INDIAN CULTURE

CULTURE IS THE ART OF LIVING

It refers to the intellectual development evolved out of the physical and mental training acquired in the course of the ages in a country.

The culture of India can be best expressed as comprising the following

Humanity - The mildness of the Indians has continued till date, despite the aggressiveness of the Muslim conquerors and the reforming zeal of the British, the Portuguese and the Dutch. The Indians are noted for their humanness and calm nature without any harshness in their principles and ideals.

Tolerance - Gandhiji’s satyagraha principle or Ahimsa - freedom without taking a drop of blood, worked wonders and gave credit to India in the international arena. Swami Vivekananda in his famous Chicago Speech on the 11th of September, 1893 spoke of this.

Unity - India is a conglomeration of men and women of various castes and creed. It is a fusion of old traditional values and the modern principles, thus satisfying all the three generations in the present India. The Elite businessman and the common vendor on the road share the same news and worship the same deity .

Secularism - India is a secular coun country as stated in its Constitution. There is freedom of worship throughout the length and breadth of India without any breeches or violations of any other’s religious beliefs. The Hindus, The Muslims, The Christians, and The Sikhs in times of calamity and during festivities come openly together to share their thoughts despite their religious affinities. The catholicity of the Indian culture can be best understood by the fact that hundreds of Hindus visit the Velankanni shrine or the Nagore Dargah in Tamilnadu.

Closely knit Social system - The Indian Social System is mostly based on the Joint family System, but for some of the recently cropped nuclear families. The families are closely knit with Grandfathers, fathers, sons and grandsons sharing the same spirit, tradition and property. 

Cultural Heritage

India’s one billion people have descended from a variety of races. The oldest ones are the Negroid aboriginals called the Adivasis or First settlers. Then there are the

Dravidians, The Aryans, the Mongols, The Semites and innumerable inter-mixtures of one with the other.

The great Epic, The Mahabharata and the sacred text, the Bhagavad-Gita teaches the Indians that survival can only be in terms of quality of life. It provides a framework of values to make the Indian culture well- groomed.

Swami Vivekananda (1863- 1902) laid stress on physical development as a prerequisite for spiritual development, which in turn leads to the development of the culture of the country. For the past 1000 years various foreign invasions like that of the Huns, the Kushanas, The Arabs, The Muslims, TheDutch, The French and the British took place. So the Indians were exposed to cultures that were totally alien to them. Several attempts were made by the Indian rulers like the Pallavas, the Chalukyas, the Palas, the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas, and the Vijayanagar Emperors to give the Indians an administration, which was in consonance with the cultural heritage of the country.

Later, religions became an important part in the culture and places of worship became community centers. The innovations in religious thinking brought two popular beliefs in India, namely Buddhism by the Buddha and Jainism by the Saint Mahavir. Then there was a socio-religious shift or orientation in the Indian culture.

Later in the century Westernization of Indian culture began , but it was stemmed by the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayananda Saraswathi, Swami Vivekananda, Narayana Guru, Maharisi, Aurobindo, etc. Then there took place a Renaissance, that emphasized the need to recognize the country’s own culture while ushering in an age of modernity. 

If India’s culture tended to become tolerant, accommodating, open-minded, deeply but not ostensibly spiritual and concerned with the common human welfare, then it is due to the great and relentless efforts of our great ancestors and leaders. Thanks to them our country has achieved a common culture, despite a staggering pluralistic society.

CULTURAL SYMBOLSMeditation

The Indian Rishis attributed great importance to culture and stressed on the need for the development of the inner faculties of a human being. They discovered various methods of feeding, resting and revitalizing the body. After countless years of experience and experiments they developed special systems of exercises for increasing the strength, purity and power of all the faculties of man.

The Rishis claimed that God could be attained through meditation because then the mind eventually surrenders to a

Meditating Yogi  

thought, which is subjected to long periods of concentration without any interruptions. In meditation, the performer attains a state of communion with his deity. 

The rishis also preach that for sublimation and evolution, every person must meditate on God at least three times a day. They associate these times with the three times of the Sun. When one gets up from sleep, he must pay homage to his deity or the rising Sun to prepare for the day’s chores. He must respect the mid-day Sun when he prepares to eat meals for his sustenance and the setting Sun to express his gratitude to his Creator for the successful completion of his day’s work. They also proclaim that the most auspicious time for meditation is 3 am every day, because during this time, Mother Nature is the most serene. It is called Brahma Muhurta.

In order to attain spiritual progress, one must try to dissociate from worldly pleasures and attachments. Hence they advocated that meditation is supposed to be performed at a predetermined place, time and location for accelerated concentration. To make this easier they constructed temples, which are highly energized holy places.

In India, saints and sages have been meditating from time immemorial and they can be still found in many holy cities and riverbanks. Most of them give up their food and clothes to attain moksha or everlasting life. Saint Vivekananda is said to have meditated in the Rock Temple in Kanyakumari, the Southern tip of India for peace. Nowadays even common Indians have started to make a beeline to Ashrams which propose to teach them meditation and concentration to attain peace in life.    

Yogis or Rishis

In the Bhagavad Gita, Shree Krishna teaches Arjun that   a “YOGI” is one who is joined to God. The path that leads to ideals is that of a yogi who consciously and deliberately progresses towards divinity, which is the purpose of creation. With yogic advance his mind gets purified and he later becomes a Siddha Saint.

An ascetic is one who undergoes voluntary sacrifices to obtain celestial powers, like going without food or clothes for days, standing on ones head for hours together, sleeping on a bed of nails, piercing ones body with sharp objects, etc. 

All those who practice meditation, concentration and purification of their mind and body senses are real Yogis. There can be no higher state than this because they are nearer to God by way of worshipping him.   In worldly terms they have long hairs, and a flourishing beard and wear saffron or white or black robes. 

The Sacrificial Fire

Almost most of the Indian religions worship fire as a benevolent element. From time immemorial the sacrificial fire has been an important item of our culture. Every function, ceremony, worship or Puja starts with the worship of the fire in some form or the other. Most of the Indian women perform a small worship of the deity in their house with a special “ARTI” of a small deepam or lamp and incense sticks. The importance of fire worship is mentioned in all the Vedas and religious books.

Some modern thoughts regard the Fire Worship as a primitive practice of campfire. But scientists have established that performing a small domestic “havan” or fire worship with ghee and other specified

ingredients produces purifying gases like ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, formaldehyde, butapropiolactone and acetylene which boost up the spirit of the performer and the surroundings.

Rishis perform Havan in the ashrams to purify it and give it an atmosphere of good health and prosperity. Fire worship is done in India, for prosperity, health, victory, thanksgiving, good crop, bountiful rain, etc. Twigs and dried leaves of some special trees, rice, wheat, til seeds, guggal, camphor, raisins, coconut, vermilion and turmeric are used for the fire worship. Guggal and Camphor are supposed to be good germ-killers. The burning of these items in the fire along with the addition of pure ghee and the reciting of Mantras produces beneficial gases according to the Rishis. They prescribe the morning or evening as the ideal time for performing this worship. But the Tantriks prefer to perform their Yagna at midnight, nearest to a cremation ground!

Deepam or Lamp

The Rishis of India worship FLAME or JYOTI or DEEPAM, as being the purest of the pure because it consumes all impurities but yet remains pure by itself. A lamp is an earthen saucer like container, filled with ghee or butter with a twisted cotton tape immersed in it. It is lighted in every Hindu household and temple in India. The cotton tape keeps sucking the

ghee to yield a cool bright light, a flame.  In nature the flame is considered to be the source of infinite energy of positive currents. If even number of lamps is kept side by side, they cancel each other’s radiation and become harmful. This explains the use of odd number of lamps for worship.

Great emphasis is also placed on performing “ARTI” in India during worship of any deity. The arti flame is moved around the idol for the devotees to have a good look of the deity, then the devotees put out their palms to receive the arti aura, when their body’s energy rises to the level of the flame according to researchers. The flame is also considered a

good germ killer.  

