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SGDC5034Models Of Instruction

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MODELS OF

INSTRUCTIONPREPARED FOR: ASSOC. PROF. DR. HAMIDA BEE BI

ABDUL KARIM

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GROUP 1

* Amal bt Mohamad Hassan* 818776* Domains of Information Processing* Cognitive Development Learning

* Siti Zahidah bt Salleh* 818236* The Models Approach for Teaching: Teaching Skills and The Organization of Data* Essentials Teaching Skills

*Yogambigai a/p R.Rajentran * 818292 *Teaching for Thinking & Understanding * Higher Order & Critical Thinking

`Q

INTRODUCTION

Basically, this topic is about the study of how humans learn and holistically the study of the mind.

This is because how one learns, acquires new information, and retains previous information guides selection of long-term learning

objectives and methods of effective instruction. It is also the study of how people encode, structure, store, retrieve, use or otherwise learn knowledge.

DOMAINS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

Humans process information with amazing efficiency and often perform better than highly sophisticated machines at tasks such as problem solving and critical thinking.

Yet despite the remarkable capabilities of the human mind, it was not until the 20th century that researchers developed systematic models of memory, cognition, and thinking.

The best articulated and most heavily researched model is the information processing model (IPM), developed in the early 1950s.

The IPM consists of three main components, sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.

SENSORY MEMORY

SHORT – TERM MEMORY

(WORKING MEMORY)

LONG – TERM MEMORY

RESPONSE

Forgotten

Repetition

Elaboration andCodingRetrieval

InitialProcessing

Forgotten

External Stimulus

Information processing model by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).

Processes incoming sensory information for very brief periods of time, usually on the order of 1/2 to 3 seconds.

The amount of information held at any given moment is limited to five to seven discrete elements such as letters of the alphabet or pictures of human faces.

Thus, if a person viewed 10 letters simultaneously for 1 second, it is unlikely that more than five to seven of those letters would be remembered.

The main purpose is to screen incoming stimuli and process only those stimuli that are most relevant at the present time.

Occurs too quickly for people to consciously control what they attend to.

SENSORY MEMORY

After stimuli enter sensory memory, they are either forwarded to working memory or deleted from the system.

Often viewed as active or conscious memory because it is the part of memory that is being actively processed while new information is being taken in.

Very limited capacity and unrehearsed information will begin to be lost from it within 15-30 seconds if other action is not taken.

Information is assigned meaning, linked to other information, and essential mental operations such as inferences are performed.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY (WORKING MEMORY)

Not constrained by capacity or duration of attention limitations.

Provide a seemingly unlimited repository for all the facts and knowledge in memory.

Different types of information exist here and that information must be organized, and therefore quickly accessible, to be of practical use to learners.

Ability of a person to quickly encode and retrieve information using an efficient organizational system.

LONG -TERM MEMORY

TYPE OF MEMORY

PURPOSE CAPACITY DURATION OF RETENTION

SENSORY MEMORY

• Provides initial screening and processing of incoming stimuli.

3 – 7 discrete

units

0.5 to 3 seconds

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

• Assigns meaning to stimuli and links individual pieces of information into larger units.

• Enables learner to construct meaning and perform visual-spatial mental operations.

7 – 9 units of

information

5 to 15 seconds without

rehearsal

LONG-TERM MEMORY

• Provides a permanent repository for different types of knowledge.

Infinite Permanent

Comparison of sensory, short-term and long-term memory.

Students become automated at basic skills such as letter and word decoding, number recognition, and simple procedural skills such as handwriting, multiplication, and spelling.

Help students to use their prior knowledge when learning new information by facilitating encoding and retrieval processes.

Increases cognitive efficiency by reducing information processing demands.

Learning strategies improve information processing because learners are more efficient and process information at a deeper level.

IMPLICATIONS FOR

INSTRUCTION

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT LEARNING

Cognitive abilities allow us to process the sensory information we collect: ability to analyze, evaluate, retain information, recall experiences, make comparisons, and determine action.

If development does not occur naturally, cognitive weaknesses are the result where it diminish an individual’s capacity to learn and are difficult to correct without specific and appropriate intervention.

Can be practiced and improved with the right training. Changes in cognitive ability can be seen dramatically in cases where an

injury affects a certain physical area of the brain. The correct therapy can actually “rewire” a patient’s brain, and cognitive function can be restored or enhanced.

Studied most frequently in infants, children, and adolescents, where changes often are relatively rapid and striking.

Three Basic Components of Piaget's Cognitive Theory

Piaget (1952) defined a schema as 'a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning'.

The basic building block of intelligent behavior : a way of organizing knowledge.

A set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations.

The development of a person's mental processes increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.

