335

AAcheulean

bifacesanthropogenic controls, 373D geometric morphometric

analyses, 262D shape, 37handaxe, 24

Castel di Guidosite of, 26toolmakers, 37

dispersal, drift and selectiongeographic distance, 222neutral drift, 223–224non-African start points, 222–223replicative success, 220–221route, minimum-spanning network, 223serial founder effect model, 221–222symmetry, 224

industrial complex, characteristics, 24phylogenetic methods, utility, 211–219population genetic principles

goodness-of-fit, 224–225regression analyses, 226southern dispersal, 225waypoints, 224

Acheulean handaxesinter-assemblage comparisons (see

Hierarchical cluster analyses)inter-group comparisons (see

Mann–Whitney U-test)methodology

distribution, Indian subcontinent, 141–142

elongation vs. refinement, 136, 140histograms generation, 136, 137inter-assemblage, elongation and

refinement values, 136, 139locational map, South Asian, 123–124

metric values, specimens, 124–135primary variables, 123regression, linear variables, 136, 138statistical data, cleavers vs. handaxe

assemblages, 122–123ranking exercise, 143South Asian paleolithic record

early/late developmental phases, 122Indian localities, 121Satpati Hill site, 121–122site distribution, 120–121

Alle-Pré Monsieurdiscovery, 68–69Mousterian affiliation, 69superimposed landmark configurations, 74

AllometryBuhlen and Pech de l’Azé I, 246equation, 237multivariate, 238PC1, 244, 246

Anatomically modern humans (AMHs)geometric morphometric techniques, 4serial founder effect model, 221

Area-to-thickness (AT) ratios, 286Artefact outline

geometric morphometrics, 26linear caliper measurements, 238polar coordinates, 239

Aterian, 43Auvernier-la-Saunerie

artifacts, 69and Auvernier-Port, 68

Auvernier-Portartifacts, 69Auvernier-la-Saunerie, 68landmarks

endscrapers, 71, 75retouched blades, 71

Azilian, 67

Index

336 Index

BBacked tools

Howiesons Poort (HP) type, 62, 64, 65standardization, 62

Barnescumulative survivorship, 288fluted and Gainey bifaces, 287Parkhill affinity, 285

Behavioural modernity. See Stone tool standardization

Bernoulli core modelevaluation

fine-grained materials, 186Oldowan technologies, 186, 187probability, 188weight-standardized core flake scar

counts, 187raw materials, high probabilities, 184–185reduction, 184standard deviation, 185

Biased random walks (BRWs), 86Bifaces

discoidal and Levallois cores, 47Hunzicker, 285, 287, 288layer 4, Pech de l’Azé I, 244North American, 276, 284reduction, 285–286

Blade corescutting edge and mass ratios, 55mesoamerican pressure, 45pressure and hard hammer, 47

Blade shape. See ResharpeningBlank selection, 65Bone

biface shape, 26Castel di Guido, 29flaked (see Flaked bone)Paleolithic

implements, 24–25utilization, 24

sample, components, 33, 34side-by-side procrustes, 32and stone

biface, 27, 35jpeg images, 27–28samples, 34

toolsmetric analysis, 35Paleolithic flaked, 24–25

unflaked, 38BRWs. See Biased random walksBuhlen III

late Middle Paleolithic lithic assemblages, 243

multivariate regression method, 242

CCastel di Guido, Italy

2D outline evaluation, 23null hypothesis test, 26

Chaînes OpératoiresBernoulli core technology (see

Bernoulli core model)cores, 183Markov core technology

boundary curves, 191–193discard distributions, 194, 195errors, statistical distribution, 189flake production, 188model evaluation (see Markov

core model)reduction trajectories, 189–190target utility, 191weeding out, 195

Price core technologyflaking actions, 197fractional utilities, 199–200mean utility, 201model evaluation, 201–203relative payoff, 199utility, flakes, 198–199

school, 249Cladistics

analysisFolsom and Plainview points, 269phylogenetic hypotheses, 56RI value, 218taxonomic units, 210–211

characters, 214–215divergence coding, 213handaxe analyses, 219–220homologous characters, 320phylogenetic reconstruction, 210RI value, 218steps, analysis, 210–211

