Industrial Buildings.pdf

8/11/2019 Industrial Buildings.pdf

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ANNEX 4-A

Best Practice

INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS


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Best practice - Industrial buildings

EURO-BUILD IN STEEL - 1 -


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Contents1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................4

2 FORMS AND TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS ...............................................4

3 SUPPORT STRUCTURES ...................................................................................................7

3.1 PORTAL FRAMES.................................................................................................................7

3.1.1 General issues..............................................................................................................7

3.1.2 Structural behaviour.................................................................................................123.1.3 Types of steel portal frames .....................................................................................14 3.1.4 Overall building form...............................................................................................18

3.1.5 Purl ins.........................................................................................................................20

4 CONCEPT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS....................................................................22

4.1 GENERAL ISSUES..............................................................................................................22

4.2 COMPARTMENTATION AND MIXED USE .........................................................................24

4.3 SERVICE INTEGRATION....................................................................................................25

4.4 ILLUMINATION..................................................................................................................26

5 LOADING ...............................................................................................................................28

5.1 GENERAL ISSUES..............................................................................................................28

5.2 VERTICAL LOADS.............................................................................................................28

5.2.1 Dead loads..................................................................................................................285.2.2 Service loads..............................................................................................................29 5.2.3 Imposed roof loads....................................................................................................29

5.3 HORIZONTAL LOADS........................................................................................................29

5.3.1 Wind loads..................................................................................................................295.3.2 Imperfections..............................................................................................................30

5.3.3 Other horizontal loads.............................................................................................30

6 CONNECTIONS....................................................................................................................31

7 BUILDING ENVELOPE.....................................................................................................32

7.1 BUILDING PHYSICS ..........................................................................................................32

7.1.1 Thermal protection....................................................................................................32

7.1.2 Moisture protection ...................................................................................................337.1.3 Sound insulation........................................................................................................33

7.2 ROOF DESIGN....................................................................................................................33

7.2.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting.............................................................................33

7.2.2 Double-skin system ...................................................................................................34

7.2.3 Standing seam sheeting............................................................................................35

7.2.4 Composite or sandwich panels...............................................................................35

7.2.5 Fastening elements....................................................................................................37

7.3 DESIGN OF WALLS............................................................................................................38

7.3.1 General issues............................................................................................................38

7.3.2 Sandwich panels........................................................................................................40

7.3.3 Fire design of walls...................................................................................................41

7.3.4 Other types of facades..............................................................................................41

7.4 FLOORS..............................................................................................................................43

8 OTHER EUROPEAN PRACTICES ................................................................................43

8.1 CURRENT PRACTICE IN GERMANY ................................................................................43

8.1.1 Structure......................................................................................................................438.1.2 Building envelope......................................................................................................448.1.3 Non-structural requirements ...................................................................................45

8.2 CURRENT PRACTICE IN SWEDEN....................................................................................46

8.2.1 A typical Swedish hall ..............................................................................................468.2.2 Roofing & Cladding..................................................................................................48

8.2.3 Impact of Regulations on thermal insulation .......................................................52

8.3 CURRENT PRACTICE IN U.K. ..........................................................................................53


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8.3.1 General issues............................................................................................................538.3.2 Selection of steel for UK single storey industrial buildings...............................54 8.3.3 DESIGN ISSUES .......................................................................................................55

8.3.4 SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDLING TRENDS IN THE UK.................59

REFERENCES & LITERATUR E .............................................................................................61


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1 INTRODUCTION

In our industrial heritage halls are very common and present in nearly everybusiness park. The urbanistic and architectural quality is influenced bymany factors, i.e. the development plan, the heterogeneity of usages, up to

the quality of the single building. Steel is offering numerous possibilities inorder to fulfil the task of pleasant design with unrestricted functionality.

In most cases an industrial hall is no solitary structure. If office andadministration units, garages as well as adjoining rooms and canopies arenot designed uniformly with the hall itself, they can influence the clearconstruction of the hall. However, good examples show that these elementscan be designed in such a way, that they fit the hall construction.

For industrial halls the economy of the structure plays a decisive role. Withincreasing spans it becomes more important to design in an optimised wayand to minimise the use of materials, costs and assembly effort.

Industrial buildings use steel framed structures and metallic cladding of alltypes. Large open spaces can be created, which are efficient, easy tomaintain, and are adaptable as demand changes. Industrial buildings are acore market for steel. However, the use of steel in this type of constructionvaries in each European country. Competition with other materials hasbecome tougher, which means that steel has to defend its position oneconomic grounds, as well as other aspects such as fire and architecturalquality.

In the general part this publication describes the common forms ofindustrial buildings that may be designed and their range of application inEurope. Regional differences may exist depending on practice, regulationsand capabilities of the supply chain. These exceptions and differences canbe found in the specific regional parts.

2 FORMS AND TYPES OF INDUSTRIALBUILDINGS

Industrial buildings are generally designed as enclosures that providefunctional space for the internal activities, which may involve use ofoverhead cranes or suspended equipment as well as additional officespace or mezzanine floors.

Various structural forms have been developed over the last 30 years, whichoptimise on the cost of the steel structure in relation to the space that isprovided. However, in recent years, forms of expressive structure havebeen used in architectural applications of industrial buildings, notablysuspended and tubular structures.

The construction and appearance of an industrial hall allows the consultantengineers great latitude in configuration in order to realise the architecturalideas besides the functional requirements. In the standard case anindustrial hall has a rectangular floor space with longish orientation. The


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design of the hall can be carried out variably, coordinated with functionalrequirements and the illumination concept.

The following forms of industrial halls represent only an overview of thepossible architectural and constructional solutions. In recent years forexhibition halls, railway stations, airports and sports arenas many projectshave been realised, spanning almost any ground plans. Those kinds of

objects are almost always special structures. The following general issuesare restricted to standard ground plans.

In Figure 2.1 different structures consisting of beam and columns are

presented. If no purlins and bracings in both directions are used diaphragmaction of the roofing is required in order to provide stability for horizontalloads.

Figure 2.1 Column and beam structures

Figure 2.2 Portal frames


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Figure 2.2 shows portal frames with fixed (a) or hinged (b) column bases.For examples (c) and (d) with structures lying partly outside the building,the details concerning the piercing of the envelope have to regardedespecially.

Besides the shapes with cubic or prismatic appearance arch structuresoffer advantageous load-carrying behaviour as well as a pleasant visualappearance. In Figure 2.3 (a) for example a hall with a three-hinged arch

reaching to the ground is shown. Alternatively, the arch structure can beelevated on common columns or integrated in a truss structure, as inFigure 2.3 (d).

The forms of halls with primary and secondary structural elementsdescribed above are all directional structures, for which the loads arecarried on defined loading paths. Spatial structures and space trusses arenon-directional structures. Figure 2.4 shows some examples.

Figure 2.3 Arch structures

Figure 2.4 Spatial structures


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3 SUPPORT STRUCTURES

3.1 Portal frames

3.1.1 General issues

Steel portal frames are widely used in the most of the European countriesbecause they provide structural efficiency with functional application.Various configurations of portal frames can be designed using the samestructural concept as in Figure 3.1.

8

8 m 9 m 8 m

6

25 - 40 m

6

25 m

8

40 m

6

6

6

6

10

3

3.5 m

10 m

3.5 m

6

(a) Portal frame - medium span

(c) Portal frame with mezzanine floor

(e) Two bay portal frame

(f) Portal frame with integral office

(g) Mansard portal frame

6

25 - 30 m

8

25 m

6

(b) Curved portal frame

(d) Portal frame with overhead crane

Figure 3.1 Various forms of portal frame


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In addition to the primary structure a wide range of secondary componentshas also been developed, such as cold formed steel purlins, which alsoprovide for stability of the framework (see Figure 3.2).

