Individual Process in Organization

Sub Topics

• Perception & Attribution

• Learning

• Motivation

• Personality

• Attitude

Perception

• The process by which an individual selects, organizes & interprets the events happening in the environment

Sensation vs. Perception • Physical senses – vision, hearing, touch ,smell &

taste • Senses receive stimuli both from with in & out

side the body

Perception contd..

• External stimuli – light, sound, mechanical pressure, taste & smell

• Internal stimuli – hunger, thirst & pain

Perception is more complex than sensation

• Although perception depends largely upon the senses for raw data, the cognitive process may filter, modify or completely change these data

Perception contd..

Diff b/w perception & sensation

e.g. a subordinate’s answer to a question is based on what he heard the boss say, not on what the boss actually said

Sub processes of Perception • Stimulus

• Registration

Sub processes of Perception contd..

• Interpretation

• Feedback

• Behavior

• Consequence

Perceptual Selectivity

• Sometimes stimuli may be so subtle that an individual may not even be conscious that he is exposed to some stimulus – subliminal perception

• PS depends upon external attention factors & internal set factors

External Attention Factors

• Intensity – high intensity – noticed

e.g. bright light, strong odor, loud noise

• Size – Larger object is more likely to be noticed than a smaller object

• Contrast – the stimuli that contradict most with the background, receive maximum attention

Which Blue Square is Smaller?

External Attention Factors contd..

• Repetition – more no of times a stimulus is repeated the more it is likely to be noticed

• Motion – people give more attention to moving objects than the stationary objects

• Novelty & Familiarity

New objects in familiar situation

Familiar objects in a new situation

Draws Attention

Internal Set Factors

Set – Cognitive process based on the psychology

Learning & Perception – Learning creates expectancies in individuals & encourages them to perceive things in a particular way

Learning & Perception

HILLY TERRRAIN

AHEAD

Internal Set Factors Contd..

Perceptual set in the work place• E/e – working – same org – interprets the things

in a similar way, may be by the way of common name, phrases, remarks

• Learning leads to substantial individual differences – leads to perceptual differences

Motivation & Perception

Perceptual set influenced by

Primary – hunger, thirst

Secondary – power, affiliation

Internal Set Factors Contd..

Personality & perception • Young mgrs complaint senior mgrs resist

change – rely on paper wk, delayed decisions

• Senior mgrs – young mgrs initiate unnecessary change, fail to maintain record, hasty decisions

Factors Influencing Perception

The Perceiver • An individuals perception is greatly influenced by

his unfulfilled needs & goals

e.g. research is conducted on participants not taken food for 1 hr – 16 hr

• Expectations may distort perception – people tend to view person the way they expect the person to be, irrespective of the actual traits of the person

e.g. Doctor – soft spoken, Police – rude

Factors Influencing Perception contd..

The Target • Perception is affected by the characteristics of

the target• People may gp objects together – physical

proximity• Events may grouped together – occurred during

the same time

e.g. 2-4 e/e quit – org – same time – mgt find a common reason

Factors Influencing Perception contd..

The Situation• The situation or environment in which objects or

events are seen plays an important role in influencing an individual’s perceptions

e.g. dress code, behavior

Factors Influencing Perception

Perceptual Organization Emphasizes on the activities that takes place

in the perceptual process after a stimulus is received

PO is the process by which people gp environmental stimuli into recognizable pattern

Diff forms of perceptual orgFigure Ground – perceived objects are

separated from their general background by the perceiver

Perceptual Organization contd..

Perceptual Grouping – an individual tends to group several stimuli together in to a recognizable pattern on the basis of closure, continuity, proximity, similarity

• Closure – a person sometimes perceive a whole-where it does not exist, sometimes a person may not able to perceive a whole-although one exist

The gaps that remain unfilled from sensory input are bridged by the person’s perceptual process

Perceptual Organization contd..