Clarke, D.L., 1–18, 84–85, 112Clovis

assemblages, 258–259blade shape and, 266MANOVA, 263–264misclassification, 263, 264Plainview and, 266

Clovis–Gainey, 285Cluster analysis

Acheulean cleavers, 300dendrogram generation, 144–146inter-assemblage, 136, 143

Cognitionstandardization, stone tool, 63stone tool-making and

language, 64

337Index

Core reduction intensityBernoulli core model, 185chert, 186, 187mean, 184Oldowan, 187

Coresaxial measurements, 48description, 44–45design, 183, 197HP

cutting edge to mass ratios, 55flakes, 54raw material, 56

methods testing, 50–51productivity, 200regional variability, HP

appearance, 52assemblages, 54discriminant function scores, 53–54raw material, 52–53

technology, variation quantificationangle measurements, 47–48attributes, production technology, 493D scar analysis, 46, 47holistic measure, 45lateral and distal convexity degree,

48–49platform angles, 49–50Suffolk flint, 46–47

Correlated random walks (CRWs), 86Cultural transmission

and artefactual traditionskeystones, 12–14raw material, 14

core technology, 45, 55lithic assemblages, descent with

modificationdescription, 208inheritance, 207–208lithic artefacts, 208–209population genetics, 209

phylogeny (see Phylogenetic methods)population genetic models

(see Population genetics)projectile-point technology, 319

Curationcurves, 175–178distance–decay model, 170–171unifacial reduction, 171

Curation curvesdevelopment, 176, 177distribution, use-life data, 175–176Gompertz–Makeham “b” parameters,

176, 178

DDemography

models, 290population, 10stone-tool (see Reduction)

Descent with modificationdescription, 208inheritance, 207–208Linnaean taxonomy, 209–210lithic artefacts, 208–209population genetics, 209social transmission, 210

Descriptive statistics, 6, 91Developed Oldowan

assemblages, 175description, 169–170Koobi Fora region data, 174–175

DFA. See Discriminant function analysis2D geometric morphometrics, 14–15, 613D geometric morphometrics

core analysis, 49revolution, 15

Diepkloofflakes comparison, 54HP, 55

Discard behaviourallometry, 285biface, 284curation rates, 289utilities, 283

Discoidal corescentripetal flaking, 47Levallois, 50, 54

Discriminant function analysis (DFA)3D scar pattern, 51raw material testing, 4shape variables

projectile point type, 263three size grades, 267, 268two size grades, 265, 266

South African Howiesons Poort, 52Dispersal

Acheulean handaxes, 220–224minimum-spanning network, route, 223route, Acheulean, 224–226serial founder effect model, 221–222

Dobe !Kungdata

step lengths, 95, 107waiting-time, 98–99

foraging strategybest-fit Lévy and lognormal curves,

102–103fractal environment, 101

338 Index

Dobe !Kung (cont.)hunter-gatherer mobility, 100subgroup, 102

rainy season camp movements, 93turning angles, 95–96, 98

DriftAcheulean handaxes, 220–224neutral, 223

3D scar analysisdescription, 46pattern, shape and technological data,

50–51result, core types, 47

EEffective population size

description, 220serial founder effect model, 221, 222shifts in, 220

Elliptical Fourier analysis (EFA)Americanists, 235Buhlen IIIb (see Buhlen III)Fourier methods, 239–241Pech de l’Azé I (see Pech de l’Azé I)reliability and rejuvenation rate, 236shape and size

allometry, 237deformation modeling, 239handaxes, 238–239linear caliper measurements, 238

trajectoriesdescription, 241multivariate regression, 241–242PCA, 242

typesfunctional and economic differences, 238technological terms, 237

typologies, 236Evo–Devo, 227

FFlaked bone

bifaces, 24, 36and stone artifacts, 37–38tool group, 24–25

Flake sizecalculation, 167–168platform surface, assessment, 172–173regression model, 173–174three-dimensional techniques, 179–180

Fluted bifacesabundance, 289curation, 285

density, 289Gainey and Barnes, 287North American Paleoindian, 284Paleoindian, 286

