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Magazine on Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture A

Dear ReadersLEISA India is published quarterly by AMEFoundation in collaboration with ILEIA

Address : AME FoundationPO Box 7836,Bangalore - 560 078, India

Visitors address : AME Foundation,No. 1583, 17th Main, 2nd Phase,J.P. Nagar, Bangalore - 560 078, IndiaTel: +91-080-2659 6780, +91-080-2658 2835Fax: +91-080-2658 3471E-mail: amebang@giasbg01.vsnl.net.in

EDITORIAL TEAM

LEISA India

Managing Editor : K.V.S. PrasadAssistant Editor : T.M. Radha

ADMINISTRATION

M. Shobha Maiya

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LEISA Magazine is produced in 5 editions

LEISA Magazine - Global editionLEISA Revista - Spanish editionSALAM Indonesia- Bahasan editionAGRIDAPE - French editionLEISA India

The editors have taken every care to ensure thatthe contents of this magazine are as accurate aspossible. The authors have ultimate responsibility,however, for the content of individual articles.

The editors encourage readers to photocopy andcirculate magazine articles.

March 2004 Volume 6 no. 1

INDILEIS Responses for the survey have been pouring in. We thank all our readers who

have responded so quickly and enthusiastically. We expect the same support infuture as well, in all our efforts inimproving the magazine, content aswell as presentation. We will sharewith you the results of the survey assoon as possible. For the time being,

we are including an insert consisting of names of persons who have respondedto the survey. If you are one among them, a BIG thanks to you. If you are not,please send your feedback. We value it highly.

We have been trying to review the content of the magazine to make it moreinteresting and informative. For this we need your support. We are also planningto introduce new aspects in the magazine based on your feedback.

We are grateful to Ms Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon, Coordinator of the GlobalFacilitation Unit for Underutilised Species (GFU) based at the IPGRIheadquarters in Rome, Italy, for her help in sourcing of interesting articles for theInternational edition of the magazine.

We hope you enjoy reading the current issue on minor crops, crops which donot receive the attention or support they deserve. As you will see from theNetworking section, however, there are many organisations working to improvethe situation.

The Editors

Roselle in Senegaland MaliNathan McClintock

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Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) is a versatileplant with a number of useful properties.These enable it to fill many differentagroecological as wellas socio-economicalniches in Senegal and Mali. It is intercroppedwith staple crops or planted along fieldboundaries, requires little care and its leaves,seed capsules and stems are used in a numberof local dishes and in traditional medicines.Women are usually responsible for thegrowing of roselle and add value to the cropby developing products which they sell at themarket.

A

LEISA is about Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture. It is about thetechnical and social options open to farmers who seek to improve productivityand income in an ecologically sound way. LEISA is about the optimal use of localresources and natural processes and, if necessary, the safe and efficient use ofexternal inputs. It is about the empowerment of male and female farmers and thecommunities who seek to build their future on the bases of their own knowledge,skills, values, culture and institutions. LEISA is also about participatorymethodologies to strengthen the capacity of farmers and other actors, to improveagriculture and adapt it to changing needs and conditions. LEISA seeks tocombine indigenous and scientific knowledge and to influence policyformulation to create a conducive environment for its further development. LEISAis a concept, an approach and a political message.

Board of Trustees

Dr. R. Dwarakinath, ChairmanMr. Aloysius Prakash Fernandez, MemberDr. Vithal Rajan, MemberDr. Vasanthi Srinivasan, MemberMr. S.L. Srinivas, Treasurer

ILEIA is the Centre for Research and Information on Low-External-Inputand Sustainable Agriculture. It seeks to exchange information on LEISA bypublishing a quarterly newsletter, bibliographies, and books. ILEIADOC,the data base of ILEIA’s documentation centre, is available on diskette andon ILEIA’s Homepage: www.ileia.org. Back issues of the ILEIA Newsletterare also available on ILEIA’s website.

AME Foundation promotes sustainable livelihoods through combiningindigenous knowledge and innovative technologies for Low-External-Input natural resource management. Towards this objective,AME Foundation works with small and marginal farmers in the DeccanPlateau region by generating farming alternatives, enriching theknowledge base, training, linking development agencies and sharingexperience. www.amefound.org

Dr. M. Mahadevappa, MemberDr. N.C.B. Nath, MemberDr. K. Shivashankar, MemberDr. Usha Kulkarni, Member

CONTENTSVol. 6 no.1, March 2004

Including Selections from International Edition

4 Valuing crop diversityEditorial

5 Underutilized plant species: what are they?Stefano Padulosi and Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon

7 Underutilized species and new challenges in globalhealthTimothy Johns

8 Roselle in Senegal and MaliNathan McClintock

11 Conservation and genetic enhancement ofunderutilized vegetable crop species in NorthEastern Region of IndiaN. Rai, B.S. Asati and D.S. Yadav

13 Cañahua deserves to come backAdriana Woods Páez and Pablo Eyzaguirre

15 Genetic erosion of cañahuaWilfredo Rojas, Milton Pinto and Pablo Eyzaguirre

16 Fonio: a small grain with potentialJean-Francois Cruz

18 Conservation of uncultivated foods by localcommunitiesB. Salome Yesudas

19 Taro in Vanuatu: towards a dynamic conservationstrategySophie Caillon, Jose Quero-Garcia and LuigiGuarino

22 Under utilised crops and their role in subsistenceagricultureVanaja Ramprasad and Nada Gowda

23 Tribals show the way for conserving indigenouscrop varietiesJagadish Pradhan

24 Home garden: a cultural responsibilityEmily Oakley

26 Women reintroducing neglected cropsNazmul Haq

28 The Narayana Reddy Column:Utilisation of neglected crops

29 New books

30 Sources

31 Networking

33 International Editors Meeting 2004Themes for the LEISA-India

34 Neglected millets that save the poor from starvationS. Bala Ravi

Fonio: a small grain withpotentialJean-Francois Cruz

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Taro in Vanuatu: towards adynamic conservation strategSophie Caillon, Jose Quero-Garcia and Luigi Guarino

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Fonio (Digitaria exilis), atraditional cereal crop fromWest Africa, is popular becauseit is well adapted to localconditions and has goodnutritional and culinaryproprties. But manualprocessing of fonio is a difficultand time-consuming taskbecause of the tiny size of itsseeds. Fonio is, therefore rarelyavailable on the market. Tomake fonio available toconsumers and worth growingfor farmers, a CIRAD initiatedproject has been workingtogether with local stakeholders to develop better equipment formechanical processing and cleaning of the fonio.

Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is an ancient root crop which isclosely integrated into society and culture in the Pacific. Taro hasnever received much interest from research, but the devastationcaused by the outbreak of Taro Leaf Blight in Samoa in 1993 hasled to a renewed interest in this crop, in particular in its geneticdiversity. Gene banks have been established, but it is alsonecessary to work directly with farmers on in-situ, or on-farmconservation to keep the crop useful and competitive in achanging environment.

Neglected millets that save thepoor from starvationS.Bala Ravi 34In India, minor millets are still the stapleto large section of people inthe semi-arid region becauseof their extreme hardiness andnutritive value. However, thecultivation has decreased overyears, also reducing itsgenetic diversity. Minormillets have also not foundgood market, as the process-ing is manual and timeconsuming. To revive thesecrops, MSSRF is workingwith people for speciesconservation and promotionof simple processingtechnologies.

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L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 44

Valuing crop diversityEditorial

A complex diversity of plants andother species, theirinteractions, with each other

and with the specific environments inwhich they have developed, keep life onearth in balance. Healthy ecosystems arerelatively stable and the diversity theycontain enables them to adapt tochanging circumstances. It is thisdiversity that provides us with our food,shelter and other material goods.Ecosystem functions regulate theenvironment in which we live and wehave always found ways of manipulatingour environment and the biodiversitythey contain to satisfy our needs. Indoing so we have had an enormousimpact on the world’s ecosystems and inmany places they can no longer copewith the demands made on them or thespeed of change. Agriculture is ofcourse, a major example of how humanbeings have intervened in naturalecosystems.

Over time, we have identified andlearned to use nearly 8000 species forour food and well being. However, ascultivation technologies developed, ourattention has become increasinglyfocused on a limited number of species.Today, after millennia of agriculturaldevelopment, we derive more than 50%of our food requirements from just threecrops (maize, wheat and rice) and 95%of our energy needs from less than 30plant species.

Modern agricultural research hasconcentrated on increasing theproductivity of a few crops and breeds.As a result a few crops have come toreplace other locally grown crops andthere has been an enormoussimplification of our agriculturalsystems. We now cultivate a few specieson vast acreages of land according to theprinciples of commercial agriculture:simple cultivation, easy processing andstorage, and a uniformity that makestransport and marketing efficient ineconomic terms. This concentration on afew major staple crops has resulted in analarming reduction not only in cropdiversity but also in the variability withincrops. It has also meant that our foodsecurity today depends on a very fewspecies, which are traded globally andare available at very low prices.

For small-scale farmers in marginal areasthis has not been a positive development.Traditionally dependent on manydifferent plant species for exchange andsubsistence, many farmers have been

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Field with quinoa outside Cuzco, Peru.

drawn into agricultural economies basedon cash cropping commodity crops withlittle regard for the complexities andmulti-functionalities of existingagricultural systems that have developedover time and in close contact with localecosystems. In many cases, ruralcommunities have abandoned thecultivation of food crops and are nowdependent on cash for their everydayneeds. Over the past few years, forexample, the prices of manycommodities have fallen so low that theydo not even compensate productioncosts. Farmers are unable to fill thisincome gap from their presentagricultural systems.

For other farmers, especially those livingin areas unsuitable for the cultivation ofimproved varieties or commodity crops,agro-biodiversity is basic to survival.The more diversified their farmingsystems, the greater the chance of self-sustainability and self-reliance. In suchareas so-called underutilized species(Padulosi, p. 5) are particularly useful.They have been selected over time towithstand such stresses as drought andfloods (Oakley, p. 24), and they can beproduced in a sustainable way usingavailable, low-cost, input practices.These crops also require less moistureand therefore do not exploit the alreadyshrinking water tables, thus making themideal for the drylands (Reddy, p. 28).

In many cases, these species are alsovaluable sources of micro-nutrients andvitamins needed (McClintock, p. 8;Salome Yesudas, p. 18) to overcome theproblem of “hidden hunger” - the lack ofessential nutrients in diets consistingmainly of carbohydrate staples - whichoften affect the young and the elderly.

Although useful and often nutritious,very little is known about theseunderutilized crops. Cultivationrequirements, yield improvementpotential and other properties are seldominvestigated and rarely documented(Caillon, p. 19). Usually, these cropshave not been commercialized and littlehas been done to develop markets forthem. Lack of suitable technologies forcultivation as well as processing, hasalso been a discouraging factor forgrowing these crops (Bala Ravi, p. 34). Itis difficult to find information on themand the traditional knowledge that usedto be integrated into rural culture andhanded down from generation togeneration within local communities isdisappearing rapidly with the

“modernization” of agricultural practicesand the outward migration of youngpeople (Woods, p. 13).

Traditionally, communities have beenfollowing crop diversities, someattaching a cultural significance andcelebrating it in various forms (SalomeYesudas p. 18). However, these are onlyat a small scale. Concerted effortstowards conservation of under utilizedcrops, on a larger scale, are being madeby the formal institutions working in thefield of agriculture (N. Rai p.11). On theother hand, the local communitiesthemselves with the help of NGOs(Vanaja Ramprasad p. 22) andinstitutions (Bala Ravi, p. 34) arepromoting such initiatives.

The displacement of local biodiversity isa major challenge not only for local foodsecurity but for the long-termsustainability of our global food systemand the ecosystems that support it.Recognizing our increasingvulnerability, initiatives like theConvention on Biological Diversity(CBD) have become important vehiclesfor ensuring the maintenance of a safetynet of diversified crops that can meet thematerial needs of future generations.

The CBD and the Global Plan of Actionfor the Conservation and SustainableUtilization of Plant genetic Resourcesfor Food and Agriculture are examples ofinitiatives that recognize the role ofbiodiversity in food and livelihoodsecurity (for other initiatives seeNetworking, pp. 31-32). The Plan ofAction resulting from the World FoodSummit 2002 called for immediate actionto combat hunger. One of the measuressuggested was to renew efforts toenhance the production and use ofculturally appropriate, traditional andunderutilized food crops. For this andother similarly important declarations tobe realized, major changes are requiredin our present agricultural system.

5L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

The use of the term underutilizedto refer to categories of wild andcultivated plants invariably gives

rise to a discussion of what the wordactually means. In general it iscommonly applied to species whosepotential has not been fully realized. Fairenough. Unfortunately such aninterpretation is all-inclusive and mayalso refer to local varieties of majorcrops and commodities currentlyabandoned by farmers or in decline butwhich could be revived through specificinterventions such as adding value ormarketing.

Many of us who are engaged inpromoting the better use of plantbiodiversity to deal with problems ofpoverty, food and nutritional security,income generation and environmentalhealth, prefer a more specific definition.Here we define underutilized species as“those non-commodity crops, which arepart of a larger biodiversity portfolio,once more popular and today neglectedby users’ groups for a variety ofagronomic, genetic, economic, socialand cultural factors.”

Farmers cultivate them less than in thepast because these species are no longercompetitive with the crops that havecome to dominate the world food supplyand that are supported by seed supplysystems, production and post-harvesttechnologies and extension services. Inaddition, their markets are well-established and consumers areaccustomed to using them. In order tobring underutilized species back intocultivation, their competitiveness has tobe addressed and new opportunities suchas new food and lifestyle trends and thedevelopments taking place in productionand post-harvest technologies have to beexplored.

This is, however, not the whole story. Alack of competitiveness may be animportant factor for underutilization but,in itself, this tells us little about thegeographical (underutilized where?),social (underutilized by whom?) andeconomic (underutilized to whatdegree?) reasons associated with thedecline of local crops. For instance, withregard to geographical distribution, aspecies might be underutilized in someregions, but not in others. Cowpea(Vigna unguiculata) is a good example.It is a staple for many people in Sub-Saharan Africa, but consideredunderutilized in Mediterranean countries

Underutilized plant species:what are they?

Stefano Padulosi and Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon

where it was once widely used and isnow grown only in some restricted areas.Similarly, chickpea (Cicer arietinum) isconsidered an underutilized species inItaly, but is a main pulse in Syria andmany other countries in West Asia. Otherexamples are leafy vegetables. From asocial point of view it is hard to defineleafy vegetables, a group of severalspecies used by millions of people inSub-Sahara Africa, as beingunderutilized. Yet, poor marketingconditions make them largelyunderutilized in economic terms.

Time is another factor that must be takeninto consideration. Underutilized cropsmay suddenly become popular in onecountry while in another they continue tobe poorly researched, marketed andmanaged. A good example of this is thedark green salad vegetable known asrocket – the collective name for thespecies Eruca sativa, Diplotaxistenuifolia and D. muralis. Rocket hasbecome a highly priced vegetable inEurope through innovative cultivationand commercial practices, while inEgypt it remains one of the country’scheapest vegetables and a rich source ofmicronutrients for the poor.

Underutilized crops are often presentedas ‘new crops’, not because they are‘new’ but because they have been takenup by commercial companies andresearchers for a new market. In reality,local communities have used thesespecies for generations but the currentloss of local knowledge means that theirtraditional uses are being forgotten.Many underutilized species can make animportant contribution to a better diet forlocal communities. Oca (Oxalistuberosa), ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus)and mashwa (Tropaeolum tuberosum),three traditional Andean tuber plants areall much richer in Vitamin A and VitaminC than the well-known potato (Solanumtuberosum). Quinoa (Chenopodiumquinoa), cañahua (Chenopodiumpallidicaule) and amaranth (Amaranthuscaudatus), all underutilized grains in theAndean region, contain far higheramounts of certain essential amino acidsthan wheat. The leaves of blacknightshades (Solanum nigrum) provideappreciable amounts of mineralsincluding calcium, iron andphosphorous, Vitamins A and C as wellas proteins and amino acids such asmethionine, scarce in other commonlymarketed vegetables.

In categorizing a species asunderutilized, we should also considerthe level of underutilization: when can aspecies be said to be underutilized andwhen does utilization becomeunsustainable over-utilization?

Common understandingOrphan, abandoned, new, underutilized,neglected, lost, under-used, local, minor,traditional, forgotten, alternative, niche,promising, underdeveloped: these andother terms are often used as synonymsfor underutilized species. Perhaps thebest way to understand what the termreally means is to identify the featuresunderutilized species have in commonand show how these relate to our lives.Underutilized species are:

• important in local consumptionand production systems: they are anintegral part of local culture, presentin traditional food preparations andare the focus of current trends torevive culinary traditions;

• highly adapted to agroecologicalniches and marginal areas: theyhave comparative advantages overcommodity crops because they havebeen selected to withstand stressfulconditions and can be cultivated usinglow input and biological techniques;

• ignored by policy makers andexcluded from research anddevelopment agendas: specialefforts are needed to improve thecultivation, management, harvestingand post-harvesting of underutilizedspecies and studies are needed onissues such as marketability,nutritional status and policies andlegal frameworks to regulate their use;

• represented by ecotypes orlandraces: most underutilized speciesrequire some degree of improvement;

• cultivated and utilized drawing onindigenous knowledge: cultivation

Harvested green calyces of roselle.

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L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 46

and use can be enhanced by usingfarmer-based knowledge and byintroducing innovative cultivationpractices. Unfortunately, processessuch as urbanization and changingfarming methods are contributing tothe rapid erosion of traditionalknowledge;

• hardly represented in ex situ genebanks: efforts are needed to rescueand conserve the genetic diversity ofunderutilized species. Withoutcharacterization and evaluation theuseful variation of these species willremain poorly understood. It isimportant to combine ex-situ with in-situ (on-farm) conservation efforts aslarge-scale conservation efforts areunlikely to be made for these species.A “conservation through use”approach, therefore, becomesparticularly important;

• characterized by fragile or non-existent seed supply systems: effortsneed to be made to provide plantingmaterial to farmers in order to makethe cultivation of underutilizedspecies more feasible and sustainableover time.

New approachesThere are several strategic factors thatneed to be taken into account if we are tosuccessfully promote underutilizedspecies and, at the same time, ensure thatbenefits are equally shared amongcommunity members. These include:

• focusing on local values, indigenousknowledge and uses: such anapproach will strengthen the linkbetween diversity and sustainableuses and is important in consideringmarketability;

• recognizing underutilized species asa public good to ensure thecontinued availability andaccessibility of plant genetic materialto present and future generations;

• focus on groups of species asmodels through case-studyapproaches to make the best use oflimited resources and facilitate forscaling-up and mainstreaming results;

• promote cooperation amongstakeholder groups and createnational, regional and internationalsynergies: this is not an option but anecessity, isolated efforts and successstories need to be linked anddisseminated;

• analyze and enhance demand usingmarket-oriented strategies: such anapproach will create sustainablemarkets and reduce the risk of over-estimating economic potential;

• empower rural poor andstrengthen their capacity tonegotiate with the private sectorand government: such interventions

will ensure that the poor andunderprivileged receive theirrightful share of the benefitsresulting from ourpromotion process. This isan important part of thelivelihood approach andessential because manyunderutilized species arecultivated in poor areaswhere they represent one ofthe few - if not the only -asset of the localcommunity;

• mainstream gender-sensitive approaches inmanagement and use:these will allow groups likewomen - who are too oftenmarginalized - to enhancetheir capacity to manage,conserve and useunderutilized species in asustainable way and - indoing so - strengthen theireconomic status;

• inter-disciplinary work:such an approach is criticalif the opportunities ofunderutilized species - includingnutritional, economic and socialaspects - are to be tapped at all levels.

