Index

A

Note: The letters ‘ f ’ and ‘t’ following locators denote figures and tables respectively.

AC, see Alternating current (AC)Acid-leached E- and A-glass fabrics, 21–22Acid leaching, 15, 19, 22, 45t, 48, 58Acid-resistant glass fibers, 46t, 48Aerospace–rotors

application, 218critical fitness for use properties, 218–219market trends and future needs, 219

A-glass, 21–22, 24, 45–46, 48, 92, 117–121,199t, 201t, 269, 289, 336–337

A-glass-reinforced composites, 119A-glass variants, 120AGY Holding Corporation, 440Alkali-resistant glass fibers, 45–48

examplesArcoteXTM, 45CemFilTM, 45

reinforcement of cement composites, use,46–47

Alternating current (AC), 180, 433Alumina, Al2O3, 310–313Alumina–borosilicate glass, see E-glass fibersAluminate glass fibers, 11, 13, 45, 60–77Aluminate glass fibers from fragile melts,

60–66downdrawn from supercooled melts

single/bicomponent fluoride fibers, 61single/double crucible process, 60–61

updrawn from supercooled melts, 63faluminate glass fibers, 62hybrid fiber-forming processes, 65–66quaternary calcium aluminate fibers,

64–65tellurite glass fibers, 62

Aluminate glass fibers from inviscid melts,66–77

fiber formation from inviscid jets, 68CLH process, 68

IMS process, 68RJS process, 68

jet formation from inviscid melts, 66–68straight fiber and frozen Rayleigh

waves, 67fAluminosilicate glass fibers, 14t, 99–115, 198,

320, 328Amber chromophore, 288, 326, 424–427

concentration/oxygen partial pressure atdifferent temperatures, 426f

formation and stability of, 427temperature dependence of inten-

sity/absorption coefficient, 426fAmber glass, 231, 246–247, 249, 288, 310,

326, 425–427Amber glass melting, 425–427

amber coloring of glass melts, cause, 425final glass product, dependent factors, 425redox influence in, 426–427See also Amber chromophore

Amorphous alumina vs. single-crystal sapphirefibers, 82–83

Amorphous resinsPC, 166PPO, 166PSU/PESU, 166

Amorphous YAG vs. single-crystal YAGfibers, 83

Annealing point, 23, 201t, 206, 279–280Antistatic agents, 130Aramids, 31, 38, 40, 126, 167, 176, 194, 205,

211–215, 217aromatic polyamide, derived from, 212drawbacks, 213families of

meta-aramid (m-aramid), 212para-aramid (p-aramid), 212

polypara-phenylene terephthalamide,chemical name, 212

F.T. Wallenberger, P.A. Bingham (eds.), Fiberglass and Glass Technology,DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0736-3, C© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010

453

454 Index

ArcoteXTM, 45, 47Armor, 38, 214, 216–218ASTM E-glass standard

general reinforcement applications, 93PCB applications, 93

B2O3 and fluorine fluxes, use in, 99in US, role, 93

Atmospheric emissions, limits, 271–272Automotive–belts, hoses, and mufflers

application, 220Chevrolet Corvette body, 220critical fitness for use properties, 220–221market trends/future needs, 221

BBabcock’s model, see Liquidus modelsBackscattered electron images (BEI), 58–59Ballistics, 36, 38, 208, 216–217Baria, BaO, 323Basalt glass, 35, 37, 45–48, 206–210, 233Basalt Fiber & Composite Materials

Technology Development(BFCMTD), 210

BAT, see Best available technologies (BAT)Batch-free times, 308Batch materials, consolidation of, 300–302Batch melting, stages/levels of

level of meso-kinetics, 404level of micro-kinetics, 404local thermochemical reactions, 404overall mass/heat/power/entropy balance of

furnace, 404unified classification

closed-pore stage; reaction foam stage,405

open-pore stage; warming-up stage, 405volume void filling, 405

Batch-related fluctuations in glass melting,415–416

microwave and neutron absorptiontechniques, detection by, 416

Batch-to melt conversion, 386, 400, 404–409BEI, see Backscattered electron images (BEI)Beryllia (BeO), 39, 40, 203, 204Best available technologies (BAT), 271,

274–275, 277–278, 344BFCMTD, see Basalt Fiber & Composite

Materials Technology Development(BFCMTD)

BFS, see Blast furnace slag (BFS)Bicomponent silicate glass fibers

hollow porous sheath/core, 58hollow sheath/core

aircraft design and construction, usein, 57

S-glass fibers vs. E-glass fibers, 57sheath/core and side-by-side, 56solid side-by-side, 58–59

BEI of bicomponent glass fiber, 59fSEI profiles of calcium and magnesium,

59fBingham, P.A., 232, 295, 307, 309, 316,

337, 339Birefringence, 14Blast furnace slag (BFS), 234, 236, 298,

308–309, 318–319, 333BMC, see Bulk Molding Compounds (BMC)Bone bioactive glass fibers, 53Boric oxide, B2O3, 316–318Boron carriers, role in glass melts, 397–399Boron- and fluorine-free E-glass fibers, 29–30Borosilicate glass, 6, 12–16, 21, 23, 25–26,

28–33, 45t, 48–49, 57–58, 60,92–93, 95, 99, 109, 111–113, 120,127, 185, 188, 190, 201, 250, 253,255–256, 262, 276–277, 294, 297,318, 374f

Borosilicate E-glass fibersboron- and fluorine-free E-glass fibers, 30commercial, 29–30with energy-friendly compositions, design

criteria, 31See also Energy-friendly glass fibers,

design ofindustrial specifications, 29

ASTM E-glass specification, 29tBritish Department of Trade and Industry, 438British Glass Institute

project, objective of, 438results of study, 439

BS standards, UK, 93Bulk molding compounds (BMC), 139t,

141–142, 148–149, 156tbatch/continuous process, 148

Buried passives technology, 193“Bushing,” 6, 9–12, 15, 23–28, 41–42, 48–49,

54, 57–58, 66, 68, 82, 95, 98, 100,103, 117, 128–129, 203, 205, 439

CCahn’s mechanism, 359

creation of intrinsic defects, 359Calcia, CaO, 307–309Calcium aluminate glass fiber, quaternary, 62,

64–65, 73potential applications, 65

Index 455

spectral transmission of, 65fstructural and optical fiber properties, 64updrawn from fragile melts, 64t

Carbon fibers, 17, 36–38, 40, 43, 53, 65, 83,169, 210, 212–213

characteristics/properties, 212PAN-based carbon fibers, 212pitch-based fibers, 212process of manufacture, 212

The cell model, 386CemFilTM, 45–47Centrifugal molding, 142, 144–145C-glass variant, 120Chalcogenide glass fibers, 66Chemical durability of glass

definition, 297modeling of SLS glass, 298SiO2 substitution on hydrolytic durability

of SLS glass, effects of, 298fChemical durability, soda-lime-silica glasses,

231, 297–299, 308, 313–314Chinese C- (or CC-) glass, 24, 26t, 34, 46t, 48,

60, 117–118, 120–121Chlorides and fluorides, 322–323Chopped strand mat (CSM), 34, 138–139, 143,

145, 150t, 169Chopped strands, 33, 139–140, 148, 158, 198

DMC reinforcement, use in, 140Classical Newtonian dynamics, 366CLH process, see Containerless laser-heated

(CLH) fiber-forming processClosed-pore stage, 405Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 16,

127t, 182–183, 193–194, 257, 324Colored glasses, 261, 288–289Combustion-related fluctuations, glass melting

flue gas composition, importance, 416gas solubilities/their partial pressures,

correlation, 416Commercial borosilicate E-glass fibers, 29Commercial E-glass products and applications,

33–34Commercial/experimental glass fibers

aluminate glass fibersfrom fragile melts, see Aluminate glass

fibers from fragile meltsfrom inviscid melts, see Aluminate

glass fibers from inviscid meltsglass fiber formation, principles of

fiber-forming processes, generic, 9–10fibers from fragile/inviscid melts, 4t, 11fibers from strong melts/solutions,