Tree worship

Trees are considered to be friends of man as they provide him shelter, food, fuel, and oxygen for good living. In the Rigveda and the Atharveda some trees are deified, as “Vriksha Devta” which are considered to be holy and the people ought to worship them. The Pipal, Banyan, Goolar, Amla, Vilva, Sandal, Neem, Mango, and Babool are the trees that are worshipped in India.

It is said that Gods and the souls of pious ancestors rest on the branches of the Pipal tree and so it is not a domestic tree, instead it is grown in temples and inns where people come to worship. The Pineal gland’s secretions of humans make their brains alert and alive. The chemical found in this secretion is also found in the Pipals’ juice according to scientists and hence it is called the Bodhi Vriksha.

The Banyan tree is of specialty because it sends sap from above to the earth. This resembles the functioning of the world, as it also needs sap or energy for its survival from above, God. Married Hindu ladies worship the Banyan tree for a long and happy married life.

Lord Shiva patronizes the Vilva tree as the only tree, which has three, leaves that sprout together like a trident. The juice of the leaves is a relief to the Diabetics, and the pulp of the fruit is supposed to stop diarrhea. The fruit called bel was a favorite of Lord Shiva. Another tree is the Asoka tree which is known to relieve the worries of the persons sitting under its shade. Sita is said to have been seated under an Asoka tree in Lanka during her captivity.

The Hindus also worship the Kadam tree, because Shree Krishna used to sit and play under this tree. Rishi Chyavan patronized the Amla tree for rejuvenating properties.

Tulsi worship

According to popular Indian belief, Wherever Tulsi is planted, the place becomes, sanctified as a place of pilgrimage and the sepoys of Lord Death dare not enter that place. In India, the Tulsi is regarded as the most sacred plant. It is a much- branched erect bushy plant of about 4 feet height. Its leaves are aromatic and they have minute glands. The flowers are purple in small clusters and the seeds are yellow are red.

According to scientists the place containing tulsi plant becomes pollution free. The oil of the leaves is capable of destroying bacteria and insects. The leaves have mercury traces and are hence nowadays used in cancer curing Ayurvedic medicines. The juice of the leaves cures bronchitis and stomach upsets. The leaves’ paste cure all skin diseases and the decoction of the leaves cures

common cold.

Thick branches of Tulsi are dried and cut into beads to make rosary beads, are else they are made into necklaces which the devotees wear with faith. The ancient Rishis have ordained that if a ghee lamp or incense stick or flowers are not available for performing puja then Tulsi leaves can be used and this explains the importance of the worship of tulsi in India.

Betel Leaf (Paan)

During worship or rituals, leaves from some select trees are used as essential accessories, but among them all the Betel Leaf enjoys a place of pride in India. In Hindu weddings, a betel leaf is tucked into the headgear of the bride and the groom. The use of betel leaf is considered as a noble trait and on all auspicious celebrations, betel leaf has become a symbolic item denoting freshness and prosperity.

The Skanda Purana says that the Betel Leaf was obtained during the ocean- churning by the Gods. The use of Betel Leaf in India is mentioned in the great epics, The Ramayana and the Mahabharatha as well as in Buddhist and Jain literatures.

Paan has rich herbal properties. It is invigorating and energizing, a killer of germs and bacteria and an eliminator of cold. Before eating a paan, the stalk has to be cut, the edges have to be trimmed and the veins have to be scrapped because they may damage the brain. There are whitish and blackish betel leaves. The black variety is said to be constipative and the white one eliminates cold and is a digestive.

Coconut (Nariyel) in rituals

In India, for success and prosperity on all occasions, the beginning is done with the breaking of a sanctified coconut. All religious functions and rituals start with the worship of the coconut since it is regarded as the symbolic GANESH, the deity who helps in the successful completion of any work undertaken.

Sage Vishwamitra is said to be the creator of coconut. Its hard kernel inspires one to do hard work for attaining success. People get strength and improved eyesight by eating the kernel. The sick and the elderly find its water nourishing and ladies apply its oil for luxurious hair. It has glucose, phosphorous and carbohydrates in good measures and so it is good for Diabetics. Germs can’t penetrate its hard kernel so it remains intact for months together.

Ancient Indian doctors used to burn its outer shell to prepare tooth powder, eyebrow creams and ointments for burns. Every inch of the coconut plant is very beneficial to

humans. Hence Indians consider it a good omen to receive or give coconut fruits as gifts. It is also called Shreephal because it denotes prosperity.

Lotus Flower

Lotus is a very important symbol of Indian cultural heritage. It is mentioned in all the Hindu scriptures because it is very sacred to the Gods. God Brahma and Buddha are depicted as seated on a Lotus flower. Lord Vishnu holds a lotus in one of his hands and Goddess Lakshmi also holds a Lotus flower. The Lotus is an appropriate symbol of detachment from the surroundings, be it good or bad.

The Indian Poets have used the Lotus as a simile in praise of the feet of the Gods and Goddesses. All the Vedas sing in praise of the Lotus. In the Yogasastra, the six Chakras are depicted with the Lotus as the base. According to the Mahayana sect of Buddhism, all the souls originate from the Lotus.

In India, the Muslim rulers used the Lotus in their architecture, an influence of Hindu architecture since the Muslims have no special significance for the Lotus. The dome of the Taj Mahal resembles an upside-closed lotus, resting on its petals. The lotus blooms with the morning light and closes

its petals when the sun goes down. So the sages accepted lotus as a unique symbol of unfolding the spiritual qualities of man with the advent of light.

 

AUM

According to the Hindu Yogis in India, inhaling air generates SH-Sh sound while exhaling is associated with HM-HM and enunciated that SOHAM is the keynote of life. Later they discovered that sound O was guttural and sound AM touched palate and so told that AUM encompassed man’s total existence. The Aum sound is vibrating throughout the cosmos and it has three manifestations; those of creations, preservations and destruction. Every time a person utters any letter or word, he puts into operation any of these three virtues of AUM. The vibratory cosmic energy- AUM does not maintain by food alone, but man’s body battery. This invisible power flows through the human body and controls its actions when uttered properly with reverence and concentration.

Tilak or Dot or Bindi

The starting point of all shapes and forms is a point. Geometry describes the point as one, which has no dimensions, but it still exists.  A dot or point is the seed of language

expressed by sound, so it is the finale of the highest attainment.

A dot or point is the abode of Shiva and Shakthi.  Ancient Indian had an indomitable urge to communicate his thoughts and so symbols were developed. Similar group of men and women adopted different types of Tilak or linear symbols, which were further, segregated fro man and woman to wear on their body to denote their sect and ideology.

A deep study of human anatomy reveals that the forehead is the best place for applying Tilak. Rishis declared that the junction of the nose-root and the meeting point of the eyebrows is the most sensitive part of the body. The Agya- chakra, or Wheel of wisdom, is located here and so is a vulnerable spot, which must be kept, warm and

protected. 

The most popular forms used or a dot, or a “U” shape or a trident shape or 3 horizontal lines with a dot at the center called Tripund on the forehead and forearms. The wearers are advised by the rishis to use a mixture of vermillion, lime, turmeric, saffron, musk, agar, sandal and ash for men and sindur or vermillion on their skull-center for the women, to provide warmth to the pineal and pituitary glands located near the Thalamus.

The bindi is declared to be very helpful for the good health of the brain, eyes, ears and the nose because these applications maintain a fine pull on the veins and nerves underneath the forehead, nose-root and forearm’s skin to monitor proper flow of blood. The forebrain controls the decision making part of the brain. In acupressure methods it is considered to be the most sensitive part of the body responsible for alertness and hence the use of Bindi for the forehead is justified.  

Swastik

Mostly the business community considers the Swastik symbol as the symbol of all- round prosperity in India. The root of SWASTIK is SU+US; SU means benefic and US means existence; so whosoever desires to have glory, prosperity, progress and success is advised to invoke the Swastika Yantra.

The Aryans adopted the Swastik as a symbol for the good of humanity. Then the Hindus added some more arms to the Swastik to denote happiness in married life and worldly successes.

The sides of the Swastik arms must remain on the right side, moving or stationary for positive vibrations and benevolent results. BOVIS is a measure of the energy levels that surround men or materials and the Swastik is supposed to have a formidable energy of

Circular Bindi wornby Indian women

Naamam

one million bovis, but in an inverse direction, the results become negative.