1) SCHEMAS

EXAMPLE OF SCHEMA

Jean Piaget (1952) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world which happen through assimilation, accomodation and equilibration.

Assimilation is a process using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

Accomodation happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

Equilibration is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady

rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. It occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation). Yet, it will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).

2) ASSIMILATION , ACCOMODATION AND EQUILIBRATION

Stage Characterised by

Sensori-motor (Birth-2 yrs)

• Differentiates self from objects • Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g.

pulls a string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise

Pre-operational (2-7 years)

• Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words • Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of

others • Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red

blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour

Concrete operational (7-11 years)

• Can think logically about objects and events • Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight

(age 9) • Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in

series along a single dimension such as size.

Formal operational (11 years and up)

• Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systemtically

• Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

3) Stages of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget

View of Lev Vygotsky Emphasizes the social construction of knowledge. Argues that what children have to learn is shaped by the culture in which

they live, and that the way they learn is through interaction with older children or adults who are more experienced in that culture.

Pays particular attention to language because it is such a fundamental part of human interactions.

Scaffolding is an important concept in Vygotsky's theory: refers to the process by which the adult (or older child) supports the child in a task, offering suggestions or filling in bits of missing information, until the child can accomplish the task alone.

Another concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to anything a child cannot yet do independently, but can do with help, in other words, the cutting edge of the child's current cognitive development. Tasks within the zone of proximal development are those that are challenging without being either too easy or too hard for children.

Student can

Student can’t

Zone of proximal

development

Learning development

One of ZPD model

Discovery learning: the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring was seen as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.

Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the classroom: Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it. Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing

"truths". Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children

can learn from each other). Devising situations that present useful problems, and create

disequilibrium in the child. Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can

be set.

IMPLICATIONS FOR

INSTRUCTION

The Model Approach to Teaching: Teaching Skills and The Organization of Data

• Teaching models are prescriptive teaching strategies design to accomplish particular instructional goals.

• The are prescriptive in teachers responsibility during planning, implementation, and assessment stages of instruction.

• Teachers use student data to engage student understanding and detect the target area in need of improvement and in the same time increase the effectiveness of teachers.

• Teacher can collect student data by quiz, diagnostic test, students behavior, and else.

• Teacher also should collect data at the beginning and end of each unit to enable teacher knows how much student learned.

• Teacher can identify which activities support a certain learning style.

Essential Teaching Skills

• Analogous to basic skills and can be described as the critical teacher attitudes, skills, and strategies necessary to promote student learning.

Ess

entia

l te

achi

ng sk

ills

Teacher characteristics

Teaching efficacy

Modeling and enthusiasm

Caring

Positive expectation

Communication

Precise terminology

Connected discourse

Transition signals

Emphasis Organization

Instructional alignment

Focus

Feedback

Monitoring

Review and closure

Questioning

Teacher Characteristics

• Teacher set the emotional tone for the classroom, design instruction, implement learning activity, assess student progress

Teaching efficacyModeling & enthusiasmCaringPositive expectation

A. Teaching efficacy

• Belief that teacher can have an important positive effect on students (Brunning et al.,1999).

• Increase student performance by accepting students and their idea, rather than criticism.

• More flexible, adopt new curriculum materials, and changing strategies more readily.(Poole et al.., 1989)

B. Modelling and enthusiasm

• Modeling occur when people imitate the behavior they observe. (bandura 1986).

• Teachers attitudes and belief about teaching and learning are communicated through their behavior.

• Teachers model enthusiasm: they communicate their own interest in the topics they teach through the behaviors they display. This will increase learners’ belief in the importance of effort and in their own capabilities.

• This to induced in student the feeling that the information is valuable and worth learning, not just to amuse them.

C. Teacher caring

• Teacher abilities to empathize with and invest in the protection and development of young people (Chaskin & Rauner, 1995).

• They understands student feeling.

D. Positive Teacher expectation

• Inferences that teacher make about the future behavior, academic achievement, or attitude of their students (Good & Brophy, 1997).

• Teacher believe student can and will learn

Characteristics of Differential Teacher Expectations

Characteristics

Emotional support

Teacher support and demands

Questioning

Feedback and evaluation

Teacher behavior favoring perceived high achiever

More interaction, more positive interaction, more eye contact and smiles, stand closer, more direct orientation to student.

Clearer and more through explanation, more enthusiastic instruction, require more complete and accurate answers.

Call on more often, allow more time to answer, prompt more.

More praise, less critic, provide more complete and lengthier feedback, more conceptual evaluation.

Communication

Precise terminology

• Teachers define idea clearly and eliminate vague terms from presentation.• Answers students questions.

Connected discourse

• Teachers lesson is thematic leads to a point.