10–11

glass melt formation, principles offragile viscous melts, behavior of, 8–9glass melt properties, 4–8inviscid glass melts, behavior of, 9strong viscous melts, behavior of, 8

silica fibers, sliver and fabricspure, see Silica, sliver and fabrics, puretensile strength of high/ultrahigh-

temperature glass, 22tultrapure, see Silica fibers, ultrapure

silicate glass fibersgeneral-purpose, see Silicate glass

fibers, general-purposenon-round, bicomponent and hollow

silicate fibers, 54–59special-purpose, see Silicate glass

fibers, special-purposefrom strong viscous melts, see Silicate

glass fibers from strong viscousmelts

single-crystal alumina fibersalumina and aluminate fibers, future of,

82–83from inviscid melts, 77–82

structure of melts and fibersfiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12

Composite design and engineeringcomposite mechanical properties

bidirectional (orthotropic)reinforcement, 133–134

levels of study, 131short fibers, 134–137test methods, 137–138unidirectional continuous fibers,

131–132composites for wind turbines

blade design methodologies, 170–172blade-manufacturing techniques,

169–170raw materials, 169

continuous fibers for reinforcement,125–126

E-glass fibers, 127fiberglass manufacturing, 128–129fiberglass size, 129–130products

chopped strands, 140fabrics woven from rovings, 141glass mats, 138–140glass yarn, 141

456 Index

Composite design and engineering (cont.)milled fibers, 140non-woven fabrics, 141rovings, 140

reinforced thermoplastic materials, seeReinforced thermoplastic materials

thermoset composite materialapplications, 142ffabrication process, parameters, 142fillers, 154–155liquid resin processing techniques, see

Techniques, liquid resin processingrelease agents, 155–156thermosetting matrix resins, see Resins,

thermosettingComposites, 17, 22, 31, 34, 37–38, 40, 43–44,

47–49, 51, 54–55, 66, 78, 82, 114,117, 119, 125–126, 129–131, 133,138–142, 146, 152–154, 156, 164,168, 177

Composites for wind turbinesblade design methodologies, 170–172

ASTM D3479/D3039, test standardused, 171

blade design, example of, 170ffatigue mechanism, 171fatigue test data on epoxy matrix/glass

fabric specimen, 172flog–log model, 171S–N regression parameter estimates,

172tblade-manufacturing techniques,

169–170blade components, design, 170RTM, 170VARTM, 170

composite technology, advantages/benefits,168–169

raw materials, 169wind energy park, 168fwind, renewable energy source, 168

Compositional design principles, 91–99Compositional reformulation for reduced

energy use and cost, 92, 98–99,105–107, 112, 117, 119

Compounding process/compound, defined,125–126

Compressive strength, 138, 150t, 213–215,217–218

Conductive DC-arc plasma(s), 433Configurational entropy Sc(T), 394Conradt, R., 385

Container glass, 48, 117, 119, 230–232,234–237, 245–251, 254, 258,261–262, 273, 277, 280, 282–284,288–289, 291, 295, 297–298,303–304, 307, 309, 311, 315–316,318–319, 321, 325, 327–328, 334t,337, 342–343, 413, 415, 419, 423

green container glass, development of, 248fwhite container glass, development of, 247f

Containerless laser-heated (CLH) fiber-formingprocess

mullite composition glass fibers, 70process concept, 68–69YAG glasses and glass fibers, 69–70

Continuous filament-forming process, 128fContinuous glass fibers, 9, 56, 66, 144–145,

160, 202, 215, 439Continuous laminating

continuous liquid resin processingtechnique, 145–146

non-continuous liquid resin processingtechniques, 145t

Continuous updrawing process, 63fCorrosion, refractory

corrosion rate as function of Arrheniusfunction, 293

corrosion tests, importance, 293downward drilling, 293by molten glass, key factors, 293ZrO2/zircon refractories, 294t

corrosion loss as function oftemperature and glass composition,295f

Noyes–Nernst equation, 294Coupling agents, 130, 155Cracking, 47, 134–136, 171Crimp effect, 141Crystalline reference system (c.r.s.), 386,

389t, 408Crystal, 7, 11, 13–14, 65–66, 68, 70, 77–83,

98, 119, 229, 230, 233, 235, 237,242, 251, 259–261, 281–286, 313,317, 320, 323, 367f, 368, 370, 377,388, 448

Crystallization/devitrification, 7, 12EDG process, 14

CSM, see Chopped strand mat (CSM)CTE, see Coefficient of thermal expansion

(CTE)Cullet, 302–304

effect, 236–237foreign cullet, 236in-house cullet, 236, 256

Index 457

optimization, tool for minimizingSEC, 332

recycling, ecological advantages,236, 415

Curing agents, categoriescatalytic, 150coreactive, 150

DDavy process, 62, 64DC, see Direct current (DC)De-bonding, 135, 136Debye model, 373Debye temperature, 361, 365, 370, 373Defense–hard composite armor

application, 216–217critical fitness for use properties, 217iron triangle for armor systems, 217fmarket trends and needs, 218

Deformation ratio, 55Delta temperature, 4, 8–9, 12, 24, 30t, 36,

49, 68, 98, 100–109, 111–114,116–117, 119–121

Density, 231, 299Design of energy-friendly glass fibers, 91

environmental regulations and emissioncontrol, 92

industry standards and specifications,92–93

ASTM E-glass standard D-570–00, 93tDesign requirements, soda-lime-silica glass,

268–269Devitrification, 7, 12, 23, 61, 233, 265,

281–286, 309, 327–328, 339, 341,433, 439

D-glass, 49–50, 60, 92, 186t, 188–191,199–201

compositional improvements,challenges/problems

boron volatility, 188glass melting, 188hollow filaments, 189homogenization, 188limited manufacturing options, 189PCB-related difficulties, 189poorer forming behavior, 189

limitations, 190–191Dielectric constant (Dk), 3, 16–17, 33–34,

49–53, 57, 112, 179–180, 186–189,369, 445

performance of PCB, vital factor, 180Dielectric dissipation factor, 181Dielectric loss (Df), 49, 180–181, 190

DIN standards, Germany, 93Diode lasers, mid-infrared, 423Direct current (DC), 26–27, 180, 433–434,

441, 450tDMC, see Dough molding compound (DMC)DOE, see US Department of Energy (DOE)DOE research project (2003–2006), 440–450

energy efficiency vs. throughputenergy balance, 449–450energy efficiency, 448

glasses melting, results/implications, 444trials, 444

plasma glass melting, technical challengesof, 442–443

plasmelt melting system, experimentalsetup of, 440–441

energy efficiency, 443melter stability, 443melter throughput, 443purge gas costs, 443torch life and stability, 442–443

synthetic minerals processing implications,447–448

‘cullet’ (quenched glass), 448synthetic minerals processing(batching

with oxides), 448Dolomite, 29, 156t, 235, 239t, 245–246,

251, 262–265, 300, 304, 307–310,334–336, 339–340, 342, 399t,400–408, 432

Double-crucible melts spinning process, 61fDough molding compound (DMC), 139t, 140

pressure molding application, 140Downward drilling, 293Dry spinning process, 9, 11, 15, 18–22

acrylic fibers, fabrication of, 19

EEconomics, 230, 341–343ECR-glass, 24, 26t, 45, 60, 92, 99, 114–116,

120–121ECR-glass variants, energy- and eco friendly,

114–116corrosion-resistant ECR-glass, commercial,

114EDG, see Edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG)

processEdge-defined film-fed growth (EFG) process,

14, 77–79process versatility, 78sapphire fibers, growth of, 78

EFG process, see Edge-defined film-fed growth(EFG) process

458 Index

E-glass fibers, 6–8, 12–14, 16, 19, 20–34,36–38, 43, 45–52, 54, 57–58,60, 64, 72–73, 75–76, 92–93, 95,99–114, 116t, 119, 127, 183–188,190–191, 198, 201–203, 205–206,208–209, 211t, 213, 215, 220,222, 276–277, 294–295, 316, 318,387–388, 391–392, 394–395, 397,406–407, 437, 444–449

