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INNOVATION REVIEW ISSUE 11, JUNE 2012
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN AND REFURBISHMENT IN SCOTLAND
THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY CONFERENCE
FLEXIBLE SOLAR CELLS ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESMENT OF DOMESTIC LAUNDERING LOW TECHNOLOGY - HIGH PERFORMANCE ARCHITECTURE
HOUSING INNOVATION SHOWCASE KATIE’S COTTAGE BY ROOTS DESIGN WORKSHOP
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CONTENTS Page
ABOUT CIC START ONLINE AND EDITORIAL 4-5
PAST CONFERENCES
Green Deal and Sustainable Refurbishment of Traditional Buildings 6-7
VIDEO RECORDINGS 8-15
FORTHCOMING WEBINARS 16-19
CIC START ONLINE IN LONDON
Innovations for Sustainable Building Design and Refurbishment in Scotland 20-21
CONFERENCES
The Circular Economy: New Opportunities in Design and Construction in Scotland 22-23
ZEMCH 2012 24-25
SUPPORT
Charting Professional Knowledge: Technology Enhanced Professional Learning, Caledonian Academy 26-33
The Soft Landings Core Principles by BSRIA 34-36
Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Building Services by BSRIA 37
EDUCATION
Glasgow Caledonian University wins CIOB National Student Challenge 38-39
RESEARCH
Flexible Solar Cells, John Wilson, Heriot Watt University 40-45
The thermal performance of the fabric of house built with j.Pods, John Barr (John Barr Architects) and Chris Sanders, Glasgow Caledonian University 46-57
Environmental Assessment of Domestic Laundering – Research Challenges and Opportunities, Colin Porteous, Mackintosh School of Architecture 58-67
Towards Low Technology - Higher Performance Architecture: Potentials of Alternative Construction in West Scotland, Bianca-Daniela Ion, University of Strathclyde Glasgow 68-75
BEST PRACTICE
Housing Innovation Showcase 76-81
Katie's Cottage by Roots Design Workshop 82-89
ENGAGEMENT 90
CONTENTS…
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The keynote speaker: Dame Ellen MacArthur.
Breakfast, lunch and a wine reception will be
provided.
Pages 22-23
Flexible Solar Cells Pages 40-45
j.Pod Timber System Pages 46-57
Environmental Assessment of Domestic Laundering
Pages 58-67
Towards Low Technology – Higher Performance Architecture
Pages 68-75
Housing Innovation Showcase Pages 68-71
Katie’s Cottage Pages 82-89
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What is CIC Start Online?
A three-year project of seven Scottish universities funded
by European Regional Development Fund and Scottish Government’s SEEKIT programme
AIM: To embed sustainable building design and refurbishment into practice
OBJECTIVE: To support academic/industry collaboration in developing and testing innovations, and to disseminate the outcomes in order to facilitate the application of innovations in practice
WHY? o To reduce CO2 emissions and other negative
environmental impacts from buildings o To reduce fuel poverty and improve indoor climate o To create jobs and support competitiveness of
Scottish construction industry through innovation o To remove the barriers to the application of
innovation in practice
HOW? o Through competitions for academic/industry
feasibility studies and for 10-days free academic consultancy on sustainable building design and refurbishment
o By testing innovations at the testing facilities of the project partners’ institutions
o By publishing guidelines for the application of innovations in practice
o By developing and publishing database of design solutions for sustainable refurbishment
o By providing assistance and advice on sustainable building design and refurbishment to Scottish small to medium sized enterprises
o By disseminating the project outcomes through the project website, seminars, interactive webinars, webcasts and three whole-day online events that will include an exhibition, a conference and networking facilities
o By publishing information on products and services for sustainable building design and refurbishment offered by Scottish small to medium sized businesses registered with CIC Start Online.
BENEFITS OF FREE MEMBERSHIP
Publish information on your company’s products or services for sustainable building design and refurbishment
Receive a set of headphones with a microphone, monthly E-News and quarterly Innovation Review
Ask for advice/assistance Please click here to access the registration page at the project website
www.cicstart.org
PROJECT PARTNERS
FUNDED BY
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EDITORIAL…
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Welcome to the eleventh issue of Innovation Review!
We are happy to announce that the membership of CIC Start
Online has reached over 1,550 members from 40 countries.
Our conference on Green Deal and Sustainable Refurbishment
of Traditional Buildings, sponsored by Historic Scotland,
attracted over 110 delegates and four exhibitors, see pages
6-7.
Information on the published video recordings of our recent
webinars is available on pages 8-15 and on the forthcoming
webinars on pages 16-19.
Innovations developed with support through CIC Start Online
will be presented at a seminar at London South Bank University
on 18th June, see pages 20-21.
Dame Ellen MacArthur will be the key note speaker at the next
live conference, The Circular Economy: New Opportunities in
Design and Construction in Scotland, hosted at the University
of Strathclyde Glasgow on 1ST
June 2012, see pages 22-23.
Glasgow School of Art will host the conference ZEMCH 2012
on 20-22 August 2012, see pages 24-25.
Researchers of Caledonian Academy are explaining how
technology can be used to enhance professional learning on
pages 26-33. Information on BSRIA’s recently published Core
Principles for Soft Landings and Illustrated Guide to Mechanical
Building Services is available on pages 34-37.
In the previous issue we informed that a team of four quantity
surveying students from Glasgow Caledonian University had
won the Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB) Student
Challenge (Scotland). Since then they have also won CIOB
National Student Challenge, see pages 38-39.
Prof. John Wilson of Heriot Watt University writes on flexible
solar cells whose application on textiles for buildings will be
explored by technologists and architects, see pages 40-45.
The summary of the academic consultancy on The thermal
performance of the fabric of house built with j.Pods, provided
by Dr Chris Sanders of Glasgow Caledonian University, is
presented on pages 46-57. Prof. Colin Porteous’ article on
environmental assessment of domestic laundering informs on
the challenges and opportunities of the research undertaken
in collaboration with the University of Strathclyde Glasgow
and Glasgow Caledonian University, see pages 58-67. Low
technology, but higher performance architecture is the theme
of research summarised by Bianca-Daniela Ion of the
University of Strathclyde on pages 68-75.
Technologies and participants of the Housing Innovation
Showcase are presented by Bill Banks of Kingdom Housing
association on pages 76-81. Roots Design Workshop, a
mobile, accessible architectural and environmental design
practice who travel to rural and isolated communities that do
not usually have access to professional design services,
present their first completed project on pages 82-89.
.
We look forward to receiving articles on other sustainable
building design and refurbishment projects in Scotland. You
are welcome to send the articles to me by 15th August for the
next edition.
We hope that you will enjoy the variety and range of articles
in this issue!