• Continuity – closure fills the missing stimulus, in continuity person tends to perceive the extension of a stimulus

• Proximity – a gp of stimuli that are physically close to each other are perceived as a set of parts belonging together e.g. e/e of same dept.

• Similarity – The greater the similarity of the stimuli, they are perceived as a common gp

e.g. dress, gender, profession

Perceptual Organization contd.. Perceptual Constancy • Perception of elements like size, shape, color

etc remain constant & does not change from one individual to another

• Learning helps individual – perceive certain patterns of cues in a similar way & leads to perceptual constancy

e.g. identification of fruits, flowers

Perceptual Context • Most advanced form of perceptual

organization

Perceptual Organization contd..

• It provides meaning & value to objects, events, situation & other people in the environment

e.g. mgr & e/e may use same language, but words & actions used may have different meaning

Perceptual defense• Closely related to the P.Context• e/e may establish a defense against some

stimuli – may be clashing with his personal values, culture

Social Perception How we get to know others

Classic research findings on some specific characteristics of perceiver & perceived are,

Knowing oneself – easy to see others accurately One’s own characteristics affect the characteristics

one is likely to see in others People who accept themselves are more likely to be

able to see favorable aspects of other peopleAccuracy in perceiving others - not a single skill

Status of the person perceived

Social Perception contd..

• Org participants must realize that – their perceptions of another person – influenced by their own char & others char

Ex: 1. High self esteem (self perceived competence & self

image of people) mgr + pleasant person = mgr perceives favorably, positively

2. Low self esteem mgr + arrogant person = mgr perceives negative & unfavorable manner

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Halo Effect• Drawing a general impression

about an individual on the basis of a single positive trait

• Horns effect – person downgraded , single negative trait or incident

Stereotyping• Judging someone on the basis of

one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs

Attribution

• How people explain the cause of another’s or their own behavior – cognitive process

2 types • Dispositional – behavior is attributed to the

internal factors that characterize the person, such as personality traits, motivation & ability

• Situational – behavior is attributed to the external factors, equipment, m/c, social influence etc

Attribution contd…

Attribution Theory

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation

Consistency: responds in the same way over time

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation

Consistency: responds in the same way over time

When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused

When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused

Attribution contd…

• Harold Kelly – social psychologist – concerned mainly with cognitive processes - internally or externally caused

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Fundamental Attribution ErrorPeople tend to ignore powerful situational forces

when explaining others behavior & tend to attribute others behavior to personal factors (eg. Intelligence, ability, motivation, attitudes, personality), even when it is clear that the situation caused the person to behave the way he did

Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)

Self-Serving Bias

• The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors

Impression Management

• How people like to present themselves in a socially desirable way & impress others

2 Components • Impression Motivation• Impression Construction

Impression Motivation• The extent to which an individual is motivated

to manage his impression depends upon certain factors like,

• relevance of these impressions

Impression Management contd..

• the value of goals• The discrepancy b/w the image, the individual

would like to create of himself in others mind & the image he believes others already have about him

Impression Construction• Methods adopted by a person to create the

specific impression that he wants

Learning

Definition

• Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience – Stephen P. Robbins

• The process by which skills, knowledge, attitudes & behavior are formed & developed as a result of education, training, socialization & exp

The Theoretical Process

1. Behavioristic Theories – Classical & Operant – learning occurs as a consequence of behavior (S-R)

Classical Conditioning • Russian Psychologist – Ivan Pavlov

• A piece of meat to dog (unconditioned stimulus) – starts salivating (unconditioned response)

Behavioristic - Classical Conditioning

• Bell – no salivation – neutral

• Meat + Bell – repeat the process – salivation

• Only Bell (conditioned stimulus) – salivation (conditioned response)

Behavioristic - Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner – Operant chamber (Skinner Box) – (R-S)

• Box has a lever – by pressing – drops a piece of food

• Hungry rat placed in the box – search for food – accidentally press leaver – food drops – learn to press the lever to get food (trial & error)