Transition signals

• Verbal statement that communicates that one idea is ending and another is beginning.

• Focus on students attention

Emphasis

• Alerts student to important information in a lesson.• Occur through vocal and verbal behavior or repetition (Eggen &

Kauchak,1999)

Organization • Intuitively sensible.

Starting on time

Materials prepared in advanced

Established routines

Characteristics of effective Organization

Instructional alignment

• Match between objective and learning activities.

Focus • Process teacher use to attract and maintain attention throughout the lesson.

Intro

duct

ory

focu

ssets of teacher action designed to attract student attention and provide umbrella for the rest of the lesson.

Sens

ory

focu

suse of stimuli –concrete objects, pictures, models, materials displayed on the overhead, and even information written on the chalkboard.

Feedback

Characteristic of effective feedback

Immediate

Specific

Provides information

Depends on performance

Has a positive emotional tone

• Information about current behavior that can be used to improve future performance. (Eggen & Kauchak, 1999).

Monitoring

• Process of checking students verbal and non verbal behavior for evidence of learning progress (flexible and responsive to student).

Review and closure

• Review: summarizes previous work and forms a link between what has been learned and what is coming.

• Closure: form of review that occurs at the end of learning.

Question

• Help learners understand the topics they study.• Leaners see connection between the ideas they

studied with the reality example.• Skills at questioning:

– Remembering the goals of lessons– Monitoring students verbal and non verbal behavior– Maintaining the flow and development of the lesson– Preparing the next question

Characteristics of Effective Questioning

• Teacher question or directive that elicits a student response after the student has failed to answer @ give incorrect or incomplete answers.

• Think time.

• Questioning pattern in which all student in the class are called on as equally as possible.

• No. of questions teacher asked

Frequency Equitable distribution

Prompting Wait-time

Creating productive learning environments

Management and discipline is the role of effective instruction.

1. Organization and classroom order Well-established routines that made the environment

predictable.

2. Classroom order and student involvement. Students spends as much as their time focused on

learning.

3. Involvement, order, and increase student motivation. Teacher use classroom organization & management

skills that successfully establish the classroom as effective learning environment.

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TEACHING FOR THINKING & UNDERSTANDING

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TEACHING FOR THINKING

Teaching for thinking requires a passionate disposition toward thinking and the explicit and reflective use of thinking skills to form reasoned judgements.

Educators must demonstrate thinking in multiple contexts including those that are rich in subject matter content and problem-complexity. 

The more a teacher is able to extend participants’ thinking into new domains of learning and inquiry, the stronger students’ thinking will become.

It is a matter of active engagement, thoughtful reflection and reasonable reformulations of judgements.

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TEACHING FOR UNDERSTANDING

• Focuses instruction on building disciplinary understanding, rather than imparting superficial knowledge.

• Four elements are fundamental to this

approach:

1) Generative topics,2) Understanding goals,3) Performances of understanding, 4) Ongoing assessment.

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For teachers, attention to each of these aspects of instruction helps ensure that they will be focusing their time and energy on helping students to learn about those concepts, ideas, and skills that are most important to understand.

For the students, this approach to teaching and learning enables them to apply their knowledge and skills flexibly in a variety of situations.

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If a student "understands" a topic, she/he not only reproduce knowledge, but also use it in unscripted ways.

These are called "performances of understanding" because they give students the opportunity to demonstrate that they understand information, can expand upon it, and apply it in new ways.

EXAMPLE

For example, a student in a history class might be able to describe the gist of the Declaration of Independence in her own words; role-play Tunku Abdul Rahman as he reacts to different parts of it; or write out parts of an imagined debate among the authors as they hammer out the statement.

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HIGHER ORDER AND CRITICAL THINKING

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HIGHER ORDER THINKING

1) Appropriate teaching strategies and learning environments that facilitate growth in student thinking skills in area of critical, logical, reflective, meta-cognitive, and creative thinking.

2) Higher-Order Thinking essentially means thinking that takes place in the higher level of hierarchy in the cognitive processing.

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HIGHER ORDER THINKING

3) Higher order thinking(H.O.T.) skills include Critical Thinking skills which are logical, reflective, meta-cognitive and creative.

4) HOTS for Analyzing Literary Texts:

Inferring Problem solving Classifying Generating possibilities Comparing Synthesizing contrasting Making connections Explaining patterns Evaluating

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HIGHER ORDER THINKING

5) Applications of the skills result in Reasoning, Evaluating, Problem solving, Decisions making & Analyzing products that are valid within the context of available knowledge and experience that promote continued growth in these and other intellectual skills.

6) Teacher or School Leader should aware of the importance of teaching higher-order thinking (H.O.T.) skills to prepare young men and women to live in the 21st Century.

