--4 erosive wear resistance, 263--4 against ceramics, 283-5 nitrogen ion-implanted CVD diamond films, 255 against metals, 280--3 roughness/friction, 256--7 against polymers, 286-7 running-in wear, 256 in oil lubrication, 291--4 scales of tribological mechanisms, 264-6 additives, 292-3

macroscale, 265-6 endurance life, 292-3 microscale, 266 friction, 292--4 nanoscale, 266 wear, 292, 294

sliding characteristics: Duplex treatments, 311-16 against ceramics, 260-2 about duplex treatments, 311-12 against diamond coating, 259-60 load SUpp0l1 issues, 312-13 against metals, 262 ranking performance, 314

i

552 Index

EIH relationship, FEM modelling, 103-4 Elastic materials, 76 Elastic modulus/Young's modulus E (GPa), 77

evaluation, 332-3 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHD or EHL),

66-9, 176 film thickness formula/issues, 67

Elastomeric coatings, 196-7 about elastomers, 196 frictionlhardness/thickness measurements, 196-7 hysteresis effects, 196 reciprocating friction experiments, 197

Electro-plating laser, comparative characteristics, 10 Electro-spark deposition (ESDl, 29-30 Electrochemical deposition (electroplating), 25--6 Electroless deposition of nickel, 25 Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA),

343, 346 Erosion and scratch resistance applications, 414-17

about erosion and scratching, 414-15 coatings, improvements with, 415-17

coated ceramic, 415-16 coated glass, 4 J7 coated steel, 415-16 polymer surfaces, 417 to car clear coats, 416 to gas turbine engines, 416

Evaluation see Properties of coatings, characterization and evaluation

Evaporation techniques, 12 Expert systems, coating design, 379-82

about expert systems, 379-80 TRIBEXSY,381-2 TRIBSEL. 380-1

Fatigue: asperity fatigue, 150-1 contact fatigue, 108 and delamination wear, 57--60 nitride coatings, 242 rolling contacts, 161-3 rolling fatigue tests, 354 roughness, 108 see also Adhesive and fatigue wear

Finite element method (FEM) modelling and simula­tion,92-I04

application to surfaces of bulk materials, 92 coated surfaces in two dimensions, 92-8

deformation maps, 97-8 early FEM models, 92 FEM studies list, 94--6 Komvopoulos material response studies, 93 main conclusions, 93, 97-8 Tangena comprehensive analysis. 92-3 von Mises stresses of radial distribution, 93

coated surfaces in three dimensions. 98-103 bulk plasticity effect, 99-100

effects for complex stress field, 99-100 finite element meshes. 100-1 generalised conclusions. 102-3 spherical stylus scratch tester model, 98-9 topographical stress field maps, 100-2

EIH relationship, 103-4 Forming tools see Tools for forming Fracture criteria of material, 82-3

strain-energy release rate, 82 Fracture toughness in coated surfaces, 127-8

evaluation. 333-5 bend testing, 335 FEM model, 335 indentation tests, 333-4 scratch testing, 334-5

values for some materials, 129 see also Cracking at surfaces

Fracture toughness of materials Kc , 78, 82 Fretting:

coating selection, 374 sliding contacts, 349 see also Oscillating contact applications

Friction, 44-54 adhesion force, 44, 47 Amonton's laws/equations, 49-50, 52 asperity deformation, 45, 47 atomic scale friction, 50-2 coefficient of friction u, 44

typical values, 54 deformation force, 44-5 development stages with time, 47-8 early theories, 45--6

adhesion model, 45 plastic deformation losses. 46

friction surfacing, 30 genesis of friction, 46-7 with lubrication, 47 phononic friction, 51-2 ploughing friction, 45, 47 rolling friction, 53 superlubricity, 53 ultra-low sliding friction, 52-3

molybdenum disulphide-based coatings, 52 wear debris issues, 49 Zhang's model. 50

Future issues, 435-9 adaptive and gradient coatings, 436 efficiency/performance gains, 439 environmental issues, 439 FEM techniques, 436 laser texturing, 436 lubricant additives, 436 safety critical parts, 436, 439

Gaseous state processes. 8-23 about gaseous state processes, 8-9 chemical vapour deposition (CYD). 9-12

Ion

phy Gear a

aboi coat FZC hard high pittil scar: scuf

Gigatri Glassy Global Gold Cl

abou with cant fricti tribe

Gradier mien

Graphit

HIE reh Hard co

about borid carbir high nitrid oxide titanii

Hardnes mechi

adv nan van vall

plougJ Hardness Hertzian Hydrody

lAC (ion IBAD se

surf II (ion in Indentati

adhesi: Brinell fractur nano-u

Indium c Industrial Interactin

Index

plex stress field, 99-100 neshes, 100-1 elusions, 102-3 scratch tester model, 98-9

tress field maps, 100-2 103-4 bois for forming naterial, 82-3 ase rate, 82 in coated surfaces, 127-8