Indian Siddhants say that the center of the Swastik represents the uterus, the origin point of the Universe, the vertical line, Shiva and the horizontal line, the female organ. Their cross forms the origin and evolution of the whole world.

Certain shapes represent deities and when a devotee invokes the deity through the symbol, his thoughts are concentrated and good results are got and one such omnipotent symbol is the Swastik, which is widely used in India.  

Rudraksha Mala

It is a common sight in India, to see saints and rishis wearing small ball-like seeds in a string around their neck. They are called Rudraksha Mala and a visit to any holy place in India, can take you to shops that sell these bead-necklaces in all colors and prices.

Rudraksha is the seed of a fruit of a rare species of a tree found in Karnataka and in the Konkan area. It is roundish with a cellular demarcation and has a central bore. Each seed may have 1 to 21 cells and the seeds with one cell are of great sanctity value. The most common variety is the seeds with 5 cellular divisions.

It has a beneficial property of attracting healthy vibrations and so saints and rishis wear them as necklaces. The Lord Shiva is also found to wear one such thing in his neck. A real rudraksha seed

shall sink in water and so fake ones can be differentiated easily.

Its aromatic property helps a devotee to get into deep meditation easily. Rudraksha seeds are not supposed to be rubbed often   because then they lose their charm properties. It should be worn on the neck, threaded by gold, silver or woolen threads, so that it remains in gentle touch with the body, which increases the body’s immunity.

The rudraksha thread protects the wearer from lightings, accidents and brings him good luck according to Indian saints and rishis. People with positive currents of energy should wear it on their right hand and those with negative energy current on their left hands, for good results.  

Sacred Thread

The Brahmanas and some sects of artisans wear the Sacred Thread as a symbol of their holiness when compared to the common man. They are considered to be next to God. In India, a tuft of hair in the back of the head, a rosary in the hand, a prominent bindi on the forehead and a sacred thread along the torso are considered to be some of the important symbols of holiness among the Hindus.

The sacred thread consists of hand -spun yarn. Three equal lengths of the yarn are twisted to form one length. After a sacred thread ceremony the person is given a sacredness status. He is supposed to wear it as a cross-belt on his body.

The three twisted yarns represent the Trinity of God, or the three virtues of life namely; pious living, imperious living and vicious living. The 3*3 also represents the Navagraha or the nine planets and also the nine outlets of the human body. The threads are bright white and so they also add to the aura and moral strength.

In India, the Zoroastrians wear such a sacred thread around their lumbar region. According to their belief, the belt keeps their lumbar region vertebras   in position and gives proper alignment.  

Kalash (Sacred Pot)

In ancient times, the rishis of India placed copper pots atop temple pinnacles to escape the calamity of lightning. But fungus developed on the pots and reduced their efficiency and so they gold-enameled the pots with gold.

The Rishis wanted water all year round to quench their thirst, so they developed a container- a Kalash and they were happy that they could enshrine God Varun in the Kalash and thus the worship of Varun started with the worshipping of the Kalash. The Rishis also ordained that every ceremony should start with the worship of the Kalash.

According to Indian mythology, The mouth of the Kalash represents Vishnu, the throat - Lord shiva, Lord Brahma adores the base and at the belly all Goddesses are established and thus in a small pot they established the presence of all gods and goddesses.

In India, on most of the ceremonial occasions, a pot filled with clean water, with fresh mango or betel leaves placed at the mouth and a coconut placed on top is kept near the entrance. It is also decorated with Swastik symbol and other ornamentations.

Ringing of bells

Centuries ago in India, the Gurukul system of education- residential Institutions for overall development of students, were situated in forests away from the crowded townships. There the insiders were constantly under beastly attacks and so bells were rung on the sighting of deadly animals to frighten them off. The metallic sounds were also found to attack bacteria and germs through scientific research.

To create very effective sound, a bell was found to be the best device since when it is made of 8 different metals, it produced the

Kalash

most resounding echo, which can spread in all directions. In India, regular rhythmic ringing of heavy and light weight bells has been made compulsory during the time of worship in most of the temples, so as to invoke the deity’s blessings.

Research has proved that that the sound of a standard bell can cure physical as well as mental diseases. Loud sounds of the bell or the blowing of the conch, gets 27 cubic feet of air in an area of 1220 sq.ft, purified and it is taken to be the most economical way of purifying the environment.

 For worship, blowing of conch, a type of shell, bells of different dimensions, the beating of metallic-alloy plates, Jhang, Majira, etc are very common in India.  

Conch shells (Shankh)

The Conch Shell or Shankh was obtained as a gift from the ocean - churning by the Gods. The spiral formation inside the conch -shell is symbolic of infinite space. All naturally occurring conch shells yield cosmic sounds, which can be heard by holding the shell close to one’s ears.

God Vishnu accepted an attractive conch shell with its mouth on the right side, and another with a left-side opening adores the hand of Goddess Lakshmi.

The blowing of the conch shell heralds important events and auspicious celebrations and calls all the faithful for the worship of the deity. On the battlefield of Kurushetra in the Mahabharatha, every morning the blowing of the shankh, symbolized the starting of the war.  Every great King and Army- Chief had his own precious Shankh or conch shell.  

Vastu shastra - Indian astrology

(For more imformation click on the link)

In India, Vaastu Shastra, the details about the different dimensions of buildings, temples, forts, townships, houses, etc is a great emerging science in the field of architecture. Architecture is not just raising buildings to limit space according to Indian Rishis. It is a form of science where, constructions are made in harmony with the laws of Creation. A particular proportion of materials, a combination of colors, a particular timing to start the construction is some of the things to consider giving good benefits for the occupier of the construction to be erected.

The principles of VastuShastra are based on physical geography, rainfall, isobars, winds, ocean currents, natural vegetation, climate, water resources, mineral resources, population, etc. Vastu Shastra is basically the utilization of living space so that it harmonizes the person with the elements by working in harmony with the earth’s

magnetic currents. 

In India, as per Vaastu Shastra, North and the East are the most auspicious. Plot of square, rectangle or trapezium can be selected but not a triangular one as this may block the energy waves. Northeast is the air zone, so the drawing room can be located in this direction. The main entrance or water resources of a house can also be located in the North- East Zone. The South- East side is dedicated to fire, so kitchen can be in the Southeast or Northwest but not in the Southwest as this may bring sickness to the members. According to Indian Rishis, the following of the Vaastu Shastra principles brings good-fortune or at the least averts any bad-luck for the occupants.

SOCIAL CULTURECASTE SYSTEM

In India, the caste system developed and is prevalent since ancient times and it remains as a great thorn and mystery in the flesh of Mother India.

It is believed to have been adopted by the Brahmins to express their superiority and to maintain it. Then the Aryan races swept into India from the North and they wanted them to be superior to the insiders and so they maintained the prevalent caste systems. Gradually the caste system became formalized into four major groups, each with its own rules and regulations and code of conduct.

At the top rung of the caste ladder in India comes the Brahmins who have maintained themselves as priests and arbiters regarding religious and financial problems. Then come the Kshatriyas or the Soldiers and administrators. They are followed by the Vaisyas who are the artists and commercial class members and lastly comes the Sudras who represent the peasants and the farming class. According to the ancient Rishis these four castes have come from the body of Lord Brahma, The Brahmins from his mouth, the Kshatriyas from the arms, the Vaisyas from the thighs and the Sudras from his feet. Each caste has further inner divisions, which are mainly controlled by the type of work the person undertakes.

Behind all these comes the last sect of people framed as untouchables or "Harijans" or "Children of God" as called by Gandhiji.He worked a lot for their upliftment and betterment. They are classified as the Scheduled Castes and they performed menial jobs but now thanks to reservations, they have showed up in almost all High-level Departments.

Nowadays due to better education and Westernization the caste system has weakened and is fragile, but for the uneducated masses of India. Mostly Hinduism is based upon this caste system. The other religions, which crept into India like Islam, Christianity, etc don't profess caste divisions.