The tools and methods used to pursuesuch an agenda must be relatively simpleand inexpensive given that underutilizedspecies have a low priority amongstpolicy makers and that there are limitedresources for their development.Partnerships need to be built amongststakeholders involved in the collection,conservation, use, enhancement,marketing and commercialization ofunderutilized species. A participatoryapproach is essential in ensuring thatlocal actors’ needs are adequatelyaddressed. In this process policy makersshould be involved because they have animportant contribution to make ininstitutionalizing work on underutilizedspecies and in helping to protect localcommunities trying to realize benefitsfrom local agrobiodiversity.

Moving forward

The International Plant GeneticResources Institute (IPGRI) in closecooperation with the Global FacilitationUnit for Underutilized Species (GFU) isactively engaged in several initiativesaimed at enhancing the use ofunderutilized species to realize socialand economic benefits that will improvethe living conditions of peopleworldwide. More information on theseactivities can be accessed throughIPGRI’s web page on neglected andunderutilized species atwww.ipgri.cgiar.org/nus/ and the GFUwebsite www.underutilized-species.org/

Stefano Padulosi, IPGRI-CWANA, PO Box5466, Aleppo, Syria. Tel: (963) 21-2231412,Fax: (963) 21-2273681. E-mail:s.padulosi@cgiar.org

Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon, Coordinator,Global Facilitation Unit for UnderutilizedSpecies, Via dei Tre Denari, 472a, 00057Maccarese, Italy.Tel: (39) 6-6118292, Fax: (39) 06-61979661.E-mail: i.zeledon@cgiar.org ;irmgard.hoeschle-zeledon@gtz.de

References- InWEnt/GFU, 2003. Proceedings of theInternational Workshop on UnderutilizedPlant Species. Leipzig, 6-8 May 2003.InWEnt, Leipzig, Germany. - IPGRI, 2002.Neglected and Underutilized Plant Species:strategic action plan of the InternationalPlant Genetic Resources Institute.International Plant Genetic ResourcesInstitute, Rome, Italy.

- Padulosi, S.; T. Hodgkin; J.T. Williams andN. Haq, 2002. Underutilized crops: trends,challenges and opportunities in the 21stCentury. In: “Managing plant geneticresources” J.M.M. Engels et al. Eds. pp. 323-338. CABI-IPGRI.

- Pimpini, F. and M. Enzo, 1997. Present andfuture prospects for rocket cultivation inthe Veneto region. pp. 51-66, In: Rocket: anold Mediterranean crop for the world (S.Padulosi and D. Pignone, eds.). Report of theII International Workshop on Rocket 13December 1996, Padova, Italy. InternationalPlant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome,Italy.

- Vietmeyer, N., 1990. The new crops era.pp. xviii-xxii, In: Advances in New crops.Proceedings of the First National Symposiumon New Crops: Research, Development,Economics. (J. Janick and J. Simon Eds.).Indianapolis, Indiana, 23-26 October 1988.Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Field intercropped with peas, beans and quinoa, Pitumarca, Peru

Photo: Anita Ingevall

7L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

Underutilized crops makeimportant contributions to thenutrition and health of people in

developing countries. Whereas thesepotential benefits provide a good reasonfor conserving agrobiodiversity, this linkreceives little attention nationally andinternationally. However, as the growingdependence of populations worldwide ona few staple crops leads to increasinghealth problems, more attention is beinggiven to biodiversity and the interdepen-dence between human and environmen-tal health.

The International Plant GeneticResources Institute (IPGRI) is concernedwith the maintenance and use of plantgenetic resources for food and agricul-ture. A recent initiative Dietary diversity:a challenge linking human health withplant genetic resources emphasizesnutrition and health. As threats tobiological diversity accelerate, the plantgenetic resources that guarantee thecurrent and future production of healthyfoods, beverages and medicines must bebetter used to improve the well-being ofthose whose food security and health isat risk.

Biodiversity ignored

Biodiversity often has a low priority onthe development agenda. While differentsectors and institutions concerned withhealth, agriculture, environment oreconomic development may be commit-ted to sustainable food production andconsumption, they approach develop-ment problems in different ways.

Nutritionists emphasize the importanceof deficiencies in micronutrients such asiron, Vitamin A, iodine and zinc - so-called hidden hunger - to diet quality anddisease resistance. In Latin America,South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africasupplements and food fortificationdominate nutrition programmes.Common treatments include extra dosesof vitamin A and fortifying staple foodssuch as wheat, maize flour or sugar withiron to prevent anaemia. While veryeffective in many cases, these measuresare difficult to sustain.

Even food-based approaches tend tofocus on a few, often-exotic species suchas carrots and sweet potatoes withrecognized nutrient values. Nutritionists’preoccupation with single nutrients hasled to new efforts to biofortify staplecrops such as rice or wheat with

Underutilized species and newchallenges in global health

Timothy Johns

nutrients like beta-carotene and zincthrough genetic modification. Whileoffering potential new tools for solvingspecific malnutrition problems, theseapproaches treat nutrition simplistically.They ignore both the physiological andsocio-cultural reasons that favour dietsbalanced by a variety of quality foods.

Underutilized crop species are oftenviewed as irrelevant and uneconomicsolutions to global nutrition problems.Wild and cultivated biodiversity isignored in dietary surveys, laboratoryanalyses of food composition, FAO FoodBalance Sheets on national foodconsumption and in policy and decision-making. However, underutilized crops domake essential contributions to adequatediets. Studies on home gardens, forinstance, clearly link diversity andnutritional status. Fruits, minor veg-etables, sauce ingredients, condiments,spices and medicines grown in smallquantities are inexpensive and healthycomplements to diets that wouldotherwise be predominantly carbohy-drate.

Changing needs and attitudes

Increasing attention to the importance ofagrobiodiversity might be seen as anunexpected consequence of modernagricultural success. The widespreadavailability of high-energy stable foodssuch as rice, wheat, edible oil and sugarat relatively low cost has contributed to adouble health burden in developingcountries. Nutrient deficiencies increas-ingly co-exist with obesity and diseasessuch as diabetes and heart disease inmany parts of the world.

A diet that includes fruits, vegetables,legumes, coarse cereals and animalprotein contributes to health. Mostessential nutrient deficiencies can beeliminated by small increases in thevariety of food consumed. Manyunderutilized species, like the beta-carotene rich palm fruits from Brazil, arerich in nutrients. Millet is a good sourceof iron, and the recent decline in theconsumption of millet couscous inSenegal, for example, in favour of lessexpensive imported rice can be associ-ated with an increase in iron-deficiencyanaemia.

Moreover, a growing number of medicalstudies demonstrate that optimal healthrequires more than just essentialnutrients. Such findings emphasize the

potential value of underutilized species.Foods derived from buckwheat andfinger millet, for example, reduce therisk of heart disease while bitter gourdand fenugreek contain compounds thatdirectly improve the body’s ability torespond to insulin. The benefits of leafyvegetables and other plants containingcarotenoids such as lycopene and luteinare also well recognized. These caro-tenoids have no nutrient value but theydo act as antioxidants and help preventdamage to cells and tissues.

At the World Summit of SustainableDevelopment there was a call to adopt aholistic approach to securing thesustainability of biodiversity, water,energy, health and agriculture. Dietarydiversity is not a medical, conservationor economic issue alone and this isreflected, for example, in IPGRI’scurrent approach to promoting thebenefits of underutilized species for ruraland urban consumers through multi-disciplinary partnerships.

Timothy Johns, Ph.D. International PlantGenetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Via deitre Denari 472/a, Rome, Italy AND School ofDietetics and Human Nutrition, MacdonaldCampus, McGill University, Ste. Anne deBellevue, Quebec, H9X 3V9, Canada.Tel: (1) 514-398-7847.E-mail: johns@macdonald.mcgill.ca

References

- Stakeholders’ Forum for Our CommonFuture, 2002. The Indaba Declarationon Food, Nutrition, Health andSustainable Development. Implementa-tion Conference. World Summit onSustainable Development, Johannesburg.

- Johns, T. and P.B. Eyzaguirre, 2002.Nutrition and the Environment. In:Nutrition: A Foundation for Develop-ment. Geneva:ACC/SCN. 2002.

- Johns, T. and B.R. Sthapit, in press.Biocultural diversity in thesustainability of developing countryfood systems. Food Nutr Bull. 2004.

- Rodriquez-Amaya, D.B., 1999. LatinAmerican food sources of carotenoids.Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición1999; 49: 74S-84S.

- Ogle, B.M.; P.H. Hung and H.T. Tuyet,2001. Significance of wild vegetablesin micronutrient intakes of women inVietnam: an analysis of food variety.Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr. 10:21-30.

L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 48

Whenever a bus or taxi rolls to astop during a trip anywhere inMali, a crowd of young girls

and women selling snacks and beveragesis sure to quickly surround the vehicle.“Ji suma bè! Da bilenni bè! There’s coldwater! There’s da bilenni!” For CFA25(US$0.05), passengers can buy a littleplastic bag of the frozen - but quicklymelting - beverage. On a hot day, youmight see an entire bus load ofpassengers sucking the sweet, dark redjuice from the bags.

The red juice is extracted from Hibiscussabdariffa. Choosing a name in layman’sterms is not easy. In Bambara/Dioulaspoken in Mali, Burkina Faso, and IvoryCoast, the red beverage is called dabilenni, the plant itself, da. Inneighbouring Senegal it is known by itsWolof name, bissap. In French, oseillede Guinée, in Spanish, Flor de Jamaica,and across North Africa, karkadé.

Roselle in Senegal and MaliNathan McClintock

diet of farmers and their families. Meatand fish are luxury items, enjoyed nowand again or on special occasions. Byand large, diets are carbohydrate heavy –the national dish tò is a congealedporridge made from maize or millet thatis dipped in a watery sauce made ofleaves or onions and dried mudfish(manògò). Leaf sauces are usually basedon roselle, baobab (Adansonia digitata),amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) or beanleaves. In southern Mali, baobab treesare a communal resource and, therefore,the quantity one family is allowed toharvest is limited. A field crop such asroselle or amaranth, on the other hand, isindividual property and families canharvest as much as they need.

Farmers begin to harvest roselle leavesfor use in sauces six to eight weeks afterplanting. They usually harvest leaves twoor three times during the five to sixmonth growth cycle, as pruningincreases the number of floweringshoots. Once the plant matures, the 3 - 6cm long seed capsule, or calyx, isharvested. An average plant may yieldbetween 1 - 1.4 kg of calyces. The ruberor “red roselle” is the most commonvariety and its calyces are readilyavailable in local markets, but also theyellowish-green calyces of the albus or“white roselle” are used for sauces. Bothin Mali and Senegal, red and whiteroselle are generally interspersed in thefield, and then separated at harvest. InSenegal, average calyx yields are around4600 kg/ha fresh weight, or 740 kg/hadry. Researchers in Nigeria found thatroselle yields were greatest whenintercropped with legumes such ascowpea and peanuts.

In Senegal, white roselle calyces arecooked down to make a thick, sour saucecalled bëkëj, served with the nationaldish, céébu jën (rice with fish). In ruralareas, prior to harvesting, the calyx, bothred and white roselle leaves and stemsare sautéed in oil and served with céébuwééx (fried rice with vegetables). InMali, roselle leaves are boiled down tomake sauce for tò. Later in the season,white roselle calyces may be added tofish sauces eaten with rice or tò.

Roselle is rich in iron, phosphorus andcalcium. The protein content of fresh

calyces ranges from 1.5 - 3.5% and seedprotein is nearly 17%. Fat concentrationis between 1 - 2% and sugar content ishigh, around 12%. Roselle also has anumber of medicinal uses. In Africa,India, and Mexico it is used to treat highblood pressure. Salves made from theherbage are used to heal sores andulcers. Many of these medicinal uses canbe attributed to the high concentrationsof malic, ascorbic, and especially citricacids in roselle. Across southern Mali,people recognize its restorative powers.People say: “If you catch a cold, youshould drink da bilenni to get better andit cleans the blood.”

Roselle as a cropRoselle provides food throughout thelatter half of the year, since farmers canharvest roselle for sauce both during itsvegetative stage and at maturity. Itmatures after the end of the rainy seasonat a time when other important rainyseason foods are becoming scarce andbefore cool season irrigated vegetablesand amaranth become available. In manyfields in both countries, roselle plantsremain green for several weeks followingthe harvest of the primary field crops ofpeanuts, millet, beans or sorghum. Bystraddling the two cropping periods, itmeets the need for green leaves forsauces at a time when other food cropsare unavailable.

Roselle will also grow in places whereother field crops are likely to do badlyand farmers often plant it along fieldboundaries. Madame Ngom, a Woloffarmer interviewed in Thiawène, in theheart of Senegal’s Peanut Basin,described a system of using roselle todivide 10 - 20 m strips of peanuts.Elsewhere in the village, long lines ofroselle border fields of cowpea (Vignaunguiculata).

InEnglish, the most common names areroselle and sorrel. A stroll through anypeanut field in Senegal or Mali willprovide glimpses of this multi-functionalplant whose origins are much disputed.While many wild varieties can be foundin Senegal and Mali, the varieties mostcommonly cultivated are the red-stemmed ruber, and the greenish-yellowalbus. A taller, woodier variety is alsogrown for its fibres. The climate of theSudanian agroecological zone stretchingacross West Africa is ideal for roselleproduction. The plant needs between 800to 1600 mm of continuous rainfall, witha minimum of 100 to 150 mm per monthduring its vegetative growth. It is a short-day plant and requires temperaturesbetween 18 and 35° C. Roselle can growto heights of 2.5 m, though it rarelyreaches this height under cultivation.Across West Africa, roselle isintercropped with other staple crops.While not among the primary food cropsgrown, it fills various spatial, temporal,ecological, dietary, medicinal, economicand cultural niches in the region’sfarming systems and diets.

Roselle in the dietFirst and foremost, roselle fills animportant dietary niche as an ingredientin sauces. In rural Mali, green leafsauces are an important part of the daily

Green calyx of roselle.

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9L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

Farmers also grow it because it requireslittle attention. It grows vigorously, yet israrely invasive. In Keur Banda, IbrahimNiang grows roselle in clustersthroughout his peanut fields. While heplanted some of these plantsintentionally, many are volunteer plantsthat he has left and allowed to grow.“When they come up by themselves, Ijust leave them alone!” Volunteer roselleis a common sight in most millet,sorghum, peanut, and cowpea fields inthe Sudanian zone of West Africa.Farmers consider this “free food” - itrequires no planting, labour or attention,apart from harvesting the leaves orcalyces when needed. After the calyxand seed have been harvested, farmerssometimes collect the stalks and use theirfibre to make ropes for tying thatch,fencing gardens and weaving fishingnets. Roselle yields as much as 1 - 1.5tons of fibre per hectare dry weight.

Farmers in southern Mali also useroselle to demarcate field boundaries orsub-plots. In the village of Dialakoroba,farmer Birama Koné for example usesroselle to separate his sorghum field intoa grid of 5 x 5 m. Within these squares,he plants peanuts between sorghumplants. He claims that his system ofintercropping has improved his yields.“My father thinks it’s bad, that it willreduce the yield, but I’ve had betteryields than he has since I started plantingthings together.” When asked where helearned to intercrop, he laughed and said,

“I don’t know, I just startedexperimenting.”

He is not alone.Intercropping, particularlywith roselle, is commonthroughout Mali. AnotherDialakoroba farmer,Noumoutie Koné,intercrops peanuts bothwith clusters and rows ofroselle. He has alsointegrated small hills ofsweet potato (Ipomoeabatatas) into his peanutfields. Typical of theparkland agroforestrypractised throughout theSahel, his fields lie in themiddle of a small groupof baobab trees. Other tree speciesintegrated into the farming systems ofsouthern Mali are shea (Vitellariaparadoxa), nèrè (Parkia biglobosa) andjujube (Ziziphus mauritiana) the fruits ofwhich are important sources of energy inthe Malian diet. In Senegal’s PeanutBasin, baobabs and the nitrogen-fixingAcacia albida are commonplace in fieldsintercropped with roselle, peanuts andmillet.

Such biological diversity is critical in theresource poor Sudanian zone. Indeed,intercropping is widespread across WestAfrica and practised on 80% of thefarmland. On the degraded soils of thesemi-arid savanna, where fertilizer use isboth costly and inefficient, yields are

mostly a function of rainfall. In times ofdrought, when cereal crops may fail, adiversity of crops in the farming systemguarantees a minimum of food andfinancial security. Intercropping servesas a buffer against the extreme climaticvariability of the Sahel, improving theresilience and stability of the region’sagriculture. The numerous benefits ofintercropping - including nitrogen-fixation, erosion control, moistureretention, weed control, and thereduction of soil surface temperature -give resource-poor farmers a goodecological alternative to costly inputs.

Not much is known about the interactionbetween roselle and other flora and faunain this region. Its canopy is lower thanthat of a grain crop such as millet andhigher than legumes such as beans orpeanuts. Research has revealed thatdiverse crop canopy heights attractbeneficial insects - which help controlpests - and it is possible that roselle’ssticky calyces may contribute to this. Itsgrowth may benefit from the so-called“edge effect” when planted on a field’sboundary. At the field edge, a cropreceives more light and is not shaded byany companion crop on the outer side.As it is a different species from the cropgrown in the field, it is not competing forthe same nutrients at the same time.Because it does not grow very high, itwill not compete with other crops forlight. It may also act as a physical barrierslowing the spread of weeds, pests andpathogens.

Generating incomeFor African women, access to land andlabour are often factors that limit theirfarming activities. However, since rosellecan be farmed along the boundary of a

Intercropping peanut and roselle under Acacia albida. Farmer Ibrahim Niang and technicianOury Diallo in Keur Banada, Senegal.

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Roselle leaves are used for many purposes Photo: Author

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field, a husband will often allow his wifeto use what would otherwise be wastedspace. For women farming in urban,peri-urban, and rural areas with regularaccess to markets, the economic benefitsof roselle production are considerable.Huge quantities are sold at marketsthroughout Senegal and Mali. Womenand girls generally benefit from thesesales, since they are often the onesgrowing the crop. More importantly,however, the sale of value-added roselleproducts such as da bilenni (juice/syrup)provides revenue that is directlycontrolled by women. Food preparationis culturally a woman’s domain, so manywomen are able to earn money bycooking and selling foods on marketdays - bean fritters, fried plantains orboiled cassava, among others. Rosellejuice and syrup sales play an importantpart in these small-scale tradingactivities. Red roselle calyces are boiledin water for several hours to extract thedark red colour, often at a ratio of 1 kgof calyces to 5 litres of water and largeamounts of sugar are added to reduce thesour flavour. Women and girls then sellthe concentrate in recycled spring waterbottles. To make da bilenni, they waterdown the syrup, sometimes mixing inmint or ginger, and refrigerate or freezeit in small plastic sacks.

A French study estimated that oneperson could produce about 300 litresper day, using 1 kg of roselle for each 80litres of da bilenni. While the actualeconomic importance of roselle to thelivelihoods of Malian and Senegalesewomen has yet to be quantified, the highvisibility of women selling rosellecalyces and juice in the markets of bothcountries shows it plays a significant role.

With a changing global economydemanding specialization for agriculturalexports, male and female farmers alikewill be pushed towards export cashcropping. There is potential for roselle inthis market too, but unlike the cottongrown in this part of West Africa, rosellecan also be consumed for subsistenceand sold locally. As cotton pricescontinue to fall, several Malian farmersinterviewed in Dialakoroba have reducedtheir area of cotton to increase theircultivation of other cash and food cropssuch as roselle. Fluctuations in peanutprices in Senegal have led farmers,interviewed in several Peanut Basinvillages, to intensify production ofsecondary crops such as roselle.

Roselle’s rich red colour has led to itswidespread use in Europe as a naturalcolouring agent in foods. The nutritionalcontent and its medicinal properties havealso brought it to the attention of

Western consumers. Europe is the largestimporter of roselle, with Germanyimporting 80% or 3000 tons annually, atUS$2500 a ton. Sudan, Mexico andEgypt are major exporters of roselle.