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Green Deal and Sustainable Refurbishment of Traditional Buildings
Held on 29th February 2012 at Glasgow Caledonian University
Sponsored by Historic Scotland and attended by over 110 delegates
PAST CONFERENCES …
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Energy efficiency retrofit cost-benefit calculator
David Jenkins, Heriot Watt University
Robert Barnham, Changeworks
This webinar explores the development of a retrofit analysis tool by Changeworks, in partnership with the Urban
Energy Research Group in the School of Built Environment at Heriot-Watt University, and with support through
CIC Start Online funding. The tool is designed to inform future decision making strategies to target hard-to-treat
housing, so that energy efficiency standards, climate change targets and fuel poverty can be addressed cost
effectively. Unlike other tools this allows the input of actual data rather than generic dimensional data to provide
accurate savings and costs for measures such as solid wall insulation.
Please click on the image to access the video recording.
VIDEO RECORDINGS …
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Evaluating and improving a model for reducing fuel poverty
Julio Bros-Williamson, Edinburgh Napier University
Leanne Evans, Solas Scotland Ltd
This report is the final product of the consultation provided to Solas Scotland Ltd which evaluates and analyses a
scheme focusing on the reduction of Fuel Poverty in Scotland called Local Energy Saving Scheme (LESS). This
academic consultation has examined the methodology, outcomes and possible improvements of the LESS model
to eradicate fuel poverty in Scotland.
This report has created an awareness of the LESS model pointing out similar schemes around Britain and also a
review of the current community engagement which has been so successful in areas where the model is in
operation.
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Please click on the image to access the video recording.
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Developing Homegrown Natural Fibre Insulation Products
Dr Paul Baker, RICH Centre, Glasgow Caledonian University
Bruce Newlands, Kraft Architecture
The work has involved identifying appropriate fibres, trialling production and testing a variety of waste streams
including wool, cotton, wood, cellulose, denim & feathers.
The aim of this study was to test the thermal conductivity of a variety of natural fibres formed using a non-woven
bonding process at different densities to see whether this had an impact on their performance.
Please click on the image to access the video recording.
VIDEO RECORDINGS …
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Implications of installation of Solar Photovoltaic Panels on Properties of Fairfield Housing Co-operative
Tariq Muneer (Edinburgh Napier University), Masa Noguchi (Glasgow School of Art) and Anila
Ahmed (Fairfield Housing Association)
In October 2011 FHC applied for the approval of a feasibility study to CIC-Start Online to explore the potential of a
10 kW-peak PV facility for one of their Fairfieldbased properties. As a result two Scottish higher education
institutions were engaged to complete the above task, i.e. Glasgow School of Art and Edinburgh Napier University.
This webinar presents the results of those findings.
It is worth mentioning that FHC have obtained a quote from a local PV installer, Sidey who have offered a 41-
module installed facility for a total price of £26,316, including 5% VAT. The present study proposes a triple-string
installation with 14 modules in each string. The total number of modules thus required would be 42. It has been
assumed that the Sidey price quote would remain unchanged.
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Please click on the image to access the video recording.
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Benefits and options for the retrofit of an 18th Century traditional Scottish House using the PassivHaus standard
Julio Bros-Williamson, Edinburgh Napier University
John Stephen, SA Estates
This webinar explored the application of the Passive House standard which has been implemented in many new
build properties in central Europe, particularly Germany and Austria and which has also explored the possibility of
applying such standard to the retrofit and upgrading of buildings.
The feasibility study explored retrofit possibilities using the standard and how best it would integrate into a hard to
treat property selected as the case study. The dwelling is located in the village of Cellardyke in Fife, Scotland. It‘s
a traditional typical coastal village home which has had some renovations and attachments to it that haven’t been
all to its favour without addressing any ecological and energy efficiency alternatives.
Please click on the image to access the video recording.
VIDEO RECORDINGS …
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Life-cycle Costing of Novel Board Material
Dr Charles Russell (Glasgow Caledonian University) and David McBeth (Duncryne Ltd)
Econicboard is non toxic and free from formaldehyde, benzenes, solvents and oil based chemicals. It is
manufactured using high quality raw materials consisting of magnesium oxide, magnesium chloride, perlite,
recycled soft wood and water bound together with a fibrous mesh to create a durable and versatile board with the
following UKAS tested and approved attributes.
A Life Cycle Analysis of the carbon emissions associated with Econicboard was carried out by Glasgow
Caledonian University and funded through the CIC Start programme. The results of the assessment process were
presented including a comparison with equivalent use products such as OSB, Plywood and MDF.
.
Please click on the image to access the video recording.
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Retrofit Solar PV for Housing: Case studies from three Housing Associations
Julio Bros-Williamson (Edinburgh Napier University), John McMorrow (Easthall Park Housing Co-operative Ltd), Michael Hui (Malcolm Homes Ltd) and Wendy Farmer (Port of Leith Housing
Association)
This webinar will bring together three feasibility studies related to the adequate sizing and economic viability of
solar photovoltaic technology onto current housing stock belonging to three housing associations. Various
housing types were analysed for their adequate orientation and roof restrictions together with the appropriate
economic calculations for viable pay back periods in line with technology capital cost, government funding and
maintenance costs.
The reports have been adapted to the recent changes in legislation and government funding by analysing the
economic pay back periods and the variation of tariffs. These reports were conducted at different stages from
summer 2011 and the start of 2012 where variations of tariffs have been applied impacting accordingly to the
results.
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Please click on the image to access the video recording.
VIDEO RECORDINGS …
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Achieving Higher Heat Pump COP through the use of roof-top thermal solar collectors
Prof. Tariq Muneer, Edinburgh Napier University
Paolo Buoni, European Energy Centre
This webinar presented the results which may be divided into four main development areas; an investigation into
the on-site solar and ground energy resource, an analysis on the influence of the solar collector in achieving
higher heat pump COP, a development of a simulation tool for the identification of the optimum solar collector area
and an annual energy consumption using the heat pump. A collection of manufacturers’ data from various heat
pumps and solar collectors was carried out in order to test the performance of the different technologies.
Please click on the image to access the video recording.
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Reduction and Eradication of Fuel Poverty via Renewable Energy Technologies
Wednesday 13th June 2012
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This feasibility study has been approved by CIC-Start Online with the view to support Solas Scotland in their endeavour to explore the energetic, economic, and environmental (Triple "E") potential of solar PV installations for domestic properties. In the year 2011 the UK Government introduced a healthy support for feed-in Tariff (FIT) but seems to have quickly retracted the rate of support from 43.3- to 21p/kWh. The argument put forward by the Government for the above rapid retraction is that the cost of PV modules is in the process of dropping quite sharply.