These simple structural systems can also be designed to be architecturallymore interesting by use of curved members, cellular or perforated beamsetc. (see Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4). Innovative structural systems have

also been developed in which moment resisting connections are replacedby articulations and ties, as in Figure 3.5. Multi-bay frames can also bedesigned, as in Figure 3.1 (e) and (f), either using single or pairs of internal

columns.

Figure 3.2 Typical portal frame and secondary components

Figure 3.3 Cellular beam used in portal frames


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Long span industrial buildings can be designed with lattice trusses, using C,H or O sections. Various configurations of lattice trusses are illustrated inFigure 3.6. The two generic forms are W or N-bracing arrangements. In this

Figure 3.4 Curved beam used in portal frame

Figure 3.5 Innovative moment-resisting connections in an industrialbuilding


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case, stability is generally provided by bracing rather than rigid frame action(see Figure 3.7). However, columns can also be constructed in a similarway, as illustrated in Figure 3.8, in order to provide in-plane stability.

25 m

8

1.5

6

25 m

8

1.5

25 m

8

1.5

(b) Lattice girder N form(a) Lattice girder - W form

25 m

8

1.5

(d) Articulated lattice girder

25 m

8

(e) Curved lattice girder

2.5

20 m

1.0

(f) Curved lattice truss and canopy

6

20 m

(g) Articulated bow-string

2.5

(h) Mono-pitch lattice girder with canopy

20 m

1.0

6

6

(c) Duo-pitch lattice girder

2.5

8

1.0

Figure 3.6 Various forms of lattice truss used in industrial buildings


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Suspended structures can be designed by extending columns outside thebuilding envelope, as illustrated in Figure 3.9. Suspended structures

achieve longer spans, although the suspension cables or rods also extendoutside the building envelope, and can be obstructive to the use of theexternal space.

Figure 3.7 Lattice truss using tubular members

Figure 3.8 Lattice frame using lattice columns


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3.1.2 Structural behaviour

Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns andhorizontal or sloping rafters, connected by moment-resisting connections(see Figure 3.1).

Portal frames with hinged column bases are generally preferred as theylead to smaller foundation sizes in comparison to fixed bases. Furthermore

fixed columns require more expensive connection details and therefore arepredominately used only if large horizontal forces have to be considered.Yet hinged columns have the disadvantage of a higher steel consumption.The plastic reserve of the structural system is not as distinctive andreduced stiffness is provided.

The eaves regions are often stiffened by a suitable haunch or deepening ofthe rafter sections in order to make the material usage more efficient. Thisform of rigid frame structure is stable in its plane and provides a clear spanthat is unobstructed by bracing. Stability is provided by rigid frame actionprovided by continuity at the connections in the form of haunches.

Out-of-plane stability in most cases has to be provided by additional

structural parts. Panels providing shear stiffness, cores as well as fixedcolumns provide sufficient stiffening. Rigid panels can be realised bymassive elements or bracings. Also steel profile sheeting used indiaphragm action is able to realise sufficient out-of-plane stability. Somepossible solutions for stiffening of the portal frame are shown inFigure 3.10.

Figure 3.9 Suspended structure used at the Renault Factory, Swindon,UK


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A number of types of structure can be classified broadly as portal frames.The information given with regard to spans, roof pitch, etc. is typical of the

forms of construction that are illustrated.

Steel sections used in portal frame structures with spans of 12 m to 30 mare usually hot-rolled sections and are specified in grades S235, S275 orS355 steel. Use of high-strength steel is rarely economic in structureswhere serviceability (i.e. deflection) criteria or stability checks may controlthe design.

Sections should be at least Class 2 at highly stressed points. If plastichinge analysis is used, Class 1sections have to be provided. The effect ofaxial load on the classification of members should be considered. However,in many members, the axial force is so small compared with the bendingmoment that the classification is not affected.

Figure 3.10 Out-of-plane stiffening of a portal frame structure


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3.1.3 Types of steel portal frames

Pitched roof portal frame

A single-span symmetrical portal frame (see Figure 3.1) has typically:

A span between 15 m and 50 m (25 to 35 m is the most efficient)

An eaves height between 5 and 10 m (5 to 6 m is the most efficient)

A roof pitch between 5 and 10 (6 is commonly adopted)

A frame spacing between 5 m and 8m (the greater spacings beingassociated with the longer span portal frames)

Haunches in the rafters at the eaves and if necessary at the apex.

The use of haunches at the eaves and apex both reduces the requireddepth of rafter and achieves an efficient moment connection at thesepoints. Often the haunch is cut from the same size of section as the rafter.

Portal frame with a mezzanine floor

Office accommodation is often provided within a portal frame structureusing a mezzanine floor (see Figure 3.12), which may be partial or full

width. It can be designed to stabilise the frame, but often the internal floorrequires additional fire protection.

Eaves

Eaves haunch

ApexRafter

Column

Apex haunch

Roof pitch

Figure 3.11 Single-span symmetric portal frame

Mezzanine

Figure 3.12 Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor


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Portal frame with external mezzanine

Offices may be located externally to the portal frame which creates anasymmetric portal structure (as in Figure 3.13). The main advantage of thisframework is that large columns and haunches do not obstruct the officespace. Generally, this additional structure depends on the portal frame for

its stability.

Crane portal frame with column brackets

Cranes, if functionally needed, have an essential influence on the designand the dimensions of portal frames. They provide additional vertical loadsas well as considerable horizontal forces, which may influence calculation.

Where the crane is of relatively low capacity (up to say 20 tonnes), bracketscan be fixed to the columns to support the crane (see Figure 3.14). Use of

a tie member or fixed column bases may be necessary to reduce the eavesdeflection. The outward movement of the frame at crane rail level may be ofcritical importance to the functioning of the crane.

For heavy cranes it is appropriate to support the crane rails on additionalcolumns, which may be tied to the frame column by a bracing due toinstability problems.

Mezzanine

Figure 3.13 Portal frame with external mezzanine

Columnbracket

Figure 3.14 Crane portal frame with column brackets


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Propped portal frame

Where the span of a portal frame is greater than say 30 m, and there is noneed to provide a clear span, a propped portal frame (see Figure 3.15) can

reduce the rafter size and also the horizontal thrust at the base, givingeconomies in both steelwork and foundation costs.

This type of frame is sometimes referred to as a single span proppedportal, but acts as a two-span portal frame in terms of structural behaviour.

Tied portal frame

In a tied portal frame (see Figure 3.16), the horizontal movement of the

eaves and the moments in the columns are reduced, but the availableheadroom is also reduced. For roof slopes of less than 15

o, large forces will

develop in the rafters and the tie.

*

Clear internalheight

Possible location

of out of plane restraint

Prop

Figure 3.15 Propped portal frame

Tie

Hangers may berequired on long spans

Figure 3.16 Tied portal frame


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Mansard portal frame

A mansard portal frame consists of a series of rafters and haunches (as inFigure 3.17). It may be used where a large clear span is required but the

eaves height of the building has to be minimised. A tied mansard may be

economic solution where there is a need to restrict eaves spread.

Curved rafter portal frame

Curved rafter portals (see Figure 3.18 and Figure 3.4) are often used for

architectural applications. The rafter can be curved to a radius by coldbending, but for spans greater than 16 m, splices may be required in therafter because of limitations of transport. These splices should be carefullydetailed for architectural reasons.

Alternatively, where the roof must be curved but the frame need not becurved, the rafter can be fabricated as a series of straight elements.

Figure 3.17 Mansard portal frame

Figure 3.18 Curved rafter portal frame


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Cellular portal frame

Cellular beams may be used in portal frames (see Figure 3.19 andFigure 3.3), which commonly have curved rafters. Where splices are

required in the rafter for transport, these should be carefully detailed topreserve the architectural features for this form of construction.

Gable wall frames

Gable wall frames are located at the ends of the building and may compriseposts and simply-supported rafters rather than a full-span portal frame (seeFigure 3.20). If the building is to be extended later, a portal frame of the

same size as the internal frames is preferred. In cases, in which the stabilityof the gable wall is not provided by a portal frame bracings or rigid panelsare needed additionally, see also Figure 3.10.