35 35 LS,333-4 334-5

naterials, 129 g at surfaces of materials x; 78, 82

.374 349 ing contact applications

4,47 equations, 49-50, 52 tion, 45, 47 tion, 50-2 .tion ~,44

54 e,44-5 ges with time, 47-8 ;--6 el,45 ration losses, 46 ~, 30 1ll,46-7 47

[1,51-2 m,45, 47 S3 3 : friction, 52-3 disulphide-based coatings, 52 eS,49 50 -9

Irdeposition (CVD), 9-12

Ion beam-assisted deposition (IBAD) and surface treatment, 21-4

physical vapour deposition (PVD), 10, 12-21 Gear applications, 393-7

about gears, 393 coatings advantages, 394 FZG gear testing, 394 hard coatings, 394 high speed power tests, 396 pitting surface fatigue improvement, 394-5 scoring resistance improvement, 396 scuffing wear resistance improvement, 395, 397

Gigatribology, 142 Glassy metal film structures, 38-9 Global tribology/gigatribology, 142 Gold coatings, 206-8

about gold coatings, 206 with co-spluttering of moybdenum disulphide, 207 contact mechanism studies, 207-8 friction issues, 206 tribological mechanisms, 207

Gradient coatings, 300-3 microstructural gradients, 301-2

Graphite, 249

HIE relationship, FEM modelling, 103-4 Hard coatings, tribological properties, 225-49

about hard coatings, 225--6 boride coatings, 248-9 carbide coatings, 243-6 high stresses limitation, 226 nitride (non-titanium) coatings, 236-43 oxide coatings, 246-7 titanium nitride, 226-36

Hardness of the coating, 143, 144-5 mechanical evaluation, 326-31

advanced nano-indentation techniques, 331 nano-indentation test, 330-1 variation problems, 327, 329 volume law of mixtures, 330

ploughing reduction methods, 144 Hardness of materials H (MPa), 77 Hertzian contact analysis, 79-81 Hydrodynamic (HD) lubrication, 65-6, 176

lAC (ion assisted coating), 23, 24

Interacting surfaces, 41-2

553

Interfacial fracture toughness, l3l Ion assisted coating (lAC), 23, 24 Ion beam-assisted deposition (IBAD) and surface

treatment, 21-4 corrosion problems, 22 elemental species issues, 21-2 ion beam mixing (IBM), 22, 24 ion implantation (II), 22, 24 ion plating, 14-15 ion stitching (IS), 24 ion-assisted coating (lAC), 23, 24 pulsed laser deposition, 23 reactive ion beam assisted deposition

(RIBAD),23 Ion implantation (II), 22, 24 Ion plating, 14-15,201,214-15

see also Plasma-assisted PVD (PAPVD) Iron boride coatings, 248-9

Kilotribology, 142 Kitagawa-Takahashi crack growth curve, 121 Knoop indenter, 328-30

Laboratory simulation tests, 354-5 bending-under-tension test, 354-5 metal cutting, 355 multi-stroke plain-strain compression test, 354 real component laboratory testing, 355

Lamellar coatings, 211-25 about lamellar coatings, 211 see also Molybdenum disulphide coatings

Laser adhesion evaluation techniques, 341-2 Laser surface treatments, 28

beam-assisted deposition, 23 electro-plating laser, 10 laser chemical vapour deposition (LCVD), 28 laser physical vapour deposition (LPVD), 28

Lead coatings, 199-201 friction properties, 199 with ion plating, 201 with lubricated sliding steel contacts, 201 temperature limitation, 200-1 in a vacuum, 199-200 wear mechanisms, 199

Lubrication: about lubrication. 64-5

typical film properties, 68

adientcoatings, 436 rmance gains, 439 ssues, 439 ,,436

,es, 436 arts, 436, 439

cesses, 8-23 nate processes, 8-9

IBAD see Ion beam-assisted deposition (IBAD) and surface treatment

II (ion implantation), 22, 24 Indentation tests:

adhesion evaluation, 337 Brinell indentation test, 87 fracture toughness, 333-4 nano-indentation test, 330-1

Indium coatings, 208 Industrial field testing, 359--60

additives, 71 classification, 71 elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHD or EHL),

66-9 fluid pressure lubrication, 65 and friction, 47 hydrodynamic lubrication, 65-6 mixed lubrication, 74 with solid lubricants, 74-5 surface film pressure lubrication, 65