This report presents solar PV design related information that will undertake the user to carry out the triple "E" analysis for building integrated systems. A number of examples have been introduced within this report as a means of facilitating the above-mentioned design and analysis process.
Speakers:
Prof Tariq Muneer, Edinburgh Napier University Graham McLennan, Solas Scotland Ltd Leanne Evans, Solas Scotland Ltd
FORTHCOMING WEBINARS …
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Energy efficiency retrofit cost-benefit calculator
– Phase 2
Tuesday 12th June 2012
The webinar will describe the further development of Changeworks stock analysis tool which is being made available ahead of the Green Deal. The calculator models improvement options for housing portfolios, and the respective capital costs, carbon savings, energy reduction, compliance with standards in particular the Scottish Housing Quality Standard and its impact on fuel poverty. This webinar will report on further development of the calculator funded under a second CIC Start academic award.
This work has extended the calculator’s functionality, including modelling variability issues based on householder heating patterns, provision of an enhanced Green Deal analysis, additional cost information and better outputs related to carbon savings. This will include details of case studies
Speakers:
David Jenkins, Heriot Watt University Robert Barnham, Changeworks
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Assessment of the choice of a Renewable Energy Source for Re-Tek
Wednesday 20th June 2012
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The project sought to define the practicality of incorporating low carbon technologies and mitigation measures into the RE-Tek UK industrial unit in order to make the business more sustainable as well as to keep up the company’s green credentials that are key to the progress and nature of the business.
The inclusion of these low carbon technologies could contribute to lowering the buildings environmental footprint which will lead eventually to lowering the buildings thermal performance and enhance its operational scores when issuing new Energy Performance Certificates (EPC's) for commercial, industrial and office buildings. By installing and no longer depending fully on grid connected energy supply the business is positioned as a safer and individually operational company that will withstand future energy shortages but will ultimately be in a more stable financial form by the reduction of energy bills.
The project evaluated a wide spread of technologies suited to the building type, location and other constrains. Feasibility studies into the financial viability and the cost effective sizing were evaluated bringing a wide range of optimum solutions. The work presented is a stepping into making an industrial unit as sustainable as possible.
Speakers:
Julio Bros-Williamson, Edinburgh Napier University Kevin Culligan, Re-Tek
WEBINARS …
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Live Attendees Downloads
Hybrid Solar Thermal Mass System for Housing 25 88
Improving energy and carbon performance of housing 24 56
Embedding Simplified POE in the Design Process 21 23
Tenement Flat Carbon Reduction Shopping List 52 46
Novel Solar Thermal Collector Design 38 24
Adoption of Low-Carbon Technologies by Scottish HA 72 25
POE for Low Carbon Innovative Housing Projects 51 37
Verification of a Climate Based worldwide Index 27 13
Solar wall Systems for Domestic Heating 48 25
Assessment of Zero Carbon Building in Scotland 57 33
Optimisation of “Triple E” savings in buildings - 39
Synergy of Fabric and Energy Conservation in Older Historic Properties
59 26
Insulation of Masonry and Lath walls in Existing Domestic Scottish Construction
95 58
Energy Efficiency Improvements in Tenements in Bellshill 79 27
Environmental Design Teaching Model 58 21
Energy Efficiency Retrofit Cost-benefit Calculator 82 26
Evaluating and Improving a Model for Reducing Fuel Poverty 49 9
Developing Homegrown Natural Fibre Insulation Products 58 18
Solar PV on Fairfield Housing Cooperative 45 14
Refurbishment of 18thC Traditional Scottish House using the PassivHaus Standard
100 35
Life Cycle Carbon Analysis of Novel Board Material 39 8
Retrofit Solar PV for Housing: 3 Case Studies 56 19
Achieving Higher Heat Pump COP through the use of Roof-top thermal solar collectors
73 6
1208 676
SUMMARY STATISTICS OF WEBINAR VIEWINGS
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INNOVATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN AND REFURBISHMENT IN SCOTLAND
Seminar at the Innovation and the Built Environment Academy, South Bank University
London, 18th June 2012
SEMINAR HOST
The Innovation and the Built Environment Academy (IBEA) is a
non-profit organisation and holds conferences each autumn
(September-October), alternating in various locations around
the world. It also organises seminars for professionals involved
in research and practice in the built environment. Dr Mahtab
Akhavan Farshchi, the founder of IBEA, is a Senior Lecturer at
Department of the Built Environment, London South Bank
University.
Dr Mahtab Akhavan Farshchi
SPEAKER: Dr Branka Dimitrijevic Dr Branka Dimitrijevic is a Director of Construction Improvement Club (CIC) Start Online.
Branka gives invited lectures at postgraduate level on sustainable development, urban
planning, building design and refurbishment at the University of Strathclyde Glasgow, the
Polytechnic University of Bari and the University of Basilicata in Potenza, Italy. Her recent
international research collaborations include the research on condition assessment of
historic reinforced concrete structures and their potential sustainable repair and retrofit
with the University of Basilicata and the research project Spatial, Environmental, Energy
and Social Aspects of Developing Settlements and Climate Change – Mutual Impacts with
the Institute of Architecture and Urbanism of Serbia.
Branka is a member of the Board of the Architecture and Design Scotland, the Board of
Scottish Sustainable Development Forum, the Built Environment sub-group of 2020
Climate Group and the Energy Utilisation in Buildings sub-group of the Energy
Technology Partnership.
Dr Branka Dimitrijevic
I look forward to meeting the
seminar attendees and
presenting the innovations
developed through CIC Start
Online! See you in a few
weeks.
Branka
FORTHCOMING EVENTS …
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SEMINAR SUMMARY
This seminar will present innovations for sustainable building design and refurbishment developed through collaboration of
researchers at Scottish universities and small to medium size companies in Scotland within the project Construction
Improvement Club (CIC) Start Online. It will provide an overview of a range of innovative products and processes whose
potential application has been demonstrated through 50 feasibility studies and 20 academic consultancies.
The context for the project is the need to develop innovations that will enable construction industry to respond to the Scott ish
Government aims to reduce carbon emissions in Scotland by 80% by 2050 as outlined in the Climate Change (Scotland) Act
2009. Regarding carbon emissions from buildings, A Low Carbon Building Standards Strategy for Scotland – Sullivan Report
2007 recommends future revisions to the CO2 target reductions within the Building Regulations as follows: 2010 – CO2 savings
of 30% more than 2007 building standards; 2013 – CO2 savings of 60% more than 2007 building standards; 2016/17 – net zero
carbon buildings (i.e. space/water heating, lighting & ventilation).