AR coating, benefits, 47–48ASTM E-glass standard D-570–00, 93t

general reinforcement applications, 93PCB applications, 93, 127

composition, 185definition, 127products and applications, 33–34properties and fiber structures

electrical bulk properties, 33tmechanical properties, 31physical properties, 32–33, 127t

textile industry, categories, 185See also Borosilicate E-glass fibers

E-glass-reinforced composites, 119E-glass variants with 2–10% B2O3,

energy-friendlyeffect of boron at equal delta temperatures,

113quaternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO-B2O3 phase

diagram, 111trend line design of, 111–113

Einstein coefficient (kE), 75Eirich Intensive Mixer, 444Elastic modulus (E), 70, 178, 181–182, 186,

203, 206, 208, 213–214, 218alumina, effect on, 203–204BeO additions, effect on, 203methods for improving glass fiber modulus,

203tM-glass, high-modulus fiberglass, 204rare earth oxides, effect on, 204specific modulus (E sp), equation, 204

Electrical properties, 289–291Electrochemical oxygen sensors, 419Electronics, 38, 83, 175, 180, 191–192,

194, 445Electrostatic precipitators (EPs), 275, 329Elongation, 31, 35–36, 126–127, 132, 151,

161t, 201t, 201f, 203, 208–209,212–213, 296

Emission control systems, 92Emission spectroscopy, 421–422Energy consumption vs. glass throughput, 449fEnergy efficiency vs. throughput, 448–450

energy balance, 449–450energy efficiency, 448–449

Energy-friendly glass fibers, design ofaluminosilicate glass fibers

ECR-glass variants, see ECR-glassvariants, energy- and eco friendly

E-glass variants with <2% B2O3,99–111

E-glass variants with 2–10% B2O3,

111–113compositional reformulation for reduced

energy use and cost, 92, 98–99,105–107, 112, 117, 119

designing new compositions, principles,91–99

compositional, energy, andenvironmental issues, seeDesign issues of energy-friendlyglass fibers

trend line design, see Fiberglass (new)compositions, trend line design of

design requirementscommercial glass compositions, 269environmental legislation, compliance

with, 268standardization of glass compositions,

criteria, 268environmental issues

atmospheric emission limits, 269, 272tpollution prevention and control,

see Pollution prevention/control,eco-friendly glasses

SEC, 269–271fundamental glass properties

chemical durability, 297–299conductivity and heat transfer, 286–291density and thermo-mechanical

properties, 299devitrification and crystal growth,

281–286interfaces, surfaces, and gases, 291–296viscosity–temperature relationship,

279–281glass reformulation methodologies

benefits and pitfalls, 341–343research requirements, 343–344worked examples and implementation,

330–341SLS glasses, design of

alumina, Al2O3, 309–313baria, BaO, 323batch processing, preheating, and

melting, 300–302

Index 459

boric oxide, B2O3, 316–318calcia, CaO, 307–309chlorides and fluorides, 322–323cullet, 302–304economics of batch selection, 300fenergy-saving technologies, 270lithia, Li2O, 315–316magnesia, MgO, 309multivalent constituents, 324–327nitrates, 329–330potassia, K2O, 313–315recycled filter dust, 329silica, SiO2, 304–305soda, Na2O, 305–307strontia, SrO, 324sulfate, SO3, 318–321water, H2O, 321–322zinc oxide, ZnO, 323–324

soda–lime–silica (S–L–S) glass fibersA- and C-glass compositions, 117–119

Energy losses in plasma melting, 450tEnthalpy function, 357, 359–365, 377Enthalpy of fusion (H fus), 386Enthalpy of vitrification (H vit), 386Entropy and viscosity, glasses/glass melts

Adam–Gibbs plot for reference E-glass,395f

configurational entropy Sc(T), 394Entropy of fusion (Sfus), 386Entropy of vitrification (Svit), 386Epoxy (EP) resins, 144, 146, 148, 150–151,

169, 182, 194characteristics of, 151hardener, impact on cured resin, 151

EP resins, see Epoxy (EP) resinsEPs, see Electrostatic precipitators (EPs)

FFabrics, 15–23, 33–34, 44, 48, 55f, 57, 61, 141,

143–146, 150–153, 169, 170–172,176–177, 181–182, 184, 188,190, 192–193, 210, 217–218, 275,277–278, 329

Fabrics woven from rovings, 141Faraday constant (F), 419Fatigue, 57, 140t, 151, 164, 169, 171–172,

218–220Fiber cross section technology, 54Fiber-forming melts, crystallization rates of, 8fFiber-forming processes

generic, 10fdry spinning, 9, 11melt spinning, 9

Fiber-forming temperature (log 3 FT)in design of new fiberglass compositions,

95–98MgO and TiO2, impact on, 103

Fiber-forming viscosity (FV), 4, 6, 18, 52, 68Fiberglass, 4, 6, 8, 12, 15, 24f, 26–31, 33–34,

44, 48–49, 77, 91, 92, 94–99,120t, 126, 128–130, 133–134,139–141, 151–152, 158–159, 161,163, 167–170, 172t, 175, 176–179,180–186, 188–189, 191–194, 198,204, 207, 209–210, 212–213,215–222, 279, 284, 304, 336, 437,439, 444–445, 450

manufacturingcontinuous filament-forming process,

128fsize, 129–130

functional groupings in, 130fprovides lubrication, 129thermal degradation prevention, by

additives, 130Fiberglass (new) compositions, trend line

design ofcommercial and experimental, 120tcompositions, energy use, and emissions

addition/removal of flux, 99compositional reformulation, 99

glass databases and compositional models,94

melt properties requireddelta temperature, 98fiber-forming and liquidus

temperatures, 95–98melt viscosity/melt temperature,

relationship, 96fternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO system, phase

diagram of, 97fprinciples/aim, 94–95

Fiberglass yarn, fabric, and laminate boardsprocess steps of manufacture, 176f

Fiberization, 27, 128, 188, 395, 438–439Fiber pullout, 135Fiber-reinforced composites (FRC), 40,

131, 142, 154, 164, 171, 210,218–219, 289

comparison of properties of variety ofhigh-performance fibers, 211t

Fiber rupture, 135ruptured specimen, 136f

Fibers/melts, structure offiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14

effect of alumina on, 13t

460 Index

Fibers/melts, structure of (cont.)fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15

effect of composition on tensilestrength, 14t

spin orientation, effects, 14surface flaws/non-uniformities, effects,

14from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12

energetic/environmentally friendlyfiberglass, design of, 12

Fiber structurevs. modulus, 12–14vs. strength, 14–15

Fiber weave effect (FWE), 184Fictive temperature (Tf), 202Filament-forming process, continuous, 128fFilament winding, 140, 142, 144, 146Fillers, 140, 147, 154–155, 156t, 183–184

characteristics of, 156tfinal composite, characteristics, 155ideal filler, criteria, 154inorganic/organic, 154magnesium oxide, use in SMC, 155matrix resin/filler, reqirements for bonding,

155organo-functional silanes, used

in, 155Flame visualization, techniques, 423Flammability, 150–153, 166, 178–179,

215, 217Flat glass, 230–231, 236, 242–245, 250,

262, 273, 278, 284, 298, 303,310, 316–319, 321, 325, 327–328,336–337, 413

Flexural modulus, 131, 138, 150tFluoride fibers, single/bicomponent, 61Fluorine and boron-free A-glass, 117Fluorine-free C-glass, 117–119Fluorophosphate glass fibers, 66Flux

definition, 99examples, 99, 114

Fragile viscous meltsbehavior of, 8–9contents, 3

FRC, see Fiber-reinforced composites (FRC)Fulcher curve, 4, 6f

of borosilicate and boron-free E-glassmelts, 6f

Furnace periscope, 423FV, see Fiber-forming viscosity (FV)FWE, see Fiber weave effect (FWE)

GGel coat, curing liquid, 143

purpose of use in molding, 143Glass

composition, importance, 127low CTE component, 183viscosity–temperature relationship, 127

Glass compositional familiesD-glass, compositional improvements,

188–191challenges/problems, 188–189limitations, 190–191

E-glass, improvements, 184–188boron-free E-glass, 186challenges/limitations, 187–188E-glass specification as per ASTM