In an effort to improve the lot of the lower caste people, the Government of India has come out with special packages like Public sector jobs, Parliamentary seats and college seats for them. But still caste systems pose a great threat for the upliftment of our country due to frequent upheavals regarding reservations, etc.

But overall it helps in the grouping of people into smaller units with common interests and goals, so that the culture of the country is not lost due to the dispersion of its manpower.

THE INDIAN WOMAN

India has almost an equal number of men and women and almost half of the women belong to the uneducated category. But now thanks to westernization and wide approval of education their number is dwindling by the thousands. They have come out of their houses armed with pens instead of spatulas so that they can get a decent position in the Indian society.

The Indian girls mostly prefer arranged marriages, by their parents and they take it naturally to deliver babies in the coming year. In earlier times mostly boys were preferred to girls, as raising girls, giving them education and then giving a hefty dowry seemed impossible. But now they have come to terms with these practices. Most of the rural women do the jobs of both a householder and a wage-earning laborer to make both ends meet.

An Indian woman is best depicted wearing flowers on her hair, with colorful bangles on her wrists and sporting a lengthy sari neatly tucked in. Indian woman are noted for their pious nature and they are mostly occupied by religious pujas of all sorts , fasts and

prayers.

The Urban Middle Class woman has become more or less comfortable with a satisfactory pay packet and work-reducing kitchen gadgets for her. Yet she remains under pressure. She is expected to fall in line with the patrilineal pattern of society and the nuclear family structures.

One of the significant features of the 20th century is the rising of women's movements. Different movements have resulted in various women's issues being mainstreamed in the Indian society. Women of today are making great inroads as getting around 30% in Parliamentary seats and some allocations in the Armed forces. The voting and legal rights of Indian woman

has been relaxed and enhanced.

India gives its woman the image of "Mother" or "Devi" liable to great reverence and worship. Women as Gods are part of the Indian tradition. "Durga" one of the powerful deities in India, is a woman. Some of the important temples in the country are dedicated to woman Goddesses.

Some percentage of woman have risen to the top rung of the ladder in their respective fields like Indira Gandhi in Politics, Medha Patker in social movements, P.T.Usha and Malleswari in Sports, to name a few.India has more women in important positions than any other country in the world.

MULTI- LINGUAL COUNTRY

In India, English is used widely as the associate official language, though eighteen languages have been adopted by the Constitution. And there are around 1500 dialects local to the various States and Union Territories of India.

The main languages belong to two categories namely, Indo- Aryan and Dravidian. The Indo Aryan languages belong to the invaders of India and the Dravidian languages to the native South Indians. Almost all the recognized languages have their own script. For most of the Indians, English is the second language and the main mode of education both for arts and science.

The 18 main languages are: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.

Hindi is the most important language and it is spoken by about 20% - 40 % of the total population. It is the official language of the Indian Government. It is the main language in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.

The various literatures of India have some common characteristics, which reveal their Indian ness, some threads, which hold them despite their distinctive flavor and diverse associations.

SECULAR INDIA

India is a secular country with total freedom of worship according to one's beliefs and faith. Hinduism is the major religion followed by about 80% of the population. Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism had their roots in India and Zoroastrianism and Christianity though they came from different parts of the world are followed by a

Indian languages

sizable number of the population. These religions have some common rituals and practices and all of them stress on the importance of God, the Supreme Being. Most of the Indians believes in God and the efficacy of prayers. Indians spend more time in the pursuit of religion, like prayers, rituals, pilgrimages, fasts, discourses, etc, than any other people in the world.

 

Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in India, possibly brought down by the Aryans. The Ramayana, The Mahabharata, the Upanishads and The Bhagavad-Gita are the important books of this religion and the people of this faith worship in temples. Their common Gods include Shiva, Parvathi, Vishnu and Brahma. The Rishis and Sadhus who roam the length and breadth of the country are considered to be the most pious in Hinduism. They have certain holy rivers and towns, for which a visit once in their lifetime is of great interest. The rivers include the Ganges, the Yamuna, The Saryu, the Brahmaputra, TheCauvery, etc. The cities considered to be holy are Varanasi, Ayodhya, Mathura, Dwarka, Kanchipuram, Ujjain, Badrinath, Puri and Rameswaram to name a few.

Buddhism is followed by about 7 million of the population of India. Gautama Buddha founded it in the state of Bihar where he attained enlightment. The Mahayana and the Hinayana are the two sects. Buddhism propagates the eight-fold path as the way to salvation. The ancient ruler Asoka propagated this religion throughout India as well to many foreign countries.

Islam is the biggest minority religion in India and it is followed by around 10% of the population. It was founded by Prophet Mohammed in Saudi Arabia and with the Arab invasion, Islam penetrated to India. The Mughal Emperors nurtured it. India has some of the biggest and beautiful mosques of the world.

Jainism is a contemporary of Buddhism and Mahavir founded it. India has around 4 million of Jains mainly concentrated in the west and south-west of India, namely the states of Maharastra and Gujarat. The Jains are known for their ahimsa- doing no harm to any life, principles. The two main sects of Jainism are the Svetambaras and the Digambaras. Shravanabelagola, a village in Karnataka is a Jain pilgrimage spot.

Zoroastrianism, one of the oldest religions of the world came to India from Persia. The Zoroastrians are mainly concentrated in Mumbai city and to some extent in the state of Gujarat. Their holy book is the Zend Avesta and they worship the Fire as their God. They are noted for disposing of their dead brethen to birds as food. Their numbers are gradually reducing in India due to compulsory inter-religious marriages.

Christianity came to India around 50 A.D, with the arrival of St. Thomas in Kerala. The Christians number around 20 millions in India. The Christians are mainly concentrated in Kerala, Tamilnadu, Goa and the tiny states of Mizoram and Nagaland where the majority of the people are Christians. Cochin in Kerala is noted for its famous Jewish settlements.

JOINT FAMILY SYSTEM

With Westernization and technological improvements, the world has been introduced with the concept of nuclear families where a newly- wed couple start their life alone. They have to nurture their children with their own knowledge and earnings. Though this fever has caught up in India to some extent, the rural parts, which form the main part of India, still follow the joint family norms.

In such an Indian family the father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, sons, daughters, sons-in -law, daughters-in law, their children, etc all live under the same shade sharing the same food and earnings. Such a gathering of almost three generations is a common sight in many of India's villages. The men are the sole-bread winners and they are responsible for the financial security aspect of the household. The women do all the house chores without any hassles as they share their work of cooking, cleaning, doing the dishes, washing, etc. This is in sharp contrast to the nuclear woman, who has to do all the jobs, single-handedly, yet also attend to outside work to make both ends meet. The children have a wonderful time as they have lots of children to play with and elders to guide them both spiritually and physically. But the modern day nuclear- kid comes home from school to find an empty house with none to move around with and he would be fast asleep when his parents return back from work.

Mostly the Patriarchal system is followed throughout India, but in some states like Arunachal Pradesh in North -West India, the matriarchal system is followed where the house is ruled by the women members of the family and the men while their time by playing and gossiping! Kerala also follows this system to some extent, in that its female members control the decision making process in a family.

The joint family system transfers its knowledge about the culture and traditions of the country to the new generations. So the younger generation learns to live a disciplined life. Financial stability is brought about in the family. Any imbalance between spouses is easily measured out since there are many elders to guide and hence India has a low rate of divorcees in the world.

EDUCATION

In ancient India, the Gurukul system of education was followed where an overall knowledge was imparted to the student who is to be away from home for most of his educative years. It was a residential type of education with total submission to the Guru or teacher.

The Indian system of education is one of the best in the world, despite its high illiteracy rate. Education in India is very disciplined with physical education also getting equal importance. Indians are noted for their scientific and mathematical skills even from ancient times. Aryabhatta and Bhaskara, Ramanujam etc were great Indians who brought credit to the Indian system of education.

Gurukul system of Education

Later with foreign invasions, alien culture swept India and many were forced to go out of the country to get a decent education, as the educational system was in shambles. Nehru, Gandhi and many Indians had to get educated from outside India. With the withdrawal of the foreign forces and the introduction of English into India by Lord Maculay, Indian educational system rose up like a Phoenix.