Folsomassemblages, 259Clovis, 258lanceolate-shaped blades, 257MANOVA, 263misclassification, 264Southern Plains, 259

Fourier analysis, 17

GGeneralized procrustes analysis (GPA)

consensus configuration, 261landmarks, alignment steps, 260–261procrustes distances, 261

Geometric morphometrics (GM)biface plan shape, natural vs. artificial

forcesbone, 36–37flaked bone and stone artifacts,

37–38size and reduction intensity, 37

biface shape, 262D and 3D, 14–15description, 16evaluation

materials, 36method, 34–35

landmark coordinates, 16materials, methods and predictions

digitization and formatting, 27–28eigenshape analysis, 30–31orientation protocol, 27procrustes fitting/superimposition,

28–29scanning, 26–27thin-plate spline deformations, 29–30

Neolithic artefacts and Neanderthals, 4Paleolithic bone utilization, 24–25results

MANOVA/CVA, 34–35PCA (see Principal component

analysis)steps

image acquisition, 259landmarks, choice and digitization,

259–260partial warps and uniform

component, 262shape space to tangent space, 261–262superimposition, 260–261

339Index

Gompertz-Makeham parameterage distribution, 282curation measure, 282and Weibull, 283, 287

HHandaxe cladogram model, 217, 218Handaxe measurement

Delhi, 136Nepal, 123unilinear, 139–140

Handaxes. See also Acheulean handaxesBed II Olduvai Gorge, 213cladistic analyses, 219–220definition, 211

Hierarchical cluster analysesclustering variation, 147dendrogram generation

elongation and refinement values, 145, 147

five variables, 146, 147length, breadth and thickness values,

143–144Late Acheulean assemblages, 148

Homologyanalogy and, 313–317morphometric analysis, 16transmission, 313

Howiesons Poort (HP). See also Coreslevels comparison, 44standardization, 64–65

Hunter-gatherers, Lévy walk modelDobe !Kung foraging strategy, 100–105mobility recognition

graphical realizations, 90–91logarithmic binning, 92power-law behavior, 91

step lengths, 93–95turning angles, 95–97waiting times, 97–100

Hypotheses. See also Hypothesis testingcladistics, 320standardization, 4–5testable, 10, 17testing and formal analysis, 3–5

Hypothesis testingdevelopment, 3and formal analysis

behavioral modernity, 4–5experimental archaeology, 5models, archaeology, 3–4shape-types, 4

models, 8–12

IIndia

Acheulean sites, 120–121, 147–148Didwana assemblages, 149handaxe assemblages

geographic region, 123intermediate refinement levels, 142locational map, 141Tamil Nadu, 140

Indian subcontinent, handaxe assemblages

clustering variation, 147locational map, 141, 142

Inferential statisticsanalysis and quantification

description, 5discriminant function, 7lithic artefacts, 6–7procedures, 7–8

models, analogue, 10Iterative founder effect model. See Serial

founder effect model

KKarari Scrapers, 169Keilmessergruppen, 236, 243Keilmesser handaxe

Buhlen, 243plano-convex cross section, 243

Koobi Foracollections, 170developed Oldowan data, 174–175formation, 169–170landscape distribution, 169Okote member, 173, 174

LLandmarks. See also Semilandmarks

biology, 16choice and digitization, 259–260data capturing, 17homologous, 16image acquisition, 259superimposition, 260–261type I, II and III, 16–17

Later stone age (LSA)vs. MSA, 65Namibia, 296

Length-to-thickness (LT) ratiosdescription, 286observed to maximum ratio, 286Paleoindian bifaces, analysis, 287

340 Index

Levalloiscores

and bifaces, 49centripetal flaking, 47Mousterian affiliation, Alle-Pré

Monsieur, 69and Mousterian retouched flake

tools, 69overlap, 50

reduction intensity, 197remnant use life, 198, 203, 204unidirectional and bidirectional cores, 196

Lévy distributionDobe !Kung waiting-time data, 98–99, 100multiple lognormal walks, 107–108m values, 87step lengths, 90