436

554 Index

Lubrication, boundary lubrication issues, 69-74 additives, 71 adhesion discussions, 73 anti-wear additives, 71 boundary lubricated coated contacts, 178-9 chemical adsorption, 69-70 chemicallubricantlsurface reactions, 69-71 classification, 71 Ludema seven characteristic features, 73-4 MoDTC friction modifier, 71 molecular basis for, 72-3 physical adsorption, 69-70 tribofilm anti-wear nanomechanical properties, 73

LUbrication, lubricated coated contacts, 175-84 boundary lubrication, 178-9 coating into lubricated contacts, 176 with DLC coated and lubricated sliding contacts,

182-4 elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication, 176 hydrodynamic (HD) lubrication, 176 lubricant additive reaction to coated surface, 176-8

with DLC coated surfaces, 177-8 lubrication into coated contacts, 176 one or two surfaces coated, 179-80 with rough surfaces, 180-1 with soft metal coatings, 181-2 with wear debris, 180-1

Lubrication maps, acceleration testing, 357-8

Machinery tribology/unitribology, 142 Macromechanical friction tribological mechanisms,

142-53 about macromechanical friction, 142-4 coating hardness, 143, 144-5 coating thickness, 143, 145-8 debris, 151-3 rough surfaces, 148-51

Macromechanical wear mechanisms, 153-62 abrasive wear, 161 adhesive and fatigue wear, 153-7 asperity fracture, 159-60 asperity matching, 157 coating fracture, 157-9 delamination, 160-1 particle scratching, 157 plastic deformation, 153, 154 rolling contact fatigue, 161-2

Macrotribologylcontact tribology, 141-2 Magnetic recording applications, 422-7

about magnetic recording surfaces, 422-3 coatings:

floppy disks, 425-6 hard disks, 426-7 improvements with, 423-7 magnetic media material, 423-4 magnetic recording tape, 424-5

other information industry applications, 427

Magnetron sputter deposition, 20-1 multipolar magnetic plasma confinement

(MMPC),20 types of, 21 unbalanced magnetron (UBM) effect, 20

Mechanical evaluation of coatings, 326-42 adhesion, 336-42 elastic modulus, 332-3 fracture toughness, 333-5 hardness, 326-31 residual stress, 335-6

Medical applications see Biomedical applications Megatribology, 142 Metal coatings see Soft metal coatings, tribological

properties Microcomponent applications, 427-31

about microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), 427-8

coatings, improvements to MEMS with, 428-31 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), 175,

427-31 Micromechanical tribological mechanisms, 162-9

about the mechanisms, 162-4 modelling approach, 164-7

about the modelling, 164-5 abrasive wear, 165, 166 adhesive friction, 165 adhesive wear, 165, 166 fatigue wear, 165-7 hysteresis friction, 165 ploughing friction, 165 surface modification, 167

multi scale approach, 169 velocity accommodation approach, 167-9

Microstructural gradients, 301-2 Microtribology/asperity tribology, 141 Modelling:

computer based, 4 Finite element method (FEM) modelling and

simulation, 92-104 micromechanical tribological mechanisms, 164-7

Molecular dynamic simulations, 172 Molecular tribology, 141 Molten/semi-molten state processes, 27-30

electro-spark deposition (ESD), 29-30 friction surfacing, 30 laser surface treatments, 28 thermal spraying, 28 welding, 10,28-9

Molybdenum disulphide coatings, burnished and bonded, 212-14

bonded coatings, 214 friction properties, 213 humidity effects, 213 lifecycle periods, 213-14 low friction structure, 212 substrate attachment mechanisms, 213

Moly

COe;

cou

film inte ion pro! pro! sput supe surf, thicl tram

Molyb, Molybl

fri Morphr

eft Morphc

spun Multice

gradi super wear

Multila about diver:

wi: pre

interf ex,

repea SUI

we, Multipo Multisc,

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National Nickel CI

corros wear r

Index 555

leposition, 20-1 ~tic plasma confinement )

ietron (UBM) effect, 20 ion of coatings, 326--42 ! 332-3 ,s,333-5 I 35--6 1S see Biomedical applications ~

Soft metal coatings, tribological .'

pplications, 427-31 romechanical systems (MEMS),

/emenrs to MEMS with, 428-31 mical systems (MEMS), 175,

ribological mechanisms, 162-9 misrns, 162-4 iach, 164-7 Ielling, 164-5 , 165, 166 ion, 165 r, 165, 166 165-7 .tion, 165 ction, 165 tcation, 167 iach, 169 nodation approach, 167-9 adients, 301-2 oerity tribology, 141

,4 nethod (FEM) modelling and ,92-104 11 tribological mechanisms, 164-7 IC simulations, 172 ~y, 141 en state processes, 27-30 sposition (ESD), 29-30 19,30 satments, 28 g,28 :-9 rlphide coatings, burnished and -14 s,214 ies, 213 s,213 Is, 213-14 ucture, 212 unent mechanisms, 213