CIC Start Online started in September 2009 and will close at the end of February 2013. It is funded by European Regional
Development Fund and Scottish Government. When the initiated studies are completed, they are disseminated through free
interactive online webinars. Video recordings of the webinars are saved on the project website www.cicstart.org. The project has
attracted over 1,500 members to date, nationally and internationally from 39 countries.
The seminar will provide an overview of innovations developed for decision making, planning, design, construction,
refurbishment and performance testing for more sustainable built environment by using the examples of delivered outcomes.
Information on the planned future project for development and testing of innovations for the integration of sustainable
infrastructure into existing building estates will also be presented.
BOOKING
Please click on the image to access the IBEA website and book places
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The Circular Economy: New Opportunities in Design and Construction in Scotland
Conference at the University of Strathclyde Glasgow, Friday 1st June
This one-day conference will explore opportunities for Scottish SMEs involved in the design and construction industry around a new economy that is emerging based on design and innovation. The circular economy is a generic term for an industrial economy that is, by design or intention, restorative and in which materials flows are of two types, biological nutrients, designed to re-enter the biosphere safely, and technical nutrients, which are designed to circulate at high quality without entering the biosphere.
The term encompasses more than the production and consumption of goods and services, including a shift from fossil fuels to the use of renewable, and the role of diversity as a characteristic of resilient and productive systems. In broader terms, the circular approach is a framework that takes insights from living systems. It considers that our systems should work like organisms, processing nutrients that can be fed back into the cycle – whether biological or technical - hence the “closed loop” or “regenerative” terms usually associated with it.
Dame Ellen MacArthur, The Ellen MacArthur Foundation
FORTHCOMING CONFERENCES … ______________
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The Circular Economy: New Opportunities in Design and Construction in Scotland
Conference at the University of Strathclyde Glasgow, Friday 1st June
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation
is an independent
charity with the aim
of inspiring a
generation to re-
think, re-design &
build a positive
future through the
vision of a circular
economy
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ZERO-ENERGY MASS CUSTOM HOME (ZEMCH) CONFERENCE 2012
In collaboration with CIC Start Online, IEA SHC/ECBCS Task 40/Annex 52 ‘Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings’ joint programme, and ZEMCH Network, The Glasgow School of Art (GSA) is currently organising ‘ZEMCH 2012 International Conference’ that will be held at GSA from 20th to 22nd August 2012. The conference has been sponsored by Glasgow City Council, South Ayrshire Council, BRE, and NRGStyle. The registration is open to anyone who is interested in learning ZEMCH design, production and marketing principles. For more information about the programme, please visit the conference’s dedicated website at
www.zemch2012.org
FORTHCOMING CONFERENCES …
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ZEMCH 2012
Housing is a system of energy and environment and required to accommodate wants and needs of individuals and
society, which are usually considered to be diverse and dynamic. The 'needs' factor often reflects minimum quality of
end-user products (i.e. housing) and may embrace 'adequacy' being prescribed in conventional codes, while the 'wants'
may be satisfied only if they are defined clearly by stakeholders (e.g. house-users and builder/developers) at the design
decision making stage. 'Mass customisation' is an oxymoron or, perhaps, a paradigm case of a systems approach to
identifying the aforementioned wants and needs that should be incorporated into the design of end-user products (or
homes). Albeit increasing market demands for achievement of social, economic and environmental sustainability in
housing today, conventional homebuilders (and housing manufacturers alike) who are often reluctant to spending extra
time, money and effort for information gathering of new products and services are still barely able to adopt recently
emerging innovations including mass custom design approaches to the delivery of sustainable affordable homes.
ZEMCH 2012 aims to establish an intellectual forum of interactive discussion on design, production and marketing
issues surrounding the delivery of low to zero energy/CO2 emission mass-customisable homes being built in developed
and developing countries. The conference is open to any stakeholders who are involved in housing research, business,
teaching, and policy making.
Conference Chairs
Prof. Antonio Frattari, University of Trento, Italy
Prof. Colin Ripley, Ryerson University, Canada
Dr. Tim Sharpe, MEARU, The Glasgow School of Art, UK
Keynote Speakers
Prof. Seona Reid, CBE, FRSA, Director of The Glasgow School of Art
Mr Chic Brodie MSP for the Scottish National Party (Biographical Sketch)
Prof. Avi Friedman, McGill University (Biographical Sketch)
Prof. Mitsuhiro Udagawa, Kogakuin University (Biographical Sketch)
Prof. Tariq Muneer, Edinburgh Napier University (Biographical Sketch)
Mr Sandy Murray, Chief Executive, Tenants First Housing Co-operative (Biographical Sketch)
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CHARTING COLLECTIVE KNOWLEDGE: TECHNOLOGY ENHANCED PROFESSIONAL LEARNING
Allison Littlejohn, Colin Milligan and Anoush Margaryan
Caledonian Academy, Glasgow Caledonian University
The workplace is an environment where powerful, deep and effective learning takes place through non-formal workplace
learning, as well as through formal training and education. This article describes a mechanism to enhance learning at work by
capitalising on collective knowledge within an organisation. Two scenarios are presented illustrating how individual and group
learning and performance may be improved. These scenarios are based on empirical data of knowledge work practices within
a multinational organization.
SUPPORT …
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The value of connected knowledge
In the current economy, the main source of competitive
advantage for organisations is knowledge. Successful
companies are those that can rapidly create new knowledge,
contribute it to the knowledge pool of the organisation, and
locate, collect, consume and connect relevant knowledge to
solve complex problems. This mandates a faster and more
effective cycle of knowledge creation and action based on new
knowledge. Knowledge-based industries are characterised by a
continuous redefinition of organisational goals along with
radical and discontinuous change. Increasingly organisations
need employees to able to respond to emerging needs by
taking more responsibility for their own learning and
development. Rapid adaptation to these emerging needs
requires effective talent management and, critically, a reduction
in time to competence. ‘New crew’ must be capable of getting
up to speed quickly through self-regulating their own learning.
They should be able to discover and integrate knowledge from
many different sources in order to gain key competencies. They
must be able to draw on the collective knowledge of experts
and peers in groups or networks, using relevant technologies.
In this sense, collective knowledge can be defined as the
aggregation of knowledge in people, practices, and machines.
There is a direct correlation between an organisation’s potential
for problem-solving and the way in which it uses its collective
knowledge base. The organisational knowledge needed to
solve key challenges is no longer solely in the mind of one
individual or even one team. Increasingly, solving work
problems depends on the complex and evolving collective
knowledge. Employees have to be able to use, create and
share knowledge within their organisation to maintain the
quality of this collective knowledge and to ensure the long-term
competitiveness of the organisation. Individuals need the
appropriate skills and tools to consume, connect and contribute
to the collective knowledge and to draw upon the collective
knowledge for learning.