In conclusion, the little red and greencalyces and leaves of roselle fill severalimportant agroecological, economic, anddietary niches in the food and farmingsystems of Senegal and Mali. Roselle’srole, while understated and subtle, haswidespread implications for farmers likeBirama Koné and Ibrahim Niang.Women farmers like Madame Ngom, inparticular, profit from roselle sales inlocal markets across West Africa. Whilesome of these niches could be filled byother crops, roselle’s prominence in thecultural and food traditions of severalWest African societies is irreplaceable.Roselle’s integral role in the farmingsystems of the Sahelian sub-region ofWest Africa may be used as a model forintercropping projects in tropicalfarming systems elsewhere in the world,providing both food and fibre to farmers,while improving crop diversity andfilling ecological and economic niches inboth cash and subsistence agriculture.By promoting the use of thisunderutilized species, extension workerscan help diversify farming systemsthroughout the tropics, therebyincreasing food and economic securityon marginal lands.

Nathan C. McClintockNorth Carolina State University,

Department of Crop Science, Box 7620, 2409

Williams Hall, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.

Tel: (1) 919 513 2707.

E-mail: nathan_mcclintock@ncsu.edu or

n_mcclintock@yahoo.com

References

- BDPA-SCETAGRI, 1995. Hibiscussabdariffa: Variétés, utilisations,débouches. Synthèse technico-économique.No. 52 et 83.

Online: http://www.agridoc.com/resdoc/

synthesestech/SYNTHESE/NOTE52.DOC

- Dupriez, H., and P. de Leener, 1987.

L’oseille et le chanvre de Guinée. In: Jardins

et Vergers d’Afrique. Terres et Vie, Nivelles,

pp. 270-271.- Fbabatunde, F.E, 2003.

Intercrop productivity of roselle in Nigeria.The Journal of Tropical Crop Science and

Production 11 (1).

Online: http://www.inasp.org.uk/ajol/

journals/acs/vol11no1abs.html#6

- Harrison, P., 1987. The Greening of Africa:Breaking through in the battle for land andfood. Paladin, London, 380 p.

- Morton, J., 1987. Roselle. In: Fruits of

warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,

pp. 281-286.

Online: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/

morton/roselle.html

Additional online resourceshttp://www.herbs.org/africa/hibiscus.html

Roselle intercropped with cowpea. Farmer Ibra Diop in Thiawene, Senegal.

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11L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

Conservation and genetic enhancement ofunderutilized vegetable crop species in NorthEastern region of India

N. Rai*, B. S. Asati and D. S. Yadav

The North Eastern region of Indiacomprising of eight states namelyArunachal Pradesh, Assam,

Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim, is one ofthe richest reservoirs of differentunderutilized vegetable crop species.Apart from the nutritional value, manyregional underutilized vegetable cropsare used for medicinal purposes, forincome generation and povertyalleviation.

Species diversity in the regionA large number of indigenousvegetables crop species are used,particularly, by the tribal population.Wide range of Solanum species is foundin various parts of the region (Table 1).The local tribals of Arunachal Praadeshgrow a vegetable having red tomato likefruits slightly bitter in taste belonging tothe genus Solanum. In Manipur, anotherkind of brinjal, having round fruit andintermediate in appearance betweentomato and brinjal, is grown.

In the hilly areas, tree tomato(Cyphomandra betacca), a perennialshrub producing red tomato likevegetables is also grown and used assuch. Tree tomato is consumed asdelicious chutney when raw or afterroasting and peeling off the skin.

One of the legume species, Vignavexillata, is grown by the tribals ofTripura. It is a legume cum tuber cropand rich in carbohydrates and minerals.Tree bean (Parkia roxburghii G. Don.) isone of the most common ofmultipurpose tree species in the Manipurand Mizoram (Kumar et al., 2002).Another vegetable tree growing in thelower altitude zones and popular amongthe people is drum stick or horse radish,locally called Sajina (Moringa oleifera).

Many species of cucurbits are found anddiversity of underutilized cucurbits inthe region, is given in Table 2. The wildspecies Cucumis hardwickii, the likelyprogenitor of cultivated cucumber, isfound growing in natural habitats in thefoothills of Himalayas and NE region,particularly Meghalaya. Cho-Cho(Sechium edule) a native of tropicalAmerica is a very popular vegetable in

the region. Commonly called as squash,it grows abundantly without much careand attention. Cho-Cho produces largestarchy edible roots in addition to fruits.

Conservation effortsTo facilitate effective utilization of theseplant genetic resources, it is importantthat these are evaluated for productivity,crop duration, resistance to biotic andabiotic stress and quality of produce.Several State and Central governmentresearch organizations includinguniversities of the region like BotanicalSurvey of India, Shillong, GB PantInstitute of Himalayan Environment andDevelopment, North-East Unit, Itanagar,Indian Council of Agricultural Researchfor North-Eastern Hill Region, Barapani,Shillong etc., are engaged in research,inventory and conservation ofunderutilized crops in the region. Thegermplasm material available at differentcenters has been evaluated and utilizedfor crop improvement. The ICARResearch Complex for NEH Region,Umiam (Meghalaya) is maintaining andevaluating more than 100 germplasm ofIndian bean and 12 germplasm of chow-chow.

Many state agencies are also workingtowards crop-specific conservationactivities, like the establishment ofgermplasm banks for horticultural crops.Non-governmental organizations areinvolved in the conservation andenhancement of underutilized vegetable

crops at the local and grassroots levelwhile the International donor agencieshave been playing crucial role inconserving the genetic resources throughtheir respective projects.

Constraints in conservation

• Land tenure systems vary widelyamong different Northeastern states,which are quite different from therest of India. The complexity in landownership and tenurial rights makesit difficult for survey, demarcationand consolidation of land. Therefore,cadastral survey and landdemarcation are completely absent inthe hill areas of northeast.

• Unequal distribution of landresources is responsible forincreasing dependence on forests bycertain sections of the societyleading to diversity degradation.Resolving the gender and equityissues concerning natural resourcemanagement is equally important inNorth-East, as in the other parts ofthe country.

• Needs a close inter-departmentalcoordination for sustainablemanagement of underutilized cropspecies in the region.

• Unregulated shifting cultivation bythe local tribal populations has beena major threat to sustainable geneticenhancement and conservation,particularly in the community forestsof the region.

• The long insurgency problem insome states such as Assam and

Table 1. Diversity of Solanum species in North East India.

Cultivates species Remarks

Solanum macrocarpon L. Introduced in NE region

Solanum xanthcarpum Used as vegetable and for medicinal purposesSchard & Wendl

Solanum indicum L. Domesticated, used as vegetable and medicine

Solanum mammosum L. Possibly introduced, ornamental with highsolasodine percentage

Solanum khasianum Clarke Wild - cultivated for solasodine alkaloid

Solanum torvum Swartz. Wild - sold in the market in Mizoram

Solanum berbisetum Nees Edible ripe fruits

Solanum ferox L. Wild - leaves are used for medicinal purpose

Solanum spirale Roxb. Wild but domesticated for medicinal use inArunachal Pradesh

Solanum sisymbrifolium Lam. Native of Africa, wildly grown in Meghalaya

Solanum kurzii Br. Endemic in Garo hills, Meghalaya

Solanum gilo Raddi. Introduced in NE region as a vegetable

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Cultivated species Area of concentration for diversities Range ofdiversities

Cucurbita ficifolia Meghalaya Introduced,neutralized

Coccinia grandis Assam, West Bengal Limited

Cucumis callosus Foothill areas of Assam Confined tolimited pockets

Luffa acutangula. Tropical areas of Assam Wide

Luffa cylindrica Tropical and subtropical areas of ModerateAssam, Meghalaya, Manipur,West Bengal

Momordica Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Limitedcochinchinensis West Bengal

Momordica dioca Garo Hills Rare

Trichosanthus anguina Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam, LimitedWest Bengal

Trichosanthus dioca. Tropical areas of Assam, Tripura Limited

Cylanthera pedata Hills of Meghalaya, Manipur, ModerateNagaland and Arunachal Pradesh

Benincasa hispida Asssam, Nagaland, Meghalaya Wide

Lagenaria siceraria Throughout the country Wide

Sechium edule High hills of Meghalaya, Manipur, ModerateMizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim andDarjeeling of West Bengal

Table 2. Diversity of underutilized cucurbits in North East IndiaTripura has considerable impact onconservation of these species.

Problems in conservation andimprovement

1. Gaps in knowledge and information

Information on genetic diversity isextremely poor. Species inventory ininaccessible areas of Arunachal Pradesh,Nagaland, Karbi Anglong and NorthCachar hills of Assam, and parts ofMizoram and Manipur is yet to be made.

2. Lack of vision

Most of the programmes and activitiesbeing undertaken by the stategovernments are shortsighted. Long-term planning based on sustainabledevelopment strategies and integration ofunderutilized vegetable cropsconservation and improvement issueswith development planning is the needof the hour. In order to increase therevenue generation, the StateHorticulture Departments pursue thepolicy of raising plantations ofcommercially important species byclearing and burning the naturalunderutilized plant species areas. Thehorticulture departments are introducingvarious high yielding varieties/hybrids ofcommercial crops. This is associatedwith increasing use of inorganicfertilizers and chemicals for plantprotection. Such policies, apart fromignoring the indigenous underutilizedspecies also effect adversely on existingflora and fauna.

3. Gaps in policies

The policies focusing on economicallyimportant species have been harmful tounderutilized crop species. Such policieshave not only decreased the crop speciesin natural/ rehabilitated forests but havealso resulted in accelerated soil erosionand loss of soil moisture. The policy ofpromoting high yielding varieties ofcommercial crops and assessment ofprogress and success on the basis ofconsumption of fertilizer and plantprotection chemicals, has led to ignoringthe indigenous underutilized crops. Thegovernment subsidy and credit policy isinstrumental in adopting these schemes.The planners have not considered therole and value of underutilized cropspecies in preparing developmentalplans.

4. Lack of trained manpower

The number of trained taxonomists inthe region is grossly inadequate. This isone of the most important bottlenecksfor completing the inventorization ofdiversity. Not all persons concerned withmanagement and enhancement ofgenetic resources understand the conceptof diversity in proper perspective. So it

is imperative that those who plan, decideand implement the developmentalprogrammes are adequately trained andeducated in favour of diversityconservation.

5. Need based participatory research

Regeneration and cultural practices formany species need to be researched andstandardized for their cultivation.Threatened species need immediateaction for ensuring their continuedexistence. Identification andclassification of threatened species needto be done. There is a serious gapbetween research and field needs. Theestablished formal institutions likeuniversity departments, ResearchStations and others rarely involvefarmers and local communities whilepursuing research. Hence need-basedresearch needs to be encouraged.

Conclusion

Problems relating to conservation andenhancement of underutilized crops innorth eastern region are land tenureissues, gender and equity issues, inter-departmental coordination, shiftingcultivation, inter-state border dispute,insurgency etc. With the establishment ofinstitutions like NBPGR, ICAR, BSIetc., adequate attention was given forsystematic management andenhancement of underutilized cropspecies available in this region. Theseinstitutions and universities in the northeast, have made tremendous efforts in

collection, evaluation, conservation andutilization of underutilized germplasmfor development of vegetable varieties inthis region. Keeping in view, the regionaldemand for vegetable crops,underutilized species needs to beidentified for collection, particularly, forhigh yield, quality, resistance to diseasesand pests, tolerance to frost and acidity.

Dr. N. Rai (Sr.Scientist)Division of Horticulture,ICAR Research Complex for NEHRegion,Umiam –793103 (Meghalaya), India

References:

Arora R K, & Pandey Anjula, 1996.Wild edible plants of India-diversity,conservation and use. ICAR, NBPGR,New Delhi.pp 294.

CSIR, 1950. The wealth of India,CSIR, New Delhi. Vol. II, pp56.

Kumar Sunil K, Suresh V R, Nagachen SV & Singh Th Raghumani, 2002. Treebean: a potential multipurpose tree.Indian Horticulture, Oct-Dec, pp10-11.

Pandey G, 2002. Popularizing underexploited fruits for consumptions,Indian Horticulture, Oct-Dec, pp 18-21.

Thakur N S Azad, Sharma Y P & BarwalR N, 1988. Tree tomato cultivation inMeghalaya, Indian Farming. Feb., pp3.

13L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

Cañahua deserves to come backAdriana Woods Páez and Pablo Eyzaguirre

In the harsh and unpredictable uplandplains (altiplanos) of Peru andBolivia, cañahua (Chenopodium

pallidicaule) has flourished anddiversified where few other crops cangrow. The grain grows well between3500 - 4100 m and is highly resistant tofrost, drought, salty soil and pests.Cañahua requires little care in the field,but harvesting and processing islaborious. Although the Aymara andQuechua communities who live in theregion have been growing cañahua forcenturies, the area under cañahuacultivation is decreasing and the futureof the crop is uncertain.

A downward spiralIndigenous Andean crops have beendeclining in importance ever since thetime of Spanish colonization. Over thelast 400 years new, foreign crops havebeen introduced and plants that havebeen the staple food of the poor forcenturies have suffered a serious declinein social status. Traditional foodingredients of high quality have been,and continue to be, replaced by low-costproducts such as rice and pasta. At thesame time rural communities are beingmarginalized and pressured to grow

One of the many varieties of cañahua.

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other crops or so-called “improved”varieties. These negative impacts on thecultivation and consumption ofindigenous Andean crops combined withsocio-economic pressures such as urbanmigration and the absence of a steadymarket have further weakened theirposition.

In the past cañahua has been considereda weed, misrepresented as a wild varietyof quinoa, and, when confused with thiscrop, even banned from agriculture.Cañahua has a great variety of localnames depending on the region and itslanguage as well as the plant’s varietyand form. Some of the names by whichit is known include isawalla hupa,ahara hupa, ajara, and cañahua inAymara; cuchiquinua, ayara,quitacañagua, and kañagua in Quechua,and cañigua, cañagua, cañihua, orcañahua in Spanish. Its many nameshave only added to the confusionsurrounding its identity and value, but atthe same time they reflect its historicalimportance as a crop with a deepcultural value.

CharacteristicsCañahua is a highly variable, self-pollinating annual plant that can reach a

height of 20 - 60 cm. It producesnumerous seeds of about one millimetrein size and there are several varieties,each with their own plant shape and seedcolour. Sowing is usually done bybroadcasting unselected seed that may bea mixture of several different cañahuatypes. Depending on the variety orvarieties used, the plant takes between 95- 150 days to grow and mature. Harvest-ing and post-harvesting processes such asthreshing, sieving, airing, cleaning, anddrying the seeds are time-consuming.However, quinoa, another Andean grainwhich has regained some popularity isalso difficult to prepare and it does nothave the advantage of cañahua whoseseed coat contain only a low level of thebitter tasting saponins. This means it isquicker and cheaper to process cañahuainto useable flour than it is to processquinoa.

Traditional use

In the high Andes, cañahua provides areliable source of food and forage andalso acts as a safety net when other cropsfail. In the Department of Puno insouthern Peru, cañahua is commonlygrown alongside less hardy staple cropslike potatoes and cereals. Although the

L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 414

resilient cañahua plant is primarilygrown as a food crop, the calcium richleaves are an important supplementarysource of animal feed, especially indrought-prone areas where forage andfeed is often inadequate.

Culturally, cañahua grain has not beenconsidered a substitute for potatoes orquinoa. Rather, it is valued as a supple-ment that enhances the taste, texture, andnutrition of other foods. In traditionalfood culture, the grain is most oftenconverted into cañiwako flour that canbe consumed with sugar, milk, and/orwater, added to soups, or mixed withwheat flour to make bread, noodles,pastries, and snacks. Cañiwako flour andproducts with cañahua ingredients aremarketed on a national scale in super-markets, restaurants and street markets.The grain is also used to make a hotchocolate-type drink that is sold on thestreets of cities such as Puno and Cuzco.Cañahua’s role as a supplement does notmean that it is unimportant in Andeanfood culture, on the contrary its highnutritional value is well recognized.

Cañahua also has medical properties.Pulverized cañahua seeds dissolved in awater-vinegar mixture are used to treattyphoid fever, and toasted cañiwako isregarded as being an effective counter toaltitude sickness and dysentery. Cañahuaflour can be consumed by people whoare allergic to gluten and who cannot eatproducts made with wheat, rye, barley oroats. In addition, the ash from its stalksand stems can be used as an insectrepellent. Indigenous Bolivian andPeruvian highlanders burn the residualbiomass from threshed grain and use theash produced to make llipta, a calcium-rich paste used by coca-leaf chewers.

Healthy foodCañahua’s high nutritional value togetherwith its medicinal properties havecontributed to its survival despiteincreasingly unfavourable socioeco-nomic circumstances. The grain is animportant source of protein and hastraditionally been a vital alternativesource to meat and milk products in therural areas of the high Andes. Itsbalanced composition of amino acids issimilar to the composition of the caseinmilk protein and traditionally it is usedin weaning mixtures. The grain also hashigh levels of dietary fibre, iron,unsaturated fats, and sugar.

Studies are beginning to show that thedecrease in traditional Andean cropcultivation and use is having a negativehealth effect on rural communities in theregion. Infants and children are nolonger getting the nutrients provided bythe traditional Andes diet, and changingfood habits in general have led to anincrease in obesity, diabetes, andarteriosclerosis amongst adults. Highlevels of anaemia (a blood disorder) dueto iron deficiency have been foundamong women in the highland plains ofPeru, a condition that could be cured ifcañahua and Vitamin C - to help thebody absorb the additional iron - wereadded to their diets.

Revitalization strategiesA secure future for cañahua diversitydepends on its continued use. This inturn depends upon the recognition andaffirmation of the crop’s nutritional,economic, and cultural benefits. Oneessential component of cañahua“revitalization” is the promotion of itsconsumption and the development of a

strategy that would support its cultiva-tion. Educational campaigns that makeurban and rural people aware of theimportance of Andean food productsneed to be developed and implemented.Local institutions like mothers’ clubs,communal dining centres, and localschools can play an important role inpromoting crops like cañahua.

Changes are also necessary at policylevel. The modification of national foodpolicy in order to be more supportive ofAndean crops is important. If govern-ment agencies guaranteed minimumprices to producers and regular price-controlled supplies to consumers,cañahua would have a better marketchance. Also, international and nation-ally administered food aid programmesshould base their activities on local foodproducts and not on poor qualityleftovers from developed countries. Thiswould have a strengthening rather than adestabilizing effect on local production.

The decreased use of cañahua is in partdue to limited access and supply.According to Macedo (2003), theproduction of Andean grains and tubersis insufficient to meet increasing urbandemand and as a result consumers haveturned to industrialized food products.This is particularly so in urban centreswhere indigenous people, who haverecently migrated from the rural areas,may want to buy traditional products butare frustrated by inadequate andinfrequent supplies, the poor selectionand high prices. It can be concluded thatany strategy for the conservation ofcañahua genetic diversity must includemechanisms that ensure constant andaffordable supplies.

PrecautionsIn spite of centuries of neglect, cañahuahas maintained its functional identity asa tasty and nutritious supplementaryingredient to many Andean dishes anddrinks. Sadly, this identity is fading.Studies that locate the cultural factorsthat have led to decreased cultivation andconsumption of cañahua are urgentlyneeded. Future scientific research andcommercial development on cañahuavarieties must be done in culturallyrelevant and respectful ways. Intensiveproduction and/or monocultures ofcañahua would misrepresent its func-tional identity in Andean food culture.Regardless of how much scientific, legal,and marketing improvements are made,cañahua will not flourish without thecultural support of its producers andusers.

