1 Institute of Iron and Steel Technology, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, D-09596, Freiberg, Saxony, Germany 2 Institute of Materials Science, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, D-09599, Freiberg, Saxony, Germany

3 Institute of Materials Engineering, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, D-09599, Freiberg, Saxony, Germany

Influence of Carbon on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Cast Austenitic

Fe-19Cr-4Ni-3Mn-0.15N Steels

M. Wendler1 / B. Reichel

2 / A. Weiß

1 / L. Krüger

3 / J. Mola

1

Abstract

The structure and mechanical properties of cast Fe-

19Cr-4Ni-3Mn-0.15N (concentrations in wt%) steels

containing 0.05, 0.15 and 0.25 wt% carbon were

determined under uniaxial tensile loading in the

temperature range of -40 °C to 200 °C. The alloy

development focused on the creation of metastable

austenite capable of exhibiting Transformation- and

Twinning-Induced Plasticity (TRIP/TWIP) effects and

the planar glide of dislocations in the austenite. For the

steel with 0.15%C, these conditions were met

at -40 °C resulting in a tensile strength in excess of

1300 MPa, a uniform elongation of 45%, and a yield

strength of 420 MPa.

Keywords: TRIP/TWIP effect, mechanical properties,

austenitic as-cast steel, CrMnNi steel

1. Introduction

Within the Collaborative Research Center 799 novel

composite materials are being developed which

consist of a highly alloyed TRIP/TWIP CrMnNi cast

steel matrix and partially-stabilized zirconium dioxide

(Mg-PSZ) ceramic particles [1], [2]. To promote the

phase transformation of the ceramic phase from

tetragonal to monoclinic crystal structure, current steel

research activities are focused on the increase of the

strength, especially the yield strength, of cast

austenitic TRIP/TWIP CrMnNi steels by solid solution

strengthening with nitrogen and carbon. To trigger the

deformation-induced martensite or twin formation in

such steels, a metastable austenite is needed. This can

be achieved by adjusting the chemical composition.

Depending on the chemical composition and stacking

fault energy (SFE), such deformation-induced

plasticity mechanisms as γ→α´, γ→ɛ, and γ→ɛ→α´

transformations as well as mechanical twinning of

austenite can occur under external loading [3]. These

plasticity mechanisms are closely linked to the

deformation temperature and can lead to impressive

mechanical properties in comparison with the stable

austenitic steels. To obtain a strain-induced ɛ-

martensite formation or deformation twinning, a low

SFE is required. In high-manganese Fe(Cr)MnC

TWIP/TRIP steels, the γ→ɛ phase transformation is

favoured at SFEs below 15-20 mJ/m². The twinning of

austenite is on the other hand observed at SFEs

between 15-20 mJ/m² and 40 mJ/m² [4]–[7].

Investigations on FeCrMnNi TRIP/TWIP steels have

confirmed the above-mentioned SFE results [8], [9].

In this paper, the effect of carbon on the

microstructure and temperature dependence of stress-

strain behaviour in Fe-19Cr-4Ni-3Mn-0.15N cast

steels containing 0.05-0.25 wt% carbon is

investigated. For the creation of TRIP and TWIP

effects, the chemical compositions are adapted to

achieve low austenite stabilities and SFEs. The aim of

this development is to increase the strength of as-cast

steels with the use of solid solution strengthening by

nitrogen and carbon and yet to increase the strain-

hardening potential by TRIP and TWIP effects.

2. Experimental Procedure

2.1 Fabrication of Cast Steels

The steels used in this study were melted in a vacuum

induction furnace. Initially, a nitrogen partial pressure

of 150 mbar was used to melt down the feedstock.

After complete formation of the molten bath, nitrogen

gas with a partial pressure of 450 mbar was applied for

nitriding. Finally the steels were cast into a water-

cooled copper mould placed in the furnace chamber.

To avoid the pore formation in the cast material, a

nitrogen partial pressure of 1500 mbar was used

during casting. Two ingots of each melt with the

dimensions of 230 mm x 35 mm x 95 mm were

produced and then machined to round tensile

specimens with a gauge diameter of 6 mm. To

eliminate possible formation of strain-induced

martensite in the final manufactured tensile

specimens, heat treatments were performed after

machining of tensile specimens. The chemical

composition of the three manufactured as-cast steels is

given in Table 1.