There are several issues affecting an organisation’s ability
to connect knowledge for collective learning. Firstly, the
fragmentation of knowledge is increasing. Knowledge is
subject to more and more division and dispersion, arising
from increasing specialisation, division of labour and
diffused sources of innovation. In multinational companies,
fragmentation can be exacerbated by the variety of
disparate local processes, systems and tools for knowledge
sharing. Fragmentation of knowledge can have dangerous
consequences – inefficiency, duplication, insufficiently
informed decisions. The knowledge needed to solve a
problem may exist, but may not be visible and available to
the right people in the right place at the right time.
Therefore it is important for organisations to be able to
connect knowledge residing in systems and individuals, by
integrating and organising fragmented, diffused and thinly-
dispersed knowledge. Central to connecting knowledge is
the ability of organisations to leverage the power of formal
and informal networks and communities through strategies,
processes, as well as technological tools that support
retrievable, reflective and embedded communication
around knowledge creation and consumption. The IBM
Global Human Capital Study (2008) surveyed 400 HR
executives from 40 different countries representing private,
public and not-for-profit organisations across a variety of
industries and geographic locations. The study revealed
that only a small minority (13%) believed their companies
were “very capable” of identifying specific expertise within
organisation – many companies - recognise that they
cannot yet systematically locate expertise. The majority of
those companies that rated themselves as “very effective”
at locating experts use some form of employee directory
that includes information about an employee location,
contact info, reporting chain, skills and credentials, and
pointers to others within an individual’s personal network.
One challenge is that these methods of ‘expertise location’
require that individuals maintain their own information.
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In the IBM survey, only 15% of surveyed organisations reported
using technology that enables automatic profiling of skills,
expertise and personal networks. Yet organizations and
individuals have to find effective ways to source and consume
knowledge from an increasingly wide range of resources and
services, through searching or using, based on the actions of
others. Typically, individuals will use simultaneously formal
resources (Open Educational Resources, articles, e-books,
podcast videos or audio resources) along with dynamic,
informal resources (wikis – such as Wikipedia, blogs, Twitter
feeds and so on).
Secondly, individuals must be able to connect and collaborate
with others to innovate, solve problems, and create and share
knowledge. It is not lack of technology that inhibits knowledge
sharing and collaboration. In the IBM global survey, only 28% of
the companies saw lack of technology as the issue. It is
organisational silos (42%), time pressure (40%), and
misaligned performance measures (37%) that were considered
to be impeding organisations ability to connect knowledge.
Thirdly, organisations experience difficulties in identifying and
tapping into external sources of knowledge, building external
expert networks and leveraging external communities.
Organisations have been experimenting with radically new
forms of tapping into the collective knowledge that exists
outside the organisation. A few prominent models have
emerged: ‘crowdsourcing’ and ‘ideagoras’, which have also
been termed the “eBay for innovation”; prosumption, a process
of harnessing consumer communities through co-innovation
simultaneously placing consumers as producers; open source
R&D and precompetitive knowledge commons. There are just
some of the approaches companies have been using to
enhance their ability to use collective knowledge (Tapscott and
Williams, 2008).
Fourthly, organisational and cultural barriers impact the ways
knowledge is used.
Educational systems and many cultures and societies train
individuals from an early age to be dependent on authority
figures (teachers, parents, experts, managers) to direct
them in their learning and work. Social technologies
decentralise and democratise communication, sharing and
production of knowledge – however work practices in many
organisations pose barriers to critical thinking, innovation
and collaboration. Individuals need to take control of their
learning and work, but organisations must give up some
control too. Organisations should support different models
of work and individual skills development, which enable - or
at least do not hamper - creative thinking, innovation,
peering and sharing. The concept of wirearchy
(http://www.wirearchy.com/) is emerging as an alternative
form of organisation based on increasingly horizontal
communications and interaction between people, made
possible by use of new technologies for communication and
collaboration.
Some organisations are already addressing these key
issues by adopting radically new approaches to learning
that empower and equip individuals to draw upon and feed
into the ‘collective conscious’ distributed across the
organisation and beyond. Similarly, individuals must
develop new habits and behaviours in learning, networking
and knowledge sharing to become better, self-regulated
knowledge workers.
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Charting collective knowledge
Through empirical research, we have proposed a mechanism
for connecting individuals to others with similar goals and
development needs, creating networks of people who may
support each other in work and learning (Littlejohn, Milligan and
Margaryan, 2011). We term this mechanism ‘charting’. Charting
enables an individual to manage his or her interactions with
relevant people and networks, make sense of data, information
and knowledge that he/she requires to achieve his/her learning
goals, and create and contribute knowledge. Charting
incorporates four key activities/processes:
1. Consuming knowledge created by others;
2. Connecting with other people to network, collaborate and
find knowledge and experiences necessary to achieve
one’s learning goals. This activity is concerned with
networking. Connecting knowledge (eg resources, personal
reflections) to create an individually tailored view of the
knowledge and understanding they possess about a given
topic and how different topics interrelate within their
personal world-view;
3. Creating new knowledge and
4. Contributing this knowledge to the collective.
These four components represent a set of intertwined activities
rather than discrete linear steps. They represent the primary
mechanisms by which an individual employee interacts with the
collective to attain their goals.
Charting can be implemented as a web-based platform that
allows integration of and with an individuals’ existing tools
learning (Littlejohn, Margaryan and Milligan, 2009). The
charting platform is underpinned by powerful algorithms, data
mining mechanisms and analytics that allow social and
semantic search, recommendations, personalisation and other
mechanisms for connecting with relevant others and finding,
filtering, evaluating and assessing knowledge.
Although charting is fundamentally personal learning, in the
sense that it is individually-initiated and individually-
motivated (the organising principle for charting is
individual’s learning goals), it is not an individual learning
process. Charting aims to create“ common capital (e.g., re-
usable knowledge) via the selective accumulation of shared
by-products of individual activities motivated, initially, by
personal utility.” (Convertino et al, 2010, p.15). While
individuals may use a charting system to fulfil their personal
learning goals, at the same time the system would “enable
the accumulation of critical by-products” such as detailed
interaction traces and individual contributions (e.g., a wiki
page, a bookmark). When aggregated, these become a
resource for the community” (ibid).
Imagine if a new employee setting her learning goals could
dynamically look up another individual’s plan and see how
they reached their learning goals. Charting would facilitate
this since it is both individually focused and collaboratively
enabled allowing individuals to use other peoples’
knowledge and experience to refine and achieve their
personal goals. Goals and motivations are continually
reviewed as the stages of self-regulated learning
(forethought, performance and self-reflection) are carried
out simultaneously. Individuals would benefit from seeing
how others with similar goals achieved them and their
reflections on the process.