There are around 1000,000 schools in the country with around 600, 000 dedicated for Primary Education alone. The literacy rate is around 60 %, which is far greater when compared to the rate, a decade earlier. But in general men have a high literacy rate, as most of the village women are yet to come out of their veils of ignorance. The State of Kerala boasts of cent percent literacy rate while some like Bihar are way back with a literacy rate of around 40% only. 

In the last decade, science and technology studies have caught the fancy of the Indians who earlier took to law and finance. Armed with such degrees they are a prey to many foreign firms. This brain drain is now stemmed to some extent by competent pays and perks in India. Studying at home at the grace of the World Wide Web or Net is now slowing catching up in India, and this trend is likely to dominate the Indian culture in the near future.

PERSONAL CULTURECULTURE IS THE ART OF LIVING

The Kamasutra, the great treatise on the art of sex, was produced in India and it is widely read throughout the world. Ancient artists depicted common sexual scenes of India in their art, be it sculptures or paintings or carvings.

The ancient Maharajahs or kings had special places wherein they kept beautiful women from all over the country to satisfy their sexual needs. But gradually the one man- one woman norm came to existence with the efforts of some great reformers in India.

In India, arranged marriages are an accepted norm and love marriages are a rarity. But now love marriages are becoming common due to westernization and modern education wherein the men and women mingle freely without any inhibitions. Once married, the couple ought to get along with each other well. In case of any conflicts between them they split and live with their parents unlike other western countries where the couple can opt for divorce and then another marriage. In India, a widow or a widower re-marrying is overlooked with great suspicion.

In arranged marriages the partners acquaint themselves physically first and once the initial lust has lost its steam they discover each other's personalities, their likes and dislikes. They later develop strong bonds of companionship, which goes on till death. To many newly married Indian couples, the concept of privacy is totally alien. They rarely

get a room all for themselves. The girl has to sleep with the women-folks of the household and the guy with the men of the house, probably in the verandah or the open portico.

At the grace of some elderly figure in the house the couple get some time to be alone and they don't get sufficient time for a satisfying bout of intercourse. As the woman goes from one pregnancy to another she rarely think that sex is pleasurable and enjoyable.

In India, public display of affection between opposite sexes is strictly prohibited. Gay and lesbian activities are also greatly discouraged as marriages are considered to be divine in India. Homosexual relations for men are also illegal in India ,according to Section 377 of the National Legislation.

CLOTHING IN INDIA

Indian dressing styles are marked by many variations, both regional and religious. One is likely to witness a plethora of colors, texture and styles in garments worn by the Indians. To a foreigner, the powerful attraction, is the colorful attire of the people in India . With globalization, dresses are also getting westernized. Though the majority of the Indian women wear traditional costumes, the men seem to be more comfortable in western clothing. Men from all classes and regions of India wear shirts and trousers.

The traditional Lungi originated in the South and men from all parts of India wear it. It is simply a short length of material worn around the thighs like a Sarong. A Dhoti is a longer Lungi but with an additional length of material pulled up between the legs. Men of Northern India wear pyjama-like trousers.

Being most utilitarian and multi purpose, the Sari is reigning among both urban and rural females for all rituals and ceremonies. The silk saris, brightly mirrored cholis, colorful Lehangas and the traditional Salwar- Kameez catch anybody's fancy.

The sari can be best called the National dress of the Indian woman. A sari is a rectangular piece of cloth of about 5 to 6 yards in length without any stitches but for the borders. The style, texture and color of the cloth may vary but the sari has an ageless charm. This graceful attire can be worn in different ways and it denotes

the status, age, occupation, region and religion of a woman in India. The sari is worn in at least 10 or 15 styles like Gujarathi style, Bengali, Mangalorean, Kannadiga, Kodava, Tamilian, Malayali, etc.

Sexual scenes from Khajuraho sculptures

Rajasthani womanin Ghagra Choli

Raja Ravi Verma, the distinguished painter of the 19th century toured the whole of India in search of an ideal female wear and he selected the sari as the best attire for the Goddesses in his paintings. He selected the sari, as it drapes the body beautifully and at the same time exhibits the contours of the female anatomy- the bust, the waist and the hips.

The sari is more than 5000 years old and it is found mentioned in the Vedas (3000 B.C). The sari has survived well for long and it is worn by around 75% of the female population in India. Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Queen of Jhansi, is said to have fought her enemy troops on horseback, wearing a sari! The warm and humid clime of India favors the sari as the best Indian female attire.

The tightly fitted, short blouse worn under a sari is called a choli and it evolved during the 10th century A.D. Apart from the choli, the Rajasthani women wear a form of pleated skirt called Ghagra or Lehanga. The skirt is secured at the waist and the back and midriff are bared. A length of cotton -cloth called Dupatta covers the head. Another popular attire of the Indian women is the Salwar-Kameez. This developed in Kashmir and Punjab and is now worn throughout the length and breadth of India. Salwars are pyjama-like trousers drawn tightly at the waist and ankles with a long and loose tunic over it, called the Kameez. A churidhar is similar to the salwar but is tight fitting at the hips, thighs and ankles. Over this, a collarless or mandarin collar tunic called a Kurta is worn.

CUISINE OF INDIA

The Indian cuisine is as diverse as its culture. The cuisine varies according to the geographical location and the climate of the region. The Indian cookery skill lies in the perfect blending of the various spices available, which are used as appetizers and digesters.

Besides spices the main ingredients of Indian cooking consists of milk and milk-based products, lentils and the staple food of rice and wheat. Vegetables vary widely across the regions and so are the vegetarian dishes like the Sarson ka saag in Punjab and the Sambhar in Tamilnadu.

Hinduism and Islam are the two main religions that have contributed to the diverse cuisine culture in India. The

Indian woman in Sari

Punjabi men in Kurta and Lungi

Koftas and Kababs

invaders also brought their techniques and this blended with the Indian cuisine to make it a perfect one. The Portuguese, the Persians and the British made important contributions to the Indian culinary scene. The Hindus are traditionally vegetarians while some have now taken to meat items. The Muslims are famous for their Mughlai food, Kababs, Kormas, Koftas, Biryani and tandoori items.

North Indian meal mainly consists of Chapathis and rotis and parathas accompanied by dals, vegetables, curd, chutneys and pickles. The tail- end desserts include rasgullas, sandesh, and gulab jamuns. They are mostly milk -based. Kheer, shahi Tukra and Kulfi are the other common North Indian dessert items.

South Indians have rice as the staple food. It is served with sambhar, rasam- a thin soup, vegetables and curd. South India is also known for its Idli- which are steamed rice cakes, Dosa- rice pancakes, vada-made of fermented rice and dal. Kerala is famous for its appams- rice pancakes and fish-based curries. Andhra is known for its hot and spicy curries. Desserts from the South include the Payasam -a form of Kheer from rice and Mysore Pak.

Indians usually round their meals with paan or betel leaves, which go with arecanut, cardamom, etc, which serve as digestive spices.

PILGRIMAGE

Pilgrimage has become a part and parcel of the cultural heritage of India. Our history is interwoven with worship and pilgrimage. Besides giving great source of spiritual and moral enrichment, pilgrimage leads to zest, variety, color and grandeur to a dull and drab and insipid routine. The Indian becomes more vibrant and dynamic after a good pilgrimage. In fact pilgrimage and the related fasts are cathartic in nature. They are a means of purification and they strengthen the spirit within.

The lofty Himalayas, the sacred Ganga, the holy Cauvery, the crystal-like Tunghabhadra have all been cherished pilgrim spots of India from time immemorial. There are numerous other pilgrim spots belonging to different religions and faith in India, which attract large faithful and devout crowds throughout the year.

Hinduism - The Rath Yatra, which takes place in the town of Puri in Orissa attracts thousands of pilgrims from all over the country. It is a ceremonial procession of huge chariots bearing Lord Jagannath, his brother and sister wherein stout ropes by ardent pilgrims pull the chariots.

The Kumbh Mela is also a great pilgrimage, wherein the Mela takes place once in every 12 years at different places. A sea of pilgrims takes the ritual bath in the holy waters of the Ganges during this visit.