2.2 Heat Treatment

For the complete dissolution of carbides and nitrides

as well as the reduction of segregation, the as-cast

microstructure was homogenized in the austenitic

phase field. Solution annealing treatments were done

under an argon atmosphere for 30 minutes. For the

steels 19NC1505 and 19NC1515, annealing

temperatures of 1050 °C and 1150 °C were used,

respectively. A further increase of the annealing

temperature to 1200 °C was necessary for the

complete dissolution of precipitates in the alloy

19NC1525. Additionally, all the steels were water

quenched to ensure the suppression of precipitation

formation processes during cooling from annealing

temperature.

2.3 Tensile Tests and Magnetic Saturation

Measurements

The heat-treated specimens were tensile tested with a

strain rate of 4 x 10-4

s-1

using a Zwick 1476-type

universal testing machine. With the aid of a thermal

chamber which surrounded the tensile specimen and

the sample holding jaws, different temperatures in the

range of -40 °C to 200 °C could be adjusted.

For the quantification of combined fraction of α׳-

martensite and delta ferrite, a Metis MSAT-type

magnetic saturation device equipped with a Lake

Shore 480 fluxmeter was used. The equipment

measures the magnetic flux density after

magnetization until saturation of steel samples. The

ferromagnetic phase content can be calculated after

corrections for the chemical composition of the steel.

The measurement accuracy is better than 1%. The

room temperature microstructures were studied by

optical microscopy to determine the delta ferrite

fraction.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Solidification Mode

The solidification behaviour of austenitic stainless

steels can be classified in five primary solidification

modes: single-phase ferrite (F), primary ferrite with

second-phase austenite (FA), eutectic ferrite and

austenite (E), primary austenite with second-phase

ferrite (AF) and single-phase austenite (A) [10]. For

the processing of high nitrogen steels the knowledge

of the primary solidification mode is essential as it is

closely related to the solid state nitrogen solubility. In

case of a primary austenitic solidification, the nitrogen

solubility is increased in comparison to a primary

ferritic solidification. Therefore, steels are defined as

“high-nitrogen” when there exists a minimum solute

nitrogen content of 0.08 wt% in the ferrite or 0.4 wt%

in the austenite [11]. With the increase of nitrogen

partial pressure, an enhanced nitrogen solubility in the

liquid state and non-porous ingots during (F) or (FA)

solidification mode can be achieved. A further

common way to increase the nitrogen solubility of

stainless steels is alloying with such solubility-raising

elements such as Cr, Mn, V, and Ti [12], [13]. Table 2

lists the solidification modes and solidification

sequences of the investigated steels as determined

with the aid of Thermo-Calc calculations.

3.2 Austenite Stability and As-Cast

Microstructure

The Schaeffler diagram was originally developed for

the prediction of the microstructure at ambient

temperature of high-alloy stainless steels after

welding. Nevertheless, this constitutional diagram

could also be used for the characterization of as-cast

microstructure and for the estimation of austenite

stability against the as-quenched αʼ-martensite

formation [5-7]. The Ni- and Cr-equivalents of the

steels used in this study were calculated with the

following equations [17].

𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑞 = %𝑁𝑖 + 30%𝐶 + 18%𝑁 + 0.5%𝑀𝑛

+ 0.3%𝐶𝑜 + 0.2%𝐶𝑢 − 0.2%𝐴𝑙 (1)

𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑞 = %𝐶𝑟 + %𝑀𝑜 + 4%𝑇𝑖 + 4%𝐴𝑙 + 1.5%𝑆𝑖

+1.5%𝑉 + 0.9%𝑁𝑏 + 0.9%𝑇𝑎 + 0.5%𝑊 (2)

Furthermore, the knowledge of the SFE allows to

evaluate possible occurrence of deformation-induced

twinning. The SFE at room temperature of the alloys

Table 2. Solidification mode and solidification sequence of the as-cast steels.

Alloy Solidification

mode

Solidification sequence

according to Thermo-Calc

19NC1505

FA L → (L+FP) → (L+FP+AE) → (FP+AE)

FP: primary ferrite AE: second-phase austenite

19NC1515

19NC1525

Table 1. Chemical composition of the investigated as-cast steels, in wt%.

Alloy C N Cr Ni Mn Si Fe + others

19NC1505 0.051 0.140 18.90 4.02 2.90 0.48 bal.