Recognition of cañahua as a neglectedand underutilized crop is well overdue.However, any attempt to increasePh

oto:

W. R

ojas

Variability of cañahua seeds

15L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

availability through commercializationthat depends on the exploitation of onlya few varieties is undesirable. This wouldhave a negative effect on attempts toprotect and use the full range of theplant’s genetic diversity. It would beironic if cañahua varieties that are so

Cañahua field in Bolivia

Photo:W. Rojas

Wilfredo Rojas, Milton Pinto and José Luis Soto

In Bolivia, cañahua is mainly grown around LakeTiticaca and in the high areas of Cochabamba.These regions are considered the centre of thecrop's origin and diversity. However, the produc-tion area is so small that the crop is not evenmentioned in the annual agricultural census of thecountry.

PROINPA, a foundation for promotion andresearch on Andean grains, based in Cochabamba,Bolivia, recently carried out a survey amongst 467families in the Lake Titicaca area, with the purposeof studying the current state of the crop. Only 105families (22% of the total) indicated that they growcañahua. When asked to list the crops in terms ofpreference, cañahua was positioned at best in thirdplace after potato and broad bean (Vicia faba) oroca tubers (Oxalis tuberosa) and at worse sixth.The following reasons were given for not growingmore cañahua: lack of seeds, not enough land,harvesting difficulties and the lack of proper cropmanagement technologies.

The survey also showed that on average, 84% ofthe crop yield is meant for own consumption, 8%is sold, 6% is kept for seed and 1% is exchanged.Big families as well as families headed by olderpeople tend to grow more varieties and to cultivatelarger areas of cañahua. They also sell a higherproportion of the yield.

Genetic erosion of cañahua

Only 20 different varieties of cañahua were beinggrown by the families surveyed and the numbergrown by individual families varied from one tothree. Results showed that 85%

of farmers only grew one variety which gives anindication of the extent to which genetic diversityin the region has been reduced. The most popularvariety is grown by 22% of the families. However,there are thirteen varieties that are grown by fourfamilies or less. These can be considered criticallyendangered and immediate action is necessary toavoid their permanent loss.

In order to avoid the loss of this Andean grain,participatory studies to evaluate reasons fordecline, farmers’ preferences and the potential forits revival are required. lt is also necessary topromote the use of the Banco Nacional de GranosAndinos in order to increase the use and diversityof cañahua varieties.

Wilfredo Rojas, Genetic Resources Scientist; Milton Pinto,Technical Assistant Genetic Resources and José Luis Soto,Socio-economy and Gender Scientist, PROINPA -Regional Altiplano. Regional Office: F. Guachalla No.820, La Paz, Bolivia. Tel. (591) 2 241-6966 / 241-7954. E-mails: w.rojas@proinpalp.org ; m.pinto@proinpalp.org ;jl.soto@proinpalp.org

resilient to the naturalelements should perish fromneglect or too muchfavouritism.

Adriana Woods Páez andPablo Eyzaguirre. IPGRI,Via dei Tre Denari 472/a,00057 Maccarese, Rome,Italy.E-mail: a.woods@cgiar.org; p.eyzaguirre@cgiar.org

References

-Bonifacio, Alejandro,2003. Chenopodiumspecies: genetic resources,ethnobotany, and geo-graphic distribution. FoodReviews International Vol. 19,

Issue 1&2. Marcel Dekker Inc. 2003.

-Macedo, Guido Ayala, 2003. Consump-tion of quinoa in Peru. Food ReviewsInternational Vol. 19, Issue 1&2. MarcelDekker Inc. 2003.

-National Research Council, 1989. Lostcrops of the Inca’s: Little-known plants

of the Andes with promise for world-wide cultivation. National AcademyPress, Washington, D.C.

-Novak, W.K.; A. Mujica; C.R. Vogl andS-E. Jacobsen, 2002. The effect ofcañihua (Chenopodium pallidicauleAellen) on haemoglobin levels andiron status of rural women in risk ofanaemia in Puno (Peru). Posterpresented during Workshop on Environ-mental Research for SustainableDevelopment. European Tropical ForestResearch Network, Vienna, Austria.November 22-23, 2002.

-Repo-Carrasco, R.; C. Espinoza andS.E. Jacobsen, 2003. Nutritional valueand use of the Andean crops quinoa(Ch. quinoa) and kaniwa(Ch. pallidicaule). Food ReviewsInternational Vol. 19, Issue 1&2. MarcelDekker Inc. 2003.

-Scott, G.J., 2003. The challenge of themarket. Food Reviews International Vol.19, Issue 1&2. Marcel Dekker Inc. 2003.

L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 416

Fonio: a small grainwith potential

Jean-François Cruz

Fonio (Digitaria exilis), a smallcereal from West Africa, is muchloved by farmers and consumers

because of its many advantages. Foniohas a short growing season and is welladjusted to harsh environments. Thecereal has excellent culinary andnutritional properties. The onlydrawback is that the grains are tiny anddifficult to peel, which makes processinga tedious job. These difficulties havereduced the crop to a marginal cereal.However, efforts are now being made todevelop equipment that will facilitate theprocessing of fonio.

Old and robust

Fonio is possibly the oldest indigenouscereal cultivated in West Africa. Thedomestication of fonio seems to go back7000 years, but the first references tofonio as food date from the fourteenthcentury. The Dogons of Mali, an ancientpeople, refer to the fonio seed as “thegerm of the world”. They believed thatthe whole universe emerged from thefonio seed – the smallest objectknown.

Nowadays, fonio still grows in farmers’fields over a vast area extending fromSenegal to Chad. Fonio is a staple foodfor many rural communities, especiallyfor communities in the mountainousareas of the Fouta Djalon in Guinea.Farmers in Mali, Burkina Faso, IvoryCoast, Nigeria and Senegal also cultivatethe small cereal. West African farmersmainly cultivate white fonio (Digitariaexilis), which is also called fundi, findi,acha or “hungry rice”. In Nigeria,farmers grow black fonio (Digitariaiburua) as well. In Guinea, farmers alsooccasionally plant the so-called “foniowith large seeds” (Brachiaria deflexa)but this is, in fact, a different species.

The production of fonio declinedsharply in the 1960s but began torecover twenty years later. The increasein production can be attributed to largerareas being cultivated. Although averageproduction per hectare remains relatively

low, it has remainedconsistent at 600 - 700 kg/ha. At present fonio isgrown on more than380,000 ha and produces250,000 tons of grainannually. Fonio suppliesfood to several millionpeople during the mostdifficult months of the yearwhen other food resourcesare scarce.

Fonio cropping cycles varyfrom 70 to 150 daysdepending on the variety.Varieties with a very shortcycle (70 - 85 days) allowthe farmers to harvest earlyand enable them to coverthe critical “hunger” seasonbefore the major food cropscan be harvested. Farmersgenerally cultivate fonio onlight sandy or stony soils asthe crop is not verydemanding. The latevarieties, in particular, arewell adjusted to poor soils.This small grass, whichreaches heights of 30 - 80 cm, is veryrobust and can resist periods of droughtsand heavy rains.

Tasty and healthy

In West Africa fonio is considered to bethe tastiest of all cereals. Serving fonioas a dish at festivals or importantceremonies is always a good choicebecause of its fine and delicate taste. Asa popular proverb says “Fonio neverembarrasses the cook”. Fonio is alsoknown for its nutritional properties.Although the protein content of fonio issimilar or slightly lower than that ofother grains, it contains amino acids likemethionine and cystine which areessential to human health. These areoften deficient in today’s major cereals.As fonio is known to be easy to digest, itis traditionally recommended forchildren, old people who cannot digest

other cereals, sick people and for peoplesuffering from diabetes or stomachdiseases. Local pharmacists alsorecommend fonio for people who wantto loose weight.

Fonio, regarded as a minor cereal for along time and referred to as the “cerealof the poor”, is attracting renewedinterest in the urban areas of West Africabecause of its cooking and nutritionalqualities. Agricultural policies in theregion are also changing in favour oftraditional crops to try and decreasedependency on imported food products.

Difficult processing

In order to meet the needs of urbanhouseholds, small enterprises, set up byartisans’ or women’s groups, haverecently started to sell already-cleanedfonio in the markets. In Mali, Burkina

Farmer harvesting fonio. Photo:Author

17L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

Faso, Guinea and Senegal, smallbusinesses are marketing pre-cookedfonio packed in plastic bags of 500grams or one kilo. These products aredistributed to groceries and supermarketsand are even exported to Europe and theUnited States. However, the price offonio prepared in this way is highbecause the grain has to be preparedmanually and this is a long process.

Processing fonio is a difficult and time-consuming task because of the extremelysmall size of the grain. One gram offonio contains nearly 2000 grains andeach egg-shaped grain is only about 1 -1.5 mm long. After threshing, the grainis still surrounded by husks. Thisproduct is called “fonio paddy” or “rawfonio”. Like rice, processing paddy intowhitened fonio is done in two stages.The first stage, known as dehusking orpeeling, involves removing the husksfrom the seed to obtain the dehuskedgrain. The second stage, known aswhitening, aims to remove the bran (thepericarp and the germ) from the grain.Dehusking and whitening of the grain isdone by hand and require four to fivesuccessive beatings using a pestle and amortar alternated with as manywinnowings. The productivity of thiswork is very low. It takes nearly onehour to peel just one or two kilos offonio paddy. Moreover, in order toobtain a quality product, all dirt and sandmust be eliminated. This means that theproduct should be washed several timeswhich also adds to the amount of timeand effort required for preparation. Thus,mechanizing the processing and thecleaning of fonio is essential both toreduce the painstaking work for womenand to improve the quality and availabil-ity of the marketed product.

MechanizationTo make fonio more competitive on themarket in terms of quality and price, it isnecessary to improve grain processingtechniques at small company andwomen’s group level by modernizingexisting and developing new equipment.To meet these needs, a regional projecthas been initiated that focuses onimproving post-harvest technologies forfonio (1999 - 2004). The project is beingcarried out by CIRAD in collaborationwith the national research institutes ofMali (IER) Guinea (IRAG) and BurkinaFaso (IRSAT).

Before the project, there was littleequipment available to process fonio and

the equipment that did exist did not fullysatisfy the users. It was, therefore,essential to improve and developequipment that would make it possible tomechanize as much of the post-harvestoperations as possible.

The CIRAD project carried out severaltechnical studies aimed at improvingequipment. These studies have so far ledto an adaptation of a thresher and to thedevelopment of a dehusker

- GMBF type Engelberg - that has anaverage capacity of 100 kilograms perhour. In addition, cleaning equipmenthas also been developed including achannel for winnowing, drum sieves anda machine to wash out sand. Some ofthis equipment has been installed insmall existing companies or enterprisesoperating in rural and urban areas, suchas Bamako (Mali), Bobo Dioulasso(Burkina Faso) and Labé (Guinea). It hasalready helped users to process dozensof tons of fonio. Productivity hasincreased enormously and the quality ofthe product is high. An analysis of thecooking qualities of the fonio processedby the GMBF dehusker has beenevaluated and found to be very satisfac-tory. The fonio processed with themachine had a better quality thantraditionally whitened fonio: the germshad been removed, the product swellswell when cooked and its consistencywas smooth.

Phot

o: A

utho

r

A greatly enlarged photograph of one millimetre-long fonio paddy.

Training

But the project would not be completewithout training and provision ofadequate information to the variousstakeholders involved, includingmanufacturers, those processing the crop,small business groups and the producers.The assistance of local manufacturers isnecessary to ensure that the equipmentdeveloped can be constructed locally andthis is being followed up. Together, theseinitiatives should make it possible tomechanize the processing of fonio and,in this way, contribute to the revival ofthis long neglected cereal.

Jean-François Cruz. CIRAD-CA. 73,avenue J.F. Breton, 34398 Montpellier,Cedex 5, France.E-mail: jean-francois.cruz@cirad.fr

L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 418

Zaheerabad region of Medakdistrict in South Indian state ofAndhra Pradesh, lies in the

Deccan Plateau. The soils arepredominantly black but small areas ofsandy and black cotton soils are alsoseen. The average rainfall is 700 to 850mm, which is erratic and also unevenlydistributed. The soil depth in most of thered soils is not more than 6-8 inches. Tocounter such agro-climatic constraintsfarmers have developed variousstrategies, one of them being cropdiversification.

Role of DDSThe Deccan Development Society(DDS), a grass roots voluntaryorganisation working in the rural areas ofMedak District, since the last decade andhalf, has been critically looking at therole of uncultivated foods, especially inimproving the lives of the rural poor.Since 1989, the health workers of theDDS have taken the lead inunderstanding the role of uncultivatedfoods in the lives of the poor. Over 80uncultivated foods consisting ofvegetables, greens and berries have beenidentified and classified.

A majority of these are cultivated bywomen who are dalits and are at thelowest rung of the socio- economicladder in their communities. They workas farm labour, to eke out a living.

Crop diversity followed in the farms helpthem to overcome the unfavorableclimatic conditions and still get goodyields. They grow a minimum of 8 to 12crops simultaneously.

Greens- a rich source of nutrientsFor the people in the rural areas,especially the poor, uncultivated greensis the major source of food. Besidesbeing a major source of food, they alsoform a major source of nutrition to thepoor. Many types of green leaves areconsumed as vegetables, and most ofthem are rich sources of calcium, iron,carotene, vitamin C and Folic Acid.These greens are inexpensive sources ofmany nutrients, which are essential forhealthy growth. Such greens areconsumed in adequate amounts,especially, by pregnant and nursingwomen and by children.

In sangam day care centers, preschoolchildren are fed with a variety of greens,

everyday, either with cereals, pulses orrotis. Thus, right from the formativeyears, children are fed with local,diverse, delicious and nutritious foodfrom most safe and known sources.Every day, they collect these greens fromfields, fences, and backyards. All womenwho go for weeding, collect ediblegreens for the day’s cooking.

To understand the contribution of thesegreen vegetables towards the health ofthe poor, the uncultivated green leafyvegetables were subjected to scientificanalysis. The greens were collecteddirectly from the farm with theassistance of women, during the peakmonths of August and September. Theywere analysed at the National Institute ofNutrition, Hyderabad, for the nutrientcomposition. The results revealed thatJonnachamcheli, one of the mostcommon uncultivated green, contains3237 mg of calcium per 100g of edibleportion and 111.3 mg of iron; AdaviPullakura, which is available throughout the year, is also rich in iron andcalcium, containing 139 mg and 331 mgrespectively; and Tummikura, which ishighly auspicious and consumed byevery family, is rich in iron with 81.6 mgper 100g of leaf. The results once againproved that the knowledge and wisdomof our women is far superior.

Celebrating crop diversityAgriculture of the poor is characterizedby the celebration of bio-diversity ontheir lands. Farmers also look at theiragro bio-diversity from a spiritual pointof view. The diversity on their fields istheir way of celebrating nature andestablishing a communion with it. In thiscelebration they not only see the role oftheir cultivated diversity but also theoverwhelming contribution of theenormous diversity of uncultivatedfoods.

They celebrate this huge diversitypresent on their farms in various formsand while doing so they also celebratethe diversity of uncultivated greenspresent in their fields with greatreverence. One such example is thecelebration of “Shoonyam panduga”, afestival celebrated in the month ofDecember, when most of the Kharif andRabi crops are at maturity stage.Farming community worship the motherearth by walking around the field,

singing special songs related to thefestival and offering food specially madeout of more than twenty uncultivatedgreens, available during that time.

A major reason for this spiritualcelebration of diversity is the fact thatuncultivated foods, over the millenniahave been the source of life for the poor.It has made up a part of the quantum ofthe food they consume as well as themajor source of nutrition for them.

ConclusionThe experience shows that uncultivatedplants are an integral part of foodsystems in this region. The protection ofagriculture biodiversity in the ecosystem,and the agricultural practices (mixedfarming, multi-cropping and avoidanceof herbicides and pesticides) will ensurethe continuity of uncultivated foods inour cuisine and culture. These factorsbring certain advantages to the very poorbesides being relevant to the well beingof the majority population and enablinglocal command over food. Theseuncultivated foods are naturally fortifiedwith most of the micro nutrients - likeBeta carotene, vitamin C, Calcium, Ironetc., and therefore should be encouragedin the place of fortification andsupplementation by artificial means.

(Article based on the knowledge of DDSsangam women)

B. Salome YesudasDeccan Development Society (DDS),Pastapur, Zaheerabad, Medak District,Andhra Pradesh India.

References:1. Nutritive value of Indian Foods – 2003,

Published by National Institute ofNutrition, Indian Council of MedicalResearch, Hyderabad

2. P V Satheesh, Uncultivated food and thepoor, Proceeding of South Asianworkshop on Uncultivated Food andPlants, South Asian Network on Food,Ecology and Culture (SANFEC),International Development ResearchCenter

3. P V Satheesh, Uncultivated foods andthe landscape-A view from theSANFEC, DDS.

Conservation of uncultivated foods by localcommunities

B. Salome Yesudas

19L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

Taro in Vanuatu: towards a dynamicconservation strategy

Sophie Caillon, José Quero-García and Luigi Guarino

Ordinary” or “true” taro(Colocasia esculenta) is aherbaceous plant with a swollen

underground stem, the corm. It is one ofthe most ancient of crops and continuesto be a key component of sustainablelivelihoods in the relatively fertile andhigh-rainfall environments of the Pacific,Southeast Asia, West Africa and theCaribbean, where it has special cultural,dietary and economic importance.Worldwide, taro ranks fourteenth amongstaple crops, with 9 million tonsproduced globally on some 2 millionhectares of land. In the Pacific, where itis particularly significant, it is consideredan essential part of every meal. Both thecorm - baked, roasted or boiled - and the

Taro pond field, Vêtuboso, Vanua Lava. Photo: Author

“ leaves are eaten, and the latter is asignificant source of vitamins, especiallyfolic acid. In addition to its importancein the diet, the cultivation of taro isclosely integrated into social and culturallife. It is used as a gift on formaloccasions and contributes strongly to theidentity of its grower.

Taro is a significant export commodity insuch Pacific countries as Fiji and theCook Islands. That this list of exporterswould have been longer just a decadeago reflects the fact that taro is indifficulties. One of its problems is theTaro Leaf Blight (TLB) caused byPhytophtora colocasiae which devas-tated production in Samoa in 1993 andwhich still continues to threaten other

Pacific island countries. However, therecent resurgence in Samoan tarocultivation shows that these problemscan be overcome, particularly if geneticdiversity is well managed and used.Unfortunately, this diversity is rapidlydisappearing from many parts of theworld as a result of factors such aschanging diets, urban migration and theeffects of pests and diseases.

To safeguard taro genetic resources,large ex-situ, or ‘off-farm’, collectionshave now been established in SoutheastAsia and the Pacific by the TaroGen andTANSAO projects (see Networking, p.35). However, collections are expensiveto maintain and the risk of loss as aresult of social unrest, financial

L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 420

constraints, pest and disease problemsand climatic disasters is high. Ex-situconservation is, therefore, not enough.Communities which continue to dependon taro cultivation to meet their dailyneeds and where taro remains of socialand cultural importance, are in practicemanaging the genetic diversity of taro.In-situ, or ‘on-farm’, conservation has,therefore, generated interest from tarogenetic resources workers.

The challenges that faces taro productioncan be illustrated by the situation in thesmall Pacific island country of Vanuatu.In Vanuatu, the national ex-situ collec-tion contain the best 125 varieties frommost of the islands. However, localgenetic diversity is rapidly eroding andtaro is being replaced by other crops.

Living diversityVêtuboso is a relatively large village inthe low mountains of Vanua Lava, anisland in the northern part of the Vanuatuarchipelago in the South Pacific. Theisland has 1900 inhabitants on about 330km2 of land. Vêtuboso is a remotevillage. A 20 km path links it to a localairport and a harbour where ships arrivebetween 4 and 12 times a year. Itsinhabitants are subsistence farmers andgrow taro as a main staple crop for localconsumption. Taro is cultivated inabundance thanks to intensive irrigationpractices in taro pond fields and surplusproduction allows the crop to beintegrated into a complex local exchangenetwork and thus into the social life ofthe village.