D-578–00, 185timproving dielectric properties,

186–187The Industry Standard, 185–186textile industry, categories, 185

Glass databases and compositional models, 94Glass (energy-friendly) fibers, design

requirementscommercial glass compositions, 269

SLS glass compositions, 269tenvironmental legislation, compliance

with, 268standardization of glass compositions,

criteria, 268Glass fiber formation, principles of

fiber-forming processes, generic, 9–10fibers from fragile/inviscid melts, 11

single-crystal sapphire/YAG, examples,11

fibers from strong melts/solutions, 10–11silica glass fibers, example, 11

Glass fiberswith bone bioactive oxide compositions,

53–54with high chemical stability, 46t

acid-resistant glass fibers, 48alkali-resistant glass fibers, 45–48chemical resistance of glass fibers,

44–45with high densities/dielectric constants,

50–51with low dielectric constants, 49–50with super- and semiconducting properties,

53with very high dielectric constants, 51–53

Glass fibers, commercial/experimentalaluminate glass fibers

Index 461

glass fibers from fragile melts, 60–66glass fibers from inviscid melts, 66–77

glass fiber formation, principles offiber-forming processes, generic, 9–10fibers from fragile/inviscid melts, 11fibers from strong melts/solutions,

10–11glass melt formation, principles of

fragile viscous melts, behavior of, 8–9glass melt properties, 4–8inviscid glass melts, behavior of, 9strong viscous melts, behavior of, 8

silica fibers, sliver, and fabricspure, 19–23ultrapure, 15–19

silicate glass fibersformation from strong viscous melts,

see Silicate glass fibers from strongviscous melts

general-purpose, see Silicate glassfibers, general-purpose

non-round, bicomponent and hollowsilicate fibers, 54–59

special-purpose, see Silicate glassfibers, special-purpose

single-crystal alumina fibersalumina and aluminate fibers, future of,

82–83from inviscid melts, 77–82

structure of melts and fibersfiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12

Glass fiber strength, 14t, 198–203Griffith equation for calculation of stress,

200single-fiber tensile strength for differnt

glass fiber compositions, 201fspecific strength (σsp), equation for, 202theoretical strength, Orowan’s expression,

199types, 202

Glass (industrial) making, principles ofcullet effect, 236–237demands on the glass melt, 228–231

chemical resistivity, higher, 229color demands, 228iron content, impact on color of glass,

228legislative requirements, 229production cost, low, 228workability, 229

economics, 228melting costs, 228raw material costs, 228

glass refining, 237–240meltability, parameters

calculation of glass properties, factorsfor, 231t

calculation of viscosity factors for, 233tdecreased melting temperature, uses,

232furnace design and charging system,

232glass composition, 232particle size of raw materials, 232raw material selection, 232

raw materials, choice of, 235–236workability, 233–235

definition, 233Glass mats, 138–140Glass mat thermoplastic (GMT), 157,

159–160Glass melt formation, principles of

fragile viscous melts, behavior of, 8–9glass melt properties, 4–8inviscid glass melts, behavior of, 9strong viscous melts, behavior of, 8

Glass melting and fiber formation, 3–15See also Glass fibers,

commercial/experimentalGlass melting technology

enthalpy functions of one-componentsystems, analysis of

pre-melting range/molar specific heatcapacity, 361–365

theoretical preliminaries, 359–361expansion of solids and melts, cause,

369–375dilatometer curve of a borosilicate

glass, 374fLennard–Jones potential energy of an

atom with another atom, 370flowering temperature, effects, 371thermal volume expansion, expression,

373glass formation, criteria for, 375–380glass melt/glass product, properties of,

414–417batch-related fluctuations, see

Batch-related fluctuations in glassmelting

combustion-related fluctuations, seeCombustion-related fluctuations,glass melting

462 Index

Glass melting technology (cont.)constant chemical composition, criteria

to achieve, 414oxidation state, impact on, 415tparameters, 414process-related fluctuations, 416–417related quantities, 414

glass transformation range, effects incrystallization, slow down of, 368electron system decoupling, 369ESR/NMR signals, modification, 368relaxation effects, parameters, 369

mathematical modeling/control ofproperties, role in, 413–414

melting and glass transformation, 365–368electronic transitions, effect on,

366–367nucleation and crystal growth, 368scheme, 367f

melting criteriacreation of intrinsic defects, Cahn’s

mechanism, 359Lindemann’s criterion, 356–357melting temperatures, predictions, 357one-component system, example, 366f

modulus of compression of chemicalelements, 375–376

monitoring properties using in situ sensors,418

emission spectroscopy, 421–422LIBS, 422redox measurement, 418–419viscosity, 418voltammetric sensor, see Voltammetric

sensormonitoring species in combustion space

using in situ sensorscombustion efficiency optimization,

423environmental measurements, 422–423

motivation, 355–356Kauzmann paradox, 356“the mysterious glass transition,”

Langer, 356multi-component systems, extension to,

381quality optimization, constraints

ecological, 414economic, 414energetic, 414

stability control, examplesamber glass melting, redox control of,

see Amber glass melting

melting with high portions of recycledglass, 423–424

trials, 444–447Glass melting, thermodynamics of

batch-to-melt conversionbatch melting, stages of, 404–405heat demand of, 405–407phase stability diagram for simplified

E-glass composition, 408freaction path, modeling of,

405–407, 409tglasses/glass melts

chemical potentials/vapor pressures ofindividual oxides, 391–393

entropy and viscosity, 394heat content of glass melts, 388–390industrial glass-forming systems,

thermodynamic properties, seeThermodynamic properties,industrial glass-forming systems

individual raw materials, role ofboron carriers, 397–399dolomite and limestone, 400–403sand, 396–397

Glass-melting viscosity, 232Glass melt properties, 4–8, 413, 417–422Glass melt stability, 413–427Glass properties, fundamental

chemical durability, 297–299conductivity and heat transfer, 286–291

electrical properties, 289–291specific heat capacity, 286thermal conductivity/optical properties,

287–289density and thermo-mechanical properties,

299devitrification and crystal growth,

281–286liquidus models, 284–286methods of avoiding devitrification,

282–284ternary SiO2−CaO–Na2O system, phase

diagram for, 283finterfaces, surfaces, and gases, 291–296

chemical durability, 297–299density and thermo-mechanical

properties, 299refining, 291–292refractory corrosion, 293–296surface energy, 296See also Refining

viscosity–temperature relationship, 280fmethods of measuring, 279

Index 463

viscosity models, 281viscosity set points for SLS glass, 279t

Glass refining, 237–240Glass reformulation methodologies, 330–344

benefits and pitfalls, 341–343examples and implementation

batch constrained reformulation,333–335, 338t

component/parameter checklist for SLSglass, 331t

compositionally constrainedreformulation, 331–332, 334t

other industrial trials andimplementation, 339–341

unconstrained reformulation, 337–339physical properties/parameters as a

function of reformulation, 333tprinciples, 332research requirements, 343–344

Glass reinforced plastics (GRP), 143Glass softening point, 206Glass transition temperature (Tg), 4, 16, 23, 34,

101–102, 165–167, 368, 374, 382,386, 407–408

Glass volatilization, 188, 254, 276–278, 281,289, 292–293, 301, 318, 326, 329,415t, 435, 447

Glass yarn, 48, 141, 176, 181, 184, 186,189, 220

Global warming, 273, 343GMT, see Glass mat thermoplastic (GMT)Gonterman, R.J, 431–451Green glass melting, 424Griffith equation, 200

HHand Lay-Up (HLU), 143

GRP production, use in, 143Hausrath, R.L., 197–222HDI, see High density interconnects (HDI)HDT, see Heat deflection temperature (HDT)Heat content of glass melts, 388–390Heat deflection temperature (HDT), 166Heat of formation of glass, 385, 406Heat demand of melting, 405–407Heat transfer (HT), 434–435, 437High density interconnects (HDI), 192, 193High-intensity DC-arc plasmas, technology of

conductivedirect contact of particles of matter, 434

Joule heatingJoule’s first law, 436ohmic heating, 436

Ohm’s law, 436SI unit of energy (J), 436unit of power (Watt), 436

radiantin glass melting, 437

High-modulus–high-temperature glass fibers,39–40, 39t

High-modulus (HM) glass fibers, 13, 35,38–39, 204

Heat-resistant polymers, 166–167High-strength–high-temperature glass fibers

process and products, 34–38properties and applications, 38

High-strength (HS) glass fibers, 34–36,197–222

characteristicscompositional ranges (wt%), 198telastic modulus, 203–205strength, see Glass fiber strengththermal stability, 205–206

competitive material landscapecarbon fibers, 212polymer fibers, 212–214

continuous glass fibers, advantagescompressive strength, 215flammability or oxidation resistance,