Molybdenum disulphide coatings, PVD deposited, 214-25

coating composition, 222-5 adding lead, 224 adding tin, 222-5 co-deposition of PTFE, 225 doping, 222 sulphur/molybdenum ratio, 222

counterface, substrate and interlayer influences, 220-2

film selection issues, 225 interfacial shear, 217-18 ion plating deposition, 214-15 properties in dry and humid air, 218-20 properties in vacuum, 215-16 sputtering deposition, 214-15 superlubricity, 216-17 surface roughness effects, 216 thickness issues, 220 transfer layers, 217-18

Molybdenum disulphide properties, 211-12 Molybdenum disulphide-based coatings (ultra-low

friction), 52 Morphological growth structures, process

effects on, 31-3 Morphology, 321-2

sputter-deposited film zones, 321-2 Multicomponent coatings, 299-300

gradient coatings, 300-3 superhard with improved wear resistance, 300 wear optimised, 300

Multilayer coatings, 304-11 about multilayer coatings, 304-5 diverse layer properties, 305, 310-11

with friction-controlling material, 311 properties table, 310

interface layers, 305-7 examples table, 306

repeated layers (large numbers), 305, 307-10 superlattice, 308 wear resistance, 309

Multipolar magnetic plasma confinement (MMPC), 20 Multiscale approach, for micromechanical wear

mechanisms, 169

Nanocomposite coatings, 303-4 Nanophysical tribological mehanisms, 172-5

about Nanotribology/molecular tribology, 141, 172 diamond and diamond-like surfaces, 175 MEMS applications, 175 molecular dynamic simulations, 172, 173 nanofriction and nanowear, 172-4 nanolayered coatings, 174

National tribology/megatribology, 142 Nickel coatings, 208-10

corrosion resistance, 208 wear resistance variations, 208-9

Nitride (non-TiN) coatings, 236-43 about nitride coatings, 236 in erosive and abrasive contacts, 241

titanium aluminium nitride, 241 in metal cutting, 240-1

life improvement, 240 titanium aluminium nitride, 240-1

in metal forming, 241-2 titanium carbonitridc, 241-2

rolling contacts (fatigue), 242 in sliding contacts, 236-40

boron nitride, 237-8 carbon nitride, 238 chromium-nitrogen compound, 239 titanium aluminium nitride, 237 titanium boron nitride, 239 titanium carbonitride, 239-40 vanadium nitride, 239 zirconium nitride, 239

using intermediate layers, 242-3 see also Titanium nitride (TiN) coatings

Nitriding surface treatment, 30-2 Nitrocarbonizing surface treatment. 32

Oil sample panicle analysis, 359 Operating condition testing, 355 Oscillating contact applications, 417-22

about oscillating contacts, 417-18 coatings, improvements with, 419-21 fretting control, 419-20 fretting problems, 417-18 fretting studies, 420-2

Oxidational wear, 60 Oxide coatings, 246-7

aluminium oxide, 246-7 cadmium oxide, 247 chromium oxide, 247 titanium oxide, 247

Oxide layers, 43-4

PAPVD see Plasma-assisted PVD Panicle agglomeration see Debris generation and

panicle agglomeration Panicle air-blast abrasion test, 354 Particle scratching, macromechanical analysis, 157 Particles, friction effects see Debris Patterned surfaces, 107-8 Penetration, friction effects, 149-50 Phononic friction, 51-2 Phosphating, 25 Physical vapour deposition (PVD), 12-21

about PVD, 12-13 comparative characteritics, 10 evaporation and sputtering, 12 magnetron sputter deposition, 20-1 main advantages, 13-14 main processes, 15

556

Physical vapour deposition (PVD) (Contd.) plasma-assisted PVD (PAPVD), 13-18 sputter deposition, 18-20

Physico-chemical evaluation, 342-7 classification of techniques, 343-4 comparison of techniques, 346 evaluation of surface analytical tools, 345 Ferrante's process cycle, 342-3

Plant tribologylkilotribology, 142 Plasma electrolysis, 27 Plasma-assisted PVD (PAPVD), 13-18

biased activated reactive evaporation (BARE) system, 15-16

comparative characteristics, 10 ion plating, 14-15 ionization issues, 15-16 main advantages, 13-14 main processes/mechanisms, 15, 16 mechanical properties, 37 pseudo-diffusion layers, 15 sputtering mechanism, 15 surface effects, 15-16 Thorntons structure zone diagram, 14,31 vapourization sources:

arc evaporation, 17 electron beam guns, 17 induction heating, 17 resistance heating, 17 sputtering, 18-20

Plastic deformation, and macromechanical wear, 153

Plastic yield criteria, 81-2 Tresca's maximum shear stress criterion, 81 von Mises shear strain energy criterion, 81-2