2. Cognitive Theories• Edward Tolman – Theorist – cognitive learning –

relationship b/w cognitive environmental cues & expectation (S-S)

• Experiment is conducted on white rats – placed in maze – allowed to run – some points food – rats find food – learning took place (cue – expectation)

• Applied to Industrial Training – org procedure, supervisory – rewards, incentives

Social Learning Theory

• Combination of behaviorist & cognitive concepts

1. Modeling Process – Albert Bandura • Through observation – mental picture of an

act – by some one

• Then enacts the acquired image

• If consequences turn out to be positive – repeated or else discontinued

Social Learning Theory

2. Self Efficacy – the self perceptions of how well a person can cope with situations as they arise

• People with high self efficacy – cope with situations as they arise

Personality & Attitudes

Definition

Sum total of ways in which an individual interacts with people & reacts to situations

Refers to a set of unique characteristics that make an individual different from others

How people affect others & how they understand & view themselves, as well as their pattern of inner & outer measurable traits & the person situation interaction

Introduction Role of Heredity & the Brain – Research by

American psychological association – complex

Self Esteem – recent study proves that, person with high self esteem - +ve attitude, life satisfaction, less anxiety

Person-situation interaction - This enhances the understanding of human personality

Personality Traits - The Big Five Model

• Extraversion• Extent to which person is

comfortable with other people

• People with high degree of extraversion – Extroverts

• People with low degree of extraversion – Introverts

Personality Traits Contd…

• Agreeableness

Extent to which a person subjugate his interests for the sake of the group

Personality Traits

• Conscientiousness

• Extent to which a person is responsible & achievement oriented

• Emotional stability

• An individual’s ability to withstand stress

Personality Traits

• Openness to experience

An individual’s range of interests & indicate how innovative or how rigid he is in his beliefs

The self concept: Self Esteem & Self Efficacy

• Self – personality of an individual as viewed by that person himself

• Self Concept – efforts made by an individual to understand his own self

• Self esteem – self perceived competence & self image of people

The self concept: Self Esteem & Self Efficacy

• Self efficacy – person’s perception of his ability to cope with different situations as they arise

• Self esteem – generalized trait

• Self efficacy – situation specific

Personality Determinants

• Heredity – an individual’s personality is determined by the type of genes he inherits from his parents

Personality Determinants

• Environment – culture of the society, norms set by the parents, teachers, & other social groups with which the individual interacts

• Situation – Personality changes with the situation (partially)

Other personality attributes that influence OB

• Locus of Control - An individual’s perception of what controls his or her fate i.e. the degree to which people believe that they can control their fate or any situation

• Internals – they are masters of their fate – high satisfaction & commitment, Low absenteeism

• Externals – fate is controlled by luck – Dissatisfied with their wk, low commitment, absenteeism

Other personality attributes that influence OB contd..

• The concept was named after Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 - 1527), who wrote Il Principe (The Prince)

• Niccolò Machiavelli - Italian diplomat, political philosopher, musician, poet and playwright

• use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain

Other personality attributes that influence OB contd..

• Machiavellianism (Mach) – the degree, to which an individual is practical in his approach, maintains an emotional distance from others, & believes that ends justify the means

Do the Machiavellians make good e/e?• High Mach person – perform well in

situations that involve face-to-face meetings, productive in jobs require use of bargaining skills, rewards for the achievement of goals

Other personality attributes that influence OB Contd…

• Self-Monitoring – ability of an individual to adapt his behavior to the demands of the situation

• Risk Taking – extent to which an individual is prepared to take risk

Other personality attributes that influence OB Contd…

• Type A personality – ambitious & achievement oriented

• Type B personality – not achievement oriented, do not take too much responsibility with in a short span of time