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BENEFITS OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING

Encouraging students to think more deeply and critically

Problem solving

Encouraging discussions

Stimulating students to seek information on their own

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HIGHER ORDER QUESTIONS ENCOURAGES HIGHER ORDER THINKING BASED ON BLOOM’S TAXONOMY.

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1) An ability to present, evaluate, and interpret data, to develop lines of argument and make sound judgements.

2) “ Critical thinking consists of a mental process of analyzing or evaluating information, particularly statements or propositions that people have offered as true. It forms a process of reflecting upon the meaning of statements, examining the offered evidence and reasoning, and forming judgments about the facts.”

-Wikipedia

CRITICAL THINKING

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3) “ Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.”

- Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, (2003)

4) Critical Thinking is the general term given to a wide range of cognitive and intellectual skills needed to:

* Effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments.* Discover and overcome personal prejudices and biases. * Formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions.* Make reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to

believe and what to do.

CRITICAL THINKING

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BENEFITS OF CRITICAL THINKING

1) Academic Performance a) Understand the arguments and beliefs of others.

b) Critically evaluating those arguments and beliefs. c) Develop and defend one's own well-supported arguments and beliefs.

2) Workplace a) Helps us to reflect and get a deeper understanding of our own and others’ decisions. b) Open-mindedness to change. c) Aid us in being more analytical in solving problems.

3) Daily life a) Helps us to avoid making foolish personal decisions.b) Promotes capable of making good decisions on important social, political and economic issues. c) Aids in the development of autonomous thinkers capable of examining their assumptions and prejudices.

Egocentrism

Sociocentrism

Unwarranted Assumptions

Wishful Thinking

Relativistic Thinking

• Self-centered thinking- self-interested thinking - self-serving bias

• Group-centered thinking - Group bias

• Beliefs that are presumed to be true without adequate evidence or justification

- Assumption - Stereotyping

• Believing that something is true because one wishes it were true.

• The truth is “just a matter of opinion” * Relativism

- Subjectivism- Cultural relativism

BARRIERS TO CRITICAL THINKING

BARRIERS IN THE SCHOOL CONTENT

1. Crowded Curriculum

- cover content plus critically think about it

2. Short Class Periods- engaged activities

require time on task

3. Too Many Students- difficult to get everyone

involved every time

DO WE USE CRITICAL THINKING IN OUR

DAILY LIFE???PriceEconomyReliabilityStyleSpeed

CONCLUSION The information processing approach is challenged by connectionist and

dynamic systems theories that do not share the assumptions about symbolic representations and discrete processes.

The extent to which information processing succeeds will depend, in part, on the extent to which its practitioners can adapt to accommodate these challenges and contribute to research that enriches educational assessment and instruction.

Teaching skills play important role in order to stimulate the students’ thinking skills and understanding which eventually will lead to higher order and critical thinking.

In fact, nowadays situation forces students to think more deeply and critically due the challenges of 21st century era where people are striving for a succeed life.

REFERENCES Alyssa Mattero. (2014). How your school and teachers can effectively utilize student data. Retrieved 23rd September, 2015 from https://www.teachermatch.org/blog/how-your-school-and-teachers-can-effectively-utilize-student-data/

Brookhart, S. (2010). How to Assess Higher Order Thinking Skills in Your Classroom, ASCD. Retrieved 23rd September, 2015 from http://www.ascd.org/Publications/Books/Overview/How-to-Assess-Higher-Order-Thinking-Skills-in-Your-Classroom.aspx

Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2003). Information processing and memory: Theory and applications. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.

Paul D. Eggen & Donald P. Kauchak. (2001). Strategies for Teachers: Teaching Content and Thinking Skills (4th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

REFERENCES P.F. Hearron & V. Hildebrand. (2009). Guiding Young Children. New York City: Pearson Education.

_______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 from http://www.insightassessment.com/BLOG/What-is-the-Secret-to-Teaching-for-Thinking

______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking

______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 from http://louisville.edu/ideastoaction/about/criticalthinking/what

_______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 fromhttp://www.slideshare.net/majidsafadaran/2-ppt-lots-hots

_______. Retrieved September 23, 2015 fromhttp://www.slideshare.net/diegocampillo/higher-order-thinkingskills

_______. Retrieved September 24, 2015 fromhttp://eprints.qut.edu.au/16201/1/Philip_Nesbitt-Hawes_Thesis.pdf

_______. Retrieved September 24, 2015 fromhttp://www.nscsd.org/webpages/jennisullivan/files/hots_questions.pdf

_______. Retrieved September 24, 2015 fromhttp://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1910/DevelopmentalTheoryCOGNITIVEINFORMATIONPROCESSING.html

REFERENCES