3.1.4 Overall building form

A typical steel portal frame structure with its secondary components is

shown in Figure 3.21.

A portal frame is stable in its own plane, but it requires bracing out of itsplane. This is generally achieved by bracing (generally tubular members) inthe plane of roof between the outer frames. Purlins and side rails supportthe roof and wall cladding, and stabilise the steel framework against lateralbuckling. Doors are often incorporated in the end gables.

The installation process of the primary structure and secondary members,such as purlins, is generally carried out using mobile cranes, as illustrated

Figure 3.19 Cellular beam portal frame

Industrial door

Gablebracing

Personnel door

Finishedfloor level

Figure 3.20Gable frame to a portal frame structure


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in Figure 3.22. The spacing between the purlins is reduced in zones ofhigher wind and snow load, and where stability of the rafter is required, e.g.close to the eaves and valley.

1

2

43

FFLDado wall

Eaves haunch

Cold rolledeaves beam

Foundation

Base plate

Positions of restraint to inner flange ofcolumn and rafter

5

Apex haunch

Column

Rafter

Tie rod (optional butnot common)

Purlins

Siderails

(a) Cross-section showing the portal frame and its restraints

Coldrolledpurlins

Planbracing

Eaves beamstrut

Sag bars ifnecessary

Cold rolledeaves beam

(b) Roof steelwork plan

Sag rod Side railsSide wall bracing

Diagonal ties

(c) Side elevation

Figure 3.21 Overview of structural components in a portal frame structure


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3.1.5 Purlins

Purlins have to bear the loads from the roofing to the primary structuralelements, i.e. rafters of the portal frames. Furthermore they can act ascompression member in bracings. For frame spacing up to 7.0 m it can beeconomic to span the profile sheeting between the rafters directly withoutthe use of purlins. Larger frame spacing reduces the number of primarystructural elements and foundations but requires the use of purlins. Inindustrial buildings hot-rolled I-sections as well as cold-formed profiles withZ-, C-, U- or custom made shape are used, see Figure 3.23.

If cold-formed purlins are used, usually the grid is narrower at intervals ofapprox. 1.5 m to 2.5 m. Another aspect, which has to be considered, is that

cold-formed sections provide only limited restraint against lateral torsionalbuckling of the rafter. Often manufacturers provide approved solutions forthe connections to the rafter section using pre-fabricated custom steelplates, see Figure 3.24.

Figure 3.22 Installation process for a modern portal frame

Figure 3.23 Cold-formed sections typically used for purlins


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Figure 3.24 Possible solutions for purlin-rafter connection


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4 CONCEPT DESIGNCONSIDERATIONS

4.1 General issuesBefore the detailed design of the industrial building can begin it isnecessary that a concept is developed for the building. Manyconsiderations have to be taken into account. These include addressing thefollowing:

Space optimization

Speed of construction

Access and security

Flexibility of use and space

Environmental performance

Standardization of components

Specialist infrastructure of supply

Services integration

Landscaping

Aesthetics and visual impact

Thermal performance and air-tightness

Acoustic isolation

Weather-tightness

Design life Sustainability considerations

End of life and re-use

In the first instance, it is necessary to identify the size of the hall based onits required plan area. It is then necessary to develop a structural scheme,which will provide this functional space taking into account all the aboveconsiderations. The importance of each of these considerations will bedependent on the type of industrial building. For example, the requirementsfor a distribution centre will be different to a manufacturing unit. To enablean effective concept design to be developed, it is necessary to review theseconsiderations based on the importance of each individual considerationbased on the type of industrial building that is to be developed. Table 4.1below presents a matrix which relates the importance of each considerationto particular types of industrial buildings. Note that this matrix is onlyindicative as each project will be different and hence relative importancemay be changed. It is provided only as a general aid.


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Bestpractice-Industrialbuildings

EURO

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Ta

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Important

designfactorsforindustrialbuildings

Considerationsfor

conceptdesign

Typeofsingle

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industrialbuildings

Spaceoptimization

Speedofconstruction

AccessandSecurity

Flexibilityofuseandspace

Environmentalperformance

Standardizationofcomponents

Specialistinfrastructure

Sustainability

Endoflifeandreuse

Servicesintegration

Landscaping

Aestheticsandvisualimpact

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tightness

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Weathertightness

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EURO BUILD IN STEEL - 24 -

4.2 Compartmentation and mixed useNowadays larger industrial buildings are more and more often designed formixed use, i.e. in most cases integrated office space and / or staff rooms forthe employees. There are different possible locations for these additionalcompartments, see Figure 4.1:

For single storey industrial halls inside the building, separated byinternal walls being possibly two storeys high

In an external building being directly connected to the hall itself

For two-storey buildings at least partially on the top floor

Independent from the location of the office compartment, this leads to

special concept design requirements concerning the support structure andthe building physics.

If the additional area is situated on the upper storey of the industrial hall,the consultant designer may design the support as a separate structurebeing enveloped in the global structure of the hall. In this case floorsystems from commercial buildings can be used, often based on compositestructures, e.g. slimfloor, integrated floor beams, etc. Another possiblesolution is to attach the office compartment at least partially to the globalstructure by using tension elements, which requires some particularattention on the stabilisation of the attached part.

Another important topic to be regarded is the building physics behaviour of

the whole building. Some particular attention has to be spent on Fire-protection: Because office accommodation is designed for the

sheltering of a larger number of people, stricter requirements on fire-safety are demanded by the authorities. If the offices are located onthe top floor of the building additional escape routes and, if required,active fire fighting measures have to be considered. Additionally fire-spread has to be prevented from one compartment to another. Apossible solution to provide an adequate separation between theproduction compartment at the ground level and the offices in the topstorey is to use a composite structure for the slab above ground. Also

Figure 4.1 Possible locations of office accomodation


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two separate structures, one for the slab and one enveloping thewhole building, are adequate solutions.

Thermal insulation: As for fire-safety in many cases officecompartments have higher requirements on thermal insulation. Innumerous industrial buildings for storage purposes of non-sensitivegoods no thermal insulation is provided because of only low demands

on this topic. But if working places in office compartments areintended, a certain level of comfort is needed, which makes thermalinsulation necessary. Therefore the interfaces between the cold andthe warm compartment have to be carefully designed in order toprovide adequate solutions.

Acoustic performance: Especially in industrial buildings, where oftennoise-intensive production processes are performed, a strictseparation between the production unit and the calm workspaces hasto be realised. This requires sophisticated solutions to provide at leastan adequate level of noise protection in the working areas.

For large industrial buildings compartmentation may play an important rolein the design even if there is no internal office space. In order to prevent fire

spread from one compartment to another the compartment size is limited toa certain value. This measure should prevent that the entire building willcatch fire and additional fire load is activated. Therefore fire walls have tobe provided for separation with a requirement of at least 90 minutes fireresistance. This is even more important if hazardous goods are stored inthe industrial hall.

4.3 Service integration

Often for industrial buildings special requirements on building services aredefined, because in industrial companies special services have to beconsidered for the operation of machines and manufacturing units.

The service integration should be taken into account in the early planningstages in order to prevent disturbances with the appearance of the building.Following this issue the arrangements of ducts has to be coordinated withthe structure and natural illumination. The use of separated structures, likecellular beams, trusses, etc, can provide a modern integration of servicesproviding coherent appearance of the building.

Besides the arrangement of ducts the design of the servicing rooms is ofmajor importance. Centralisation of the technical services offers theadvantage of easy maintenance. Figure 4.2 shows different possible

solutions of the positioning of the service rooms.

Nowadays air-conditioning systems are usually installed in industrial

buildings. They require large ducts and connected aggregates, like fans,filters, heating- and cooling-units, are of large volume as well.