Levinson’s Theory of adult Life stages

4 periods of stability• 1. 22-25 – individual steps in to the adult

stage

• 2. 33-40 – individual is in the process of settling down

• 3. 45-50 – enters the middle adulthood

• 4. 55-60 – old age

Levinson’s Theory of adult Life stages contd…

4 transition period

• 1. Age 30 transitions – b/w 28 & 33

• 2. Mid-life transitions – b/w 40 & 45

• 3. Age 50 transitions – b/w 50 & 55

• 4. Late adult transition – b/w 60 & 65

Hall’s Career Stage Model

• Individual passes through 4 stages during his career

• Exploration – seeks an identity for himself

• Establishment – e/e tries to settle down in his job

Hall’s Career Stage Modelcontd…

• Maintenance – productivity of an e/e reaches peak

• Decline – productivity of a person starts declining

Chris Argyris Immaturity to Maturity theory

• The degree of development of individual’s personality – explained in 7 dimensions i.e. immaturity (Infancy) to maturity (adulthood)

Chris Argyris Immaturity to Maturity theory

The socialization Process

• Through which an individual’s personality is influenced by his interaction with certain persons, groups & society

• Edgar Schein – individual wking in an org – contribute to socialization

The socialization Process contd..

• Socialization techniques differ from org to org

• Helps in reducing role conflict & increasing job satisfaction

Socialization - Characteristics

# Change in the attitude, values & behavior

# Continues for a period of time

# Helps the new e/e to adjust

Matching Personalities with jobs

• John Holland – personality job fit theory

• Relationship b/w personality characteristics & job requirements

• The job satisfaction of an individual & his tendency to quit a job are determined by the extent to which his personality matches with the environment & requirement of the job

Personality job fit theory

OtherPersonality Theories

Type Theories Structure of the body – Sheldon Kretschmer• Ectomorph -- thin, frail body; believed by Sheldon to reveal a

shy, restrained, and introspective temperament

Psychological Characteristics Self-conscious Private Introverted Socially anxious Artistic Intense Emotionally restrained Thoughtful

Type Theories contd..

• Mesomorph -- muscular, strong body; believed to display a bold, assertive, and energetic temperament

Psychological Characteristics

Adventurous

Courageous

Indifferent to what others think or want

Assertive/bold

Competitive

With a desire for power/dominance

Type Theories contd..

• Endomorph – short, large, soft body; believed to display a relaxed, sociable and easygoing temperament

Psychological Characteristics

Sociable

Fun-loving

Love of food

Tolerant

Even-tempered

Good humored, Relaxed

Type Theories contd..

Acc to Carl Jung,

• Introverts - People with low degree of extraversion

• Extroverts - People with high degree of extraversion

Trait Theory

• The big five Model

Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud

• Based on – man is motivated more by unseen forces & controlled by conscious & rational thought

• Clinical techniques were used to develop the theory – case studies of patients

• 3 aspects – id, ego, superego

– interrelated & artificially

separated for the study

Psychoanalytic Theory contd..

Id• Id is the most basic part and is present at birth

• functions with the pleasure principle - tends to be a little animalistic

• can be irrational and illogical

Psychoanalytic Theory contd..

• Psychic energy & seeks immediate satisfaction for needs (basic)

• Matured individual learns to control id

• It remains a driving force throughout life & an important source of thinking & behaving

Psychoanalytic Theory contd..

Ego -Your consciousness of your own identity• Conscious & logical part of the human personality –

associated with reality principle

• Ego keeps the id in check

• Conflicting situations arise, id seeks immediate satisfaction – ego controls

• To resolve conflict ego gets support from

the superego

Psychoanalytic Theory contd..