At present, 96 taro cultivars are grown inthe village. A survey carried out among12 farmers growing 51 of the cultivarsand complemented by a DNA diversitystudy, revealed that each named cultivarcorresponded to a separate genotype. Sixcultivars were described as ‘common’ asthey represent 83% of all planted taros,whereas 40 cultivars were classified as‘rare’ (8% of all planted taro). As eachfarmer plants an average of about 20cultivars, he or she usually grows sixcommon taro and 14 intermediary andrare ones.

Farmers chose the first group of taros,the ’common’ taros, because of theiragronomic properties such as timerequired to mature and yield, andbecause of their taste. Tasty, “strong”taros with high dry matter content areused to make nalot, a taro pudding thatis highly valued socially. Non-irritatingand soft taros with low dry mattercontent are reserved for anotherimportant Melanesian meal made fromgrated corms and known as laplap.Non-irritating dry, but still soft, tarosare roasted. Over the last two

generations selection criteria havechanged from a preference for a drycorm that can be roasted, to a strongcorm that can be boiled. This hascoincided with the introduction ofcooking pots. This evolution becomesclear when the villagers talk about thehistory of different cultivars, and canalso be seen from the relative importanceof different cultivars in their gardens. Anexample is the cultivar “Rov”, whichtoday is the cultivar considered to havethe best qualities and accounts for 24%of all the taros planted. Rov started tobecome popular just two generationsago, which is comparatively recently.This shows that selection criteria are thusdynamic and adapt to environmental orsocial changes.

The second group - ‘intermediate or rare’taros - are chosen for social reasons onthe basis of personal preferences. Theycan be cultivated for a variety of reasonsincluding their ornamental value oruniqueness, because they are broughtback as souvenir from a trip, becausethey have been handed down within thefamily or because they are an essentialpart of the community’smythology and beliefs. Bycultivating such culturaldiversity, farmersstrengthen their ownidentity and create theirown “identification badge”.

Taro diversity on VanuaLava is, therefore, high andstable and loss of knowl-edge from generation togeneration is low. Localfarmers recall that onlythree cultivars had everbeen lost. Elsewhere inVanuatu, however, tarodiversity is at risk.

Diversity at riskIt is useful to compareVanua Lava with some ofthe other six inhabitedislands of the Banks group,islands that are socially andculturally similar. In theseislands taro is still animportant part of the dailydiet, but it is slowly beingreplaced by other crops. InGaua, villagers mix tarowith a paste of gratedmanioc (Manihot esculenta)in order to make enoughnalot for social occasions.In Ureparapara theeveryday diet as well as the

food prepared for ceremonies, is basedon new recipes using manioc and unripebananas. The islanders save theirprecious taro harvest for Easter.

In lower and drier islands such as Motaor Mota Lava, where breadfruit(Artocarpus altilis) is part of the diet,taros (or at least yams, Dioscorea spp.)also play a role in social events. On theseislands taro cultivation faces significantagronomic constraints, in particular itshigh demand for water and its suscepti-bility to the Papuana beetle. Whenrunning water is not available, taros haveto be planted in the humid and wetenvironments found at higher altitudes,far away from the village. Thus, peopleprefer less demanding species such asbananas, cassavas, and sweet potatoes(Ipomoea batatas) that can be plantedclose to the village, near the coast. OnMota, five taro cultivars disappearedbetween 2001 and 2003, and 15 since1999 because of the “drought”.

However, agroenvironmental constraintsare not the only reason for the geneticerosion of taro. Even in mountainous

Map of Vanuatu

Port Villa

Pentecost

Mere Lava

Vanua Lava

Ureparapara Mota LavsMota

100 km

N

Vanuatu

21L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

villages where taro gardens are acces-sible, diversity is at risk because of arapid loss of knowledge. During a one-week survey in Central Pentecost, 164taro cultivars could be named but only20 of these were found in local gardens.Old people still have a rich knowledge ofnames - a knowledge not shared by theyoung - and they do not seem to beworried about the loss of taros as theybelieve they “must be hiding under grassand will grow again one day”. Mean-while, they try to ‘preserve’ the tarocultivars by being able to list all theirnames. However, as farmers spend lessand less time in their taro gardens, theyforget the identification criteria thatallow them to associate a name with aparticular variety. In Mota, 60-year-oldmen were ashamed to admit, whenconfronted with taros in the field, thatthey could not remember their names.

On-farm conservationIf the genetic diversity of taro is to beconserved on farm in Vanuatu, the crophas to become more competitive. It is,for example, urgent to introduce TLB

resistance genes into the local varietiesbefore the disease makes its own drasticselection in a country where the geneticbase is already narrow. However, theintroduction of new characteristics has tobe done very carefully so that it willcontribute to widening the genetic baseand not reduce it further. In the contextof a complex mosaic of agroecosystemsand farming practices, farmers need to beable to choose varieties that are welladapted to their specific ecologicalenvironment as well as to their personalpreferences, from a wide range ofvarieties with different characteristics.Such an experiment, a collaborationbetween the Ministry of Agriculture andCIRAD, is already in progress on theisland of Tanna in Vanuatu. Farmers haveplanted, tested and are now selectingpromising planting material based onpreferred corm properties.

Such a strategy could be taken a stepfurther if farmers were assisted to createtheir own diversity. In Ureparapara, forexample, farmers collect taro seeds, plantthem and select new plants from the nextgeneration when their planting material

has been reduced because of droughts orcyclones. The farmers control thegermination process but not thepollination, which is in fact not difficultto learn. After a quick demonstration onhow to cross plants with each other,farmers were able to cross local taroswith exotic taros that had been intro-duced because of genetic properties suchas resistance to TLB. If the materialobtained is ‘good’ enough, farmers willprobably find new incentives to planttaro.

The conservationist is usually concernedwith trying to preserve the past. In thestrategy outlined above, however, itwould be possible to build on thepractices that farmers have consciouslyor unconsciously developed overcenturies and combine them with newknowledge. In this way, the process ofgenetic adaptation could be acceleratedand diversity preserved. The focus isresolutely on the future.

Sophie Caillon, José Quero-García andLuigi Guarino. IRD, 5 rue du Carbone,45072 Orléans, Cedex 2, France.E-mail: sophie.caillon@orleans.ird.fr

Acknowledgements:The authors are grateful to IRD (Institut deRecherche pour le Développement) andCIRAD (Centre de CoopérationInternationale en Recherche Agronomiquepour le Développement) who funded thisproject.

References- Caillon, S. and V. Lanouguère-Bruneau,2003. “Taro diversity in a village of VanuaLava island (Vanuatu):Where, What, Who,How and Why?”. Third Taro Symposium,Nadi, Fiji.

- Jansen, T., 2002. Hidden taro, hiddentalents: a study of on-farm conservation ofColocasia esculenta (taro) in SolomonIslands. Honiara, Solomon Islands, SolomonIslands Planting Material Network andKastom Garden Association: 50.

- Lebot, V. and K.M. Aradhya, 1991. Isozymevariation in taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.)Schott) from Asia and Oceania. Euphytica56: 55-66.

- Quero-García, J.; J.L. Noyer; J.L. Marchandand V. Lebot (submitted). Germplasmstratification of taro (Colocasia esculenta)based on agro-morphological descriptors.Validation by AFLP markers. Euphytica.

- Zhu, D.; P. B. Eyzaguirre; M. Zhou and L.Sears (Eds.), 2000. Ethnobotany and geneticdiversity of Asian taro: focus on China.International Plant Genetic ResourcesInstitute: 99.

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A farmer brings her selected taro for a competition,Vêtuboso, Vanua Lava.

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The advent of green revolutionalso had its negative effects in theform of genetic erosion of a wide

variety of food crops. These crops, alsoknown as coarse cereals or small millets,were largely grown by the poor inmarginal environments with low rainfalland periodic droughts. As millets arephoto insensitive they have shortergrowing season and low moisturedemand. They fit in well with the mixedcropping system. They have proved tobe nutritious food for people and alsovaluable fodder for the animals. Themillets, which can be stored underordinary conditions, have served asemergency food during food shortages.

With the disappearance of these cropsfrom the small-scale farms there hasbeen a drastic reduction in thecultivation and production of thesegrains. According to FAO statistics,1990, the area under small millets is54 m.ha. The average annual globalproduction has reduced from 34.3million tonnes in 1980 to 30.5 milliontones during 1990. In India, smallmillets occupy 4.5 % of the totalcultivated area, producing about5 million tons of grain. Importantmillets grown in India are finger millet,

fox tail millet, barnyard millet, prosomillet, kodo millet and the small millet.

Even at the turn of the nineteenthcentury, Ragi (finger millet) was thestaple grain for many regions acrossKarnataka. Ragi is one of the hardiestcrops, suited for dry farming. It can growunder conditions of low rainfall,withstand severe droughts and reviveagain with a good shower and with aremarkable vigour. The crop is also freefrom pests and diseases as compared toother grains. Ragi was always grown as amixed crop along with dolichos, cowpeaand redgram. Diversity in ragi wasamazing. Three popular varieties thatwere cultivated were the kari or blackvariety , kempu or red variety and thehullupore. Ragi varieties are classifiedbased on maturity, habit of growth (tallor dwarf varieties) season of cultivation,size, shape and colour of spikes (curved,straight or branched out like a Coxcomb) size and colour of grain, yieldpotential, quality of grain and so on.Some of the varieties recorded wereHullubili , gudabili, karigidda,jenumudde, madayanagiri, hasurukambi,Doddaragi , biliragi, balepatte, majjigerudrajade, jade shankara etc.

Under utilised crops and their role in subsistenceagriculture

Vanaja Ramprasad and Nada Gowda

The other millets that are known to bemore underutilised are Saame (littlemillet), Navane (Fox tail millet), Oodalu(Barnyard millet), Haarakka (Kodomillet ),Baragu (common millet or proso millet).One common feature of all these milletsis that they can be grown with very littleexternal inputs in the form of manureand they can be grown under marginalconditions.

These millets, by and large, are grownby the very poor and are of shortduration of three months. The milletshave several advantages over othergrains. The storage tissue in the seedendosperm forms the bulk of the seedand the starch in it provides the food.The outer layer of cells of theendosperm, the aleurone layer is wheremuch of the protein is present. Theembryo, which occupies a small volumeof the seed, is rich in fats, proteins andminerals. All millets are rich in iron andof all the cereals, finger millet is therichest in calcium and has been used as aweaning food in India. Culturally, eachof the millets, has its own place in foodsthat are prepared for the festivals roundthe year. Another common feature ofthese millets is, they are small sizedgrains and are difficult to process. The

Revival of minor millets at KanavemedapuraKanavemedapura village is situated in hilly region of AnekalTaluk, Bangalore Rural District. The village is surrounded bythick forest. The average annual rainfall in the region is about700 mm. The soil type is generally red soil. The main cropsgrown are ragi, paddy and pulses. Earlier, farmers used togrow minor millets such as haaraka, navane, saame. Thesemillets were part of their regular diet before the advent ofmodern agriculture.

About 40 years ago, women in villages were doing majorpart of agricultural work in addition to household work ofcooking, grinding ragi manually, fetching water from adistance of 1 km. Tracing out the reasons as to why thepeople were healthier in those days, it came out quite clearlythat food available was of high quality. There was a practiceof consuming minor millets like haaraka, navane, saame etc.at least once a week.

Over a period of time, growing of these millets decreasedconsiderably. Farmers replaced minor millets with cash cropsand resorted to hybrid varieties advocated by modernagriculture. Besides, due to factors like changing food habits,lack of market demand, introduction of hybrids, these milletsare hardly found now in the village.

Shantamma, a farmer in the village was concerned about theshortage of food grains during the lean season. She, with the

support of Green Foundation (GF), decided to reintroducethe millets. With great difficulty she could trace about ahandful seeds of haaraka, navane, saame, kudrevali, sajje .GF research team supported Shantamma to preparedemonstration plot measuring 15 ft by 15 ft for sowing sevendifferent varieties of millets. This demonstration plot wasselected and all the members of a self-help group (SHG), inwhich Shantamma happens to be a member, decided to workon voluntary basis. This experiment worked well. Thesewomen farmers succeeded in conserving and multiplying theminor millets.

Slowly the importance and values of growing minor milletsspread around Kanavemadapura village. The farmersrealizing the values of minor millets took necessary steps torevive minor millets at the village level. The communityformed a federation, Seed Management Committee (SMC) ofcommunity seed banks established in other villages. Throughthis SMC, the members initiated the process of conservationand multiplication of these millets. Now the SMC ismarketing minor millets in addition to other farm produces.The activity has now spread to about 25 villages after GF’sintervention. Farmers have found a niche market for theseprocessed millets.

23L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

Dumeri is a small village inKalahandi district, with apopulation of about thirty

households, most of whom are Kandhaand God tribals. The village has about200 acres of cultivable land. But, most ofthem are up and medium lands. Ricecultivating area is only about 80 acres.All the farmers belong to small andmarginal category.

Agni Dei, a mother of three children, losther husband at the age of 32. Since thenshe has been struggling hard to rear thechildren and to sustain herself. Agni Deihas about one acre of medium land and asmall plot of 0.12 acre in her backyardfor growing vegetables. She has only onebullock. She brings another young anduntrained bullock from a nearby villageon banka system, in which she keeps thebullock for about six months. Duringthis period, she trains it and feeds it onbehalf of the bullock owner.

In her one acre of land Agni Dei growsthe following crops, the approximateharvest of which is mentioned within thebrackets: Maize (about 50 to 60 kgs,food for one month), Kudo (60 to 70kgs), Ragi (about 40 kgs), Kushla (about24 kgs), Horse gram (40 kgs), Black

gram (20 to 24 kgs), Sesam (24 to 28kgs) and Mustard (40 to 60 kgs)

All the crops are grown only for herfamily’s consumption excepting Mustardand Sesam which is sold in the market.In the vegetable plot, she growsvegetables like spinach, beans, tomato,chilly, brinjal, pumpkin, yam, sweetpotato etc., but all these crops are alsogrown under rain fed condition. AgniDei herself has kept seeds of fivedifferent varieties of beans. Her land isnot suitable for growing any rice. So shecollects her rice requirement by workingas a labourer in others field and takes thewages in kind.

It was startling to know that in this smallvillage even today there are thirty threevarieties of rice seeds cultivated, out ofwhich only four were introduced byGovernment Departments. The list of allthe thirty three varieties harvested thisyear is given in Box 1.

Conclusion

People have their strong reasons forpracticing crop diversity. It is not thatGovernment Extension Officers have notreached these villages or the tribals havenot got exposure to modern agriculturalpractices, for which the monoculture hasnot yet penetrated to those areas. It ishigh time that people who are genuinely

Tribals show the way for conservingindigenous crop varieties

Jagadish Pradhan

interested on the issue of bio-diversityneed to spend time with the farmers andtribals in remote villages and understandfrom them, the reason for which theyprefer to practice the diversified croppattern as well as conserve theindigenous seeds. May be from them weshall be able to find solutions for most ofour problems.

Jagadish PradhanBaschim Orissa Krishi Jeepi Sangh,5-Duplex Shailashree Vihar,Bhubaneshwar - 751021.

Box 1: List of rice varieties cultivatedin Dumeri

Up land varieties:

Setka (Sarian), Luchei, Karni, Baudia,Luchei, Kusma, Chinamal, Sakra, GeleiBhata Burei, Nadiakura, Para,Kaliasuru

Medium/Low land varieties:

Budamanji, Jhili, Kalikhujee, Sapuri,Ghitkani, Baeda Hundar, Kankri,Magura, Bhudei, Lal Gaendi, Kuresal,Hiram, Lal Luchei, Mal Patri, Mugdi,Mahipal

Govt. Introduced Varieties

Dharitri, Parijat, Lalat, Moti andSwarna

PHOTO

grain is processed by hand operatedstone mills that are traditionally found inthe rural homes. The grain is ground asflour or often cooked as rice.

Disappearance of these millets has led tofood insecurity forcing many small and

marginal farmers to migrate to far offplaces in search of livelihoods. GreenFoundation a community basedorganisation has in the last decadeplayed a significant role in reviving thethreatened crops that have had a high

value in terms of food during droughtsituations (See box). The communitieswith which Green Foundation hasinteracted in terms of on farmconservation have had a positiveexperience in reviving these crops.

Even though traditional crop varietiesprovide ecological insurance and foodsecurity to community, theirconservation and propagation has beenneglected by the formal agriculturalresearch and extension. Facilities forprocessing the millets is a necessaryincentive for the farming community tocontinue to cultivate these millets. Therealization of the non-sustainability ofchemical farming and monoculture, hasled farmers back to traditional crops andindigenous agricultural practices.

Dr. Vanaja Ramprasad andDr. Nada GowdaGreen Foundation, 570/1 Padmashri Nilaya,3rd Main, 4th Cross, NS Palya,BTM second stage, Bangalore-560076.e-mail: greenfound@vsnl.net

L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 424

Home gardens: a cultural responsibilityEmily Oakley

Home gardens are reservoirs ofagrobiodiversity in ruralcommunities worldwide and, in

many cultures it is women who maintainthem. This everyday task is an importanthousehold activity and ensures thatfamilies get a nourishing diet suited totheir tastes and cultural traditions.Women preserve agrobiodiversitythrough high-density plantings ofunderutilized species and their homegardens are often “experimental stations”for adapting indigenous and non-domesticated varieties. This richdiversity is important not only forhousehold food security and economicstability, but also for the health of theagroecological system. Many studiesfrom Asia, Africa, and Latin Americaconclude that women’s home gardens“provide early-maturing varieties thatcarry families over the hungry season tillthe main crops mature, contain reserveresources of plant genetic materialsshould the main crops fail, (andfunction) as conservation sites forspecial or preferred varieties, and astesting grounds for new varieties”.

Cultural legacyHome gardens are a prominent feature ofrural Bangladesh and are found in almostall village households. They are workedand managed exclusively by women.They are located within the walls of thefamily compound and function as freshpantries from which women can harvestproduce for the daily meal. Women havestrong preferences for using traditionallocal varieties instead of modern highyielding commercial varieties in theirhome gardens. They consider localvarieties to be uniquely adapted to localagroecological conditions, and feel thatthey represent a significant culturallegacy. By saving seed from homegardens and exchanging it with theirneighbours, friends, and relatives theyare able to maintain a considerableamount of agrobiodiversity.

In 2002, a study carried out in twovillages in Bangladesh looked at the bestway to promote the cultivation andconservation of species found in homegardens. Previous studies had concludedthat women in Bangladesh prefer localvarieties because they cook quickly andare an important source of vitamins.They also have a strong preference forthe native varieties of fruit trees theymanage in their gardens.

Women’s roleThe villages studied - Bishnapur andBaushid - lie in the flood plain of West-Central Bangladesh approximately twohours from the capital Dhaka. AlthoughBishnapur is less remote and moreindependent agriculturally than Baushid,both villages have the same level ofhome garden production.

The study, which tried to find out howwomen’s preferences and the choicesthey made in their home gardensinfluenced the cultivation of variouscrops, surveyed 75 adult women. Theiraverage age was 35 years and most hadlittle formal education. Nearly all thewomen who participated in the studywere economically vulnerable and theirfamilies suffered regularly from periodsof food shortages.

Home gardens in Bangladesh are oftenoverlooked as serious sources of food. Infact, they provide successful examples ofhow locally adapted varieties supportfood security, and have an importanteconomic, dietary, cultural, andagroecological function. They also play arole in the financial security of ruralhouseholds and help reduce dependenceon vegetable and fruit from the localmarket. Women harvest from gardens tosupplement their rice supply. Over halfthe women interviewed also reportedmarketing garden produce when therewas a seasonal surplus in order toincrease their household income. Severalof the women specialized in selling localvarieties of fruit and vegetable seed toearn extra cash.