19NC1515 0.156 0.140 19.20 4.11 3.20 0.45 bal.

19NC1525 0.264 0.146 19.10 4.17 3.06 0.44 bal.

was therefore calculated using an empirical equation

applicable to high-alloy stainless steels [18].:

The values for the Cr- and Ni-equivalents as well as

the SFEs of the as-cast steels are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Cr-equivalents, Ni-equivalents, and SFEs

calculated based on Equations 1-3.

Alloy Creq

[-]

Nieq

[-]

SFE

[mJm-2]

19NC1505 19.62 9.52 14.00

19NC1515 19.88 12.90 21.02

19NC1525 19.76 16.25 29.81

The calculated SFE value for the steel 19NC1505 is

14 mJm-2

, close to the commonly-reported SFE value

below and above which deformation-induced ε-

martensite formation and deformation-induced

twinning are favored, respectively. The above-

mentioned cast steel exhibits a delta ferrite fraction of

9%. Due to the low solid solution solubility of

nitrogen and carbon in ferrite, these elements are

thought to partition to the austenite phase. This

process raises the SFE of the alloy and leads to an

increased austenite stability. TWIP effect is therefore

expected to be the dominant deformation mechanism

of austenite in the 19NC1505 alloy. This should also

be the case for the steels 19NC1515 and 19NC1525

with SFEs of 21.02 mJm-2

and 29.81 mJm-2

,

respectively. Indicated on the Schaeffler diagram of

Figure 1 are the positions of the three investigated as-

cast steels. There is clearly a good agreement between

the microstructural phases predicted by the diagram

and the delta ferrite fractions determined by light

optical microscopy. Furthermore, the alloy 19NC1525

is predicted by the diagram to have the highest

resistance to as-quenched (similarly deformation-

induced) martensite formation because it is positioned

farthest from the martensite start line, i.e. the line

which separates the austenitic and austenitic-

martensitic phase fields of the Schaeffler diagram.

Figure 1. Positions of the cast steels in the Schaeffler

diagram.

The microstructure of the alloys after water quenching

from the solution annealing temperature is shown in

Figure 2. The alloy 19NC1505 exhibits an austenitic

microstructure containing a continuous network of

approximately 9% delta ferrite. The steel 19NC1515

was found to have a delta ferrite fraction of only 4%

which appeared as isolated regions of more or less

spherical in shape. The difference in the morphology

of delta ferrite in the alloys 19NC1505 and 19NC1515

likely arises from the higher solution annealing

temperature of the latter alloy which accelerates the

Ostwald ripening of ferrite. In the steel 19NC1525, a

fully austenitic microstructure was obtained. The

ferritic regions of the microstructures in Figure 2 are

marked with arrows.

𝛾𝑆𝐹𝐸 = +1.59%𝑁𝑖 − 5.59%𝑆𝑖 + 26.27(%𝐶 + 1.2%𝑁)(%𝐶𝑟 + %𝑀𝑛 + %𝑀𝑜)1

2⁄ + 0.61[%𝑁𝑖(%𝐶𝑟 + %𝑀𝑛)]1

2⁄

+39 − 1.34%𝑀𝑛 + 0.06%𝑀𝑛2 − 1.75%𝐶𝑟 + 0.01%𝐶𝑟2 + 15.21%𝑀𝑜 − 60.69(%𝐶 + 1.2%𝑁)1

2⁄ (3)

c)

a)

δ

Figure 2. Microstructure at RT of solution annealed

cast steels: (a) 19NC1505, austenite with 9% delta

ferrite; (b) 19NC1515, austenite with 4% delta ferrite;

(c) 19NC1525, fully austenitic.