Lévy walk modeldistribution, 89–90ecological foundations

biased and correlated random walks, 86distribution, 87–88SRWs, 85

foraging patterns, spider monkeys, 88–89hunter-gatherers

Dobe !Kung foraging strategy, 100–105mobility recognition, 90–92step lengths, 93–95turning angles, 95–97waiting times, 97–100

Lithic analysis, Old Worldantiquity archaeology, 295debit and credit, 303developments

genetic changes, 297material culture, 299Morphometrics, 300Neanderthals, 298social brain, 298–299typology, 299–300

dynamics, big picture, 296–297human evolution, 296ideas, 297material culture, 304space and time, slices

excavations, 300form and function study, 301landscape studies, 301–302superbands and dialect tribes, 302

trends interpretation, 304–305Lithic analytical history, 235Lithic curation

definitions, 279distributions

age, 280

cumulative survivorship, 280–282discard rates, 283Gompertz-Makeham model, 282

utility, 280Lithic reduction

process, 249retouched flakes and notches, 276tool types, integrity, 276

Lithic resharpeningAmericanists, 235reliability and rejuvenation rate, 236shape and size, 237–239trajectories, 241–242types, 237typologies, 236

Lithic shape (variance)calculation, 752D geometric morphometric approach, 61sample, information and variances, 76

Lithic standardization. See Stone tool standardization

Lithic typologyPaleolithic tools, 276reduction measurement, 277

LSA. See Later stone age

MMagdalenian

occupations, 67populations, 78

Mann–Whitney U-testdescription, 140Satna and Didwana groups, 149statistical levels, regional groups, 148–149variable

breadth, 152–153elongation, 156–157length, 150–151refinement, 158–159thickness, 154–155

Markov core modelflake scars, 195–196remnant use life, 196, 198U-shaped profiles, 197

Markov core reductionmodel, 189termination, 189, 191

Mass-to-thickness (MT) ratios, 286Mathematical models

coreBernoulli, 186–188Markov, 195–197Price, 201–203

reduction/curation distributions, 289

341Index

Maximum Parsimony (MP)Kishino–Hasegawa (K–H) test, 218RI value, 217, 218sister-taxon relation-ship, 216

Measuring reductionallometry, 278geometric, 277–278typology, 277

Mental templatesarbitrary form and notion, 64clarity, 65production, 62tools, impose form, 77

Metric landmarks, 239Metric variables

assemblages placement, 160early vs. late Acheulean,

136, 139South-Asian handaxe data, 120

Micoquian. See KeilmessergruppenMiddle Paleolithic (MP)

assemblages, 66, 77European, 64Upper Paleolithic stone tools,

62, 64, 65Middle stone age (MSA)

African, 62vs. LSA, 65standardization, 62

Mobilitycamp movement, 103Dobe !Kung, 100recognition, Lévy, 90–92

Model building, 5, 18Model-fitting

curation, 282definition, 283Weibull and Gompertz–Makeham, 284

Modern human behaviourblade technology, 63clarity, mental templates, 65feature, 62–63standardization, 67, 77–78stone tools, 77

MorphometricsBordes/Roe/Isaac system,

biface measurements, 15correspondence/homology, 16description, 14d-mac tracer, 15geometric tecniques, resharpening (see

Resharpening)lithic studies, sophisticated methods,

15–16

outline methods, 17palaeontology, 14–15revolution, 15semilandmark approaches, 16–17

Mousterianaffiliation, 69burin sample, 65open-air site, 68–69tool types, 78

Mousterian of Acheulean tradition (MTA), 243

MP. See Middle PaleolithicMSA. See Middle stone ageMultiscaled random walks (MRWs), 111Multivariate

allometry, 238multiple linear regression, 241regression, advantage, 133

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)blade shape, 266canonical variate analysis (CVA), 34–35group means, 31partial warps and uniform component

matrices, 262shape variables, 263

NNeuchâtel-Monruz

discovery, 67variances, 76

North America, Paleoindian toolsbifaces, 276curation analysis, 284Folsom assemblages, 279rejuvenation, 285

OOkote member

flakes, Gombe Basalt, 173, 174Karari Industry, 170

Oldowanassemblages, 175and Bernoulli core technology, 203core-and-flake industries, 186core reduction intensity, 187data, Koobi Fora region, 174–175industry, 169–170platforms, 173–174technology, 179