Charting draws upon the metaphor of the ‘wisdom of the
crowds’ (Surowiecki, 2004) the idea that large groups of
connected people are better able to solve problems and
foster innovation. In this metaphor the individual is
recognised as a key contributor to the wealth of collective
knowledge – not just explicitly in terms of contributing
discrete resources, but also implicitly through emergent
patterns and information in the system such as ratings and
usage data, to provide additional cues as to quality and
utility of resources.
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Over time, the knowledge held by the collective is enriched by
the contributions of the collective, and individual members learn
from each other’s reflective practice; and benefit from seeing
how other’s solved problems, the resources they used and the
routes they took to learn. Figure 1 illustrates how an individual
might consume knowledge from various sources, connect with
others within and beyond their workplace and how they might
create new knowledge and contribute it back to the collective.
Alongside these activities, each individual can chart the
collective knowledge needed to attain their learning goals.
Charting involves the combined operations of consuming,
connecting and contributing to collective knowledge
How an individual might chart collective knowledge: a usecase Sally is an experienced drilling engineer in a global energy
company where she has worked for several years.
Typically, Sally works in multi-disciplinary project based
teams where she is expert in her particular discipline. Over
her time with the company Sally has developed a strong
network of contacts with different skills and experience.
These networks consist of other employees in her
company, contractors who are affiliated to the company on
a project by project basis, and professional contacts who
work for external organizations (for example product
suppliers, who will have precise technical knowledge of
their own products).
Figure 1: Charting and collective learning
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Sally also has a network of her own professional contacts
drawn from colleagues from past projects, along with external
colleagues from her membership of other communities. Sally’s
work is heavily knowledge based and a large proportion of her
time is spent accessing and interpreting existing knowledge
held within and outside her company, as well as working in
project teams to create new knowledge in the form of design
specifications and research reports. As her work is heavily
dependent on collaborating with others, the tools she uses must
not only fit her own needs, but also interface with tools used by
others. For the whole team, the range of tools used should fit
closely with each individual’s own working habits, to ensure that
sharing within the group does not become an extra, unnatural
task.
A key component of Sally’s work environment is the ‘Charting
System’ she uses to organize her work and learning. The
charting system connects Sally to others through her work
goals. As teams come together to collaborate, goals can be
negotiated and refined, and shared. The system allows Sally to
structure her work around her current work tasks, linking to
others who share those tasks. Sally can constantly refine and
re-prioritise her actions to ensure she effectively achieves her
goals. As time passes, completed tasks are lost from view,
replaced by current priorities.
Sally also uses the Charting tools, to agree a set of personal
learning goals for the year with her manager. Some of these
goals will relate to explicit tasks and projects and may be
clearly defined. Others will relate to longer term career
development goals and will be (initially) less well defined. Sally
and her manager identify an initial set of resources and people
that will be relevant to achieving these goals and these are
recorded within the charting tools. Sally continues to engage
with this process throughout the year, utilising internal and
external resources (websites, wikis, directories, indexes and
knowledge sharing fora) to help her achieve her goals.
The Charting system allows Sally to manage her work and
learning through four complementary sub-activities of
charting:
Consuming knowledge Sally uses search tools to
find resources which have been created and used by
others who were involved in similar tasks. Recommender
tools can be used to identify new resources (those who
read x, also found y useful) whilst rating tools can be used
to fine-tune these recommendations (did you find this
resource helpful?).
Connecting to others with whom Sally shares task
goals or similar skills and interests. The charting tool allows
comparison of Sally’s own skills (recorded initially via a
skills audit then dynamically updated as new skills are
acquired) and task goals with those of her peers and
colleagues. For her own personal development, Sally can
identify the next steps for her own development by seeing
how others have achieved similar goals.
Creating new knowledge by combining and
extending sources (people and resources and personal
reflections etc) to create a dynamic, faithful and individually
focused view of the knowledge and understanding Sally
possesses about a given topic, and how different topics
inter-relate within her personal world-view. This sense-
making process is continual, and ensures that the
knowledge space evolves with the ideas of the individual,
their network and the whole collective.
Contributing new knowledge to the collective -
create evidence which is relevant to specific tasks and (in
the future) to the whole collective. As Sally works, her
outputs automatically become part of the knowledge held
by the collective. Newly created resources are
automatically tagged and augmented with secondary usage
metadata as the resources are viewed and utilised by
others.
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How project teams might chart collective knowledge:
a usecase
Project teams bring together groups of experts with a requisite
range of skills. The Charting system can bring teams together
through their use of collective knowledge. The ‘My Network’
section of the Charting system shows all the members of the
team and how they are connected to her current network (using
degrees of separation similar to LinkedIn), recommending
connections with new contacts. Team members share the
overall goals for the project but may be involved in only a
subset of the activities defined. The Charting system reflects
this, showing each team member a personal view of the key
activities they are involved in.
The system allows the team to connect through their work and
learning goals, suggesting similarities with previously
completed tasks (by semantic analysis of the wording of tasks
for example). When each individual does some work related to
a particular task, the resources created are automatically
tagged and made available to the other team members.
Integrated collaborative spaces provide a locus for co-working
as follows:
Idea tools encourage team members to capture ideas as
notes attached to resources: capturing new thoughts (tacit
knowledge) and integrating them with established (explicit)
knowledge.
Communications tools capture asynchronous and
synchronous conversations in the context of the resources
that they relate to.
Value boxes allow each viewer a simple way of
highlighting useful resources for themselves or others.
Search tools enable discovery of new ideas using an
algorithm which takes into account these ratings, the tags,
and temporal indicators (how long since a resource was
created or last viewed).
Each individual maintains a personalized view of the team’s
collective knowledge. The system can alert team members
to new items may be relevant based on tagging or origin.
The system can highlight people who may be useful to work
with. This stimulates creativity within the team by widening
perspectives and stimulating reflection on work tasks and
goals.
Conclusions
Charting collective knowledge is a way of supporting
personal and collaborative learning by allowing employees
to make better use of the collective knowledge emerging
through work practices. In this conception of learning, the
individual is recognised as a key contributor to the wealth of
collective knowledge – not just in terms of discrete
resources, but also through reflection, gaining experience,
developing reputation, forming trust based relationships,
and benefitting from emergent patterns and information in
the system such as ratings and usage data, to provide
additional cues as to quality and utility of resources. Over
time, the knowledge held by the collective is enriched by
the contributions of the collective, and individual members
learn from each other’s reflective practice; and benefit from
seeing how other’s solved problems, the resources they
used and the routes they took to learn.
A Charting environment requires an open architecture
connecting advanced Web 2.0 services including charting
services, accessible via a variety of interconnected devices.