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In many cases natural ventilation is sufficient for industrial buildings. Withincreasing size of the building it becomes more difficult to renew the usedair and to conduct the heat out of the hall. Independent from the buildingheight, a width of approx. 15 m is the limit for window ventilation.

The required air exchange can be supported by openings in the roof.Accurate arrangements of ventilation openings can make natural ventilation

possible even in bigger halls. Furthermore, the following issues have to betaken into consideration:

Elements for sun protection possibly constrain the air exchange.

Possible sound- and smell inconveniences.

Humidity of the external space cannot be influenced.

Besides losses of comfort due to draught, heating loss isdisadvantageous.

4.4 Illumination

Requirements on the illumination of industrial buildings depend on the type

of use. Even if not explicitly demanded for working places it is preferable toprovide natural illumination due to the physiological wellness of theemployees.

The concept and the arrangement of openings to provide naturalillumination permit diversity in architectural design, which has to be takeninto account in the design of the structure also. In the roof domelights, shedconstructions and gabled glazed roofs are common, whereas in thefacades particular openings or vertical or horizontal light-bands are usualsolutions. At the same time openings for natural illumination can function assmoke and heat outlets in case of fire.

Figure 4.2 Possible arrangements of the servicing rooms


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The illumination of industrial buildings is very different. The achievableintensity of light of windows or light-bands in the facades depends on thedistance to the external walls. By using openings in the roof a more uniformillumination is possible, see Figure 4.3

Figure 4.3 Examples for the intensity of light of different illuminationconcept, [3]


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5 LOADING

5.1 General issuesThe loads and load combinations described in this section should be

considered in the design of a steel portal frame. Imposed, wind, and snowloads are given in Eurocodes EN 1991-1 and -3 and -4. Table 5.1 shows

the relevant actions and structural components.

Table 5.1 Actions and relevant structural components

Nr. Action To apply on

1 Self-weight Roofing, purlins, frames, foundation

2 Snow Roofing, purlins, frames, foundation

3 Concentrated snow Roofing, purlins, (frames), foundation

4 Wind Walling, roofing, purlins, frames, foundation

5 Wind (increase on single elem.) Walling, roofing, purlins, fixings

5a Wind (peak undertow) Walling, roofing, purlins, (fixings)

6 Temperature Envelope, global structure

7 Attached loads Dep. on specificati on: roofing, purlins, frames

8 Crane loads Crane rails

9 Dynamic loads Global structure

10 Sway imperfections Wall bracings, columns

11 Bow imperfections Roof bracings, purlins, rafter

5.2 Vertical loads

5.2.1 Dead loadsWhere possible, unit weights of materials should be checked withmanufacturers data. The figures given in Table 5.1 may be taken as typical

of roofing materials used in the pre-design of a portal frame construction.The self weight of the steel frame is typically 0.2 to 0.4 kN/m

2, expressed

over the plan area.

Table 5.2 Typical weights of roofing materials

Material Weight (kN/m2)

Steel roof sheeting (single skin) 0.07 - 0.20

Aluminium roof sheeting (single skin) 0.04

Insulation (boards, per 25 mm thickness) 0.07

Insulation (glass fibre, per 100 mm thickness) 0.01

Liner trays (0.4 mm 0.7 mm thickness) 0.04-0.07

Composite panels (40 mm 100 mmthickness)

0.1 - 0.15

Purlins (distributed over the roof area) 0.03

Steel decking 0.2

Three layers of felt with chippings 0.29

Slates 0.4/0.5


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Tiling (clay or plain concrete) 0.6 - 0.8

Tiling (concrete interlocking) 0.5 - 0.8

Timber battens (including timber rafters) 0.1

5.2.2 Service loads

Loading due to services will vary greatly, depending on the use of thebuilding. In a portal frame structure, heavy point loads may occur from suchitems as suspended walkways, air handling units, and runway and liftingbeams.

The following loads may be used for pre-design:

Service loading over the whole of the roof area of between 0.1 and0.25 kN/m

2on plan depending on the use of the building, and whether

or not a sprinkler system is provided.

5.2.3 Imposed roof loads

EN 1991-1-1 and -3 define various types of imposed roof load:

A minimum load of 0.6 kN/m2(on plan) for roof slopes less than 30 isprovided, where no access other than for cleaning and maintenance.

A concentrated load of 0.9 kN - this will only affect sheeting design.

A uniformly distributed load due to snow over the complete roof area.The value of the load depends on the buildings location and heightabove sea level. If multi-bay portal frames with roof slopes are used theformation of concentrated snow loads at the low marks have to beinvestigated.

A non-uniform load caused by snow drifting across the roof due to windblowing across the ridge of the building and depositing more snow onthe leeward side. This is only considered for slopes greater than 15

and will not therefore apply to most portal frame structures.

5.3 Horizontal loads

5.3.1 Wind loads

Wind loading is established according to EN 1991-1-4. It rarely determinesthe size of members in low-rise single-span portal frames where theheight : span ratio is less than 1:4. Therefore, wind loading can usually beignored for preliminary design, unless the height : span ratio is large, or ifthe dynamic pressure is high. Combined wind and snow loading is oftencritical in this case.

However, in two-span and other multi-span portal frames, combined wind

and vertical load may often determine the sizes of the members, whenalternate internal columns are omitted. In addition to that the size of thewind-load can determine which type of calculation has to be provided. Iflarge horizontal deflections at the eaves occur in combination with highaxial loads, second order effects have to be considered in the calculationprocedure.

Wind uplift forces on cladding can be relatively high at the corner of thebuilding and at the eaves and ridge, and in these zones, it is necessary toreduce the spacing of the purlins and side-rails.


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5.3.2 Imperfections

Inner horizontal loads have to be considered due to geometrical andstructural imperfections. According to EN 1993-1-1 for frames sensitive tobuckling in a sway mode the effect of imperfections should be allowed foron frame analysis by means of an equivalent imperfection in the form of an

initial sway imperfection and / or individual bow imperfections of members.

5.3.3 Other horizontal loads

Depending on the object additional horizontal loads have to be applied dueto earth thrust, mass force due to cranes, thrusts, explosions and earthquakes.


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6 CONNECTIONS

The three major connections in a single bay portal frame are those at theeaves, the apex and the column base.

For the eaves connections mostly bolted connections are used withcontinuous columns combined with beams having end-plates as shown inFigure 6.1. In some case the column with the haunched span of the beam

is constructed as a whole and the section of the beam with constant heightis connected with a bolted joint.

In order to reduce manufacturing costs it is preferable to design the eavesconnection without stiffeners. If so, in some cases the effects of thereduced joint stiffness on the global structural behaviour have to beconsidered, i.e. effects on the internal forces distribution and the deflections

Figure 6.1 Typical eaves connections in a portal frame

Figure 6.2 Typical apex connections in a portal frame


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of the structure. EN 1993-1-8 provides a design procedure, which takesthese effects into account.

The apex connection is often designed similarly, see Figure 6.2. If the span

of the frame does not exceed transportation limits, the on-site apexconnection can be obsolete. The consulting engineer as well as thecontractor should also avoid the apex haunch if possible, because of the

increased fabrication costs.

The base of the frame column is often kept simple with larger tolerances inorder to facilitate the interface between the concrete and steel workers, e.g.see Figure 6.3. In most case it is carried out pinned to keep the dimension

of the foundation as small as possible. Only if comparatively largehorizontal loads affect the structure fixed root points are provided.

The detailed design of the connections is generally carried out by thesteelwork contractor. Sensibly proportioned haunches and columns canreduce the need for expensive stiffening.

7 BUILDING ENVELOPE

Because the building envelope encloses the structure completely in mostcases, it is decisive for the appearance of the hall.

7.1 Building physics7.1.1 Thermal protection

For industrial halls the floor space is relatively low compared to its volume.Hence, there are comparatively low requirements on thermal insulation ofthe building envelope. But nevertheless thermal insulation plays animportant role even in the industrial sector due to matters of comfort as wellas from the economic point of view with regard to the development of theenergy costs in recent years.