OlduvaiBed I and Bed II, 186, 187core reduction intensity, 203

342 Index

Operational modelsanalogue, 10–11description, 8mathematical, 9–10null, 11–12

PPaleoindian

bifacesfluted, 284, 286Folsom, 285LT analysis, 287

periodprojectile points, 255Southern Plains, 256

reduction distributions (see Reduction)Paleoindian projectile point types

blade shape (see Resharpening)identification, 256MANOVA analyses, 263

Paleolithic studies, New Worldanalogy from homology

braided stream and cable, 315heritable continuity, 314–315imagined and actual phase

assemblage, 317similarities, 313specific and structural similarity, 314trajectory and transform, 315

Clovis-point technology, 326copying error, 325–326cultural transmission

bow-and-arrow technology, 318–319Darwinian fitness, 318description, 317guided variation, 318–319theoretical models, 319

culture history, 312lineages

artifacts and assemblages, 321cladistics, 320–321horizontal and vertical transmission,

322–323languages, 320phylogenetic trees, 323phylogeny, 322technologies, 321–322

Modern Synthesis, 326–327modes, 323–324occurrence seriation, 324punctuated equilibrium and stimulated

variation, 325relatedness, 313

Solutrean tools, 327–328stone tools, 311successive transformations, 324–325

Parkhill, 284, 285Parsimony

cladogram, 211, 216, 219trees, 213

PCA. See Principal component analysisPech de l’Azé I

allometric regression, Buhlen, 246bifaces, 244isometry, 248Keilmesser and handaxes, 243

Phylogenetic methodsAcheulean handaxes

bootstrap tree, 217characters, cladistic analyses, 214–215definition, 211divergence coding, 213human cultural datasets, 217–218Kishino-Hasegawa (K-H) test, 218–219Lower and Middle Palaeolithic age, 212maximum parsimony cladogram, 216operational taxonomic units (OTUs),

212–213raw material, 219RI value, 216–217signal determination, 215–216stone artefact and socially inherited

knowledge., 211–212historical diversification and descent

cladistics, 210Linnaean taxonomy, 209–210OTUs, 211

Plainviewassemblages, 259blade shape, 269dating, 258MANOVA, 263–264misclassification, 266Southern Plains, 257

Platform areacapture, 172–173flake size, 175, 179–180

Platform attributesDibble’s method, 172–173flake size prediction, 167–168, 179–180three-dimensional techniques, 173–174

Population geneticsAcheulean handaxes

non-African start points, 222–223serial founder effect model, 221–222symmetry, 223–224variation parameters, 220–221

343Index

cultural transmission theory, 220description, 220dispersal route, Acheulean

southern, 225waypoints, 224

Population thinking, 220, 226Power-laws

distribution, step lengths, 88, 107Dobe !Kung, 96waiting times, 93

PredictionBernoulli model, 10flake size, 173points, 4southern dispersal route, 225standardization hypothesis, 4–5

Price core modelLevallois blade cores, 203Markov cores, 201remnant use life, 196, 198simulated free boundary, 202

Principal component analysis (PCA)bone and stone sample, 34convex hulls, 31, 332D shape, 23EFA, 242harmonics, 244procrustes-adjusted XY outline data, 29samples, 31shape variance, 32thin-plate spline deformations, 33–34

Procrustesanalysis, CoordGen, 70distances, 261, 262generalized orthogonal least-squares,

260, 261GPA, 260–261

Procrustes fitting/superimposition, 28–29

QQuantifying reduction. See Reduction

RRadial cores, 55Random walk

biased and correlated, 86MRWs, 111SRWs, 85as stochastic process, 84structure, 85–86

Raw materialBernoulli model, 10

description, 4differences, 4, 51–52hominin action, 14HP, 56model tree, 11and regional traditions, 4