215low cost, 215strength and modulus, 215thermal stability, 215

glass compositional familiesHiPer-texTM, 209K-glass, 209properties, 201tR-glass, 208S-glass, 197, 206–208S-1 GlassTM, 209

markets and applicationsaerospace – rotors and interiors,

218–219automotive – belts, hoses, and mufflers,

220–221defense – hard composite armor,

216–218high-strength fiber market, overview,

216findustrial reinforcements – pressure

vessels, 221–222US Patent 3,402,055 by Owens Corning,

198“High-temperature” polymers, definition, 166

properties of, effect of fiberglassreinforcement on, 167t

464 Index

HiPer-texTM, 209, 222HLU, see Hand Lay-Up (HLU)Hoffmann, H.J, 355–381Hollow filament, 181, 186, 189HS4 glass, 207–208HT, see Heat transfer (HT)Hybrid fabric constructions, 184Hybrid fiber-forming processes, 65–66

IIdeal mixing of complex components, model

of, 386ILSS, see Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS)Impact strength, 138, 160, 162IMS process, see Inviscid melt spinning (IMS)

processIndustrial glasses

compositions, examplescontainer glass batch charge, examples

of, 262–265perspectives, 261

compositions ofcolored glasses, 260container glass, 244–249flat glass, 242–243history, 240–241lead crystal, 258–260lead-free utility glass, 250–252production costs, vital factor, 227technical glass, 252–258viscosity, effect on, 232

industrial glass making, principles ofcullet effect, 236–237demands on the glass melt, 228–231economics, 228glass refining, 237–240meltability, 231–233raw materials, choice of, 235–236workability, 233–235See also Glass (industrial) making,

principles ofIndustrial reinforcements – pressure vessels

application, 221–222critical fitness for use properties, 222market trends and future needs, 222

Industry E-glass specifications, 29, 185–186Inhibitors (or retarders), 149Injection molding technology, 157In situ sensors

for glass melting, 418ffor monitoring glass melt properties,

418–422advantage of, 419

for monitoring species in the combustionspace, 422–423

principles applied in sensors, measuring,417t

Institute for Printed Circuits (IPC), 192Interconnect Technology Research Institute

(ITRI), 191Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS), 138–139

short span flexural test, 138International Organization for Standardization

(ISO), 137–140, 297dynamic testing of fiberglass-reinforced

composites, standards for, 140tmechanical testing of fiberglass-reinforced

composites, standards for, 139tInternational Technology Roadmap for

Semiconductors (ITRS), 191Inviscid glass melts

behavior of, 9contents, 4

Inviscid melt spinning (IMS) process, 68,70–76

mechanism of jet solidification, 73–76inviscid calcium aluminate jets,

chemical stabilization/properties of,75–76

metal fibers formation in a reactiveenvironment, 70–72

oxide glass fiber formation in a reactiveenvironment, 72–73

IPC, see Institute for Printed Circuits (IPC)ISO, see International Organization for

Standardization (ISO)ITRI, see Interconnect Technology Research

Institute (ITRI)ITRS, see International Technology Roadmap

for Semiconductors (ITRS)

JJapanese consortium project

degree of vitrification, 440melting devices

an RF plasma apparatus, 440oxygen burner apparatus, 44012-phase AC arc, 440

Johns-manville, 437–438, 440Joule heating, 190, 434, 436–437

Joule’s first law, 436Ohm’s law, 436SI unit of energy (J), 436unit of power (Watt), 436

Joule, James Prescott, 436Joule’s first law, 436

Index 465

KKauzmann paradox, 356Kevlar, 34, 212–213

para-aramid, 212K-glass, 207t, 209“Knee,” 134“Knuckles,” 141, 184Krieger–Dougherty equation, 409

LLakatos models, 281Laminate, 32, 33, 57, 132–134f, 139f, 143,

150–152, 169, 171, 176–178,180–185, 189, 193–194

Laser absorption spectroscopy, 423Laser-heated float zone (LHFZ) method, 53,

77–82Laser-heated pedestal growth (LHPG) process,

70, 77–82high Tc superconducting fibers, 81–82single-crystal fibers, growth of, 79–81

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy(LIBS), 422

Lawton, E.L., 125–172LCP, see Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)Lead crystal, 258–260Lead-free utility glass, 250–252Lead glass, 51–52, 55, 232, 257, 259–260Lewis acids/bases, 150LFT, see Long Fiber Thermoplastic (LFT)L-glass, 186t, 189, 193LHFZ method, see Laser-heated float zone

(LHFZ) methodLHPG process, see Laser-heated pedestal

growth (LHPG) processLIBS, see Laser-induced breakdown

spectroscopy (LIBS)Limestone, 235, 239t, 245–246, 251, 253–254,

263–265, 300–301, 304, 307–308,334–336, 340–342, 400–404,406–408, 432, 444, 448

Lindemann, 357Lindemann’s criterion for glass melting, 357Liquid crystal polymer (LCP), 167

lyotropic/thermotropic, 167Liquid resin processing techniques, 142–148Liquidus models, 284–286, 338Liquidus temperature (LT)

crystal formation at, 6in design of new fiberglass compositions,

96soda-lime-silica glass, 231, 281, 286, 307,

309, 313, 317–318

Lithia, Li2O, 315–316Lithium ion batteries, 99Littleton softening point, 264, 279“Loewenstein, private communication (1997)”,

117Log (viscosity), see Glass-melting viscosityLong Fiber Thermoplastic (LFT), 157,

159–160, 216fdirect (D-LFT), 160granulated (G-LFT), 160

Longobardo, A.V., 175–194Low weight-reinforced thermoplastic (LWRT)

mats, 160Lyotropic/thermotropic LCPs, 167

MMagnesia, MgO, 309–310Mass spectrometry, 73, 423Matrix failure, 135Mechanical properties, composites

bidirectional (orthotropic) reinforcement,133–134

levels of study, 131short fibers, 134–137test methods

compressive strength, 138flexural strength and modulus, 138impact strength, 138shear strength, 138tensile strength and modulus, 137–138

unidirectional continuous fibers, 131–132Meltability, 232–233Melting temperature (Tm)

mathematical definition, 357properties, 357

Melt spinning process, 11, 15, 34, 66,70–71, 76

Melt temperature and linear viscosity,relationship, 7f

Microwave circuitrydielectric dissipation factor of PCB, criteria

for design of, 181Microwave/ neutron absorption techniques,

416Milled fibers, 33, 140Mod ratio, 54–55

nylon ribbons/fibers, effect on, 55Modular/skull melting, 431–433

glass melting, 431skull melting, 431–432

disadvantage, 432Modulus of elasticity (E), 126, 131, 198Molybdenum, 41, 205, 437, 439, 441, 447

466 Index

Muller-Simon, H., 292, 413–427Mullite composition glass fibers, 70Multi-axial fabrics, 141Multi-component systems, 381, 386

NNatural gas (NG), 26, 38, 221, 275, 416NBO, see Non-bridging oxygens (NBO)NEDO, see New Energy and Industry

Technology DevelopmentOrganization (NEDO)

NE-glass, 186t, 189–191, 193Nernstian equation, 419Network forming (NWF) oxides, 305Network modifier (NWM) cations, 305New Energy and Industry Technology

Development Organization(NEDO), 439

Newtonian fluid, 75, 128, 281Nomex R©, 212

meta-aramid, 212Non-bridging oxygens (NBO), 305, 307Non-round, bicomponent and hollow silicate

fibersbicomponent silicate glass fibers

hollow porous sheath/core, 58hollow sheath/core, 56–57sheath/core and side-by-side, 56solid side-by-side, 58–59

fabrication of, 55fglass fibers with non-round cross sections

processes and structures, 54–55products and applications, 55–56

Non-transferred-arc plasmas, 434fNon-woven fabrics, 141

bidirectional, 141crimp effect, 141multi-axial, 141unidirectional, 141

Noyes–Nernst equation, 294Nucleation and crystal growth, 368, 379

OOffline flue gas analysis, 422Offline/online flue gas analysis, 422Ohmic heating, see Joule heatingOhm’s law, 436Olefin copolymers, cyclic, 184One component systems, 356, 358–365, 369,