Figure 6.3 Typical examples of pinned column bases in a portal frame,[2]


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Especially for large sized panels thermal bridges and air-tightness of jointshave a major influence on the energy-balance of buildings. The thermalinsulation has to be laid without gaps. Furthermore all heat transferringembracing areas have to be sealed at longitudinal and transverse joints air-tightly.

7.1.2 Moisture protection

Thermal and moisture protection are linked closely, because damages dueto humidity are often the result of lacking or improperly installed thermalinsulation. In multi-skin roof or wall constructions humidity penetration hasto be prevented by installing a vapour barrier on the inner skin of thestructure. Walling constructions being vapour proof on both sides, likesandwich panels, prevent the vapour diffusion. Yet for this reason thehumidity in the hall has to be regulated by air conditioning measures.

7.1.3 Sound insulation

In all European countries minimum requirements exist on the soundinsulations of buildings. In addition to that in industrial buildings limit valuesfor the acoustic emissions have to be considered.

For single sound sources a local encapsulation is recommended, e.g. byusing elements made of composite sheets. In order to insulate a generalhigh level of sound impact sound-absorbing sidings of roof and wall areeffective. For multi-skin walling constructions nearly any required soundinsulation can be achieved by adjusting the respective acoustic operativemasses. Due to the complexity of this issue it is recommended to consultthe manufacturers in the design process.

7.2 Roof designThere are a number of proprietary types of cladding that may be used inindustrial buildings. These tend to fall into some broad categories, which

are described in the following sections.

7.2.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting

Single-skin sheeting is widely used in agricultural and industrial structureswhere no insulation is required. It can generally be used on roof slopesdown to 4o providing the laps and sealants are as recommended by themanufacturers for shallow slopes. The sheeting is fixed directly to thepurlins and side rails, and provides positive restraint (see Figure 7.1). In

some cases, insulation is suspended directly beneath the sheeting.

Generally steel sheetings are made of galvanised steel grades FeE 280 G,FeE 320 G or FeE 275 G. Due to the diversity of product forms no standarddimensions exist. The steel sheets are usually between 0.50 and 1.50 mmthick (including galvanisation).


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7.2.2 Double-skin system

These double skin or built-up roof systems usually use a steel liner tray thatis fastened to the purlins, followed by a spacing system (plastic ferrule andspacer or rail and bracket spacer), insulation, and the outer sheet. Becausethe connection between the outer and inner sheets may not be sufficientlystiff, the liner tray and fixings must be chosen so that they alone will providethe level of restraint to the purlins. Alternative forms of construction usingplastic ferule and Z or rail and bracket spacers are shown in Figure 7.2 andFigure 7.3.

As insulation depths have increased, there has been a move towards railand bracket solutions as they provide greater stability.

With adequate sealing of joints, the liner trays may be used to form anairtight boundary. Alternatively, an impermeable membrane on top of theliner tray should be provided.

Figure 7.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting

Figure 7.2 Double-skin construction using plastic ferrule and Z spacers


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Liner tray

Insulation

Sheeting

Rail

Bracket

Figure 7.3 Double-skin construction using rail and bracket spacers

7.2.3 Standing seam sheeting

Standing seam sheeting has concealed fixings and can be fixed in lengthsof up to 30 m. The advantages are that there are no penetrations directlythrough the sheeting that could lead to water leakage, and fixing is rapid.The fastenings are in the form of clips that hold the sheeting down but allowit to move longitudinally (see Figure 7.4). The disadvantage is significantly

less restraint is provided to the purlins than with a conventionally fixedsystem. Nevertheless, a correctly fixed liner tray will provide adequaterestraint.

7.2.4 Composite or sandwich panels

Composite or sandwich panels are formed by creating a foam insulationlayer between the outer and inner layer of sheeting. Composite panelshave good spanning capabilities due to composite action in bending. Bothstanding seam (see Figure 7.6) and direct fixing systems are available.

These will clearly provide widely differing levels of restraint to the purlins.

Figure 7.4 Standing seam panels with liner trays


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Sandwich elements for roofs generally have a width of 1000 mm withthicknesses between 70 and 110 mm, depending on the required insulationlevel and structural demands. Despite these relatively thick elements, theself-weights from 11 kg/m (40 mm thickness) to approx. 18 kg/m (200 mmthickness) are comparatively low. Thus the elements are easy to handleand assemble. Possible element lengths of up to 20 m for roofs and wallsallow constructions without or with only few joints. The basic material for the

outer layers is usually galvanised coated steel sheeting with thicknesses of0.40 to 1.00 mm.

The inner layers of sandwich panels are often lined or slotted, specialdesigns are available plane as well. Close-pitch flutings have also beenestablished, which are fully profiled, yet suggesting a plane surface fromcertain distance. Some types of patterns for sandwich panels are shown inFigure 7.5.

Composite or sandwich panels generally designed according to Figure 7.6

offer numerous advantages:

Pre-fabrication provides short construction time and cost-efficiency

Without secondary treatment they are accurate concerning buildingphysics

Mountable in nearly all weather conditions.

No sub-structure required due to high stiffness

Requirements for corrosion protection of sandwich or composite panels arethe same as for trapezoidal steel sheets. For foam insulation the followingsolutions have been developed:

PUR rigid foam

Mineral fibrous insulating material

Polystyrene (only in exceptions due to worse insulation behaviour)

The decking as well as the insulating foam are physiologically seenharmless, this means the handling during production and assembly as wellas the permanent use in the building. The core insulation is odourless,rottenness- and mould-resistant. Furthermore they offer good recyclingpossibilities.

Figure 7.5 Types of surfaces for sandwich panels


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One key issue which has to be taken into account for sandwich panels is

the temperature difference. The separation of the inner and outer shellleads to heating and therefore extension of the outer sheeting due to solarradiation. For single span panels this results in a flexion of the panel withoutinternal forces, which can influence the outer appearance of the envelope.For continuous panels constraint forces occur, which can lead to collapse ofthe panel. The darker the colour of the panel the higher the constraintforces. Therefore, for continuous panels checks including the loading casestemperature in summer and temperature in winter have to be performed,differentiating between the colour of the panel. On European level EN14509 in the process of developing, which regulates the structural designas well as the production and quality assurance of sandwich and compositepanels.

The manufacturers should be consulted for more information.

7.2.5 Fastening elements

The technique for joining parts covers the connections of the sheets to thesub-structure as well as the connection of the sheets among each other.For fastening of light-weight steel sheetings (self-tapping) screws, anchorsor rivets are used. For profile sheetings at least every second rib has to befixed to the sub-structure. If sheets are used for diaphragm action the jointshave to be designed following the shear flow.

For light-profiled sandwich elements the designer has to consider theinfluence of the number of fastening elements on the ultimate load of thepanel. Therefore the type and the number of fasting elements are part ofthe calculation of sandwich panels and have to be checked carefully.Figure 7.7 shows the different fastening elements depending on the

substructure.