Plastically deforming materials, 76 PLD (pulsed laser deposition), 23 Ploughing friction, 45, 47

and coating thickness, 143, 146-7 Ploughing reduction, and coating hardness, 144 Polymer coatings, tribological properties, 186-97

elastomeric coatings, 196--7 polymer coating trihology, 188-9

elasto-viscoplastic respond, 188 thickness issues, 188-9

polymer properties, 186--8 adhesive/transfer wear, 187 chemical wear, 187 cohesive/deformation wear, 187 friction, 186 interfacial wear, 187 metal comparisons, 187-8

polymide (PI) coatings, 193-6 polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 189-93

Polymide coatings (PI), 193-6 applications, 193 environmental effects, 194, 195 friction, 193-4

Index

wear studies, 195-6 wear/thickness issues, 194

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 189-93 about PTFE, 189 addition of hard particles, 193 friction properties, 189 improvement efforts, 193 sputtered on steel substrates, 190-3 tribological properties. 189-90 wear issues, 189

Processing temperatures, 9 Properties of coatings, characterization and evalua­

tion, 323-61 accelerated testing, 355-9 industrial field testing, 359-60 mechanical evaluation, 326-42 physico-chemical evaluation, 342-7 roughness, 324 standardization of test procedures, 360-1 thickness, 324-6 tribological evaluation, 347-55 useful test methods, 360

Pull-off tests, adhesion evaluation, 336--7 Pulsed laser deposition (PLD), 23 PVD see Physical vapour deposition

Radionuclide technique (RNT) test, 359 Ratchetting, 133 Real component laboratory testing, 355 Reduced contact area and asperity locking, friction

effects, 150 Residual stress:

characteristics, 323 evaluation, 335-6

Rolling contact bearings applications, 387-93 about rolling bearings, 387-8 commonly used materials, 388 hard coating solutions, 390--3

coating thickness issues, 392-3 fatigue issues, 391-2 lifetime improvements, 393 space applications, 392 wear protection/mechanisms, 390-2

soft coating solutions, 388-90 ion-plated gold and lead, 389 plasma-polymer thick silver, 389 sputtered MoS2, 389

Rolling contacts: carbide coatings, wear, 245-6 cracking at surfaces, 119, 121 DLe coatings, 294-5 fatigue:

macromechanieal wear analysis, 161-2 classification, 162-3

tribological tests, 354 friction, 53 multilayer coatings, 311

nil str

Roug asj per red sen

Rougl cen chai peal see

Rubbel Rubbiu

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adhe: fracn surfa,

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Seconda Selectior

hulkn closin] cost is deposi design expert nine st pararne sugges

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36 using p

Selection 1. conn 2. slidir 3. surfa 4. fretti 5. abras 6. impa 7. corro 8. lubrk

Shearing f and coa coetfick with Dl

Silver coal with cer

)-.D isues, 194 lene (PTFE), 189-93 I

particles, 193 ~s, 189 orts, 193 :1 substrates, 190--3 lerties, 189-90

atures.P ngs, characterization and evalua­

ng, 355-9 esting, 359-60 uation, 326-42 al evaluation, 342-7

of test procedures, 360--1 6 luation, 347-55 iods, 360 esion evaluation, 336-7 sition (PLD), 23 vapour deposition

mique (RNT) test, 359

aboratory testing, 355 area and asperity locking, friction

323 -.D earings applications, 387-93 earings, 387-8 j materials, 388 ,Iulions,390--3 mess issues, 392-3 s,391-2 rovements, 393 ations,392 ion/mechanisms, 390--2 lutions, 388-90 old and lead, 389 mer thick silver, 389 oS2,389

gs, wear, 245-.D rfaces, 119, 121 .294-5

anical wear analysis, 161-2 tion, 162-3 tests, 354

Itings,311

nitride coatings, 234-5, 242 stress fields, 58

Rough surfaces, friction effects, 148-51 asperity fatigue, 150--1 penetration, 149-50 reduced contact area and asperity locking, 150 scratching, 148-9

Roughness (Ra), 41-3 centre-line-average (CLA) value, 41 characterisation/evaluation, 324 peak-to-valley height value, 41 see also Surface stresses from loading

Rubber wheel abrasion test, 353 Rubbing. 60

Scanning Tunnelling Microscope, 324 Scratch tests:

adhesion evaluation, 337--41 fracture toughness, 334-5 surface stresses, 110. 113

Scratching: erosion and scratch resistance applications, 414-17 friction effects, 148-9

Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), 343, 346 Selection of coatings:

bulk material issues, 363--4 closing the knowledge gap, 382 cost issues, 364 deposition process issues. 364 design guidelines, 377-9 expert systems, 379-82 nine stage methodology, 367-71 parameter list of major items, 370 suggested check list, 364-5

economics/design, 365 interactions. 365 limitations, 365 requirements, 364

traditional approaches, 365-7 using dominant wear mechanism identification,

365-6 using progressive elimination, 367

Selection of coatings, rules for: 1. contact stresses, 371 2. sliding, 371-3 3. surface fatigue, 373--4 4. fretting, 374 5. abrasion, 374-5 6. impact, 375 7. corrosion and chemical dissolution, 375-6 8. lubricated condition, 376-7

Shearing friction: and coating thickness, 145-6 coefficient of friction, 145-6 with DLC coatings, 146

Silver coatings, 202-6 with ceramic sliding components, 205-6

Index 557

coating techniques, 203 contact pressure issues, 202-3 humidity effects, 203--4 lubrication properties, 202 in non-oxidative environments, 204-5 oxidation issues, 202 with PVD titanium nitride coated steel, 205 wear process, 202

Simulation see Finite element method (FEM) model­ling and simulation; Laboratory simulation tests

Sliding bearing application, 384-6 desirable properties, 384-5 expected improvements, 385-6 suggestions, 386

Sliding contacts: carbide coatings, 244-5 diamond coatings, 250--3, 258-62 DLC coatings, 280--7, 291--4 nitride coatings, 236--40 ultra-low sliding friction. 52 see also Titanium nitride (TiN) coatings

Sliding contacts, friction/wear testing, 347-53 block-on-pin, 349 block-on-ring, 348 dry abrasion, 350 fretting, 349 hammer wear, 349 pin-on-disk, 347, 348, 351-2 pin-on-flat, 348, 353 rubber wheel abrasion, 349 twin disk, 348-9 wet slurry abrasion, 350

Soft metal coatings, tribological properties, 197-211 about soft coatings, 186 about soft metal coatings, 197-8 cadmium coatings, 210-11 chromium coatings, 210 copper coatings, 210 gold coatings, 206-8 indium coatings. 208 lead coatings, 199-20 I nickel coatings, 208-10 silver coatings, 202-6

Soft polymer coatings, tribological properties, 186-97 about soft coatings, 186 see also Polymer coatings

Sol-gel processing, 26-7 comparative characteristics, 10

Solid state processes, 7 Solution state processes, 23-7

about solution state processes, 23--4 chemical solution deposition, 24-5 comparative characteristics, 10 electrochemical deposition, 25-.D plasma electrolysis, 27 sol-gel processing, 10,26-7

Sputter cleaning, 13

558 Index

Sputtering techniques/mechanisms, 12, 15, 18-20 DC-diode sputtering, 18-19 oscillating power sources, 19 pulse power sources, 19-20

asymmetric bipolar, 19-20 symmetric bipolar, 19

see also Magnetron sputter deposition Standardization of test procedures, 360-1

examples of standards, 361 useful test methods, 360

Strain-energy release rate, 82 Structures of coatings:

about coating structures, 7-8, 10 coating thicknesses, 9 general classification, 7-8

table for. 8 process effects on composite structures, 33-9

chemical reactivity issues, 34-5 glassy metal films structures. 38-9 Holleck's concepts, 33-4 mechanical property issues, 35-8

process effects on morphological growth structures. 31-3

eJectrodeposited coatings, 33 ion-assisted PVD systems, 33 multilayered/multiphased coatings, 33-5 plasma assisted PVD systems, 33 thermal spray systems, 33

processing temperatures, 9 see also Cracking at surfaces; Deposition processes;

Tribological properties of coatings Stylus proliJometer, 324 Substrate deformation, and coating thickness, 143,

147-8 Superlubricity, 53

diamond material, 251 DLC coatings, 296-7 with molybdenum disulphide, 216-17

Surface analytical techniques, 346 Surface analytical tools, 345 Surface characteristics, 41-5, 319-20

Beilby layer, 43 chemically reacted layers, 44 interacting surfaces, 41-3 oxide layers, 43-4 roughness (R a) , 41-3 sizes of surface elements, 45

Surface fracture/cracking see Cracking at surfaces; Debris generation and particle agglomeration; Transfer layers; Tribochemical reaction layers

Surface hardening treatments, 30-2 thermal treatments, 30 thermochemical treatments, 30-2

carbonitriding, 32 carburizing, 30-2 nitriding, 30-2 nitrocarbonizing, 32

Surface stresses from loading, 75-117 fracture criteria, 82-3 fracture toughness K, 82 material parameters:

elastic modulus/Young's modulus E (GPa), 77 fracture toughness Kc , 78 hardness H (MPa), 77 strength (MPa), 77 toughness G (kJ/m2

