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Individual Differences
PerceptionsAttributionsAttitudesValuesPersonalityMotivation
Why are they important?
They directly affect behavior. IDs Behavior
They indirectly affect behavior.
“X” Behavior
IDs
Perceptions
The process of making sense of one’s environment
The Process of Perceiving
Picking up of Stimuli(Selective Attention)
1. Stimulus Selectivity
2. Personal Selectivity
Interpretation of Stimuli
(Encoding)(Storage & Retention)(Retrieval)
Perceptions ≠ Reality: Why?
Picking up Stimuli(we notice things that aren’t there or miss things that are)•Selective perception•Contrast effect•Projection•Primacy/Recency Effects•Hierarchical Bias
Interpreting Stimuli(organization & recall)
•Schema•Negativity bias•Mood and emotions•Individual differences•Past Experience
Conclusions
Our perceptions may not accurately represent reality. Our perceptions of someone else are not just based on their characteristics, but also on our own.
Our behavior is a function of our perceptions (an ID)
Consequently, perceptions are more important than reality in terms of understanding human behavior in organizations.
We are not passive participants in this process of perceiving.
We are active participants.
In some cases, we may actually create what we “see”.
Implications for OB
Perceptions and First ImpressionsJob interviewsInitial interactions with others
Beyond first impressionsleadershipproblem solvingself-fulfilling propheciesperformance appraisalseveryday interactions
Superior-Subordinate Perceptual Differences
General Foreman’s Foreman’s
Worker Rating Foremen Rating Foreman’sSelf-Rating for Worker Self-Rating for Foremen Self-Rating
High Wages (Economics)
Getting Along with others (Social)
Chance to do interesting work
28%
36%
22%
17%
39%
38%
58%
22%
14%
11%
43%
43%
61%
17%
12%
Perceptual Differences: continued
Workers Foremen Foremen Top Mgmt. see say about see says aboutthemselves Workers themselves Foremen
Feel free to discuss important things about job with boss.
Always/nearly always tell subordinates about changes.
Always/nearly always get subordinate ideas.
Very often get a “pat on the back”for good ideas.
51% 85% 67% 90%
47% 92% 63% 100%
16% 73% 52% 70%
13% 82%
What do workers want?
Supervisors (about subordinates) Subordinates (about self)
1. Good wages 1. Appreciation of work done2. Job security 2. Feeling “in” on things3. Promotion/growth in co. 3. Help on personal problems4. Good working conditions 4. Job security5. Interesting work 5. Good Wages6. Personal loyalty to workers 6. Interesting work7. Tactful disciplining 7. Promotion/growth in company8. Appreciation of work done 8. Personal loyalty to workers9. Help on personal problems 9. Good working conditions10. Feeling “in” on things 10. Tactful disciplining
Attributions
•Are “perceptions” of causality
•Upon the occurrence of a behavior or event, we have the natural desire to explain what caused that event of
behavior.
•The “causes” we use to explain the event or behavior affecthow we feel about it and our expectations
Attributing the “Causes” of Behavior
Locus Dimension
StabilityDimension
Causes ofBehavior Internal External
Stable Ability Task Difficulty
Variable Effort Luck
Common Attributional Biases
•Self-Serving Bias (Ego-Defensive Bias)
•Actor-Observer Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error)
•Gender Linked Bias
•Severity Bias
•Empathy Bias
•Liking Bias
Impression Management Tactics
• Self-handicapping• Self-promotion• Ingratiation• Favors• Apologies• Excuses• Manipulation of information• Object Language
Attitudes
Mental state of readiness, predispositions to react to something in a certain way
Predispositions can be either Lightly held (changeable)Deep seated
Examples of Changeable Attitudes
Job Involvement – degree to which one psychologically identifies with his/her work
Organization Commitment – extent to which one identifies with an organization
Job Satisfaction – degree to which one likes his/her job
Others: Professionalism, union commitment, perceived organizational support
Values
More fundamental beliefs about conduct orexistence.
heavily influenced by culture, historical era
Mystery Value
Response Options:
1 2 3 4 5Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyDisagree Agree
1. Hard work makes a man or a woman a better person.2. Wasting time is as bad as wasting money.3. A good indication of a person’s worth is how well he or she
does on the job.4. If all other things are equal, it is better to have a job with a lot
of responsibility than one with little responsibility.
Perceptions, Attitudes & Values
Perceptions – affect our behavior via our sensory stimuli
Attitudes – affect our behavior via the predispositions we hold about things.
•Lightly held•Deep seated
Values – affect our behavior through our beliefs about right and wrong, good and bad.
Perceptions, attitudes & values: examples
ISU is a research institution. Perception
I like ISU. I like teaching.
Research is a more important activity than teaching.
Attitudes
Value
Questions surrounding personality
•Where does personality come from?
•Can personality change?
•How do we describe one’s personality?
Comprehensive measures – Big Five
Individual Traits
•How useful is information on personality?
Personality: Heredity vs. Environment
Personality is:
50% determined by Heredity/genetics
20-35% determined by the environment
15-30% transient states & measurement error
Based on data from identical twins raised together and apart
Big Five Personality Dimensions
Extraversion - IntraversionAgreeablenessConscientiousnessEmotional Stability – NeuroticismOpenness to experience
Some Individual Personality Traits
AuthoritarianismAscendent Tendency (Machiavellianism)DogmatismLocus of Control
Internals vs ExternalsJob Satisfaction Internals tend to be more satisfied than externals
Self control Internal tend to exhibit more self control
Risk Taking Internals tend to engage in less risky behavior
Absenteeism Internals are absent less than externals
Expectancies Internals see a stronger connection between whatthey do and what happens to them.
Leader Behavior Internals prefer participative leaders, externalsprefer directive leaders
Independence Internals are more independent, less susceptibleto others’ influence
Validity Issues & Personality
Predictive Validity
Construct Validity
Differential Validity
Handling Individual Differences
Less PermanentMore Situational More PermanentSubject to Influence Take as a given
Perceptions Attributions Attitudes Values Personality
Lightly- Deep- Held Seated
Highly Variable Influenced by Has a within & across Work group, biologicalindividuals peers component