375, 378–382Online flue gas analysis, 422

mass spectrometry used in, 423Open-pore stage, 405“Oxidation state,” 414

Oxide (individual), reactivity ofevaporation reactions from glass melts,

392tfactors, 391Gibbs energies G in kJ/mol of oxides in

equilibrium, 392tmolar mass factors for calculation of

equilibrium constants, 393tOxides of nitrogen (NOx ), 273–275Oxides of sulphur, SOx, 275–276Oxygen and concentration sensor, combined,

417–418, 420fuse in industrial glass melts, 419

Oxygen partial pressure, 414–419, 423–427Nernstian equation, emf calculation by, 419

Oxynitride glasses, 41, 43–45, 203t, 205

PPA, see Polyamide (PA)Particulates, 276–278PBT, see Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT)PC, see Polycarbonate (PC)PCB, see Printed circuit boards (PCB)PCB glass fibers, 93, 120PCB, glass fibers for

electrical aspectsdielectric constant, 179–180dielectric loss, 180–181hollow filaments, 181polarization of a dielectric, 180fvelocity equation for a PCB laminate,

180fiberglass’ role in PCB construction,

177–179fiberglass/resin properties used in FR4

laminate board, 178tPCB, design criteria, 177–178

glass compositional familiesD-glass, compositional improvements,

188–191E-glass, improvements, 184–188

PCB market, future needs ofboard and yarn makers, impact on,

192–194electronics manufacturer’s roadmap,

191–192environmental regulations, 194fiberglass use, importance, 194HDI manufacture, design criteria,

192–193lead-free processing, 194operating frequency range as a function

of board layers, 192frequirements and implications, 176–177

Index 467

fiberglass yarn/fabric/laminate boards,process of manufacture, 176f

structural aspectselastic modulus, 182mechanical strength, 182thermal expansion, 182–183upper use temperature, 183–184weave and fabric construction, 184

Permittivity, 179–181PESU, see Polyethersulfone (PESU)PET, see Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)PF resins, see Phenolic (PF) resins3-phase electric melters, typical, 437Phenolic (PF) resins, 152, 217

characteristics of, 152high flammability resistance/low smoke

emission, 152open mold applications, 152

Phonon system, 369Plasma melter, 433, 439, 441, 443–445,

447–448, 451See also Modular/skull melting

Plasma melting technology/applicationsDOE research project (2003–2006),

440–450acknowledgments, 440energy efficiency vs. throughput,

448–450glasses melted: results/implications,

444–447plasma glass melting, technical

challenges of, 442–443plasmelt melting system, experimental

setup of, 440–442synthetic minerals processing

implications, 447–448high-intensity DC-Arc plasmas, technology

of, 433–437conductive, 434–435Joule heating, 436–437radiant, 435–436

history ofBritish glass institute, 438Japanese consortium project, 439Johns-manville, 437Plasmelt glass technologies, LLC,

438–439industrial applications, best-fit, 450modular/skull melting, concepts of,

431–433plasma-melted glasses, chemical analyses

of, 446tPlasma melt process, experimental, 26–27

application, 27skull-melting concept, benefits, 27vs. conventional glass furnace technology,

26Plasmelt coupled transferred-arc melter, 441fPlasmelt Glass Technologies, 27

add-on refiner stage, 439United States Department of Energy

(DOE), 438Plasmelt-melted E-glasses vs. standard E-glass,

chemistry of, 444tPlasmelt plasma melting system, 441

anode torch, 441molybdenum orifice, 441torch position, 441

Poisson’s ratio, 127t, 182, 375Pollution prevention/control, eco-friendly

glassescarbon dioxide

sources of emission, 273furnace design, 271–272

furnace designs, BAT, 272toxides of nitrogen (NOx))

generation as a function of furnacetemperature, 274f

generation mechanisms, 273–274global warming, cause, 273NOx control, primary/secondary

techniques, 274–275oxides of sulfur (SOx )

sources of emissions, 275SOx control/reduction, techniques, 275

volatilization and particulatesdust emissions from glass furnaces,

comparison of, 276tfurnace pull rate/temperature on

particulate emissions, effects of, 278glass composition/temperature/

pressure, effects on, 276particulate formation/emission control,

BAT, 277particulates, sources, 277volatilized mass loss as a function of

temperature, 277tPolyacetal (POM), 165Polyamide (PA), 140, 157, 159–161, 164,

166–167, 212Polybenzobisoxazole (PBO) fiber, 211t, 214

high-performance fiber, 214zylon, example, 214

Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT),160–161, 164

Polycaprolactam (PA 6 or Nylon 6), 161, 164

468 Index

Polycarbonate (PC), 161, 166Polycondensation reaction of ultrapure silica

fibers, 18Polycrystalline fibers

fiber FP, 13nextel 440, 13nextel 480, 13safimax, 13

Polyester resin, 141, 143, 146–151, 154, 169characteristics of, 150tproperties of polyester laminates, 150t

Polyethersulfone (PESU), 166Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), 145,

155, 164Poly(hexamethylene adipamide) (PA 66 or

Nylon 66), 161, 164Polymer fibers, 54, 198, 210, 212–215Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO), 166Polypropylene (PP), 140, 159–162, 164–165Polysulfone (PSU), 53, 166Polyurethanes (PUR), 129, 144, 146, 148,

151, 153applications, 153characteristics of, 153

POM, see Polyacetal (POM)Potassia, K2O, 313–315Power, 436PP, see Polypropylene (PP)PPO, see Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO)Pre-impregnated fabrics (Prepregs), 146, 152,

170, 177components/function of laminate prepreg,

178fPressure vessels, 38, 144, 208, 216f, 221–222Printed circuit boards (PCB), 29t, 33, 38, 49,

93t, 175–194Printed wiring boards (PWBs), see Printed

circuit boards (PCB)Products, glass fiber

chopped strands, 140fabrics woven from rovings, 141glass mats, 138–140

chopped strand mat, 138–139continuous strand mat, 138

glass yarn, 141milled fibers, 140non-woven fabrics, 141rovings, 140

PSU, see Polysulfone (PSU)Pultrusion, 138, 140, 142, 145–146, 149t, 222PUR, see Polyurethanes (PUR)Pure silica sliver and fabrics

acid-leached E- and A-glass fabrics

process, 21products and properties, 21–22value-in-use and applications, 22

from aqueous silicate solutionsprocess, 20, 20fproducts and properties, 20–21value-in-use and applications, 21

QQuartz fibers, 16, 17, 22, 48Quasi-chemical model, 386Quaternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO system

eco-/energy-friendly E-glass compositions,110f, 110t

from eutectic to commercial compositions,102–103

first-generation fluorine- and B2O3-freeE-glass, 102t, 104f

fluorine- and boron-free E-glass with <1%Li2O, 106–108

energy-friendly E-glass compositionswith 0.9% Li2O, 108t

Li2O as replacement for Na2O, effects,107f

fluorine- and boron-free E-glass with≤1.5% TiO2, 104–106

design of, 106tfluorine-free E-glass with 1.5% B2O3,

108–109energy-friendly E-glass compositions

with ≤1.3% B2O3, 109tfluorine-free E-glass with ≤1.5% B2O3 and

<1% Li2O, 109phase diagram of, 102–111quaternary eutectic with regard to MgO,

103–104

RRapid jet solidification (RJS) process, 68

amorphous fiberglass ribbons, 77amorphous metal ribbons, 76–77products and applications, 77

Rare earth oxides, 204Raw materials, role in glass melts

boron carriers, 395–397, 399tbinary system CaO–B2O3, phase

diagram of, 398liquidus lines of binary systems, phase

diagrams of, 398fphase relations of Na–Ca–B–O–H

minerals, 400fdolomite and limestone, 400–403

Index 469

CaCO3−CaMg(CO3)2−CaFe(CO3)2

system, one/two/three-phaseequilibria of, 401f

standard heat of formation H f ofdolomite from elements, 401t

two-step decomposition behavior ofdolomite, 402f

sandimpurity levels (wt%) in selected sand

qualities, Europe/Asia, 396tkinetics of sand dissolution,

394–395, 397fRayleigh waves, 66–68, 72, 74REACH, see Registration, evaluation,

and authorization of chemicals(REACH)