) , 78 ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 77

plastic yield criteria, 81-2 response of materials, 75-7

conforming/non-conforming contacts, 75 elastic materials, 76 fracture, 76-7 plastically deforming materials, 76 viscous materials, 76

roughness influence, 104-8 asperite deformation elastic or plastic issue,

104-5 contact fatigue, 108 hard and soft coatings, 105, 107 patterned surfaces, 107-8 surface/subsurface stresses, 104-5 von Mises stresses, 106-7

see also Finite element method (FEM) modelling and

simulation Surface stresses, residual, 108-17

about residual stresses, 108 ceramic coatings. 108-9 and crack propagation in diamond coatings, 109 FEM analysis/simulation, 110 idealized representation, 109 intrinsic stresses, 115-17

in hard PVD coatings, 116 in hard TiN coatings, 116 interface cracks, 117 in vacuum-deposited coatings, 116

scratch test results. 110, 113 some characteristic stress values, 111-12 thennaJ stresses, I 13-15

FEM calculations, 114 thickness influences, 114-15

thin/thickness effects, 109 X-ray diffraction measurement, 110

Surface stresses/deformations, analytical solutions, 78-81

coated surfaces normally loaded, 83-7 contact pressures and stresses, 86 indenter loaded. 83 normal approach and contact area, 86 published treatments summary, 84-5 subsurface stresses and strains, 86-7

coated surfaces normally and tangentially loaded, 87-92

displacement formulation method, 91

Tab Ten Tesl The The The

c: ni

Thic cl an

fit

Titan for fOI

Titan Titan Titan Titan Titan

abr abr cut

era pur roll slid

c f v h v

slid I 2 3

a,

Ii fl IT

s\

4

I loading, 75-117 2-3 K,82

rs: !Young's modulus E (GPa), 77 ess r; 78 'a), 77 77

l/m2),78

strength (UTS), 77 ia,81-2 ials,75-7 i-conforming contacts, 75 s,76

rming materials, 76 lIs, 76 ce, 104-8 ration elastic or plastic issue,

,108 oatings, 105, 107 ces, 107-8 'ace stresses, 104--5 sses, 106--7 lement method (FEM) ; and

sidual, 108-17 'esses, 108 ,108-9 ;ation in diamond coatings, 109 nulation, 110 ntation, 109 115-17

oatings, 116 iatings. 116 .s, 117 iosited coatings, 116 ts, 110, 113 tic stress values, 111-12 113-15

ons, 114 iences, 114-15 fects, 109 I measurement, 110 formations, analytical solutions,

normally loaded, 83-7 Ires and stresses, 86 :d,83 ach and contact area, 86 itments summary, 84-5 'esses and strains, 86-7 normally and tangentially loaded,

formulation method, 91

stress distributions, 91-2 thermomechanical wear transition model, 91 von Mises stress contour plots, 87-91

Hertzian contact, 79-81 line load on a semi-infinite solid, 78-9

Taber abrasion test, 353 Teratribology, 142 Test procedure standardization, 36G--1 Thermal spraying, 28 Thermal surface hardening, 30 Thermochemical treatments:

carburizing, 3G--2 nitriding, 30-2

Thickness of coatings: characteristics, 320 and friction/wear mechanisms, 9, 143, 145-8

and load support, 143, 148 ploughing, 143, 146-7 shearing. 143. 145-6 substrate deformation, 143, 147-8

measuring methods, 324--6 Titanium aluminium nitride coatings:

for erosive/abrasive contacts, 241 for metal cutting, 240

Titanium boron nitride coatings, 239 Titanium carbide, sliding contacts, 243--4 Titanium carbonitride coatings, 239--40, 241 Titanium diboride coatings, 248 Titanium nitride (TiN) coatings, 226-36

about TiN coatings, 226 abrasive wear resistance, 232-3 cutting contacts, 235-6

dry machining, 235 metal cutting, 235 optimum thickness, 235-6 wear resistance. 235 wood cutting, 235

erosive wear resistance, 233--4 pure titanium layers usage, 227 rolling contacts, 234-5 sliding against non-ferrous materials, 231-2

counterface coatings, 232 friction, 231 with graphite, 232 humidity influence, 232 wear rates, 231

sliding against steel, 227-31 1. initial wear, 227 2. layer formation, 227-8 3. steady state wear, 228 4. layer destruction, 228 adhesive wear, 231 film thickness, 229-30 friction issues, 229-30 microstructure/coating method, 23G--l surface roughness, 229

Index 559

wear performance, 231 substrate adhesion, 226--7 see also Nitride (non-TiN) coatings