South Indian dishes- Dosa and Idli

There are also numerous pilgrim spots which are frequented by the pious Hindu in India like Kasi, Rameshwaram, Haridwar, Dwaraka, etc and rivers like Cauvery Yamuna, etc.

Jainism - Once in every 12 years the ritual anointing of the statue of the Jain saint Gomateshwara takes place at Shravanbelagola, a tiny village in the state of Karnataka. For the Jain pilgrims it is a very sacred and significant occasion, who gather in thousands to anoint the statue with an offering of milk, honey and butter.

The Jains also visit other Jain pilgrim centers situated in Gujarat and other places as part of their pilgrimage.

Islam - For the Muslims the greatest pilgrim center is Mecca, for which a visit once in their lifetime is considered very meritorious. In India, the Jama Masjid in Delhi is of great significance. The Muslims visit and offer Namaz regularly at their respective Durgahs and Masjids.

Christians - For the Christians in India, there are some regional pilgrim centers with which they attach great sanctity and reverence. Usually they pray in their respective churches and Cathedrals. Some places like the Velankanni church in Tanjore District of Tamilnadu are places with healing powers according to the Christian pilgrims.  

Sikhs -The Sikhs attach great importance with the Golden temple at Amritsar in the State of Punjab. Most of them visit this temple at least once during their life. They also undertake pilgrimage to other Gurdwaras located at different places in India.

RITUALSChristian Rituals || Hindu Rituals || Jain Rituals || Sikh Rituals || Zoroastrian

Rituals

MUSLIM RITUALS

Birth

According to the Muslims, the first words that a child should hear are the words of God. Hence the Azaan is spoken into the new -born's right ear and the iqamat is spoken into his left ear.

There are no specific rituals following the birth of a child. If there are, then they are dependant on the local customs and habits of the region.

Smoke is used to clean the labour room. The child is first given the juice of palm dates chewed by any Muslim priest. This is applied on the upper jaw of the child. Only after this the child is allowed to feed on the mother's milk. On the seventh day following delivery the mother is

bathed in warm water. The midwife is given clothes and money by the relatives.

 

 

Circumcision

In India, the custom of circumcision varies from region to region. The ritual takes place as follows. First the child is made to take bath and then wear clothes brought by his maternal uncle. Then he is taken to the mosque to offer namaz.

At the house, a barber is usually called. But nowadays a doctor or a surgeon does the circumcision. Inside the house, a cloth screen is erected on all sides and the child sits on the lap of his maternal uncle. Women are not allowed to watch the rite. The doctor with a sharp razor or surgical blade cuts off the foreskin of the penis. Then some antiseptics are applied to prevent any bleeding. The child is then given some drinks like milk, etc and is taken care of.

Marriage

On the day of marriage the groom is dressed in the wedding clothes and is worn flower garlands. Usually he wears a shervani, kurta , a turban and a transparent veil covers his face. Then the groom's party leaves for the bride's house accompanied by music bands. At the bride's house the groom's party is welcomed and they stay in a special place allocated for them till the nikah. Dowry or Mehar is negotiated between the parents according to their status. Only then nikah is performed.

Muslim Priest with a new born child

Nikah: This is a brief ceremony confined to two short sentences and two witnesses. The boy must say that he proposes to marry a particular girl and the girl must accept his proposal in the presence of two witnesses.

A nikahanama or contract is drawn up which is signed by the people concerned followed by celebrations. A big feast is given for the guests.

Talak or Divorce

According to Muslim personal law if a man and woman find it impossible to live together for any kind of reason then there is provision for them to separate. The talaq is to be given by saying, "I hereby give you talaq", and three times with a gap of one calendar month between each talaq. There is also a provision by which a woman can also divorce her husband. This is called Kullahi.

After talaq, a woman has to observe iddat before she can remarry. Iddat is the probation period of three months and thirteen days during which a woman has to be confined to her house and observe purdah from all men. Her husband should pay her the nano - nafka or the money for her maintenance during that period. It includes the money for her clothes, food and housing.

Death

When a Muslim dies, people recite "lilaha va inna illaha raziun" meaning "We have come from God and unto him we shall return". The Muslim law forbids loud wailing and display of grief on the death of a person.

First the corpse is purified through a ritual bath called ghusl. Only close relatives of the sex of the deceased bathe the body. Then the body is wrapped in a white cloth called Kafan, from head to toe. Incense sticks are lighted in the house. Then the corpse is taken to the burial ground on the

shoulders of four people. People may take turns in carrying the corpse. The procession is called Janasa. A prayer called dua is recited en-route.

There is a congregational prayer before the corpse is buried. The grave is sprinkled with perfumed water. After lowering the body into the grave, the head of the deceased is tilted to face towards the Kaba. The grave is then neatly sealed with wooden boards, stones or bamboo sticks. The mourners then toss handfuls of sand over the covering. The grave is finally covered and all

Muslim Bride

Muslim Cemetery

present recite the Fatiha for the deceased and depart.

CHRISTIAN RITUALS

Birth

When a woman is about to deliver a baby , the priest of the congregation is called for and he prays for a safe delivery. There are no special rituals concerned with the birth of a child. Then after 40 days of cleansing the mother takes her newborn to the church for thanksgiving. There she gives offering to the Lord.

Usually the first birthday of the child is celebrated elaborately with the parents arranging a special feast for the guests. All of them give gifts to the kid. And the child cuts a special birthday cake to be shared between the guests.

Baptism

Baptism is an important ritual in the life of a Christian. A child is admitted to the church congregation as a member only through Baptism.

 According to Christian belief, a child is born tainted with the sin that passed on to him from the great sin of Adam and Eve. At Baptism, the child is relieved of this sin and he becomes a child of God and a member of the church.

 Baptism is done usually before the first birthday. The child is given white clothes, shoes and cap by his parents and relatives give him gifts. A feast is given to them and the priest , by the parents.

Marriage

Engagement

This is usually held at the brides' residence. It is more or less a family affair and only the close relatives attend the function.

The priest starts the function with a prayer. Then the girl and the boy exchange garlands, the Bible and a ring as a mark of their engagement. The priest delivers a small sermon and a feast is given for the invitees.

The girl and the boy are given time to talk and understand each other. On this day the date of marriage and other details are discussed between the groom's and the bride's side.

BAPTISM

Marriage

Marriages usually take place in the nearby churches. The marriage celebrations are influenced by local customs and practices and may vary according to the region.

On the day of marriage, the groom's party arrives at the bride's residence and the bride's father welcomes them. He welcomes the groom with a garland and a golden chain. Then the groom's party is given breakfast. The groom's side then goes to the nearby church accompanied by music bands. The bride's party follows suit. At the church the head priest leads the boy and the girl to the altar. Small girls with flower baskets accompany the couple ,to sprinkle flowers over the couple.

At the Altar, the priest prays for a happy life for the couple and then he blesses them. Texts from the holy Bible are read and he makes a short sermon. The father of the bride gives her hand to the groom. Then the groom ties a golden chain in the neck of the bride or slips a ring on the girl's hand.

A choir usually accompanies the service with melodious songs blessing the couple. Then they get to the bride's residence for a sumptuous meal. The guests give gifts for the newly married couple. At night a reception would be arranged at the boy's place.

Death

When a person dies, the body is laid in a cot with a cross nearby. Incense sticks and candles are lit around the cot. Perfumes are sprayed over the body. When all the relatives have gathered, the head priest holds prayers in the room.

Then the body is bathed and clothed and placed in a special coffin. The coffin is placed at an open place for people to pay their last respects. Then the arms of the body are folded across the chest. Flower garlands are laid along with lots of flowers sprinkled

inside the coffin.

The Bible is read and the priest gives a small lecture on the life and deeds of the deceased. The relatives kiss the dead as a sign of farewell and the departure song is sung.

The funeral service then begins with the guidance of the priest. Usually the sons carry the coffin on their shoulders but nowadays special vehicles like a hearse- van are used for the purpose. First the coffin is taken to the church, where the bells toll in a 1.1-2 sequence.

Funeral

There after a small prayer it is taken to the crematorium.