Reductionallometric, 278, 285analysis

cumulative survivorship, 288curation rate, 289Hunzicker specimens, 287scanning, 289Weibull and Gompertz–Makeham

estimation, 287data

bifaces, 285–286cumulative-survivorship curves, 284Hunzicker specimens, 285sites and isolates, 284–285

essentialism, 275freight

assemblage formation models, 279curation, 279–280distributions, 280–283model-fitting, 283–284

geometricGeometric Index of Unifacial

Reduction (GIUR), 277retouch indices, 278

measurementallometry, 278geometric, 277–278typology, 277

parameters, 236resharpening, 241sequence, 268thesis

biface types, 276flakes, 276retouch flakes, 276, 277

Regional variationAcheulean bifaces, 120core technologies, HP (see Cores)HP, 44, 54locational map, handaxe assemblages, 141

Re-juvenation, 285, 286Resharpening

materialsClovis points, 257Folsom and Plainview points, 259projectile and isolated points, 258Southern Plains, 256–257

methods

344 Index

Resharpening (cont.)digital image, projectile point, 260geometric morphometrics, 259image acquisition, 259landmarks, choice and digitization,

259–260MANOVA (see Multivariate analysis of

variance)partial warps and uniform component,

262specimens, shape space to tangent

space, 261–262superimposition, landmarks, 260–261

projectile point typology, 255–256results

discriminant function analysis (DFA), 263–265, 267

MANOVA, 263, 264misclassification rate, 268Plainview, 264, 266

shape variables, 266–267Retouched tools

Levallois flakes, 69lithic industry, 67Middle Paleolithic, 65semilandmarks, 70

Rose Cottage Cavecores, 52function scores, 53solid black dots, 54

SScanning, 2D and 3D, 289Semilandmarks

categories, 16–173D caliper, 239tool axis, 70

Serial founder effect modeldispersal route

northern, 226southern, 225

handaxemanufacturing, 221symmetry, 223, 224

minimum-spanning network, 224sequential reduction, 222shape variance, 222

Sharpeninginduced convergence, 4resharpening, 276, 280, 286

Shuidonggou, Chinacore reduction intensity, 203discard pattern, 204

Levallois blade cores, 196reduction intensity, Levallois cores, 197remnant use life, 196

Simple random walks (SRWs), 85Simulation

boundary curve, 191core reduction, 204Lévy walk simulation, 107models, 203parameters, 192, 193

Social transmissionbehaviour traditions, 209descent with modification, 210distinctive regional traditions, 45

South Asian paleolithic recordearly/late developmental phases, 122Indian localities, 121Satpati Hill site, 121–122site distribution, 120–121

Southern Capecore technologies, 54HP, 52

Spatial analysisarchaeology, USA, 84!Kung population, 102rank-size distribution and inferences, 90

Spatial organizationhunter-gatherer, 103vs. social organization, 105

SRWs. See Simple random walksStandardization

hypothesis, 4stone tool and behavioral modernity (see

Stone tool standardization)Statistics

inferential analysis and quantification, 5–8

model tree, 11procedures, 7

Still Bayand HP, 56industry, 52

Stone tool resharpening, EFA. See Elliptical Fourier analysis

Stone tool standardizationargument

MP/UP, 64stone tools, 63

Auvernier-Saunerie, 78behavioral modernity, 66landmark location and artifacts orientation,

69–74materials

Alle-Pré Monsieur, 68–69

345Index

artifacts selection, 69Auvernier-Port and

Auvernier-la-Saunerie, 68Neuchâtel-Monruz, 67

modern humans behavior, 77–78MP and UP assemblages, 66–67results, 76–77shape variance calculation, 75testing

clarity, mental templates, 65Howiesons Poort, 64–65MP/UP, 64

Superimpositionlandmarks, 260–261procrustes, 28–29, 31slide, 70

Switzerland Neolithicassemblages, 67standardization, 61

Switzerland Paleolithic, 61Symbolic behaviour

modern humans, 62standardization, 63

UUniformity, 67Upper Paleolithic (UP)

artifacts, 78assemblages, 64, 66vs. MP, 62, 65Neolithic sites, 67stone tools, 64

WWeibull b

Hunzicker specimens, 287similarities, 287

Weibull parameterb parameter, 287cumulative-survivorship curves, 282description, 284

Western Capecores, 54flakes comparison, 54function scores, 53HP, 52