3.3 Strain-Induced Martensite Formation

The initial microstructure at room temperature (prior

to deformation) of the alloys shows no as-quenched

martensite. To check the possible formation of as-

quenched martensite at lower temperatures, the heat-

treated cast steels were cooled down to -196 °C in

liquid nitrogen. No αʼ-martensite formation could be

induced by the preceding treatment indicating the high

stability of the alloys with respect to the athermal αʼ-

martensite formation. During tensile testing at low

temperatures, however, strain-induced αʼ-martensite

formation was observed in all of the cast steels. As the

carbon concentration increased, the alloys showed a

higher resistance to the deformation-induced

martensite formation and thus a lower Mdγ→αʼ

temperature. The steel 19NC1505 exhibited the lowest

austenite stability and thus the highest Mdγ→αʼ

temperature (106 °C) of all alloys. Mdγ→αʼ

temperatures of 66 °C and 42 °C were found for the

steels 19NC1515 and 19NC1525, respectively. With

decreasing the tensile test temperature, the chemical

driving force for the γ→αʼ martensite transformation

increases. Therefore, less mechanical work is required

at lower temperatures to supply the critical driving

force for the martensite formation. As a consequence,

the TRIP effect is facilitated at lower temperatures and

a higher amount of martensite can be obtained by

deformation at lower deformation temperatures. This

is true as long as the chemical driving force for the

martensitic transformation increases at lower

temperatures. Shown in Figure 3 is the evolution of

strain-induced martensite fraction after tensile test up

to fracture at various temperatures. Some retained

austenite persists in the microstructure of all alloys

even in the case of the lowest deformation

temperature.

Figure 3. Strain-induced αʼ-martensite fractions

formed at various tensile testing temperatures. The

values were obtained by magnetic saturation

measurements.

The microstructure of the steel 19NC1505 after

deformation until fracture at 100 °C is shown in

Figure 4. It can be seen that the intersections of the

straight slip bands in the austenite serve as nucleation

sites for the strain-induced αʼ-martensite. Due to their

low SFE values, all of the alloys studied in this

research exhibited a similar martensite formation

behaviour.

δ

b)

c)

Figure 4. SEM image in BSE contrast of the steel

19NC1505 strained until fracture at 100 °C (austenite

with slip bands of a brighter contrast and the dark

αʼ-martensite regions formed within the bands most

often at the intersections; load axis aligned

horizontally).

3.4 Mechanical Properties

Figure 5 shows the yield strength as a function of

temperature. At the temperature of -40 °C, the steel

19NC1525 exhibits the highest 0.2% proof stress of all

alloys amounting to 413 MPa. This could be explained

by the solid solution strengthening effect of the

interstitial elements (C+N=0.41%) assisted by the

absence or negligibility of stress-induced martensite

formation. The latter process is known to reduce the

proof stress and appears to be responsible for the low

proof stress of the 19NC1505 alloy at -40 °C [19],

[20]. In spite of the lower interstitial content of the

19NC1505 alloy compared to the 19NC1525 alloy, it

shows a proof stress close to that of the latter in the

temperature range of 60 °C to 100 °C. At 200 °C, the

proof stress of the 19NC1505 alloy reaches 236 MPa,

clearly higher than that of the 19NC1525 alloy. These

observations might be justified by the phase

strengthening effect of delta ferrite and the superior

glide planarity in the 19NC1505 alloy caused by its

lower stacking fault energy and hindered cross slip.

Figure 5. Temperature dependence of the 0.2% proof

stress.

The temperature dependence of ultimate tensile

strength (UTS) for the studied as-cast steels is shown

in Figure 6. At temperatures above approximately

100 °C, where the strain-induced martensite formation

is absent or very limited in all alloys, the tensile

strength increases with increasing carbon

concentration. This is despite the lower delta ferrite

fraction of alloys with a higher carbon content. A

possible explanation can be sought by referring to the

elongation values in Figure 7. The uniform elongation

of alloys increases with increasing carbon

concentration. The larger plastic strains

accommodated by the 19NC1525 alloy are therefore

thought to be responsible for its higher UTS values at

temperatures of 100 °C and 200 °C. At lower

temperatures, UTS values are also influenced by the

strain-induced martensite formation. The martensite

which tends to form in the slip bands of austenite acts

as an obstacle to the dislocation glide in the bands. As

a consequence, the strain-hardening increases and

additional slip bands have to be activated to sustain

the plastic deformation. At tensile deformation

temperatures associated with the strain-induced αʼ-

martensite formation, the tensile strength should be, as

a rule, proportional to the fraction of strain-induced

martensite. The higher tensile strength of the steel

19NC1505 at low tensile test temperatures should thus

be related to the higher martensite fractions formed

during deformation. A deviation from this material

behaviour occurs at -40 °C where the tensile strength

of the 19NC1515 steel exceeds that of the 19NC1505

steel. At this temperature, an equal strain-induced αʼ-

martensite fraction of approximately 81% formed in

both alloys. In this case, the higher carbon content of

the 19NC1515 alloy leads to an enhanced tetragonal

distortion of the strain-induced martensite and results

in an increased phase strengthening effect.