High-density diversityHome gardens in Bishnapur and Baushidcontain a high concentration of crop andvariety diversity in remarkably smallareas. Gardens are made on any groundavailable near the house, and often areno bigger than a few square meters.Some 60% of the women said their homegardens were less than 50 m2 in size, buteven so they were growing an average of16 different crops and an astonishingnumber of fruit, vegetable, and spicespecies.

Women reported that they sowed a largenumber of crops per plot in order tominimize risk and maximize overallyield. In total, 25 different fruit crops, 29vegetable crops, and 12 spice crops werecultivated in the two villages. Indigenoussquashes, gourds, and greens were themost commonly grown vegetables, andlocal varieties of mangos, jackfruit, andpapaya as well as guava, banana and

grapefruit were popular in all house-holds.

The crops grown required comparativelylittle room and roofs and fences wereused as trellises to maximize vertical andhorizontal space. Short-stature, annualvegetables occupy the lowest level,followed by shrub-like bi-annuals, suchas taro. Bamboo frames supportclimbing vines such as squash, gourds,and beans and mixed fruit trees formedthe top layer of the garden. The localvarieties used by women gardeners havebeen selected for their ability to thriveunder this type of intensive cultivationsystem. Although gardens were plantedon marginal lands such as courtyards, thelocal varieties were highly productive,required few external inputs, and wereable to survive the floods that regularlyaffect Bangladesh.

Women in Bishnapur and Baushid had avery sophisticated understanding of theiragricultural systems and precise criteriafor determining the varieties they use.When asked to list the most desirablecharacteristics of local home gardencrops, their answers revealed not only acomplex decision-making process butalso the multiple uses for which theymanage the different varieties. Becausetheir needs are subsistence rather thancommercially oriented, women empha-size taste, agroecological adaptation,culinary uses, and nutritional value.However, they also considered yield tobe important and felt that local varietiesperformed well under home gardenconditions.

Women liked local vegetable varietiesbecause they mean something to themand are part of their culture and foodtraditions. Local varieties of gourds, forexample, had a long growing season,could grow on rooftops, cook quicklyand had fruit and leaves that were usefulfor a variety of purposes.

Women also preferred local varieties inhome gardens because they were betteradapted to local climate, soil, and diseaseconditions and could be grown withoutthe fertilizers and pesticides needed forcommercial varieties. In both Bishnapurand Baushid there were hardly anyhouseholds that used pesticides in theirhome gardens and only 17% usedchemical fertilizers. Women found thatlocal varieties responded well to organicpest control measures, such as ashes, juteseed powder, and fermented rice waterand thrived on organic fertilizers such ascow dung, compost, ashes, and courtyardsweepings.

25L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

It is often said that the reason why thereare few high yielding varieties in homegardens is that women have not yetexperimented with them. However, inBishnapur and Baushid this was not thecase. Seed for high yielding varieties wasreadily available yet women stillpreferred to rely on their local seednetworks. In both villages, only 10% ofwomen said they used one or more highyielding variety in their home gardens,although several women said they hadtried them. The reasons for not continu-ing to grow them included not liking thetaste or texture of the fruits and veg-etables they produced; poor cookingqualities; the length of time and fuel theyneeded to cook and, in some cases, avery short growing season meant thecrop could not be harvested gradually inaccordance with household need.

Women’s authorityWomen are responsible for all the tasksassociated with developing and main-taining the family’s home garden,including land preparation, weeding,harvesting and saving seed. Their workin the home garden is seen as anextension of their domestic duties and isintegrated into their daily routine. Onewoman in Bishnapur village describedher work in her home garden like this:

“I decide what to plant in the homegarden. I decide what vegetables havegrown well last year and I plant those.I go to the home garden and see if thereare good soil conditions for plantingseeds. I pick the fruits for harvesting.I manage the fruits for ripeness,checking the progress of each fruit everyday to make sure I don’t miss any. Whenwe plant seeds I need to make sure theplants are coming up. I take care ofseedlings. I pick and cook fruits andvegetables. If plants die, I replace them.I weed to give more space for the plants.I prepare the ground, air the soil andmake sure it is well drained. When thesoil is dry I plant seeds again.”

Women of all educational levels, ages,and incomes cultivate home gardens. Theart of home gardening has been passeddown from generation to generationthrough oral tradition, observation andhands-on experience. At every stage oftheir lives women are involved in someaspect of home gardening and the factthat women are secluded in the home, inaccordance with the traditions ofBangladesh, means they cooperate onhome gardening tasks. This encouragesthe flow of information on cropselection, planting methods, andprocessing. In addition, young womenobtain local varieties of seeds byinheriting them from their mothers ormothers-in-law. New brides often bringhorticultural seeds from their home

villages when they marry thus furtheringthe diffusion of varieties. The high rateof seed sharing within communities andamong neighbouring villages furtherpromotes crop genetic diversity.

Women maintain diversityAlthough increased cultivation of highyielding varieties of rice in Bangladeshhas led to an overall decrease intraditional field crops, such as local ricevarieties, oilseeds, pulses, and millets,home gardens continue to be sanctuariesof agrobiodiversity. In both Bishnapurand Baushid, women expressed acommitment to preserving local varietiesand regarded them as part of theircultural tradition and responsibility.Local varieties were an important part ofthe everyday diet and provided thespecial ingredients necessary for thedishes served at festivals. As one womanfrom Baushid put it “If I stop growinglocal vegetable varieties who will carryon the tradition?”

Lessons for practitionersIn answer to the question - How canwomen’s preferences for local varietiesbe used to help promote their continuedcultivation - it can be suggested thatNGOs encourage informal learningnetworks through which older womencan pass on knowledge about thecultivation of these varieties and thatthey promote the training of youngwomen in seed management for localgarden crops. NGOs could also starteducational campaigns to encourage the

use of local varieties and in this waystrengthen the understanding that highyielding varieties are not the onlyoption.

Emily OakleyE-mail: eaoakley@lycos.com

References- Hocking, D.; A. Hocking and K. Islam,1996. Trees on farms in Bangladesh:farmer’s species preferences for home-stead trees, survival of tree planting, andmain causes of death. In: AgroforestrySystems Vol. 33, pp. 231-247.

- Jiggins, J., 1986. Gender-related impactsand the work of the InternationalAgricultural Research Centers. CGIARStudy Paper No. 17. The World Bank;Washington, D.C.

- Moreno-Black, G.; P. Somnasang and S.Thamthawan, 1994. Women inNortheastern Thailand: preservers ofbotanical diversity. In: IndigenousKnowledge and Development MonitorVol. 2, No. 3.

- Shah, W.A. and S.J. Nuri, 2000. Localvegetable seed storage methods andwomen’s participation in development. In:Indigenous Knowledge development inBangladesh: Present and future. Paul Sillitoe(ed.), pp. 91-96. Intermediate TechnologyPublications, London.

- Wilson, M., 2003. Exchange, patriarchy,and status: women’s homegardens inBangladesh. In: Women and Plants: Genderrelations in biodiversity management andconservation. Patricia L. Howard (ed.). Zedand St. Martin’s Press; New York andLondon.

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A variety of seeds for the home garden

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Women reintroducing neglected cropsNazmul Haq

In African rural communities womenin particular have a rich traditionalknowledge of the value and

properties of many minor local crops.They understand their nutritional valueand know they are well adapted to thelocal agro-climate. These crops can begrown in kitchen gardens or on farmlandwith far fewer inputs than commercialvarieties. In many households they areknown as famine crops and, in somecases, they can be processed or solddirectly to provide much needed cash forsuch essentials as school fees and healthcare.

This became clear when theInternational Centre for UnderutilizedCrops at Southampton University wasinvolved in a farmers’ participatorysurvey in South Africa. The survey waspart of a project to inventarise andreintroduce indigenous vegetable speciessuitable for cultivation in dry and semi-dry land areas in the North Transvaal andEastern Cape. It was coordinated by theSouth and East Africa Network forUnderutilized Crops (SEANUC).

The survey focused on how poor farmingcommunities manage underutilized cropsand on established and potentialcommodity chains from plantingmaterial to end-use. Later, practicalexperiences with these commoditychains were shared with the ruralcommunities in Spitzkop in NorthernTransvaal and Alice in the Eastern Cape.Whilst farmers participating in thesurvey identified several underutilizedspecies, only three are discussed here:

Livingstone potato (Plectranthusesculenta), cucurbits and amaranthus.Each case shows the depth of farmerknowledge and how keen they were toconserve these crops.

KnowledgeIn both Spitzkop and Alice, women’sknowledge of local plant species enablesthem to play an important role in theselection and management of seeds andplanting material and the conservation ofplant diversity. Their selection of edibleplants is based on a wide range ofcriteria including palatability, quality,beliefs about health and nutrition, andcommercial potential. However, theselection of crops and varieties involvesmore than a concern for edibility and thepassing on of botanical information andskills. Their understanding of localplants extends to chemical characteristicsas well, especially those that affectprocessing, storage, preservation and theeffectiveness of their medical properties.During the study it became clear thatconsumer demand and preference fortaste and palatability influenced the waywomen decided which species andvarieties to grow. For example, the greenleaves of amaranthus are popular inAfrica and farmers carefully selected aspecial type of amaranthus for thecanning industry. In the same waycucurbit varieties were selectedaccording to criteria such as marketdemand.

During the survey, seed for cucurbits andamaranthus, two of the target species,was collected from community gardenswhere it was being maintained alongside

some major vegetable species.The women in thesecommunities knew of the usesof these species from theirgrandparents and weremultiplying and maintaining thevarieties for their own needs.

ReintroductionHowever, in the case of thethird species studied -plectranthus, popularly knownas Livingstone potato, thesituation was quite different.Although the communitiesknew that plectranthus tuberswere nutritious - they containhigh levels of Vitamin A,protein and iron - Irish potato

had become so popular after itscomparatively recent introduction thatthe Livingstone potato had beenneglected. As a result there had beensuch a serious loss of planting materialthat the communities were no longer ableto maintain the necessary diversity. Thefarmers realized this and were eager toget plectranthus reintroduced. Thewomen of the community showed themost interest in this and the project wasable to provide 14 accessions ofplectranthus - collected from thenorthern region of South Africa - towomen in two communities in theSpitzkop area. The women characterized,evaluated and selected two lines forfurther trial in their gardens and weregiven training in propagation and cropmanagement.

Three years later a follow up surveyfound that the women’s groups were stillmaintaining all the varieties they hadbeen given in their communal gardens.The successful re-introduction of thisspecies would not have been possiblewithout the skills and knowledge of thewomen maintaining the communalgardens and the fact that they realizedthe nutritional value of the tuber andwere keen to see it re-establish.

ProductionAs indicated above the farmers’participatory survey lead to theidentification and selection of threespecies considered desirable by thecommunities for multiplication,distribution and planting – plectranthus,amaranthus and cucurbits. In workingwith the different varieties, womenshowed particular skill in theidentification of characteristics such asdrought, disease tolerance and the abilityto withstand extremes of temperature andPhoto: SEANUC

Plectranthus esculenta, popularly known asLivingstone potato.

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Cucurbits showing a wide rnage of diversity

27L E I S A I N D I A • M A R C H 2 0 0 4

still perform well on marginal land.Above all women farmers gave priorityto crops that could be grown in mixedfarming systems. The project trainedcommunity members in participatoryseed production and crop management aswell as such operations as watering,control of diseases and pests (only fewincidences observed) and harvesting. Thecommunities found that the mixedcropping of these crops was profitable.

In Spitzkop, farming communities arerelatively poor. Plectranthus tubers wereplanted in small plots of 10 x 10 mbetween young eucalyptus trees in amixed cropping system that includedother vegetables such as amaranthus andcucurbits. They were also intercroppedwith maize on the household’s farmland.Trained women community membersmanaged the production of these cropswith a very limited amount ofsupervision. Plectranthus yields undercommunity-managed mixed croppingsystems were 60 tons/ha but lower whenintercropped with maize.

Scaling-upThe SEANUC programme in the regionstarted with two farming communitiesbut after three years, as it prepared towithdraw from Spitzkop, some 120farmers in 20 villages were cultivatingplectranthus. The rapid uptake of thetechnology confirmed the success of theproject and an extensive exchange ofplanting materials took place betweenfarmers. The demand for tubers was alsodeveloping on the local market andbetween 2001 - 2002 farmers weregetting up to Rand 5 (US$1) per 250 gfor their crop, higher than the marketprice for Irish potato. The possibility ofearning an income from cultivatingplectranthus encouraged young menwho had access to land and who mightotherwise have migrated out of the areato plant the crop.

In the Eastern Cape farmers selected fivelines of plectranthus for their palatabilityand taste. Yields of 70 tons/ha wererecorded when leaves were harvested attwo weeks intervals over a period of sixweeks. Community members started tosell the cooked leaves in small saucers topeople travelling by bus and taxi forRand 7 (US$1.30).

Also in the Eastern Cape, 83 accessionsof Cucurbita maxima and 4 lines ofLagenaria were collected, characterizedand evaluated in community gardens.Two accessions of Cucurbita maximawere well accepted by the communitybecause of their yield and palatability.These accessions were planted in a 50 m2

field and fertilized with farmyard

manure. The selected linesgave yields of 40.5 tons/haand 30.6 tons/harespectively. The women’scommunity groups haveincluded these two selectedtypes in their householdproduction systems andhave started to marketharvest surpluses.

Harvesting, post-harvesting andprocessing

The women in thecommunities involved inthis project harvested,sorted,graded and arranged for thecucurbits and amaranthus crop to betransported to market. Although therewas a cash demand for plectranthus, itwas mostly exchanged between friendsand neighbours.

In terms of planning similar activities, itshould be noted that the price womenreceived for cucurbits and amaranthusdepended on whether they took thevegetables to market themselves, or soldthem through an intermediary. Theadvantages of the latter practice is, ofcourse, that the women get their moneyall at once rather than in bits and piecesand they save on time and transportcosts. However, it also means that theyare not able to determine price accordingto supply and demand and, because theytend to sell their crop at irregularintervals to meet incidental expenses,they are in a weak position when itcomes to negotiating price.

A conclusion that might be drawn here isthat marketing aspects need to be takeninto consideration in such projects inorder to ensure that the communitiesbenefit as much as possible from theefforts they have made to re-establishand propagate underutilized but clearlypopular species.

Food and incomeThe experience of SEANUC in SouthAfrica has shown that women continueto use and maintain the wealth ofunderutilized crops and that they showconsiderable interest and initiativeespecially when it comes to cropdiversification activities in their kitchenor community gardens. Underutilizedcrops can be brought into production inmany ways and can open up newpossibilities for community participatoryproduction as well as village levelprocessing and marketing. SEANUCexperience in South Africa is just oneexample of the way in whichunderutilized crops can be used to

enhance food security, improve nutritionand contribute to the sustainable rurallivelihoods.

Dr Nazmul Haq, International Centre forUnderutilized Crops (ICUC), LancasterBuilding, University of Southampton,Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK.Tel: (44) 2380-594229; Fax: 2380-677519. E-mail: haq@soton.ac.uk;Website: www.civil.soton.ac.uk/icuc

References

- Daniggelis, E., 2003. Women and wildfoods: nutrition security and householdsecurity among Rai and Sherpa forager-farmer in Eastern Nepal. In (ed.) Howard,P.L.: Women & Plants. Zed Books, London &New York. pp. 83-97.

- Haq, N. and A. Hoque, 2000. Researchneeds and assessment for fruit productionand improvement in householdsproduction. Final report, SHABGE-DFIDProject. CARE Bangladesh.

- ICUC, 2003. Annual Report onimprovement of underutilized crops inAsia. Community Fund, UK. 29 p.

- Mannan, 2002. Plant biodiversity in thehomesteads of Bangladesh and itsutilisation in crop improvement. Ph. D.Thesis. SMRAU, Salna, Bangladesh

- Price, L.L., 2003. Farm women’s rightsand roles in wild plant food gathering andmanagement in Northeast Thailand. In(ed.) Howard, P.L.: Women & Plants. ZedBooks, London & New York. pp. 101-114.

- Winarno, M., 2002. Country status reporton marketing and processing ofunderutilized tropical fruits in Indonesia.In: Haq, N. and Hughes, A. (eds.). Fruits forthe Future in Asia. pp. 153-155.

Photo: SEANUCFarmers preparing land for mixed cropping

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During the past 40 – 50 years,humanity underwent a lot ofchanges in cultural aspects,

lifestyles, clothing and even food habitsin the name of modern civilization.Change is inevitable and also necessaryto some extent, on a limited scale, likeusing a vehicle for easy transport, amotorized pump to lift water, a mill toprocess food grains etc. But many peoplehave adapted to or have become totallydependent on unwanted amenities.Similarly, modern lifestyles haveimposed a few food habits, resulting inaccepting only wheat and rice as maincereal food grains, only one or two cropslike beans, cabbage, cauliflower, potato,tomato, peas as vegetables. Infact, theseexpensive food items have become asymbol of status. I have a very goodfriend, who is a bank executive, who hasemployed a maidservant to wash kitchenvessels. All their utensils are given forwashing except one vessel in which theycook ragi balls. My friend’s wife hidesthis particular vessel from themaidservant, fearing that she wouldspread the news of their consuming ragiamong their neighbours. Anybody canimagine the state of false prestige wehave developed by ourselves. These daysmost of us are living to please others butnot for ourselves. Similarly, till recently,University of Agriculture Sciences,Bangalore, which has a bakery trainingunit, was teaching to make bakeryproducts only from wheat flour, since theaid was coming from Wheat Associationof America. Thanks to the efforts ofmany, now preparation of bakeryproducts from ragi and rice have alsobeen included.

We have around 15 species of cereals,8 species of legumes, 6 species of oilseeds, 10 species of cucurbits, 10 speciesof cultivated greens and innumerablespecies of greens without a name, alteast15 species of tubers, 50 species ofuncultivated fruits and berries, whichhave been narrowed down to only a fewspecies.

Whenever I think of potato, a verypopular and prestigious vegetable, I justcannot understand the importance givento it. So much trouble is taken inpreserving and transporting seed materialfrom either Himachal Pradesh or Punjabto Karnataka or Tamil Nadu. Besides, the

amount of resources and efforts investedin various aspects of crop cultivation areenormous. For instance, landpreparation, use of expensive manuresand chemicals to treat the soil againstnematodes and other soil borne diseases,and the pest control measures to protectthe crop, even to the extent of spraying avery bad systemic chemical like Rudomiland coating mercury based Cerason etc.,on seed tubers while sowing. Postharvest storage in cold storagewarehouses consumes lot of electricityand causes green house effect on theenvironment. Instead, growing tapioca isvery easy and eco-friendly and better intaste and of higher caloric value. Theonly reason why more people consumepotato is because of its glorifiedpropaganda.

Wheat cultivation is very expensivecompared to cereals like Sorghum, Bajra,Ragi, Fox tail and many other minormillets. These can be grown with verylittle manuring, water and virtuallywithout using any plant protectionchemicals, unlike wheat and rice. Thereis no reason why we have to grow wheatand rice by consuming about 120centimeter acre water to produce 15quintals of grains. With the same amountof water, we could grow atleast 45quintals of ragi or other minor millets.With steep fall of water table, it isadvisable that we popularize minormillets, which are more drought and pestresistant and can be grown even onpoorer soils, since more than 65 % ofour farmers are depending on rain fedcultivation.

It is high time we give more importancefor drought resistant oil seeds likesafflower, niger, gingelly, mustard etc.,than giving prominence to groundnutand sunflower, which are moresusceptible to pests and droughtsituations. Similarly,we have to givemore importance tocultivation ofcowpea and horsegram instead of onlyred gram, whichneeds a lot ofchemical pesticides.Better we forgetcabbage,cauliflower,capsicumconsumption and

also their cultivation, and go forindigenous vegetables like ridge gourd,ash gourd, pumpkin, bottle gourd,bhendi and other local vegetables whichdo not require more chemical fertilizersand pesticides.