A prototype interface is currently being tested at Glasgow
Caledonian University.
RESEARCH …
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References Convertino et al (2010). Collective intelligence in organisations: Towards a research agenda. Paper presented at CSCW 2010,
February 6–10, 2010, Savannah, Georgia, USA. ACM 978-1-60558-795-0/10/02. Retrieved February 20, 2010, from http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/redmond/groups/connect/CSCW 10/docs/p613.pdf
IBM (2008) IBM Global Human Capital Study. Retrieved May 13, 2010 http://www-935.ibm.com/services/us/gbs/bus/pdf/g510-6647-00.pdf
Littlejohn, A, Margaryan, A and Milligan, C. (2009). Charting collective knowledge: Supporting self-regulated learning in the workplace. In Proceedings of the 9th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) 2009. Retrieved May 13, 2010 http://www.academy.gcal.ac.uk/anoush/documents/Littlejohn-Margaryan-Milligan-ICALT-FINAL180309.doc
Littlejohn, A, Milligan, C., & Margaryan, A. (2012). Charting collective knowledge: Supporting self-regulated learning in the workplace. Journal of Workplace Learning, 24(3). http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=1366-5626&volume=24&issue=3&articleid=17010279&show=abstract
Surowiecki, J. (2004). The wisdom of crowds: Why the many are smarter than the few. London: Abacus. Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. (2008). Wikinomics: How mass collaboration changes everything. London: Atlantic Books.
The Caledonian Academy is a centre for research in technology enhanced professional learning at Glasgow Caledonian University, UK http://www.academy.gcal.ac.uk/ Professor Allison Littlejohn is the Director of the Caledonian Academy and Chair of Learning Technology at Glasgow Caledonian University Bio: http://www.academy.gcal.ac.uk/people/littlejohn.html Blog: http://littlebylittlejohn.com Twitter: @allisonl Dr. Colin Milligan is a Research Fellow in the Caledonian Academy Bio: http://www.academy.gcal.ac.uk/people/milligan.html Blog: http://flavors.me/bicameral Twitter: @cdmilligan Dr Anoush Margaryan is Senior Lecturer in Learning Technology in the Caledonian Academy Bio: http://www.academy.gcal.ac.uk/people/margaryan.html Blog: http://chartingthelabyrinths.wordpress.com Twitter: @anoush
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CORE PRINCIPLES FOR SOFT LANDINGS
www.bsria.co.uk
Twelve Core Principles that define a Soft Landings project
have been published by the research and consulting
organisation, BSRIA. The Soft Landings Core Principles
have been developed by BSRIA working with the BSRIA
Soft Landings User Group1. They have been written for
construction clients and their professional teams to inform
Soft Landings project processes.
Soft Landings is the cradle-to-occupation process for the
graduated handover of a new or refurbished building,
where a period of professional aftercare by the project team
is planned for at project inception and carried out for up to
three years post-completion.
The Soft Landings Framework2 was published by BSRIA in
2009 as a free-to-use, open-source method to help deliver
truly sustainable buildings. It has become widely accepted
for new and refurbishment building projects. The adoption
of Soft Landings work steps can earn credits in the
sustainable management section of BREEAM for New
Construction, and is in the process of being adopted for
government procurement policy.
“BSRIA has produced these Core Principles largely for
clients who may have heard of Soft Landings but need to
know how to do it,” said BSRIA’s Soft Landings manager,
Roderic Bunn. “Construction firms also need to know what
is and is not essential to a Soft Landings project.”
The Core Principles stress the importance of adopting all
stages of the Soft Landings process, from the inception
stage onwards, not just the aftercare elements.
“While we don’t wish to stop clients from introducing Soft
Landings on projects already underway – a graduated
handover can be beneficial in itself – a true Soft Landings
project is a cradle-to-occupation process, “ added Bunn. “A
soft take-off is more likely to result in a soft landing, where
extra attention has been paid in the early stages to designing
for manageability and usability, and in properly defining the
building’s performance targets, such as energy use,” he said.
“Even on projects that adopt Soft Landings from the outset,
cherry-picking of the Core Principles may introduce risks and
fragilities,” explained Bunn.
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“We believe the risks of under-performance will increase
proportionately as Core Principles are weakened or
abandoned. Clients need to appreciate
this, so we’re hoping that architects, engineers and
builders who are keen on Soft Landings give their clients a
copy of the Soft Landings Core Principles and make sure
they understand what’s needed.”
The 12 Core Principles are:
1. Adopt the entire process
2. Provide leadership
3. Set roles and responsibilities
4. Ensure continuity
5. Commit to aftercare
6. Share risk and responsibility
7. Use feedback to inform design
8. Focus on operational outcomes
9. Involve the building managers
10. Involve the end users
11. Set performance objectives
12. Communicate and inform
The 8-page BSRIA publication provides detail on each of
the principles, with guidance on how to interpret and apply
them to real projects.
Dr Bill Bordass of the Usable Buildings Trust3 and co-
author of the Soft Landings Framework said “With growing
financial and environmental constraints, we can no longer
afford the large discrepancies that so often occur between
predicted and in-use performance of new buildings.
Clients, designers and builders must focus on actual
outcomes. They can start tomorrow by adopting the Soft
Landings Core Principles.”
Gary Clark, chairman of the Soft Landings User Group said
“The Core Principles are a timely addition to the growing
catalogue of Soft Landings supporting documents by BSRIA.
They aim to articulate in clear and concise terms what
fundamental actions are required by clients and project teams
to deliver consistently better buildings.”
“In this age of austerity, Soft Landings is vital for helping to
deliver lower carbon buildings within constrained capital and
operating budgets,” added Clark. “The Soft Landings Core
Principles offers the construction industry a blueprint of doing
more with less, without adding layers of unnecessary and
wasteful bureaucracy.”
BSRIA believes that clients and building teams could express
the Core Principles in a Soft Landings Code of Conduct for a
project. “This could be similar to the Considerate Contractors’
Scheme, to which all parties would be willing signatories,” said
Roderic Bunn. “This would require statements to encourage
people to aim high and improve product delivery.”
Clients are not advised to make the Core Principles a
contractual requirement in themselves, rather to use them to
inform their requirements in each section of the project
documentation. The Core Principles can be added as an
appendix, but ideally each principle should also be inserted at
relevant points in the project tender documentation. The Core
Principles can then be referenced in the chosen form of
appointment for the designers, and in the construction contract
for the builder.
Construction companies are urged to support the Soft Landings
Core Principles, and are invited to do so via the Soft Landings
website4 when they download the PDF version.
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Soft Landings is a cradle-to-occupation process for a
graduated handover of a new or refurbished building,
where a period of professional aftercare by the project team
is planned for at project inception and carried out for up to
three years post-completion.