At the crematorium a special pit is dug for the purpose beforehand. The coffin is lowered into the pit and the people put handfuls of sand over the coffin and finally the pit is closed. On the 3rd or 5th day, the relatives visit the crematorium and offer garlands and milk at the spot and disperse after a prayer.

Top

HINDU RITUALSHinduism is the religion of the majority of the population of India. The holy books of the religion namely the Vedas and the Upanishads clearly explain the rituals and their mystical contents. They also explain in detail the observance of sacrificial and purification rituals.

BIRTH RITUALS

Valaikappu

This ceremony is performed during the odd months of pregnancy mostly during the seventh month for the expectant mother in her mother's house. Prayers are invoked for the well-being of the mother-to -be and the foetus. Mostly women are invited for this function and priests are not involved.

The expectant mother is made to wear a lot of bangles mostly glass ones of red and green colors and the sound of these bangles are supposed to reach the womb. The bangles are removed only during delivery and given to the midwife at the birth of a child. Arti is performed. The mother of the girl presents her silk saris and gold and silver bangles. The invitees give gifts for the mother-to -be and they are given a feast.

 

 

Mottai Addithal (Tonsure)

This is a ritual connected with the tonsuring or head shaving of children. This is usually done during the first or the third year of the child. The hair is consecrated and offered to the respective family deities. Celebrations or chanting of mantras are not involved. The child receives new dresses from its parents, maternal uncle and grandparents.

Glass bangles used for adorning pregnant woman

Valaikappu

Kaadukutthal (Ear -Piercing)

It is a very important event for the Hindus in India. According to Hindu belief, the piercing of a hole in the ear completes the shape of AUM , based on the shape of the ear. The baby is made to sit on his maternal uncle's lap during the ritual. A goldsmith is invited to do this and he is given clothes and money. This ritual is perofrmed for children of both the sexes.While the girls retain the holes for wearing studs, the boys gradually lose them.

Annaprasanam

This ritual usually takes place on the first birthday of the child. The baby is given a mixture of rice, sugar and milk, probably his first solid food after a year of liquid diet. This ritual may be conducted at the temples too but usually it is held in the house of the child and guests are given a good lunch.

UPANAYANAMM

This is one of the most important rituals in a Hindu male's life. This event signifies the entry of the male into Brahmacharya or the state of sexual abstinence as well as the commencement of his life. It signifies the entry into a state of disciplined existence. The ritual is to be conducted when the child is mentally and emotionally old enough to understand its significance and follow the practice.

It involves three threads entwined together, which are symbolic of the three parts of the Gayatri Mantra. The threads are dyed yellow. The thread should be lifted and put behind the ears when a person goes for his daily ablutions. If one of the threads break

then the entire thread should be replaced. After any birth or death in the family, the thread should be changed. It need not be taken out of the body daily. Before this ritual the male is made to tonsure his head and wear new clothes.

MARRIAGE

On an auspicious day, some few days before the marriage, priests from both the groom's side and that of the bride meet at the house of the groom and exchange the marriage agreement along with banana, coconut and betel leaves in a plate. This is called exchange of Thambulam.

The groom and the bride do not meet. The bride is given an oil

Annaprasanam

Upanayanam

Thambulam

bath separately in her house and she is confined to her house till marriage.

 

On the day before the marriage, the groom's party arrives at the Mandapam and the whole arrangement of food and the lodging for them are done by the bride's side. The bride's father with a garland welcomes the groom.

On the evening the groom's party goes to a nearby temple. Then they come to the mandapam along with gifts for the bride, like fruits, sweets, coconut, banana, betel leaves,

cosmetics, clothes. Then the Nichayetartum or the engagement takes place with women taking arti for the groom and the bride, and gifts are exchangedbetween the two parties.

 

The next day is the hey day when an auspicious time is selected for the Muhurtham. The boy and the girl take bath and wear new clothes gifted from the opposite sides and sit around a haven performed by a priest. There the father of the bride gives her hand to the groom and this is called Kanyadan.

The thali is a piece of gold in a yellow thread, which the groom ties around the neck of the girl. He ties two knots and the groom's sister, the third one. During this ritual the nadeswaram reaches its crescendo called Kettimelam. This is done to avoid any obtrusive acts.

Then an elaborate lunch consisting of Vadai , payasam, rice varieties, papad and sweets are given to the guests by the bride's side.

The couple is then taken to the groom's house where the members with banana, milk and sweets welcome them. There the couple is engaged in small petty games so as to tease each other. Then the groom's side arranges a reception with a good dinner accompanied by music concerts.

Mridangam

Nathaswaram

Couple circling the sacred fire

After this, the bride's party leave her in the groom's house, where arrangements will be made for the first night ceremony.

Death

When a person dies, a lamp is lit and placed near the dead body. The body is placed in the north-south direction with the head towards the north. The eyes are closed and the feet are tied together. The eldest son is supposed to do the last rites. The body is bathed and is covered with new clothes. Then the members of the family apply oil on the forehead of the deceased. Then the body is decorated with flower garlands and is taken to the cremation ground. Usually the sons and other male members carry the dead. Women are not allowed to go to the ground. They bid farewell to the deceased at the home itself.

At the cremation ground, the son applies ghee at seven important places in the body and also places coins on the forehead. Grains of rice and til are put into the mouth of the body. Wooden logs are placed over the body and ghee is sprinkled all over. The son goes round the body seven times with a pot of water and at last the pot is broken near the feet of the dead. Then as the priest chants the mantra, the son takes the Agni or fire and places it on the heart of the body.

Then on the 3rd or 5 th day day after cremation, the relatives visit the crematorium and pour milk over the place , so as to pacify the dead soul. Then a simple lunch is arranged for the members.

Top

JAIN RITUALS

Birth

Priyodhbhav Sanskar

This ritual takes place after the birth of a child. Ten days of cleansing or Sutak are observed after delivery. During this period no rituals are performed. But in the temple the priest recites mantras and receives offerings on behalf of the new-born.

Namkaran Sanskar

This is the naming ceremony. It is done on the eleventh, thirteenth or twenty-ninth day after the birth of a child. For Namkaran the name is selected from the 1008 Jinasahasranam for the boys and names of the girls are selected from famous women of the Puranas. The priest, chanting mantras declares the name and thenthe child is blessed.

Marriage

The marriage function consists of totally nine different rituals, which are performed on one day. Marriages of Jains are usually simple ceremonies without the flaunting of wealth. The different rituals connected with the marriage are:

Laghana Lekhan

This is the first of the nine rituals and it consists of fixing the date and time of marriage called Laghana Lekhan and is held at the bride's residence. The priest performs Puja and he determines the time of marriage. Then the Patrika bearing the time or Muhurta is sent to the groom's house with sweets.

Lagna Patrika Vachan

This is the reading of the Laghana Patrika at the groom's house by the priest.

Sagai

This is the engagement and is done at the groom's residence. The groom performs the Vinayakyantra pooja and then the bride's brother applies tilak and presents him gifts like gold chain, ring, clothes and sweets. The elders of the family bless the groom.

Mada Mandap

This ceremony is held a day or two before the marriage both at the groom's as well as the bride's place at an auspicious time.

Ghudhchadi

Before going to the bride's place, the groom is given a headgear, traditional to the Jains and relatives apply tilak on his fore- head. Then he visits a temple in a ceremonial horse.

Barati

This takes place on the bride's house on the arrival of the groom. The bride's brother welcomes the groom's party and applies tilak on the groom and gives him gifts.

Phere

This is the actual marriage ceremony. The groom and the bride are seated in a mandap. The groom and the bride take the seven vows and the girl sits to the left of the groom.

Kanyavaran

This is the presenting of the girl to the groom by the bride's parents. The father proclaims to the congregation that he has given his girl to the groom. The priest pours water on the hands of the groom and the bride, chanting mantras. Then the priest begins

a havan.

Granthi Bandhan

After the havan, the couple is ritualistically tied; a corner of the pallu of the bride's sari is tied to the shawl of the groom. Mantras are recited and the couple circles the havan 4 times. The couple exchange garlands and then the elders bless them. Then a feast follows .After the ceremony is over, the bride is sent to the groom's house and alms are distributed to the poor in the Jain temples.