The use of weedicides in crop cultivationhas also destroyed many species ofgreens among our crops, which were notonly providing food security but also hadmedicinal values and other mineralrequirements for both humans andlivestock as well. It is the impositionthrough publicity by multinational seed,fertilizer and pesticide companies thatpopularized a few cereals, beans(legumes), vegetables and also fruits.Both growers and the consumers get intothe trap of dependency for seeds,fertilizers and pesticides by loosing theirvaluable traditional knowledge andspecies.

During these years of repeated droughtsand water scarcity, we have to popularizemany tuber crops from tribal areas,which can be cultivated very easily withlittle inputs like the cost of seed, manure,plant protection, water and even postharvest storage, since most of the tuberscan be harvested till the beginning ofmonsoon.

L. Narayana ReddySrinivasapura, Via MaralenanahalliDoddaballapura Taluk, Hanabe – 561 203Ph : 080 7651360

The Narayana Reddy Column

Utilisation of neglectedspecies

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NEW BOOKSTechnology innovation and promotionin practice: pumps, channels, andwells: reducing fuel consumption,emissions, and costs by Bom G.J.,Rehman I.H., Raalten D. van, Mishra R.,Steenbergen F. van. 2003. 90 p.ISBN 81 7993 009 2.

USD 20.00. The Energy and ResourcesInstitute (TERI), Darbari Seth Block,Habitat Place, Lodhi Road,New Delhi-110 003, India.E-mail: mailbox@teri.res.in ;www.teriin.org

Even with more than 10 million pumpsets in South Asia, little work has goneinto farmer’s groundwater technology.This publication discusses improvementsin manually-operated pump sets, in welltechnology and water conveyance,together with the ways of promoting andintroducing changes. The main messageis that technology development is inessence a social process. The materialfor this document comes from extensivefield trials in the Terai region of NorthBengal.

Handbook for the field assessment ofland degradation by Stocking M.,

Murnaghan N. 2001.169 p. ISBN1853838314.EarthscanPublications,8-12 Camden HighStreet, London NW10JH, UK.E-mail:orders@lbsltd.co.uk ;

www.earthscan.co.uk

This handbook shows how to calculateindicators such as those of soil loss. Italso explains the interpretation of resultsand, in particular, how combinations ofdifferent indicators can give conclusiveevidence of the severity of landdegradation. The focus of this handbookis on understanding the farmer’sinteraction with the land, and how toensure environmental protection, foodsecurity and the well-being of rural landusers.

With detailed figures, photographs,worked examples and sample formsbased on assessment techniquesvalidated by field professionals inAfrica, Asia and Latin America, this willbe a useful training manual for field-workers in NGOs and governmental andeducational institutions. It will also be ofinterest to researchers and academics indevelopment, environment andagriculture.

Seeds that give: participatory plantbreeding by Vernooy R. 2003. 90 p.ISBN 1 55250 014 4. IDRC, PO Box8500, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1G 3H9.

E-mail: pdole@idrc.ca;www.idrc.ca/seeds

Genetic erosion makes the world’s foodsupply more vulnerable to disease andsudden climatic change. This may be theprice for having successfully developedand widely used new high-yielding cropvarieties over the last decades. Thisparadox, and how it is being addressedby a novel plant breeding approach thattakes into account the invaluablecontribution of small farmers, is thetopic of the book “Seeds that give:participatory plant breeding,” publishedby Canada’s International DevelopmentResearch Centre (IDRC).

“Seeds that give” is part of IDRC’s “InFocus” book series. It explores some ofthe issues surrounding the loss ofagricultural biodiversity and reviews 10years of IDRC support for participatoryplant breeding research around theworld. The book makesrecommendations for action to ensurethat participatory plant breeding effortsachieve the intended results. It alsoenvisions what the situation could be like10 years from now if stakeholders findthe will and resources to implementthose recommendations.

This book is complemented by six casestudies in the developing world. Thebook and case studies are available inprint from IDRC. The full text is alsoonline on IDRC’s thematic websitewww.idrc.ca/seeds, which provides manyresources on agrobiodiversity andparticipatory plant breeding. The book isavailable in English, French, Spanish,and Mandarin. An Arab version is indevelopment.

Stolen fruit: thetropical commoditiesdisasterby Robbins P. 2003.208 p. ISBN 1 84277281 3.USD 17.50. ZEDBooks, 7 CynthiaStreet, London N19JF, UK.

E-mail: zed@zedbooks.demon.co.ukCTA. E-mail: cta@cta.nl

Many developing countries still dependon the tropical commodities theyproduce. However, it has become clearthat encouraging so many countries togrow coffee, sugar, cotton and othercrops has had negative consequences.Small farmers get only a tiny share of thefinal price tag on these commodities onsupermarket shelves in the North. Thisinvestigation examines how this situationhas come about, the continuingimportance of primary commodities toso many developing countries, and

current trading arrangements. Theauthor, one of the leading authorities oncommodity trading, argues thatdeveloping countries must take a leaf outof the book of supply-side economics,and take the measures required to bringsupply and demand into a better balance.(WR)

Soil fragile interface by Stengel P.,Gelin S. (eds.). 2003. 252 p.ISBN 1 57808 219 6. Science PublishersInc, PO Box 699, Enfield, NewHampshire 03748, USA . E-mail:sales@scipub.net; www.scipub.net

This book is written from the perspectiveof pedologists and agronomists. It is astudy of the Earth’s crust which issubjected to climatic agents andinhabited by living creatures. Thesephenomena in concert slowly transformsoil through the interaction of physical,climatic and biological processes. Thebook emphasizes the importance of soilconservation and advocates a broad-based soil rehabilitation programme. Soilis an ecological system whosecomplexity is manifest by theconsiderable diversity of organismsexisting in it. Most changes in soil andits quality are only slowly reversible.Soil formation, as such, is a processwhose duration comprises thousands ofyears. Soil ought therefore to beconsidered in practice a non-renewableresource.

Nonpesticide management of paddy:guidelines for ecofriendly cultivation:experiences of AME and its partnersby Raj D.A. 2003. 64 p. ISBN 81 8729306 3. Agriculture, Man and Environment(AME), 1583, 17th Main, J.P.NagarPhase II, Bangalore 560 078,Karnataka, India.E-mail: amebang@giasbg01.vsnl.net.in

These guidelines are intended to be usedby farmers and NGOs interested incultivating paddy without using chemicalpesticides. This information has beendeveloped based on AME’s experienceswith farmers in Tamil Nadu (India),during the past four years. Managementtechniques have been sequenced so thatit is easy to follow the course of cropgrowth. Management options for eachstage of the crop have been given in alogical sequence.Only those pestsand diseases havebeen includedwhich, over theyears, have beenconsidered seriousby farmers. Onlythose managementoptions have beenincluded, which have been found towork in the field.

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SOURCESLost crops of Africa. Vol. 1. Grains1996. 383 p. ISBN 0 309 04990 3. USD28.95. Board on Science andTechnology for InternationalDevelopment (BOSTID), Office ofInternational Affairs, National ResearchCouncil (NRC), 2101 ConstitutionAvenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418,USA. National Academy Press, 2101Constitution Avenue NW, Washington,DC 20418, USA.

In contrast to what the title suggests, thisbook does not describe truly lost Africancereals. It is the first volume in a seriesof books dealing with undervaluednative African crops, which have beenoverlooked (in that sense “lost”) by themainstream of international science andpeople outside the local areas. The aimis to promote actions to explore andexploit the most promising Africangrains for increased production. Thesecrops deserve attention for diversifyingagriculture and creating economicopportunities. Many crops are describedincluding African rice, finger millet,fonio, pearl millet, sorghum, tef, wildcereals and African oats, barley andwheat. Innovations for milling, storing,and processing are presented, as well asmethods to reduce damage by birds,weeds and insects. The book alsocontains valuable appendices on researchcontacts and references. Followingvolumes in this still important series dealwith cultivated fruits, wild fruits,vegetables, legumes, roots and tubers.(IHG)

The vegetable gardenin the tropics byWaaijenberg H. 2003.72 p. ISBN 90 7073 507. AGROMISA, POBox 41, 6700 AAWageningen, TheNetherlands. E-mail:agromisa@agromisa.org; www.agromisa.org

(Agrodok 9). CTA. E-mail: cta@cta.nl

The objective of this booklet is to serveas a general manual for those whopractise or teach gardening indeveloping countries, in order toimprove the living conditions of theinhabitants of these countries.

This seed is like ourselves: a casestudy from Rajasthan, India, on thesocial aspects of biodiversity andfarmers’management of pearl milletseed by Christinck A. 2002. 190 p.ISBN 3 8236 1381 2. EUR 25.60.(Kommunikation und Beratung,Sozialwissenschaftliche Schriften zurLandnutzung und ländlichenEntwicklung 47). Margraf Verlag,Postfach 1205, 97985 Weikersheim,Germany.E-mail: info@margraf-verlag.de

This book is based on field studiescarried out in the semi-arid state ofRajasthan, India. Pearl millet is thestaple crop in this area, and the“adoption” of modern crop varieties has

so far been limited. Many farmersproduce their own seed, and usetraditional landraces and modernvarieties as complementary options, or asbreeding material for their own cropimprovement strategies. A traditionalsystem for seed distribution has ensuredthe survival of various landraces.However, the availability of modernvarieties that suit the needs of farmerswith better land resources, have modifiedfarmers’ practices and their pearl milletseeds. This process of change also hasconsequences for seed and food security,human health and nutrition, and socialrelations within the villages. This worktherefore contributes to the actual debateon the conservation of genetic resources,seed systems and participatory plantbreeding, and more generally, thereorientation of international agriculturalresearch.

Managing plant genetic diversity byEngels J.M.M., Rao V.R., BrownA.H.D., Jackson M.T. (eds). 2002. 487p. ISBN 0 8519 522 5. IPGRI. CABIPublishing, Wallingford, Oxon OX108DE, UK. E-mail: cabi-nao@cabi.org ;www.cabi.org

This book addresses key scientific andtechnical aspects of the wise andeffective management of plant geneticresources now and in the future. Over 40chapters deal with a broad range oftopics, including technologies for ex-situconservation, deploying and managinggenetic diversity in agroecosystems,conservation of wild species, exploringunderutilized species, application ofgenomic sciences, bioinformatics, andeconomic and policy knowledge. Thecontent is largely based on paperspresented at a conference on managingplant genetic diversity in 2000,organized by the International PlantGenetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).

Neglected crops: 1492 from a differentperspective by Hernándo Bermejo J.E.,León J. (eds.). 1994. 341 p. ISBN 92 5103217 3. FAO, Rome. (PlantProduction and Protection Series No.26). Purdue University.ww.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/1492.html

This book contains a study of 65 crops,mostly of American origin, which forsocial agronomic or biological reasonshave lost their importance over the last500 years. They are plant species thatonce played a fundamental role in theagriculture and food supply ofindigenous peoples and localcommunities. Their neglect was in manycases the result of the deliberatesuppression of self-sufficient ways of lifewhich charactarized traditional cultures.Though the publication itself is not veryrecent, the chapters of this still importantdocument are available in full text fromthe website of the Center for New Cropsand Plant Products from Purdue

University.(WR)

Women and plants:gender relations inbiodiversitymanagement andconservation byHoward P.L. (ed).2003.

298 p. ISBN 1 84277157 4. GTZ, IDRC. ZED Books, 7Cynthia Street, London N1 9JF, UK. E-mail: zed@zedbooks.demon.co.uk

This collection of largely unpublishedin-depth studies, drawn from all over theworld, aims to increase ourunderstanding of the importance ofwomen and gender relations in plantbiodiversity management andconservation. The contributorsdemonstrate how crucial women are toplant genetic resource management andconservation at household, village andcommunity levels; and how genderrelations have a strong influence on theway in which local people understand,manage and conserve biodiversity.Continued access to plant biodiversity iscrucial to rural women’s status andwelfare, and their motivations aretherefore a principal driving forcecountering processes of genetic erosion.

The New Crop Compendium CD-ROM by Jules Janick and AnnaWhipkey (eds.). 1998. ISBN 0 93168270 3. FAO, Rome. Centre for New Cropsand Plant Products.1165 Hort.Bldng,Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN47907, USA. www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop

The New Crop Compendium CD-ROMis a searchable resource of new cropinformation. It contains the entire textand figures from the proceedings of thethree National New Crop Symposia: J.Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.). 1990.Advances in New Crops. Timber Press,Portland, Oregon; J. Janick and J.E.Simon (eds.). 1993. New Crops. Wiley,New York; and J. Janick (ed.). 1996.Progress in New Crops. ASHS Press,Alexandria, Virginia.

This valuable source of information onnew, specialty, neglected, andunderutilized crops was developed forscientists, growers, marketers,processors, and extension personnel. Itcan be ordered from the PurdueUniversity NewCROP website. TheProceedings of the fifth Symposium‘New Crops and New Uses: Strength inDiversity” (Hardback, 599 p.ISBN 0-970756-5-5), held in Atlanta,Georgia in 2001 has also been publishedand can be ordered from ASHS Press,113 South West Street, Suite 200,Alexandria, VA 22314-2851 USA.Fax: 703-836-2024.

E-mail: ashspress@ashs.org

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NETWORKINGCorrection for TRIOPS – TropicalScientific Books Distributionhttp://www.triops.de/

In the last issue we published the wrongweb address for TRIOPS. This is theright link.

People and Plants Initiativehttp://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/

This website acts as a gateway toselected useful information aboutethnobotany, with links to other onlineinformation courtesy of the RoyalBotanic Gardens, Kew. The People andPlants handbook and working papers areavailable from this website. The papersin this series provide information on casestudies in ethnobotany, usually relatingto fieldwork projects undertaken byPeople and Plants researchers and localexperts.

This site gives an overview of trainingand extension resources on tree seed,highlights the best, gives links toelectronic versions that can be copied,and makes suggestions for creating newresources. This interesting site alsoprovides a seed bank for trees.

International Centre forUnderutilised Crops (ICUC),University of Southamptonhttp://www.civil.soton.ac.uk/icuc/

ICUC is an autonomous, non-profit,scientific research and training centre.The Centre was established to addressways of increasing the use ofunderutilized crops for food, medicinaland industrial products, and also forenvironmental improvement. This siteprovides access to all publications ofICUC in full text format, as well asnames and details of species, somegermplasm catalogues and links to othernetworks.

Underutilized Tropical Fruits in AsiaNetwork (UTFANET)http://www.civil.soton.ac.uk/icuc/utfanet/

Asia, the centre of tropical fruitdiversity, is fortunate to benefit from thevast potential of tropical fruits. Fruitshave nutritional and economic benefits.Fruit trees also have environmentalimportance. The objective of UTFANETis to develop an effective network,which facilitates collaborativepartnerships among countries in theregion for biodiversity conservation,efficient use of genetic resources,expertise, and technologies.

The Inland and Foreign Trading Co.http://www.iftco.com.sg/

The Inland and Foreign Trading Co.harvests, processes and markets legumecover crop, pasture, lawn, medicinal,shrub and tree seeds. Their main marketsare in subtropical and to tropicalcountries. The seeds are packed indouble jute bags of 50 kilos. Address:Block 1090, 04-04/05 Lower DeltaRoad, Singapore 169201;iftco@pacific.net.sg

International Plant Genetic ResourcesInstitute (IPGRI)http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/

This website draws attention to thosespecies of plants which have beenneglected in a varying degree byresearchers or have been underutilizedeconomically.

IPGRI’s vision: “Through the collective,concerted action of farmers, forestdwellers, pastoralists, scientists,development workers and politicalleaders, the full potential of the Earth’s

plant genetic diversity will be harnessedto eradicate poverty, achieve foodsecurity and protect the environment forthe benefit of present and futuregenerations”. This site provides manypublications on different crop speciesordered systematically, and a lot of linksto regional networks. Also, a TrainingCalendar for 2004 is available.

NewCROP: the New Crop ResourceOnline Programhttp://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/

This is the website of the Center for NewCrops & Plant Products, at PurdueUniversity. Online since 1995,NewCROP is an information-rich siterelated to crop plants. It is a project ofthe Purdue University Center for NewCrops and Plant Products and isassociated with the New CropDiversification project and the JeffersonInstitute. NewCROP provides windowsto new and specialty crop profiles.

The International Food PolicyResearch Institute (IFPRI)http://www.ifpri.org/

The mission of the International FoodPolicy Research Institute is to identifyand analyze policies for sustainablymeeting the food needs of the developingworld. Research at IFPRI concentrates oneconomic growth and poverty alleviationin low-income countries, improvement ofthe well-being of poor people, and soundmanagement of the natural resource basethat supports agriculture. Through itspolicy analyses, IFPRI directly supportsdeveloping-country policymakers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), andcivil society in their efforts to help thepoor.

GFU: Global Facilitation Unit forUnderutilized Specieshttp://www.underutilized-species.org/

The Global Facilitation Unit forUnderutilized Species offers this websiteas a tool to enhance information andknowledge exchange in the field ofunderutilized and neglected species,amongst experts and organizationsworking on underutilized species as wellas groups or individuals in need ofinformation on the topic. The kind ofinformation accessible through this portalranges from details of specific crops,events of interest, important topicsrelated to underutilized species, torelevant publications. Soon it willprovide a database of experts andongoing activities on underutilizedspecies. Besides making knowledgeavailable, the site also intends to offer aplatform for communication amonginterested parties.

GRAIN Growing Diversityhttp://www.grain.org/gd/

The Growing Diversity project is aninitiative for sharing and discussion. Itinvolves local organizations working onbiodiversity management in its broadestsense, which includes those involved inagriculture, forests, aquatic resourcesand indeed all life that sustains people.This website in English, French andSpanish provides the results andcommitments produced by theinternational workshop on the localmanagement of agricultural biodiversityin 2002.

Danida Forest Seed Centre (DFSC)http://www.dfsc.dk/

DFSC has been engaged in thedevelopment and transfer of know-howin management of tree genetic resources.DFSC seeks to contribute to improve thebenefits of growing trees for the well-being of people in developing countries.

This CD Rom contains all articles publishedin the ILEIA Newsletter, the LEISA Magazineand LEISA India during the period 1984 -2003. If you would like to order more copies,please contact AME Foundation.

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Themes forLEISA India

Vol. 6, 4 December 2004

Eco agriculture

Agro-ecosystems rely on natural processes and biodiversity to producefood, fodder, fuel, construction materials and medicines. However,ecosystem services such as decomposition of organic matter and nutrientcycling, pest and disease regulation, pollination and seed dispersal,maintenance of soil and water quality, microclimate regulation and theprovision of habitats for wildlife, are often taken for granted. Inindustrialized agriculture, many ecosystem services have been replacedby external inputs and people have forgotten that agricultural systems areecosystems too. Agriculture is therefore often held responsible forenvironmental degradation, and yet continued food production isessential to our survival.

“Ecoagriculture” is a new term being used to emphasize the importance ofmanaging agricultural landscapes as functioning ecosystems thatsimultaneously achieve the goals of agricultural production andbiodiversity conservation, while maintaining ecosystem services.

Please share with us your experiences of how farming, wildlife and naturecan coexist and support each other, at the farm level or in the widerecosystem.

Deadline for contributions : 1st November 2004

You are invited to contribute to these issues with articles(about 800, 1600 or 2400 words + 2-3 illustrations or photographs), suggest

possible authors, and send us information about publications,training courses, meetings and websites.

The International Journal ofAgricultural Sustainability (IJAS)http://www.channelviewpublications.com/

This first issue of “the InternationalJournal of Agricultural Sustainability”(IJAS), edited by Professor Jules Pretty(University of Essex), is meant to play arole in furthering the debate on what isand is not sustainable in current farmingpractices and food systems, as well ashelping to define the future of thesesystems. The website provides abstractsof the papers in the first issue, as well asdetails of how to subscribe. This journalis not for free.