Standingseam clip

Sheeting

Insulation

Figure 7.6 Composite or sandwich panels with clip fixings


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7.3 Design of walls


For the design of external walls for industrial halls numerous possiblesolutions exist and the most common are shown in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Possible designs of external walls in industrial buildings

Type

PropertiesGas concrete Masonry

Steel

sheeting (onelayer)

Steel-

Sandwich(insulated)

Steel sheets

(two layers,insulated)

Coffered

wall

Width 7001050Prof.-height 10-206Length up to

24000Plate-thickness0.63-1.5Sizes up to 22 m

Width 1000Thickn. 40 - 200Length up to 16000Plate-thickness0.55

Sizes up to 16 m

Width 700 1050Plate-thickness0.63-1.5Length up to

24000Insulation > 40Thickness 90-300Sizes up to 22 m

Formats&

Size All

dimensions

in mm

Width 500 - 750Thickn. 100 - 300Length up to 7500,dep. on producer

2 property classesGB 3.3 / GB 4.4Special profiles

Thickness 115mm

Numerousspecial profiles

For sandwich-elements length

more than 10m notrecommended

Height 400 -600Webs 40-150

Plate-thickness0.63-1.5Length upto 7500

Thermalinsulation k

[W/m]

150 mm k=0.90240 mm k=0.70

k = 3.0840 mm k=0.60120 mm k=0.20

40 mm k=0.87140 mm k=0.33

Fireprotection

>150mm F180-A>175mm Firewall

115mm = F90 InflammableHardly

combustibl eUp to W90 / F30 Up to F30

Building

physics

AcousticinsulationRw [dB]

36 dB 48 dB 44 dB+ 20 dB 25 dB Up to 25 dB Up to 46 dBUp to 46

dB

SurfacePorous, coatings

requiredrough Plane Plane Plane Plane

Impactresistance Suboptimal Very good Suboptimal Suboptimal Suboptimal Suboptimal

Cons

truc

tive

Self-weight 200mm=1.44kN/m 115mm=1.95kN/m 0.07-0.20 kN/m 0.1-0.16 kN/m 0.17-0.25 kN/m0.07-0.20

lN/m

Due to high-quality standards, short construction time and cost-efficiencycladding types made of steel sheetings, i.e. the last four columns of thetable above, are most commonly used. Generally wall cladding follows thesame generic types as roof cladding, and the main types are:

Sheeting, orientated vertically and supported on side rails

Figure 7.7 Range of application for fastening elements, [4]


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Sheeting or structural liner trays spanning horizontally between primaryframe

Composite or sandwich panels spanning horizontally between thecolumns, eliminating side rails

Metallic cassette supported by side rails

Different forms of cladding may be used together for visual effect in thesame facade. Some good examples are illustrated in Figure 7.8 toFigure 7.10. Brickwork is often used as a dado wall below window forimpact resistance as in Figure 7.9.

Figure 7.8 Horizontal spanning sheeting

Figure 7.9 Large window and composite panels with dado brick wall


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7.3.2 Sandwich panels

For walling constructions sandwich elements have widths of 600 to1200 mm with thicknesses of 40 to 120 mm, even 200 mm for elementsused in cold stores.

For a long time economic considerations pushed the use of composite andsandwich panels. But in order to achieve an aesthetical appearance of thebuilding, nowadays other issues are gaining importance:

Texture of the surface

Choice of colours

Design of joints

Type of fixation

In addition, from a modern construction system the client expectstechnically immaculate fixations and transitions in the attic section andbuildings corners. Besides standard elements with bolted-through fixations,which are still commonly used, in ambitious facade systems invisiblefixations have been established. These differentiate between hidden boltsand elements with additional clip fasteners; see Figure 7.6 and Figure 7.11.

With the one last-mentioned slight dents at the bolts due to improperassembly or temperature influence can be avoided.

For the completion of sandwich facades, special formed components forthe transitions between wall and roof are necessary. The manufacturershave developed special parts for recurrent details. Especially for premiumfacades manufacturers offer angled or rounded components for the attic orcorner sections, which can be integrated similar to modular designprinciple. These special components have to be of the same quality as theadjacent elements to avoid corrosion problems.

Figure 7.10 Horizontal spacing composite panels and long corridors


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7.3.3 Fire design of walls

Where buildings are close to a site boundary, the Building Regulationsrequire that the wall is designed to prevent spread of fire to adjacent

property. Fire tests have shown that a number of types of panel, canperform adequately, provided that they remain fixed to the structure.Further guidance should be sought from the manufacturers. Due to theconstruction used for the fire test specimens, it is considered necessary bysome manufacturers and local authorities to provide slotted holes in theside rail connections to allow for thermal expansion. In order to ensure thatthis does not compromise the stability of the column by removing therestraint under normal conditions, the slotted holes are fitted with washersmade from a material that will melt at high temperatures and allow the siderail to move relative to the column under fire conditions only (seeFigure 7.12).

7.3.4 Other types of facades

Not only steel sheeting is used for the facades of industrial buildings, glassas well found its way in the construction of production halls, seeFigure 7.13.

Figure 7.11 Examples for the construction of fixings for walls made ofsandwich panels, [4]

Slottedhole forexpansion

CleatSpliceplate

Cladding rail

Figure 7.12 Typical fire wall details showing slotted holes for expansion infire


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The use of this architectural high-quality faade does not produce highercosts automatically. In the example above building costs are reduced byusing hot-rolled sections for the structure as well as standardised faade-systems. By integrating solar gains into the thermal balance, maintenancecosts are also reduced significantly. The structures supporting the faadeand the detailing can be adopted from approved solutions from multi-storeybuildings, where these kinds of building envelopes are common practice.

Another modern way of designing industrial buildings in an architecturally

appealing way is the colouring of the faade. Whereas hitherto halls forindustrial usage are often designed either in metallic shade or single-coloured, in the meantime architects try to integrate the building in thesurrounding environment by using a suitable colour-concept, seeFigure 7.14. Compatible with this, the various sheeting manufacturers offer

steel sheetings in pleasing colours, often developed in cooperation withdesigners.

As an additional feature high-effective photovoltaic modules may beintegrated in the faade. Despite the fact that the angle to the sun is notoptimal, the systems photovoltaic modules can achieve high performancevalues due to multi-layer coating, which makes the solar cells lessdependent on the angle of incidence of the suns rays.

Figure 7.13 Example for an industrial building with glazed faade, (source:www.diemergmbh.de)


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7.4 Floors

In most cases the floors for industrial halls are driven on, so that they haveto bear particular high loads and have to be preferably plane. Decisive forthe design are the particular highly concentrated loads due to vehicles(fork-lift trucks 10-150 kN, trucks 10-40 kN, heavy trucks 50-100 kN),machines, racks and containers.

Therefore most industrial buildings have concrete floors with a minimumheight of approx. 15cm. It is based on a base layer consisting of gravelsand or gravel, which is at least 15cm thick as well. For huge areas a sheet

of drift between the base layer and the concrete is required, using mostlytwo layers of synthetic foil.

8 OTHER EUROPEAN PRACTICES

8.1 Current practice in Germany

8.1.1 Structure

As in most European countries in Germany the typical structure of industrialhalls in steel is the portal frame with pinned column bases. The span of thegirder varies from 12 m to 30 m when hot-rolled or welded I-sections are

used. The standard is between 15 m and 20 m. By using lattice girdersgreater spans than 30m are possible. If there are no restrictions from theusage multi-bay portal frames of hot-rolled I-sections are used with eachspan varying between 15 m and 20 m. Other primary load-bearingstructures, such as simply-supported beams on columns, arches, grids,shells, etc. play a rather subsidiary role and are used for more expressivebuildings.

Figure 7.14 Example for an industrial building using coloured facade madeof steel sheets with integrated solar panels, (source:www.reflectionsone.de), [1]


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The grid usually ranges between 5 m and 8 m, 10 m are possible. In normalcases the eaves height of the frame is about 4.5 m to 8 m if cranes have tobe provided.

The corners of portal frames made of IPE- or HE-sections are oftendesigned haunched, because the material usage is reduced to the highlystressed regions. Mostly, bolted connections are used with continuous

columns combined with beams having end-plates, as shown in Figure 6.1.In some cases the column with the haunched span of the beam is designedas one part and the section of the beam with constant height connectedwith a bolted joint. If the beam-span exceeds transportation limits another

joint at the apex of the frame is provided, mostly as a bolted connection aswell, see Figure 6.2.

Cold-formed as well as rolled purlins (see 3.1.5) and trapezoidal sheeting

spanning directly between the beams are used approximately to the sameextent. By using sheeting only the stiffening of the roof can be obtained bystressed skin diaphragm action of the profile sheeting.