“Redox state,” 238, 405, 414–415, 423,425–426, 445

Refiningalternative methods of, 292alternative refining agents, 318–320,

324–326, 329–330behaviour, 237–240, 318–320removal of bubbles, mechanisms, 291Stokes’ law, buoyancy effects by, 291

Refining, alternative methodsalternative refining agents, 292alternative refining gases, 292physical refining methods, 292

Reformulated glass compositions, 98–101,104–118, 262–265, 330–341

Refractory corrosion, 293–296Registration, evaluation, and authorization of

chemicals (REACH), 399Reinforced composites, 40, 44, 114, 119, 125,

131, 133, 140t, 142, 154, 164, 210,213, 219–221

Reinforced plastics, 125, 139–140Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding

(RRIM), 144Reinforced Thermoplastic Compounds (RTP),

158–159fiberglass-reinforced thermoplastic

compounding, extruder for, 158ffilament diameter/fiber length, relativity,

159fReinforced thermoplastic materials

injection molding technology, 157semifinished materials based on

thermoplastics, 158–167amorphous resins, 165–166GMT, 159–160heat-resistant polymers (HT), 166–167

LCP, 167LFT, 159–160mechanical properties, 160–163RTP, 158–159semicrystalline resins, 164–165

Reinforcement, bidirectional (orthotropic),133–134

bidirectional reinforced laminate, 133finduced unidirectional strain in, 134f“knee,” 134

Reinforcing fibers, 31–32, 34, 43, 56, 73, 78,82, 125–126, 131, 142, 144, 148,159, 164

properties, 126Relative machine speed (RMS), 279

of Russian SLS container glass, 280tRelative permittivity, see Dielectric

constant (Dk)Release agents, 155–156Remotely coupled transferred arc, 437,

440–441Renewable energy, source

wind, 168Resins

definition, 126thermosetting

EP resins, 150–151PF resins, 152PUR, 153reinforcement with glass fibers,

property trends for, 154tSI resins, 153–154techniques, initiators/accelerators used

in, 149tUP resins, 148–149VE resins, 151

See also individual resinsResin transfer molding (RTM), 142–144,

149t, 170Resistive heating, see Joule heatingResorcinol formaldehyde latex (RFL), 220Restriction of hazardous substances (RoHS),

194impact on PCB fabrication, 194

RFL, see Resorcinol formaldehyde latex (RFL)R-glass, 35, 37, 38, 198–201, 203, 205–209,

222, 445produced by Vetrotex, 208–209vs. S-glass, 207–208

RJS process, see Rapid jet solidification (RJS)process

RMS, see Relative machine speed (RMS)

470 Index

RoHS, see Restriction of hazardous substances(RoHS)

Rovingsassembled rovings, 140direct draw rovings, 140

3R process, 275See also Oxides of nitrogen (NOx )

RRIM, see Reinforced Reaction InjectionMolding (RRIM)

RTM, see Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)RTP, see Reinforced Thermoplastic

Compounds (RTP)Rule of mixtures, 131–132, 182–183

SSaphikon, 13Sapphire fibers, growth of, 78Schaeffer, H.A., 413–427SCR, see Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)SEC, see Specific Energy Consumption (SEC)Secondary electron image (SEI), 58–59Seebeck coefficient, 419SEI, see Secondary electron image (SEI)Selective catalytic reduction (SCR), 275

See also Oxides of nitrogen (NOx ))Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR), 275

See also Oxides of nitrogen (NOx ))Self-reinforcing polymers, see Liquid Crystal

Polymer (LCP)Semiconductor industry association (SIA), 191Semicrystalline resins

PA, 164PET/PBT, 164POM, 165PP, 164–165properties of, 165t

Sensorsdefinition, 414for environmental measurements, 422–423high-temperature heat resistance, feature

of, 414for optimizing combustion efficiency, 423

control of air/fuel or oxygen/fuel ratio,423

flame visualization, techniques, 423laser absorption spectroscopy, 423mass spectrometry, 423

See also individual sensorsS-glass, 7, 8f, 13, 16, 23–25, 27, 31, 35–37,

42, 48–50, 57, 60, 64t, 92, 101, 198,207–209, 212–215, 217, 445

S-1 glass, 207–209, 222S-2 glass R©, 198, 200, 202–208, 212–215

Shear strength, 136, 138–139Shear stress, 131, 137Sheath/core vs. side-by-side bicomponent

fibers, 56Sheet Molding Compounds (SMC), 141–142,

147–149, 152–153, 155–156, 169SMC process, flow of materials in, 147f

Sheridanite, 310Short fibers, random, 134–137

critical length, equation, 136fiber/critical length, relativity, 137reinforcing efficiency vs. fiber length, 137fresponse to strain, 135fstages of fracture, 135

Short span flexural test, 138SIA, see Semiconductor industry association

(SIA)Sialons, 43Silanes, 130, 155Silfa yarn, 20Silica, SiO2, 304–305Silica fibers, ultrapure

from sol–gelsprocess, 18products and properties, 18–19value-in-use and applications, 19

from strong viscous meltsprocess, 15–16products and properties, 16–17value-in-use and applications, 16–17

Silica, sliver and fabrics, pureacid-leached E- and A-glass fabrics

process, 21products and properties, 21–22value-in-use and applications, 22

from aqueous silicate solutionsprocess, 20products and properties, 20–21value-in-use and applications, 21

Silicate glass fibers, 8, 11, 16, 23–59, 64–65Silicate glass fibers from strong viscous melts

commercial melt process, 23–26boron-free CC-glass, use in, 24glass fibers formed by, 26twinders/direct-drawing

winders/choppers, formation, 25fexperimental plasma melt process, 26–27

application, 27skull-melting concept, benefits, 27vs. conventional glass furnace

technology, 26glass fiber drawing, modeling of, 28strong viscous melts, critical properties, 23

Index 471

Silicate glass fibers, general-purposeborosilicate E-glass fibers, 28–31E-glass products and applications, 33–34E-glass properties and fiber structures,

31–33Silicate glass fibers, special-purpose

designations of, 34glass fibers with bone bioactive oxide

compositions, 53–54glass fibers with high chemical stability,

44–48glass fibers with high densities and

dielectric constants, 50–51glass fibers with low dielectric constants,

49–50glass fibers with super- and semiconducting

properties, 53glass fibers with very high dielectric

constants, 51–53high-modulus–high-temperature glass

fibers, 39–40high-strength–high-temperature glass

fibers, 34–38ultrahigh-modulus glass ceramic fibers,

40–44Silicone (SI) resins, 153–154

characteristics of, 153Single-crystal fibers, 70, 77–83Skew phenomena, 184Skull melting, 27, 431–433SLS glass, see Soda-lime-silica (SLS) glassSMC, see Sheet Molding Compounds (SMC)Smrcek, A, 259SNCR, see Selective non-catalytic reduction

(SNCR)Soda, Na2O, 305–307Soda-lime-silica (SLS) glass, 12, 15, 116–119,

229–351A- and C-glass compositions, 118t

fluorine and boron-free A-glass, 117fluorine-free c-glass with 5% B2O3,

117–119limitation, 119

thermal conductivity of, 288fviscosity-temperature (η-T ) curve for, 280f

Soda-lime-silica (SLS) glass,composition/design of

alumina, Al2O3, 309–313compositions of aluminous raw

materials, 311teffect of BFS on energy and fuel

consumption, 312f

effect on liquidus temperature of SLSglass, 313f

effects on chemical durability of SLSglass, 314f

effects on glass properties, 311–313raw materials, 309–311

baria, BaO, 323batch processing, preheating, and melting,

300–302batch consolidation, forms, 301SEC based on cullet content, 303fstages of melting, 300

boric oxide, B2O33 effects on glassproperties, 315–316

raw materials, 316calcia, CaO

effects on glass properties, 308–309raw materials, 307–308

chlorides and fluorides, 322–323cullet, 302–304economics of batch selection, 300fenergy-saving technologies, 270lithia, Li2O

effects on glass properties, 315–316raw materials, compositions

of, 313, 315tmagnesia, MgO

effect on liquidus temperature of SLSglass, 308f

effects on glass properties, 309fraw materials, 309

multivalent constituentscolorants and refining agents, 324–326effects on physical properties, 326–327

nitrates, 329–330potassia, K2O

effects on glass properties, 314–315raw materials, 313

recycled filter dust, 329silica, SiO22 effects on glass properties,

303raw materials, 304–305

soda, Na2Oeffects on glass properties, 308–309molar enthalpy of decomposition at 296