Furthermore, the larger plastic strains accommodated

by the NC1515 alloy cause an additional strengthening

by work hardening.

α αʼ

δ

Figure 6. Temperature dependence of the tensile

strength.

Shown in Figure 7 are the uniform and total

elongations of the three investigated steels. The high

ductilities are caused by the superimposition of such

plasticity mechanisms as dislocation glide in the

austenite as well as TRIP and TWIP effects. The steels

exhibit a maximum in both uniform and total

elongations at intermediate temperatures. As the

carbon concentration increases, the maximum

elongation occurs at a lower temperature. This is the

case for the alloys 19NC1505 and 19NC1515. For

these alloys, the temperatures associated with the

maximum elongation are just below their respective

temperatures. This does not hold for the 19NC1525

alloy in which the maximum uniform and total

elongations occur at 80 °C, higher than its Mdγ→αʼ

temperature of 42 °C. Therefore, the highest total

elongation of 74% at 80 °C cannot be associated with

the strain-induced αʼ-martensite formation. To identify

occurring deformation processes at 80 °C of the steel

19NC1525, Electron Backscattering Diffraction

(EBSD) measurements with a step size of 0.1 μm were

carried out on a tensile specimen strained until

fracture. According to the EBSD phase analysis in

Figure 8a, the microstructure remains fully austenitic

and free of ε-martensite. To evaluate a possible

deformation-induced twin formation, austenite

boundaries satisfying the twin orientation relationship

were sought. According to Figure 8b, in addition to

low- and high-angle grain boundaries, a high density

of twin boundaries were observed in the

microstructure of the 19NC1525 alloy, confirming the

occurrence of the TWIP effect.

The fracture elongation of all alloys decreases

significantly with increasing strain-induced αʼ-

martensite fractions at temperatures below the Mdγ→αʼ

temperature. Because of the high interstitials content

of the alloys, the transformed martensite is unable to

deform sufficiently so that the strain is mainly

accommodated by the softer austenite phase. Reduced

fraction of austenite which remains available for

plastic deformation leads to deteriorated elongation

properties below the Mdγ→αʼ

temperature. Formation of

strain-induced martensite also results in a continuous

decrease in the post-uniform elongation of alloys. This

is represented for different alloys with the aid of

hatched areas in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Temperature dependence of the uniform and

total elongation.

4. Conclusions

The influence, on the microstructure formation

processes and mechanical properties, of carbon

concentration and temperature was studied in three

high-alloy Fe-19Cr-4Ni-3Mn-0.15N cast steels. The

alloys containing 0.05%C and 0.15%C showed an

initial microstructure consisting of an austenitic matrix

and delta ferrite fractions of 9% and 4%, respectively.

The alloy containing 0.25%C was fully austenitic

before tensile deformation. No as-quenched martensite

formed in the investigated cast steels by liquid

nitrogen treatment at -196 °C. Strain-induced γ→αʼ

martensite formation was, however, triggered in all

alloys below their respective Mdγ→αʼ

temperature. The

increase of the carbon content was found to increase

the austenite stability and depress the Mdγ→αʼ

temperature. The strain-induced αʼ-martensite

formation preferentially occurred at the intersections

of deformation bands in the austenite. The austenitic-

ferritic steel grade with 0.05%C exhibited lower

elongations in comparison to the other steels. This

could be explained on the one hand by the existence of

9% delta ferrite and thus the reduced fraction of

metastable austenite which is essential for the TRIP or

TWIP effects. In the steel with 0.15%C, the

occurrence of the TRIP effect at -40 °C resulted in a

tensile strength of 1326 MPa combined with moderate

elongations. The steel containing 0.25%C exhibited a

fracture elongation of 74% at 80 °C. This high

plasticity was microstructurally associated with

intensive deformation-induced twinning. The results

demonstrate that with increasing carbon content, the

austenite is stabilized and the αʼ-martensite fraction is

reduced, causing an attenuated strengthening by TRIP

effect.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the German

Research Foundation (DFG) for the financial support

of this research which is part of the Collaborative

Research Center 799 (CRC 799). Special thanks

should be given to Dr. mult. rer. nat. O. Fabrichnaya

for the Thermo-Calc calculations.

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