The design is almost exclusively carried out by using elastic calculation of

the internal forces and moments and comparing these with either elastic orplastic resistances of the cross section. Current standard is DIN 18800,parts 1-5, which is almost identical with European standard EN 1993-1-1and only shows differences in details. For a detailed design procedureaccording to both standards mentioned above, see ANNEX 4-D of thisresearch project.

8.1.2 Building envelope

Roofing

The major part of the roofing in industrial halls in Germany is designed witha load-bearing shell of trapezoidal steel sheeting spanning between theportal frames or the purlins, if provided.

Currently the single-layer, upside insulated steel sheeting roof, as shown inFigure 8.1(a) is the most disseminated type of roofing in industrial halls in

Germany. For this type of roofing the slope should be not less than 2 inorder to ensure correct drainage. This type of roof is comparatively low incosts, but is sensible to mechanical damage of the sealing.

Roofing constructions with two layers, see Figure 8.1(b), gain more and

more importance because they are regarded easy to maintain combined

Figure 8.1 Common roofing systems in industrial halls in Germany usingtrapezoidal steel sheeting, [3]


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with longer useful life. Further advantages are a higher resistance againstenvironmental influences as well as the possibility to be involved in theconcepts for acoustic insulation and fire resistance. It can be mountednearly unaffected by weather conditions. Often the water-bearing shell isfixed to the load-bearing shell by a clamped joint with special slidingsystem, so that the water-bearing shell needs not to be penetrated.

External walls

For industrial halls in Germany diverse miscellaneous types of walls areused depending on the demands made by the building-physics behaviour,the use of the building as well as the surroundings, see Table 7.1

Due to lowered fire-protection requirements in the course of the Muster-Industriebau-Richtlinie systems of profiled, light-weight and large-sizedsandwich panels are gaining importance, see 7.3.2. These can be

mounted easily, fast and not affected by weather conditions and offer alsogood behaviour for thermal insulation.

8.1.3 Non-structural requirements

Thermal behaviourIn Germany the Energy Saving Act (ENEV 2002) differentiates betweenbuildings with normal internal temperature and buildings with low internaltemperature below 19C, which can very often be found in the industrialsector. For these types of buildings only requirements concerning the heattransmission losses via the building envelope have to be satisfied. Theheating installation has not to be considered.

For buildings with lower internal temperature there are fewer restrictionsconcerning the thermal insulation, which leads to smaller thicknesses of theinsulation layer.

Fire-safety

In March 2000 a new guideline concerning the fire-protection of industrialhalls with lower requirements came into effect, taking into account results ofrecent research projects dealing with natural fires. In combination with theGerman code DIN 18230 it regulates the preventive fire-protection inindustrial buildings, basically the fire-resistance period of structuralcomponents, the size of fire compartments and the arrangement, locationand length of escape routes.

It provides three calculation methods with increasing difficulty:

(1) Simplified calculation method

(2) More precise calculation method with determination of the fire-load

density basing on DIN 18230-1

(3) Fire-engineering methods

The easier the calculation method the more conservative is the result.

Using the simplified calculation method (1), single-storey industrialbuildings can be designed in unprotected steel up to a remarkable size(1800 m) without having any active fire-fighting measures provided. Bymaking available automatic sprinkler units the compartment size can reach10000 m. If fire-walls are provided the size of the whole building can beenlarged by summarizing all compartments. Single storey halls used as


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shops feature similar low requirements on the fire-resistance of structuralparts, if sprinklers are provided. The maximum size of the compartments is10000m also.

The more precise calculation method (2) bases on the German standardDIN 18230-1, which deals with determining an equivalent fire-duration. Thisvalue relates the parametric heating curve considering the specific

parameters for the regarded project to the ISO-curve. It takes into accountproject-specific parameters like ventilation conditions, etc. By thiscompartment sizes up to 30.000m are possible in unprotected steel.

In addition to the two simplified calculation methods mentioned above themethods of fire-engineering can be applied. The guideline formulates basicprinciples for making the appropriate checks to satisfy the aims of thelegislator.

8.2 Current practice in Sweden

8.2.1 A typical Swedish hall

Open plan buildings like industrial halls are a very strong market for steel inSweden (SBI 2004). Common sizes for light halls are spans between 15and 25 meters with a room height of 5 to 8 meters. A building area of 1500-2000 m is common. Of cause significantly longer spans are feasible. Thereare companies specialised on light hall systems and often the building,above ground, is delivered as a turnkey product.

Today new hall buildings usually are insulated with approximately 120 to150 mm mineral wool. The hall often comprises some sort of office space inparts of the building where also an intermediate floor is used.

The most common and often most economic way of stabilising an openplan building is to insert wind bracing at the ends and in the long sides andto utilise the profiled sheeting in the roof as a stiff stressed skin diaphragm,see Figure 8.2. The columns are considered as pendulum columns.Sometimes the wall sheeting is utilised as a stressed skin diaphragm too.


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A typical open plan building is shown in Figure 8.3. Often a gabled roof withan angle of 3.6 or 5.7 is used. The span between rafters is typically 6 to10 m. The walls are composite panels or profiled sheeting on light gaugesteel beams. The insulation is placed on top of the load bearing profiledsheeting and covered with roof material. A plastic foil is used as air andmoisture tightening. Lattice beams are dominating for rafters. Spans up to45 meters can be achieved with standard products but the cost increasessignificantly with span. The columns are typically HEA-columns, fastened

with four anchor bolts on a base plate. Although the columns areconsidered as pin-ended, four bolts are recommended in order to havecolumn stability during erection.

For non-insulated halls, the profiled sheeting is resting on purlins in order toorient the profiles on the sheeting. Z-profiles are often used as purlins up to12 m.

a

qah/2

qah/2

N

N

qah/2 + N

b

h

Figure 8.2 Open plan building stabilised by wind bracing in the walls anddiaphragm of trapezoidal sheeting in the roof (Hglund, 2002).


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Using pendulum columns, it is essential to stabilise the building duringerection. It is often necessary to brace columns and sometimes rafters too.

As bracing of the columns is necessary during erection, it is common to usemake the bracing permanent, thus not considering diaphragm action of thewalls.

8.2.2 Roofing & Cladding

There are several suppliers of roofing and cladding systems on the

Swedish building market. A choice of systems is collected in this report. Formore detailed information, please contact the suppliers listed in Chapter 4Literature.

Roofing

Sheeting

There are a number of products for roofing on the market, mainly profiledsheeting and tiles. The profiled sheeting is design according to Figure 8.4

either as loadbearing with web stiffeners or as it is in the Figure. There arealso roofing tiles in modules of one to ten tiles used for roof angles of 14and more. The roofing tiles uses traditional colours and is significantlylighter than ceramic or concrete tiles.

Figure 8.3 A light insulated open plan building with profiled sheeting onrafters. A gabled roof with an angle of 3.6 or 5.7 is used. Thespan between rafters is typically 6 to 10 m. The walls are

profiled sheeting on light gauge steel beams or compositepanels. The insulation is placed on top of the load bearingprofiled sheeting and covered with roof material (SBI 2004).


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Load bearing profiles

There is profiled sheeting used for insulated roofs with spans up toapproximately 11 m on the Swedish market. The longer spans are achievedwith sheeting with corrugation in two dimensions. Shorter spans, up to 8 m,are achieved with more traditional grooved profiles.

The load bearing profile is usually dimensioned to also act as a stressedskin diaphragm. Stressed skin diaphragm design enables the roof to beconstructed without bracing.

Insulated roofs

Profiled sheeting is used as load bearing structure. The height of the profileis chosen depending on the span. Insulation in form of rock wool in twolayers with plastic foil as damp proof material as well as air tightening in

between is used. Trapezoidal sheeting is used as external roof material. Aminimum roof angle of only 3.6 is required. U-values (according to theSwedish building regulations) of 0.3 to 0.7 W/mK can be achieved mainlydependant on the thickness of the insulation.

Figure 8.4 Example of different products on the market. The sinusprofiled sheeting can be used either on roofs or on wallserected horizontally or vertically. The tiled sheet is developedfor roofs.