TANSAO-TARO Network forSoutheast Asia and Oceaniahttp://www.cira\d.fr/presentation/programmes/cult-alim/projets/rootcrops.htm

The underutilized root crops ofSoutheast Asia and the Pacific regionhave much potential in terms ofprocessed and fresh products. Thesecrops are consistent with maintainingfragile ecosystems and have a potentiallyhigh output per hectare compared with

other vegetables, particularly onmarginal land. They are often welladapted to local agro-climatic conditionsand to small farm production. Inaddition, they play a major role in thefood security of this region. Theobjective of the network is to enhancethe competitive position of taro incropping systems of Southeast Asia andthe Pacific.

ASEAN Regional Centre forBiodiversity Conservationhttp://www.arcbc.org/

The ASEAN Regional Centre forBiodiversity Conservation (ARCBC)serves as the central focus fornetworking and institutional linkageamong ASEAN Member Countries andbetween ASEAN and European Unionpartner organizations to enhance thecapacity of ASEAN in promotingbiodiversity conservation.

The Australian New Crops Web sitehttp://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/index.html

This website seeks to improve thecommunications network among new

crops workers in Australia. It provideslinks to information on potential cropspecies and new crop development.

Plant Genetic Resources Newsletterhttp://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/pgrnewsletter/last.asp

This is a Newsletter Web portal, withcontents and full text articles of thispublication of IPGRI and FAO. For eacharticle, a summary is available inEnglish, French and Spanish.

Science and Development Networkhttp://www.scidev.net/events/

A list of forthcoming events around theglobe related to science, technology andthe developing world are provided onthis website, for example:

• Ethnobiology, social change anddisplacement Canterbury, UK.13 - 17 June 2004.E-mail: ice2004@kent.ac.uk

This congress will look at howethnobiological knowledge istransformed under conditions of rapidsocial and technical change, throughglobalization, and in particular how itadapts in situations of socio-ecologicalchange.

• Globalization and Food Systems:scientific workshop and science-policyforum Nicoya, Costa Rica.24 October - 6 November 2004.E-mail: i2004-geci@dir.iai.int

Focus will be given to the interactionsbetween processes of globalization andglobal environmental change, and theimplications of these interactions forfood systems and food security. Fundingis available for up to 25 applicants.

• Third IUCN World ConservationCongress Bangkok, Thailand.17 - 25 November 2004.E-mail: ursula.hiltbrunner@iucn.org

During the Forum, IUCN members,partners and interested stakeholders willdebate options that safeguard theecosystems upon which future prosperitydepends.

Southern Africa New Crop ResearchAssociation (SANCRA)http://www.sancra.co.za/

The mission of SANCRA is to promotethe development of potentially novelcrops and products derived from themwith the aim of enhancing the socio-economic status of all Southern Africa’speople. The website offers a newsletterand a conference agenda.

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Themes for LEISA-India

Vol. 7,1 March 2005

On-farm energy

Energy is a crucial element in agricultural production systems. Both large-scale, industrialized agriculture andsmall-scale subsistence farming require energy sources in order to be able to maintain production. Whileindustrialized agriculture usually imports considerable amounts of “transformed energy” - like machinery andchemical inputs (fertilizers and pesticides) - as well as electricity and fuel, small-scale farmers do not have muchaccess to these resources. Instead they look for energy sources on-farm. These may be provided from renewableresources such as plant materials (like wood, grass) and manure, or from sun, wind, water and relief (differencesin height).

A lot of energy created and used on small-scale farms is of biological origin. Men, women and children are veryimportant energy suppliers: they work the land, take care of animals and crops, harvest and process, prepare food,and transport the produce to the markets. Animals are important energy suppliers as well. Many constitute aformidable work force and produce energy in the form of food, or as manure, which can be used as an energysource for the crop, burned or converted into biogas. Crops should also be taken into account. There are real“energy crops” that provide oil and carbohydrates, but in general all crops provide energy, be it in the form of foodor fertilizer. Since energy is a scarce good, it is important to make the best use of it. This means that “energy loss”has to be reduced as much as possible and recycling within the system has to be encouraged.

We are looking for experiences that illustrate how different sources of energy available on the farm are used andmanaged in an efficient way, so that losses are reduced and recycling optimized. How can solar, wind and waterenergy be captured and made useful for the production system? How can human and animal power be used in aneconomic fashion, so that less energy is required to produce a certain amount of food and other products? Whatoptions do we have to make the best use of manure, crops and the vegetation in terms of energy? Are there otherways of economizing on energy? Can tools and machinery play a role? Can recycling of energy be speeded up,for example, by using microorganisms?

Deadline for contributions : 1st December 2004

You are invited to contribute to these issues with articles (about 800, 1600 or 2400 words + 2-3illustrations or photographs), suggest possible authors, and send us information about publications,

training courses, meetings and websites.

The editors who arrived in themiddle of the Dutch winter fortheir annual international editors

meeting (IEM) got a warm welcomefrom ILEIA’s staff at the new office inthe centre of Amersfoort. The IEMmeeting is a major event in the editors’calendar and provides them with anopportunity to reaffirm the commonidentity of their magazines - LEISARevista de agroecología (LatinAmerica), LEISA India, Salam(Indonesia), AGRIDAPE (West Africa)and LEISA Magazine (global edition) -and coordinate strategies to intensify thepromotion, documentation anddissemination of information onLEISA.

Sourcing and documenting LEISA andthe difficulties of identifying anddeveloping articles on practical fieldexperiences, useful to farmers and rural

communities, remain high on the agenda.Editors agree they need to shareinformation from their own networksmore effectively – something thatrequires time, commitment and planning.During the IEM 2004, strategies toinvolve readers, authors and organiza-tions more closely in the development ofthe content of the magazines werediscussed. In India, for example, theLEISA India team, in response torequests from its network, has started aDocumentation and CommunicationProgramme aimed at increasing thecapacity of organizations working withLEISA to document their experiencesmore effectively. Materials generatedduring these workshops will be sharedwith colleague editors and partnerorganizations. Other initiatives to sourceand document information are takingplace in Latin America (using web-basedmethodologies and case studies), and in

Africa (working with agriculturaljournalists and agricultural informationservices).

Plans to strengthen and monitor thequality and impact of the LEISAmagazines have also been made. Theseinclude special sections in the magazinefor readers’ opinions and field experi-ences (global edition), focus groups toget feed back on content and relevance(West Africa), regular e-mail contact tostimulate comment and criticism (LatinAmerica) and developing furtheractivities with members of the LEISAnetwork (India). Regular readers’surveys have also been scheduled. Latestdevelopments at the LEISA magazinesinclude the publication of a Portugueselanguage LEISA magazine in June 2004,and the launching of a new website thatwill provide easy access to all the LEISAmagazines and link visitors quickly toother sources of LEISA information.

For more information on LEISAmagazines contact the respective team(see colophon) or visit our websitewww.ileia.org

International EditorsMeeting 2004

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Fig1. Finger millet field

Sankappa is a small farmer owningthree hectares of dry land inVittalpura village of Bellary

district in Northern Karnataka, India.This village is situated in the semi-aridDeccan plateau and receives annualrainfall of 500mm in two to threemonths of the year, which allows onecrop during July to October. Sankappalike his forefathers and other farmers ofthe village is growing foxtail millet.Other crops grown in the village aresorghum, pigeon pea and cotton.Rainfall had been continuously failingduring the last four years in this part ofthe country. It was below 300mm during2003. “All other crops failed due toextreme drought, and my family andlivestock were saved from starvation bythe harvest from foxtail millet”, saysSankappa. The traditional foxtail milletvarieties grown and conserved by thevillagers have excellent droughtresistance and suits to the erratic rainfallof the region.

Minor millets are invariably grown inthe semi-arid and mountainous regionsof tropics and subtropics, wheremonsoon failure and drought arefrequent, soil fertility is poor and landterrain is difficult. These regions are alsohot spots of poverty and frequentstarvations in populous countries.Traditional agriculture in these regionshas found more dependability on minormillets because of their extremehardiness. They survive with rainfall300mm or even lower. They offer a moreprobable harvest from shallow and lessfertile soils and in steep slopes of

hillocks and mountainous terrains. Theiryield varies widely from very low tomodestly high across regions and yearsdepending on the soil, management andweather. Millets have retained itsprimacy under these farming conditionsto provide livelihood and food securityto the poor people living in the semi-aridand mountainous regions of Africa andSouth and Central Asia.

SpreadEight minor millets crops grown indifferent regions of Africa, Asia andEurasia are finger millet (Eleusinecoracana) (Fig. 1), proso millet(Panicum miliaceum), little millet(Panicum sumatrense), barnyard millet(Echinochloa crusgalli and E.colona),kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum),teff (Eragrostis tef) and fonio (Digitariaiburua). Out of these, teff and fonio arenative of North Africa and confined tothose regions. Finger millet is also nativeof Ethiopia, but spread out to Asia fewthousand years ago. Little millet andkodo millet were domesticated in India.India is also the home for one of the twospecies known under barnyard millet, E.colona, and E. crusgalli, a native ofJapan. E. colona is locally called asSawa. All these crops have an old historyof cultivation, going behind 3000 - 5000years. Many indigenous communities inAsia preferred these as their grain cropfor shifting cultivation.

The long history of minor milletcultivation and their spread to differentregions of the world, which are notablefor extremely harsh farming conditions,

had generated considerable geneticvariability in these crops. Among these,Kodo millet is very hardy and possesseshighest drought resistance withcapability to offer a good yield ingrowing period between 80-135 days.Barnyard millet could be said as thesecond hardiest millet with ability togive a modest yield in 50-100 days.Finger millet is more widely grown inAfrica and Asia, differentiated in to fiveraces and shows wide variability inappearance, adaptability, maturityperiod, yield and quality. Foxtail milletmay be ranked fourth in yielding ability.The yield potential of little and prosomillets is relatively lower and betweenthem proso millet is hardier.

The world’s millet production is sharedby South and East Asia (about 60%),Eurasia and Central Asia (14%), Africa(16%) and rest of the world (10%). Indiais the leading producer contributingabout 38% of the production. Finger

Neglected millets that save the poorfrom starvation

S.Bala Ravi

Box 1 – Case study

Kolli Hills of Tamil Nadu state ofIndia are 1000 to 1300msl high witha tenuous ecosystem situated at thesouthern edge of Deccan plateau, aspart of the Eastern Ghats. The terrainis steep, soil is shallow and lessfertile, rainfall is low (500mm),erratic and distributed within four orfive months (June-October) of theyear. This allows only one cropduring rainy season. The local hillcommunity called Malayalis is verypoor. Most families own less thanhalf-hectare land, which is farinsufficient to eke out a livelihoodfrom farming alone. They haveuncertain employment and incomeas farm labourers outside the hills.For many years, minor millet farmingdone on these hills is the source theirstaple food grain. They have morethan 34 land races of four milletsnamely, finger millet, little millet,foxtail millet and proso millet, grownat subsistence level as a cropmixture. Since last few years cassavacultivation under contract farmingpromoted by starch factoriesestablished in the plane had beencausing decline in area under thesemillets, reduced availability of staplefood grain and loss of traditionalvarieties. This has been forcing thelocal community to shift their stapleto rice, which is costlier than millets.This diversion of minor millet areafor an industrial crop has substan-tially reduced the community accessto food and loss of varieties theyhave been conserving for manyyears.

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Fig.2 Traditionally two to more different minor millets of varying maturity are mixed andgrown - A gamble against uncertain rain

Fig. 3 Production trends of minor millets

millet constitutes about 81% of theminor millets produced in India and therest by kodo millet, foxtail millet, littlemillet and sawa (Fig.3). The area andproduction trends during last severalyears indicate their continuous decline(Fig.3). Other major producers of thesemillets, in addition to India, are China,Ethiopia, Niger, Nigeria, and formerUSSR, who together contribute 70% ofthe world production. In South Asia,Nepal, Pakistan and Myanmar are otherimportant minor millet producingcountries. Almost all the milletsproduced in S. Asia are used as foodwith very little going as feed. Millets arevery rarely brewed in India, while65 – 80% of the finger millet producedin Central and Eastern regions ofNepal is used to make traditional brewcalled chang. The ban Government ofNepal imposed on using grain forbrewing is affecting the farmerpreference for this crop.

In India, minor millets are still the stapleto large section of people in the semi-arid region. It is a major staple in theState of Karnataka, where finger millet isgrown widely even under irrigation, withyield as high as 3 t/ha.

Minor millets-the nutritiousmilletsProximate composition of millet grainscompares well with other cereals inrespect of major constituents. Thenutritional significance of minor milletslies in their richness in micronutrientslike calcium, iron, phosphorous,vitamins, and surphur containing aminoacids. While their starch is comparable toother millets in gelatinisationtemperature, minor millet carbohydratehas certain uniqueness, which makes it ahealth food. It has relatively higherproportion of non-starchypolysaccharides and dietary fiber andlow glycemic index. Minor millet diet

releases sugars very slowly and its fibercontent is reported to exclude theincidence of duodenal ulcer. Solublefiber content of minor millets variesfrom 3.4% in foxtail and proso millets to6.5% in barnyard, little and fingermillets. For these superior properties ofminor millets, they have been recentlydesignated as ‘nutritious millets’ byProf.M.S. Swaminathan. These uniqueproperties of minor millets are shiftingthe nutritious millets from poor man’sgrain to the health food of the affluent.

Threats to cultivation of minormilletsOne of the threats to the cultivation ofthese millets, preservation of theirvariety diversity and the food securityprovided by them to the poor people isillustrated with a case study from theKolli Hills of Tamil Nadu state of India(See Box 1).

Another major factor discouraging minormillet cultivation and consumption withimprovement in living standard or

urbanization, is the drudgery associatedwith its processing. No processingtechnology and machinery suiting tominor millets are available in S. Asia.Hence much of the millets consumed areprocessed at household level byfollowing a tedious method involvingconsiderable drudgery (See Box 2). Withthe increasing availability of othergrains, households who can afford thesegrains are avoiding the drudgery ofprocessing millets. There are, however,communities culturally associated withminor millets, who may prefer thesegrains as staple irrespective of theirincome, provided the drudgery isobviated. Minor millets are largelyconsumed as traditional preparations.Increasing urbanization and decreasingtime for domestic chores in ruralhouseholds are discouraging traditionalprocessing of millets. With theincreasing availability of other cereals,minor millet consumption in Asia isgetting restricted to the poorest of thepoor in the semi-arid or mountainousregions, who cannot afford other grainsand to those having traditional affinity.

Neglect of minor millets – causesand implicationsMillets are farmed in subsistence levelwith years of experience and traditionalwisdom embedded in the variety choiceand farming systems. These systems areinvariably structured on location specificmultiple or inter-cropping systems toprovide safeguard against livelihood andto take advantage from unforeseenfavourable weather. These farmingsystems and underlying economiccompulsions have discouraged extensiveuse of agro-chemicals like fertilizers,herbicides or pesticides in minor milletfarming. Farmers in each region havebeen innovative in developing manylocal cultivars, which are well adapted to

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Box 2 – Processing of minor millets

While major share of consumed grainis processed at household level,mechanized processing is common inurban and peri-urban areas. In theabsence of specialized processingmachineries for millets, it is processedin wheat or rice processing systems.Finger millet is not husked anddirectly milled in the roller flour millused for wheat milling. Much of thehusk is sieved out from the flour. Allother minor millets requirede-husking, de-branning(decortication) and milling. Thetraditional de-husking anddecortication use the laboriousmanual beating of the grain in mortarwith pestle. Cone polisher, centrifugalrice sheller and rice polisher are alsoused to dehusk and polish thesemillets. The grain recovery from thesemachineries is low varying from 63 –79%, with 16 – 29% husk and 5 – 9%bran. The polished grain called‘millet rice’ is either used directly orfurther milled in plate or hammer millto semolina or flour. Processing addsvalue to these millets three to four-fold and makes them acceptable tothe elite urban consumers as nichefood or health food. Finger millet maltis a traditional weaning food withagreeable flavour and rich nutrition.

Fig.4: Tedious manual milling of minor millets is labour intensive and time consuming.

their farming conditions. Unlike majormillets, minor millets have hardlyreceived any attention from national orglobal food policy makers in researchfunding and improvement of these crops.Hence minor millets continue to begrown largely by the traditional practicesusing traditional varieties undersubsistence farming. Unlike in othercereals where genetic erosion had beenhappening with the spread of improvedvarieties, the danger to this geneticdiversity of minor millets arises not fromimproved varieties but from their neglectand often replacement with commercialor non-food crops.

Global neglect to the minor millets andincreasing emphasis on few elite foodcrop species are precariously narrowingthe food security basket. The mostdisadvantaged by this food productionpolicy are the poorest of the poor andthose who are logistically vulnerable topoverty and famine. The shrinkingnumber of food crops in the regional andglobal food basket is restricting theopportunity of farmers in difficultregions from using their land resources,environment and traditional knowledgefor broadening the food basket andminimizing the chances of local foodshortage.

Another serious implication of thisneglect to these minor millets is theirrevocable loss of their geneticdiversity and the associated traditionalknowledge of the community.

MSSRF InitiativesAs a humble start to arrest this trend, aprogramme to strengthen the foodsecurity of small farmers and ruralcommunities by raising production,consumption and income from threeminor millets was initiated two yearsback by M.S. Swaminathan ResearchFoundation (MSSRF) in collaborationwith partners in India and Nepal with thekind support from International Fund forAgricultural Development (IFAD) andthe International Plant Generic ResourceInstitute (IPGRI). A strategic approachunderlying this programme is farmerparticipatory enhancement of yield andquality through variety selection,improved and need-based farmingsystem, optionally avoiding use ofagricultural chemicals, promotingconsumption at household level byremoving the drudgery in grainprocessing, and increasing incomegeneration through creating capabilityfor value addition and marketingentrepreneurship. Participatory varietyselection and conservation of regionalgenetic diversity and traditionalknowledge are taken up hand in hand toenhance the local agro-biodiversity.

Grain processing machinery isintroduced at group level and villagelevel to eliminate drudgery to womenfrom traditional method of processing(Fig 4.). Capability in value addition andmarketing entrepreneurship to farmwomen is gained by first organizingthem in to self help groups (SHGs) andtraining them on skills to produce de-husked finger millet flour, finger milletmalt, pearling of little and foxtail millets,production of semolina from millet rice,for product packaging and in marketing.This end-to-end approach fromproductivity increase through valueaddition to marketing is makingsubstantial gain to farmers in terms ofdrudgery reduction, increasedemployment opportunity and enhancedincome. Their income by directmarketing of value added products hasincreased 44 per cent over what theywere earning traditionally from the saleof grain.

ConclusionWidening of food basket to enhancelocal accessibility to food, using theproductive resources of difficult regions,where production of major food crops isnot possible, for ensuring the foodsecurity of vulnerable section of thepeople and conservation of agro-biodiversity of under-utilized crops areissues relevant to tackle hunger, povertyand malnutrition. The policies andfunding support on ground at nationaland international levels on the under-utilized crops begs for greater awarenessamong policy makers and donororganizations concerned with eliminationof hunger and conservation of agro-biodiversity. During later this yearMSSRF is joining hands with IFAD,IPGRI and other interested agencies inorganizing an international meet togenerate support from food policymakers and donor agencies to promote

cultivation, research, use andconservation of under-utilized cropspecies, valuable in food, nutritional andhealth security of many traditionalcommunities.

S.Bala RaviAdvisor (Biodiversity)& Former AssistantDirector General (IPR), ICAR,M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation,Institutional Area, Taramani,Chennai-600 113, India;E-mail: sbala2001in@yahoo.com