K, 306fraw materials, 305–307

strontia, SrO, 324sulfate, SO3, 318–321water, H2O, 321–322zinc oxide, ZnO, 323–324

Soda lime silicate glass, reaction path of, 409tSolid electrolyte sensors, zirconia-based, 418

472 Index

Solid/liquid, difference betweenby Born, 357Deborah number, concept of, 358See also Glass melting technology, melting

criteriaSpecial-purpose glass fibers, 49–54Specific Energy Consumption (SEC), 269–271,

289, 303f, 332energy efficiency, 269–271energy-saving technologies in SLS glass

furnaces, 268–269, 271ffor SLS glass furnaces, average, 270f

Specific heat capacity, 286–287, 356, 358,361–366, 368, 373

Specific modulus (Esp), equation, 204Spray deposition, 140, 143

liquid resin processing technique, 143Stages of fracture, thermoplastics

cracking, 135de-bonding, 135fiber pullout, 135fiber rupture, 135matrix failure, 135

Standard (glass) transformation temperature,Tg, 368, 374f

Stefan–Boltzmann constant (T ), 287Stokes’ law, 291

buoyancy effects described by, 291Strain (ε), 131

magnification, 134Stress, kinds of, 131Strong melts vs. fragile melts, 4Strong viscous melts, behavior of

in continuous commercial process, 7critical properties of, 23in stationary process, 7

Strontia, SrO, 324Structure of melts and fibers, 11–15

fiber structure vs. modulus, 12–14fiber structure vs. strength, 14–15from glass melts to fibers, 11–12melt structure vs. liquidus, 12

Styrene–butadiene rubbers, 147Sulfate, SO3, 318–320Superconducting fibers, high Tc, 81–82Synthetic fibers, 126, 212Synthetic minerals, 447–448Synthetic minerals processing, 448

TTechnical glass, 229, 231, 233, 236, 242,

253–258Techniques, liquid resin processing

centrifugal molding, 144–145continuous laminating, 145–146filament winding, 144HLU, 143non-continuous liquid resin processing

techniques, 145tpre-combined materials

BMC, 148pre-impregnated fabrics (Prepregs), 146SMC, 147–148

pultrusion, 145RRIM, 144RTM, 143–144spray deposition, 143

Technora R©, 212Tellurite glass fibers, 62Temperature, upper use, 183–184Tensile modulus, 17t, 127t, 131, 138, 150t,

152t, 161, 165t, 167t, 213–214Tensile stress, 131, 198–200Ternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO system

high-temperature applications, use in, 101phase diagram of, 97f, 100–102ternary compositions around eutectic,

98t, 100ttopography of, 97f

Tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) sol–gels, 15, 18T-glass, 207–208, 445Thermal conductivity, 17t, 57, 82, 127t, 181,

202, 287–289, 299, 333t, 405Thermal expansion, 16, 32t, 127t, 150t,

178–183, 213, 231, 255, 257, 299,305, 307–308, 313–314, 316–317,323–324, 327, 359–360, 368–373,386, 401

CTE, 182and resin content, relativity, 183f

Thermal expansion coefficient, 299, 308, 316,327, 359, 360f, 371, 373, 386, 401

Appen factors for calculation of, 386Thermocouples, role/function, 417Thermodynamic properties, industrial

glass-forming systemsmulti-component systems, models

the cell model, 386Gibbs phase rule, oxide components,

385, 387tmodel of ideal mixing of complex

components, 386quasi-chemical model, 386thermodynamic equations, 387–388

Thermoplastics resinsstages of fracture

Index 473

cracking, 135de-bonding, 135fiber pullout, 135fiber rupture, 135matrix failure, 135

Thermosetting matrix resins, 148–153Thermosetting vs. thermoplastic resins, 141TLiq models, 285Torch life/stability, 442–443Transferred-arc plasmas, 435fTraveling solvent zone melting (TSZM), 82Trend line design, 11, 94–99, 100–101,

103–104, 107–109, 111–114,117–120

Trilobal glass fibers, 55fTSZM, see Traveling solvent zone melting

(TSZM)Twaron R©, 212

UU-glass, 207–208UHMWPE, see Ultra high molecular weight

polyethylene (UHMWPE)Ultrahigh-modulus (UHM) glass ceramic

fibersexamples

Ca–Mg–Si–Al–O–N fiber, 42oxynitride fibers, 43fSi–Al–O–N glass fibers, 42tY–Si–Al–O–N fiber, 42

process and productsoxygen formation, 41silicon formation, 41silicon oxidation, 41

properties and applications, 43–44Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene

(UHMWPE)drawbacks

low upper use temperature, 213–214poor compressive strength, 213–214

Spectra and Dyneema, UHMWPE fibers,214

Ultrapure silica fibersfrom sol–gels

process, 18products and properties, 18–19value-in-use and applications, 19

from strong viscous meltsprocess, 16–17products and properties, 16–17value-in-use and applications, 16–17

Unidirectional continuous fibersrule of mixtures, 131–132

strain effect in, 132fstress–strain diagram, 133f

Unsaturated Polyester (UP) resins, 143–149,151, 154, 169

cross-linking reaction in, 148cobalt complexes, accelerators, 149organic peroxides, initiators, 148

UP resins, see Unsaturated Polyester (UP)resins

US Department of Energy (DOE), 438, 440

VVacuum infusion resin transfer molding

(VARTM), 170–171Van der Woude, J.H.A., 125–172VARTM, see Vacuum infusion resin transfer

molding (VARTM)VE resins, see Vinyl ester (VE) resinsVFT equation, see Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann

(VFT) equationVinyl ester (VE) resins, 144–146, 151

choice of hardener, criteria for adjustingcharacteristics of composites, 152t

composite systems, characteristics of, 151Viscosity models, 281Viscosity of Newtonian fluids

VFT equation for, 281Viscosity–temperature (η–T) curve

for SLS glass, 280fViscous melts

contents, 3fragile/strong, 8–9

Viscosity models, 233, 281Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) equation, 281Volatilization, 276Voltammetric sensor, 419–421

current/potential curve of green containerglass, 420f

polyvalent element concentration/peakcurrent, proportionality, 419, 421f

polyvalent elements, detection of, 420in situ/wet chemical analysis, sulfur sensor

data by, 421fsquare-wave voltammetry

oxygen partial pressure measurements,420

Volume void filling, 405

WWater, H2O, 321–322Wallenberger, F.T., 10, 16, 65, 71, 74, 96–97,

104–105, 110, 114, 118, 125,205, 338

474 Index

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment(WEEE), 194

Waste gas treatment plantscontrol of SOx emissions, use in, 275made of EPs, 275

Weave and fabric construction, 184FWE, 184

WEEE, see Waste Electrical and ElectronicEquipment (WEEE)

Weinstein, M.A., 431–451Wind turbines, composites for

blade design methodologies, 170–172ASTM D3479/D3039, test standard

used, 171blade design, example of, 170ffatigue mechanism, 171fatigue test data on epoxy matrix/glass

fabric specimen, 172flog–log model, 171S–N regression parameter estimates,

172tblade-manufacturing techniques, 169–170

blade components, design, 170RTM, 170VARTM, 170

composite technology, advantages/benefits,168–169

raw materials, 169wind energy park, 168fwind, renewable energy source, 168

Wollastonite melting, 304, 448Working range index (WRI), 280, 284WRI, see Working range index (WRI)

YYAG glasses and glass fibers, 69–70Yarn, 16, 17t, 20, 21, 24, 33, 44, 48, 54–55, 57,

98, 136, 141, 150t, 176, 181, 184,186, 189, 192–194, 198, 210, 220

Young’s modulus, 182, 197, 199–203, 205,208t, 299, 375

See also Elastic modulusYttria-stabilized zirconia, 419

oxygen ion conductor, 419

ZZinc Oxide, ZnO, 323–324Zybek Advanced Products, 448Zylon, 211t, 214–215