Superego• Represents social & personal norms – serves as an

ethical constraint on behavior

• Determine what is wrong or right

Levels of consciousness of Id, Ego, Superego

Super ego

Id

Ego Conscious

Unconscious

Social Learning Theory

• Based on the situation – human behavior is determined

• Mainly on behavior patterns & cognitive activities – what individual do in a particular situation

• Competencies• Cognitive strategies • Outcome expectation • Self regulatory systems & plans

The Humanistic Approach

Rogers Self Theory • Phenomenological – study of individual’s subjective

experience, feelings & his views of the world & self

2 concepts,• Self – ideas, perception, values that characterize I or

me (what I am, what I can do)• Self actualization – basic motivating force

representing the inherent tendency – to develop capabilities – to maintain person

The Humanistic Approach contd..

Maslow’s Self Actualization Theory

• Development of full individuality – with all parts of the personality

• Based on Existential Philosophy – man as an individual & each person alone is responsible for his own existence

AttitudesAttitudes

Definition

A tendency to feel & behave in a particular way towards objects, people or events

Characteristics

• Remain unchanged for a long period – unless influenced by external forces

• Evaluative statements – favorable or unfavorable

Components of attitudes

• Cognitive – the opinions, values or beliefs of an individual

• Affective – the feelings of a person towards something

• Behavioral – the intention of a person to behave in a particular way

The ABC Model…

Managerial styleTechnologyNoisePeersReward s/mCareer opportunities

Beliefs & Values

Feelings & Emotions

Intended Behavior

Stimuli

Cognition

Affect

Behavior

Sources of Attitude

Attitudes are acquired by parents, teachers, & peer group members

• Individuals are willing to modify their behavior & shape their attitude – to match with the opinion leader

• Attitude can be changed by providing feedback

Types of Attitude1. Job satisfaction

• the pleasurable or positive emotional state that results when an individual evaluates his job or job experience

Dimensions

• JS is an emotional response to a job

• JS that an individual derives from his job depends on the extent to which outcomes meet his expectations

Dimensions contd…

• JS reflects other attitudes of e/e’s

6 dimensions – P.C. Smith, L.M Kendall, C.L. Hulin

• The work, the pay, promotion, opportunity, supervision, co-worker, working conditions

Types of Attitude contd…

2. Job Involvement

The extent to which person identifies himself psychologically with his job, actively participates in it & considers that his performance in the job contribute to his self worth

Types of Attitude contd…3. Organizational Commitment

An e/e’s satisfaction with a particular organization & its goals

OC is affected by a number of,

• Personal variables – e/e’s age, attitude towards job

• Organizational variables – job design, leadership style of the superior

Organizational commitment contd..

John P. Meyer & Natalie J. Allen – 3 component model

• Affective commitment – concerned with e/e emotional attachment & involvement with the org

• Continuance commitment – influenced by the costs that could accrue to the e/e if he leaves the org

• Normative commitment – refers to the extent to which an e/e feels obliged to continue in the org

Functions of Attitudes

1. The adjustment function• People modify their attitudes to adjust

to their work environment

• When fair treatment is given – positive attitude

• When treatment is not good – negative attitude

Functions of Attitudes contd…

2. Ego-defensive function• Attitudes help e/e to defend their self

image – when mistake identified – protects their ego

3. The value expressive function• Values can be expressed through

attitudese.g. if mgr wants e/e to wk hard – may tell comp has a tradition of hard

wk

Functions of Attitudes contd…

4. The knowledge function

• Attitudes act as a standard of reference which allows people to understand & explain their environment

e.g. union leaders attitude towards mgt – based on past

Attitudes & Consistency

• People may change their attitude – do not contradict their action

• If any discrepancy arises, individuals will try to bridge the discrepancy by developing a rational explanation for the discrepancy

Cognitive Dissonance Theory – Leon Festinger (1950s,)

Incompatibility that an individual may perceive b/w 2 or more of his attitudes or b/w his behavior or attitude – Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance Theory contd…

Emotional Dissonance – conflict b/w the emotions an individual experiences & emotions he needs to express

Cognitive Dissonance Theory contd…

An individual can deal with dissonance either by,

• Sticking to his attitude

• Give up his attitude

• Change the attitude