Figure 8.5The sheeting in the figure is commonly used in uninsulatedloadbearing roofs that are built up with purlins. With a profileheight of 45 mm it can manage heavy loading.


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Cladding

Sheeting

Profiled sheeting used as cladding is often the same as the sheeting usedfor roofing.

Figure 8.6 An insulated roof with load bearing profiles for examplePlannja 200 or Plannja 111. As surface profile a low Plannja40 is used, especially developed for low sloping roofs, from3,6 degrees. (Source: www.plannja.se)

Figure 8.7 The Plannja 40 sheeting has been developed to avoid waterleakage.

Figure 8.8 The sheeting has been developed The Fasetti facade lamella(cassette) is a metal sheet bent on two sides manufactured inlength dimensions specified by the customer. Fasetti lamellasare generally manufactured object-made, they are not bent onends; ends are finished with flashings. (Source:www.ruukki.com)


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Cassettes

Panels

Composite panels, sandwich constructions of steel and insulation, forexterior walls provide solutions with heat insulation, fire protection andaesthetics accounted for. Panels have sheeting on both sides with aninsulation of mineral wool or EPS in between. Mainly depending on the

thickness of the insulation, U-values typically vary from 0.18 (>200 mm)to 0.8 (50 mm) W/mK. The systems include air and water tighteningsystems between panels. If rock wool is used the system provides good fireintegrity and acoustic performance. The panels can be delivered as quitelarge units up to over 10 m. Also long spans can be used, as the panelsthemselves are strong constructions.

This composite panel can be used for new production and for refurbishingold buildings. The steel panels are applicable to combine with othermaterial as stone, timber, glass, stucco and concrete. The panel can bedelivered with different surface finish, with deep and shallow profiling. Theconnection between two panels is the same and different panels cantherefore simply be combined.

Figure 8.9 Cassettes of steel are used for cladding. Cassettes are not asconvenient to manufacture as profiled sheeting and aresomewhat more expensive. (Source: www.ruukki.com)

Figure 8.10 Composite panel for e.g. industrial applications. To the left aPlannja panel (www.plannja.se). To the right a Liberta Grandefacade cassettes. Cassettes made of sheet metal bent at allfour sides with a stiffened backside, which enables creatinglarger and more plane-like surfaces. The details of the

cassette system are based on the Liberta cassettes.


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Systems for refurbishment

There are systems for refurbishment of facades. The refurbishment isusually combined with an insulation of the faade. There are slottedseparators for fastening of the profiled sheeting, allowing for mineral wool

as insulation.

8.2.3 Impact of Regulations on thermal insulation

Current regulations on thermal insulation

Current standards are Boverkets Byggregler BBR(the Swedish BuildingRegulations).

Maximum average Fs,krav for the total surrounding area including ground fornon-residential premises is:

Figure 8.11 Example of building using steel faade panels. (Source:www.plannja.se)

Figure 8.12 The panels can be used for interior applications as shown inthe picture. (Source: www.plannja.se)


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Fs,krav 0.22 + 0.95Af /Aom [W/mK]

Where: Af = total window and door area, max 18% of heated floorarea [m]

Aom= total surrounding area including ground [m]

This value may be exceeded by 30% if it can be proved that the energy

consumption for heating, hot water and heat regain is not higher than for ahouse that fulfils the demands (shown with a trade-off calculation). The U-value is calculated regarding thermal bridges and also in a schematic wayregarding possible imperfections depending on design, production andsupervision. When calculating U for the ground the value is reduced with25% taking heat storage into consideration. Also sun radiation throughwindows is taken into account.

The requirements do not apply to buildings:

Which are used only for short periods or

Where there is no heating requirement during a major part of the

heating season.Further: Buildings need not comply with the requirements where it is shownby special investigation that heat increments from processes cover a majorproportion of the heating requirement.

Fulfilment of regulations

There are products on the Swedish market that can fulfil and exceed theSwedish building regulations as to heat insulation for industrial buildings. Aconstruction with composite panels as faade and insulated roof can evenfulfil the stricter requirements for residential buildings. Typical U-values for a150 mm composite panel are 0.24-0.28 W/mK. There are standardsolutions for U-values down to 0.17 W/mK.

8.3 Current practice in U.K.


The construction of large single storey industrial buildings, widely known assheds, is a significant part of the UK steel construction sector. They areused as retail stores, distribution warehouses, manufacturing facilities andleisure centres. Rising client expectations, Health and Safety regulationsand Sustainability initiatives are impacting on this type of construction.Furthermore the technologies used to meet these requirementsdemonstrate a willingness to embrace innovation in design, manufacturingand detailing. Examples are the use of plastic design of portal frames, ITsystems for design and manufacture, advanced cold formed components,

such as purlins, and highly efficient cladding systems.

This single storey industrial sector in the UK has an annual value ofapproximately 1 billion for frames (1.5 billion Euros) and 1.5 billion (2.25billion Euros) for associated envelope systems.

Today there are many more demands on envelope systems, in particularrelated to the energy conservation demands of Part L of the UK BuildingRegulations and the high value activities for which these buildings areemployed. Obtaining approval for the structure is now routine and thefocus of Building Regulation compliance is more on the envelope system.


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This emphasis will increase further with the introduction of a revised Part L,with its more onerous requirements, and the European EnergyPerformance of Buildings Directive in April 2006. Key features will be:

The need to achieve a saving of around 23 to 28% in CO2emissions when measured against the equivalent building whichwould have complied with the 2002 regulations;

The introduction of energy passports.

8.3.2 Selection of steel for UK single storey industrialbuildings

Clients commissioning buildings must have a business case. They may bebuilding it for their own use, to rent out, as an investment or to sell on.There are several criteria which can affect the value that the building bringsto the clients and users. These are:


Flexibility in use

Maintenance Sustainability

Value for money Supply chain


Logistics or similar business may need the building urgently to service anew contract and therefore speed of construction is vital. This can affect thedesign in many ways, i.e. layout and components can be designed so thatparallel rather than sequential construction can take place.

Flexibility in use

Change is now a fact of life for most businesses, with the likelihood ofsubstantial evolution in the activities for which the building provides shelterduring its design life. The wide spans and minimal use of columns that arereadily offered with steel construction offer the maximum opportunity for thebuilding to be able to accommodate different processes efficiently.

The client may at some point wish to sell the building to an investmentorganisation. To facilitate this option, institutional criteria such as minimumheight and higher imposed loads can be specified to maintain the assetvalue and provide flexibility for unknown future uses.

Maintenance

Many buildings are constructed for owner occupation. Where a building is

let, full repairing 25 year leases, where the tenant is responsible formaintenance, are being replaced by shorter ones, where the owner carriesmaintenance responsibility. Any situation where the owner, who originallyspecified the building, has responsibility for maintenance, encourages thechoice of better quality materials with a longer life expectancy in order toreduce maintenance costs. Increasingly, suppliers are providing guaranteesand advice on necessary maintenance.


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Sustainability

Energy costs and the reduction of CO2 emissions are becomingincreasingly important and sustainability is now a key issue within theplanning process. In future, it is likely that planning permission will beeasier to obtain with sustainable, environmentally friendly solutions. This isespecially true in London. Many clients, potential clients and occupiers

have sustainability policies against which their performance is monitored byshare holders and the public.

Value for money

Steel has achieved a large market share in this sector because ofresponsiveness to client demand. This success has been achieved in verycompetitive national market places and demonstrates the value for moneythat steel construction provides.

Supply chain

In todays competitive environment, all members of the supply chain areunder pressure in terms of the increased complexity of their own specifictasks and the reductions in time available to carry them out. In addition,

with the increasing complexity there is also an increased interdependencybetween the various elements and a high degree of co-operation and co-ordination is needed in order to achieve an economic and high qualityoutcome. A key feature of any successful supply chain team is that itcollectivel

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