Titanium oxide coatings, 247 Tools for cutting applications, 397--413

about cutting tools, 397-9 coatings, improvements with. 403-5

characteristics required, 404 cost benefits, 404 main effects, 403 substrate materials, 404 wear mechanisms, 404--5

contact temperatures, 398 cutting fluids, 402-3 fracture failure, 401 plastic deformation failure, 401 test results:

results summary table, 412 gear cutting tools, 410 knives, blades etc., 413 milling cutters. 408-l0. 411 taps and reamers, 411 turning tools, 405-7 twist drills, 407-8 wood cutting tools, 411-13

tool wear: abrasive wear, 399 adhesive wear, 399 chemical instability effects, 400 delamination wear, 400 diffusion wear, 400 electrochemical wear, 40G--1 flank wear, 401 solution wear, 400

work build up problem, 401-2 Tools for forming applications, 413-14

about forming tools, 413 coatings, improvements with, 413-14

Toughness and fracture toughness in coated surfaces, 127-8

Toughness of materials G (kJ/m 2) , 78 Transfer layers, 135-7

about transfer layers, 135 mechanism for polymers, 135-6 Singer's three-stage nanoscale model, 136-7 with steel and hard coatings, 137

Tresca's maximum shear stress criterion, 81 TRIBEXSY expert system, 381-2 Tribochemical mechanisms. 169-72

about chemical reactions at coatings, 169 oxidation of soft coatings, 170-1 reactive boundary layers formed in lubricated

contacts, 171 thin microfilms formed on hard coatings, 169-70 tribocorrosion. 171-2

Tribochemical reaction layers, 137-9 in metal cutting, 138

560

Tribochemicalreaction layers (Contd.s

in oxygen environments, 138 with water and ethanol, 138-9

Tribocorrosion, 171-2 Tribological evaluation, 347-55

abrasion testing, 353-4 laboratory simulation tests, 354-5 rolling contact fatigue tests, 354 sliding contacts, testing, 347-53

Tribological mechanisms, 139--84 about tribological mechanisms, 139 contact mechanisms, 139-40 environmental parameters, 139-40 lubricated coated contacts, 175-84 macromechanical friction mechanisms,

142-53 macromechanical wear mechanisms,

153--62 micromechanical tribological mechanisms,

162-9 nanophysical tribological mehanisms, 172-5 scales in trihology, 139-42 tribochemical mechanisms, 169-72

Tribological properties of coatings, 185-317 about the properties of coatings, 185-6 carbon and carbon-based coatings, 249-99 hard coatings, 225-49 lamellar coatings, 21 1-25

molybdenum disulphide coatings, 211-25

other lamellar coatings, 211 soft coatings, 186--211

Tribological scale, 139-42 about the scale, 139-40 component tribology/decitribology, 141, 142 global tribology/gigatribology, 141, 142 machinery tribology/unitribology, 141, 142 macrotribology/contact tribology, 141-2 microtribology/asperity tribology, 141 nanotribology/molecular tribology, 141 national tribology/megatribology, 141, 142 plant tribology/kilotribology, 141, 142 universe tribology/teratribology, 141, 142

Tribology, about tribology, 1-5 coating thickness ranges, 2 with computer based modelling, 4 definition. 2 in early technological evolution, I economical impacts, 4-5 friction/wear control approach, I general apprai sal of requirements, 2 for near-vacuum conditions, 1-2 potential, 5 properties of coating zones, 3 technique selection, 3-4 tribochemical reactions, 4

TRIBSEL expert systems, 380-1

Index

Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 77 Ultra-low sliding friction, molybdenum

disulphide-based coatings, 52 Unbalanced magnetron (UBMj effect, 20 Unitribology, 142 Universe tribology/teratribology, 142

Vanadium carbide, sliding contacts, 245 Vanadium nitride coatings, 239 Velocity accommodation concept, 60-1

with micromechanical wear mechanisms. 167-9 Vickers indenter, 328-30 Viscous materials, 76 Volume law of mixtures, 330 Von Mises shear strain energy criterion, 81-2 Von Mises stress contour plots, 87-91

Wear, 53--64 about wear, 53-5 abrasive wear, 56, 57 adhesive wear, 55-7

and asperity deformation, 57 chemical wear, 56, 60 delamination wear theory, 59-60 equations for wear, 62 failure modes, 61-2 fatigue and delamination wear, 57-60 oxidational wear, 60 pitting and spalling, 58 rate of wear, 62-4 rubbing, 60 types of wear, 61-2 velocity accommodation concept, 60-1 wear debris, 49 wear maps, accelerated testing, 356--8 wear mechanisms, 54-5 wear modes, 54-5 wear track analysis, accelerated testing, 359 see also Debris generation and particle

agglomeration; Macromechanical wear mechanisms; Polymer coatings, tribological properties; Sliding contacts, friction/wear testing; Thickness of coatings, and friction! wear mechanisms

Welding state processes, 28-9 Weuability, 322-3

X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), 343 X-ray fluorescence thickness measurements, 324 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 346

Young's modulus/elastic modulus E (OPa), 77 evaluation, 332-3

Zhang'S model of friction, 50 Zirconium nitride coatings, 239