Death

The Jains cremate the dead as soon as possible. First the body is rubbed with a wet cloth. The corpse is then clothed and placed in a bier and covered with a kafan. The body is tied to the bier and taken to the crematorium. A suitable place without any living organisms like grass or insects is selected so as not to harm them. There a platform of wood is erected.

The body is taken from the bier and placed on the platform with logs of wood over it. Ghee, camphor and sandalwood powder are sprinkled all over the body and the eldest son of the deceased does the last rites.

The son goes round the pyre three times sprinkling water allover the body. Chanting the Namokar Mantra ,he lights up the pyre. Then after sometime they pour milk over the place. The remains are collected in bags and the place is thoroughly cleansed. The remains are not immersed in rivers as they can pollute the water. Instead they dig a hole in the earth and put the remains and sprinkle salt all over, so that it dissolves easily.

The Jains believe that the dead soul would be reborn immediately. So for them death is a festival or Mahotsav. Loud wailing and observing anniversaries are not part of the Jain Tradition.

Top

SIKH RITUALSThe religion of the Sikhs called Sikhism is not an ethnic religion and anyone can join its fold. The Sikhs believe in the omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence and formlessness of one God called Wahe Guru. They believe that community worship and community service are related to Godliness.

The Sikh symbols are called Panch Piyara and they include the five K's: Kanga or Comb, Kaccha or shorts, Kada or bangle, Kesha or hair and Kirpan or dagger. Every Sikh is supposed to carry these five symbols on his Golden Temple- Amritsar

self all the time.

 

 

 

 

Birth

There are no particular rituals connected with the birth of a child in the Sikh community. Some sections of the Sikhs recite the five verses of the Morning Prayer, Japji Sahib into the ears of the newborn child.

Gurthi

A respected, intelligent and favorite member of the family gives a drop of honey to the new born child so as togive his characters later in life, to the newborn child. This is not a ritual and it mostly takes place in the hospital itself.

Shushak

When a child is born into the Sikh fold, the maternal grandparents gift him a package called Shushak, which consists of clothes for the child and his family, a spoon, glass, and a bowl for the child, money and gold ornaments for the child according to their financial status .

Marriage

A Sikh marriage is more or less similar to the Hindu marriage. Here instead of the Vedas the Granth Sahib is read. A Sikh wedding is called Anand Karaj - meaning a ceremony of Bliss. Before the wedding, a three-day wedding path is held and it is one of the main ceremonies. Invitation cards are sent to relatives and friends along with boxes of sweets

Nanke Chak

The bride's maternal grandparents and uncle spend a reasonable amount for the wedding of the girl ,like clothes ,jewellery and they also host one meal.

Surma Pawai

On the day of marriage, the groom wears a long coat called Brocade Achakan and churidhar pyjamas and a pink turban. The other male members of his family also wear pink turbans. Before leaving for the girls' house , the groom's brother's wife- his Bhabhi

applies Surma or Kohl in his eyes. Then the groom leaves his house with a sword on horse back accompanied by friends and relatives in a procession.

Baraat

The Baraat arrives at the bride's residence in a procession marked by music, singing and dancing. The male members of the girl's side welcome them.

Milni

A poet of the Sikh community sings the Shabad or Holy verse. The two sides exchange garlands. The groom's party is given gifts from the girl's side. After the singing of the holy verse, the couple is made to sit in front of the Granth Sahib. The priest tells the couple about the obligations of marriage and hymns form the Granth Sahib related to marriage areread.

Lawaan

The bridegroom leads the bride around the Granth Sahib with both of then holding both ends of a scarf. They go round the holy book four times. At the end of the fourth round, the gathering shower flowers on the couple and they are declared married. The couple is then given gifts by the people and lunch is served. The groom gives silver rings to the sisters of the bride.

Doli

Then the groom and the bride leave for the groom's house. The girl throws wheat grains over her shoulders as a mark of paying off her debts to her parental home.

Death

In the Sikh community after the death of a person, the Kirtan Solah is read. Loud lamenting and breast -beating are strictly forbidden among the Sikhs. People gather around the body and recite the morning prayers.

The corpse is bathed and dressed along with the fives K's. The Sikhs cremate their dead like the Hindus and they do it before sunset.

The eldest son of the deceased lights the funeral pyre. The priest sings the holy hymns. After the cremation, people go to the Gurudwara where some texts from the Granth Sahib are read. Prasad , is which is cooked with coarsely ground atta, water, sugar and Desi ghee is served to the people.

On the third day after the cremation, the relatives go to the cremation ground, take the bones of the dead and wash them in unboiled milk. Then they collect the bones and the ashes in a bag and immerse it in the Beas River or in the river flowing near their

Gurudwara.

They don't observe Shraddh orAnniversary for their dead. The period of mourning for the dead can go up to 10 days, until which the holy texts from the Granth Sahib are read daily in the house.

Top

ZOROASTRIAN RITUALS

Birth

After the birth of a child in a Zoroastrian family, the new mother is normally confined to the house for 40 days. This is to prevent her and her child from any diseases. A lamp is lit on the day of birth and is kept in the room for about 40 days to ward off any evil elements. Some families observe the Pachori on the fifth day while some observe Dasori on the tenth day of the child.

On the fortieth day , the new mother is given a ceremonial bath with consecrated water being administered by the head priest. This is done to cleanse her so that she can interact with other people.

Para Haoma

The event of giving the first drink to the newborn is called Para Haoma. It is consecrated Haoma juice and it is supposed to make the child healthy. But these days a sweet drink made of molasses or sugar is also administered.

Navjote

The formal admission of a child into the Zoroastrian fold is called Navjote. It is done between the seventh and the eleventh year of the child.

First the child takes a special bath called Nahn and then he is given a purifying drink. Then the child stands in a raised platform and his mother performs the Achoo Michoo ceremony where certain items are rotated over the head of the child seven times. This is done to invoke the blessings of the seven Amesha Spentas on the child.

Then certain prescribed texts are read and the Kushti is worn round the waist of the child. Then a long prayer is held when the child declares that he will be a true Zoroastrian and follow the rules and regulations.

Both the Parsi boys and girls are given this privilege. Finally the priest recites the Doa Tandorosoti Prayer, which calls for the well being of the child, his parents and the community in particular.

Marriage

The marriage involves the groom going to the bride's house along with his relatives and friends. The priest heads the assembly and women carry the Varni - the gifts meant for the bride. Music bands accompany them.

The bride's house is usually decorated with strings of flowers. When the groom arrives the bride's mother welcomes him by applying Kumkum on his forehead and sprays rice grains over him.

During the ceremony the couple shower rice over each other and the priest also throws rice grains over them as a mark of blessing. A coconut is taken round the head of the groom three times, then it is broken and the water is applied at the feet of the groom. The bridegroom is made to sit on the hand of the bride. Both of them face the eastern direction. One person with a burning flame is allowed to stand near the couple as a reverence to their God of fire. A candle is also placed on both the sides and it burns for the whole ceremony.

The priest gets the consent of the couple and then joins their hands and showers rice grains over them. Then the couple is seated facing each other, with a curtain between them. The couple is made to hold each other's right hand and a piece of cloth is passed round the chairs so as to enclose them. The ends of the cloth are tied symbolizing the marriage knot. Then the writings of the Yatha Ahuvairyo are read.

Finally the curtain is dropped and the couple shower rice grains on each other. The relatives and friends then clap approving the marriage. Then a grand feast is given.

Death

According to the Zoroastrians, if the soul has left the body then it should be disposed off with minimum harm to those living. The Zoroastrians have strict ideals of sanitation, segregation, purification and cleanliness. The part of the house where the body was kept before the funeral will be washed and cleansed thoroughly.

When death of a person is imminent , two head priests are called. They recite the Patet - the prayer for repentance. A few drops of the Haoma juice are administered to the dying

person. Nowadays pomegranate juice is also given. 

They do not bury or cremate the dead; instead they leave their dead in the "Towers of Silence" where they would be devoured by vultures. This is to ensure that the five elements created by God, are not polluted.