The new BSRIA Soft Landings Level 1 training course,
being launched on 28th June 2012, will inform the industry
about this process that aims to help project teams deliver
design ambitions in actual building performance.
There are often huge differences between the performance
of new buildings in design and their performance in reality,
particularly in terms of their energy consumption, occupant
satisfaction and general building usability. One way of
closing the performance gap is the Soft Landings process
of graduated handover and aftercare. Soft Landings has
touched a nerve with the construction industry as clients
are increasingly keen for their buildings to be truly
sustainable. This means that project teams need to fully
understand Soft Landings processes and resources.
BSRIA’s new Soft Landings Level 1 training course will
provide this knowledge to anyone in a project team.
Soft Landings is gaining momentum in the industry by:
being increasingly specified by clients
providing a means of earning credits in BREEAM for New
Construction
being in the process of adoption for government
procurement policy
assisting project teams deliver lower carbon buildings
within constrained budgets.
This course will be of value to professionals involved in the
design, construction and operation of the built environment.
This includes building owners, building services consultants
and contractors, architects, cost consultants, project
managers, principal contractors and facilities managers.
Delegates will be provided with a free copy of the BSRIA Soft
Landings Framework (BG 04/2009) and Soft Landings Core
Principles (BG 38/2012) documents, together with a copy of
all the slides presented.
For more information visit
www.bsria.co.uk/goto/sf1
BSRIA LAUNCHES SOFT LANDINGS TRAINING COURSE
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Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Building Services
www.bsria.co.uk
This publication is an update to one of our best-selling
guides, AG 15/2002 and will be available from 23rd April.
As with the previous edition, it provides basic reference
information on mechanical building services systems for
construction clients and professionals in other areas of the
construction industry.
This guide covers the key areas of heating, ventilation, air
conditioning and controls and in the new edition,
information has been added on:
· pumps
· pressurisation
· low-carbon heat sources
· MVHR systems
· commissioning, handover and project evaluation.
For construction clients, the guide provides a simple insight
into the main system options discussed during the briefing
process. It can also help clients to identify and raise
technical questions which they feel are relevant to their
organisation's specific needs. For construction
professionals, the guide provides a quick reference to
building services systems and can assist their working
knowledge of the subject. For those new to the industry and
non-experts, this guide provides a valuable introduction to
the basics of building services systems.
To ensure the guide is simple and quick to use, a brief
overview of each system is provided, followed by a list of
key points. Photographs and simple drawings are used to
help explain the appearance and operation of each system.
It is acknowledged that the design team’s role includes
assessing and recommending appropriate design solutions
for a given project. This guide does not aim to provide a route
for system selection other than to point out typical
applications for many of the systems covered.
Contact:
Bookshop: +44 (0)1344 465529
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.bsria.co.uk/bookshop
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Glasgow Caledonian University wins CIOB National Student Challenge
Halbert Mills, Glasgow Caledonian University
Craig Whyte, Halbert Mills (Lecturer), Lauren Brown, Eve Mallon and Lauren Brown
For the second year in a row students from Glasgow Caledonian University have won the Chartered Institute of Building
(CIOB) National Student Challenge Final held at Ascot in Berkshire.
EDUCATION …
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The team of four quantity surveying students, Lauren Brown,
Lauren Meldrum, Eve Mallon and Craig Wright are in their final
year.
This year’s challenge saw the students propose a design and
build brief for a hypothetical new terminal at Manchester Airport
– Terminal 4.
The teams were asked to create an ‘Intelligent Airport’ that
considers the whole life cycle of the building. There had to be
recognition of the current construction improvement agenda
relating to Building Information Modelling and the wider use of
digital technologies, the importance of quality design and the
pivotal role of sustainability.
The exercise involved preparing a bid proposal document in 2½
hours followed by a PowerPoint presentation after lunch.
Teams had access to a number of published documents in the
CIOB library and also internet access throughout the day.
Dr Sarah Peace from the CIOB said, “This year’s challenge
produced some really innovative and considered solutions.
What impressed the Judges the most was the passion and
awareness all the student teams showed throughout the event.
But for us Glasgow gave the most complete and creative set of
solutions that displayed a real insight for airport building.”
The Judging Panel included David Haimes from Manchester
Airports Group, Gavin Maxwell-Hart from Laing O’Rourke,
Danny Kearney from Xtratherm and Dr Sarah Peace the
CIOB’s Scholarship and Research Manager.
Other teams to reach the final included: University of
Greenwich, City of Sunderland College, Mid Kent College,
University of Salford, University of the West of England,
Pencoed College, Leeds Met University and a team from SDC
Construction Group each of which had won a heat within their
geographical area.
Construction works should go ahead
adjacent to Terminal 3
Reasons:
Interlinked
Minimum disruption
Boost the UK economy
Reduced site specific costs due to
proposed location
LCC has been considered and although
we project high capital costs the
building is more sustainable in the long
term
Sustainable materials and utilising
renewable energy sources contribute to
achieving the client’s business
objectives.
This development is viable
The Client will see a return on investment
Innovative solutions and features will be
used in the construction
The Airport users needs have been
satisfied
Local jobs have been created and
ultimately an intelligent airport will have
been formed.
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FLEXIBLE SOLAR CELLS
Prof. John Wilson
School of Engineering & Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University Power Textiles Limited
1. Introduction
Perhaps the title should be “inflexible solar cells” because
that is the common perception of most available photovoltaic
(PV) modules on the market today (Fig. 1) . These extremely
visible additions to buildings around the world are not beloved
of architects or planners, despite their environmental
credentials. Even when a building is designed with an
integrated PV array there is a limited choice of system. To
appreciate this we should understand the manner in which
PV modules convert sunlight into electricity, which requires
certain features in common across all photovoltaic devices.
We may then be able to realise the restrictions placed on PV
scientists and engineers in developing new types of solar cell,
and critically appraise suggestions for novel designs.
Certainly there is a need for truly flexible modules, whether
this is to assist in transporting and mounting them or whether
it is to enable fixing to non-rigid structures.
Fig. 1 - Solar Century PV roof shingle
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2. Sunshine to electricity: the photovoltaic conversion
process
Solar cells absorb sunlight to generate electrical current
directly by the photovoltaic effect, without a thermal or
mechanical mediator. To do this effectively they must be
optically dense for much of the solar spectrum, which
explains their dark blue or black appearance (Fig. 2 and 3).
The three features that all solar cells possess are: an optical
absorber that converts light to electrical charge; an in-built
electrical field that separates these pairs of positive and
negative electrical charges before they are lost by
recombination; electrical contacts that deliver these charges
to the external work load. The first two of these features are
provided by a semiconducting material, commonly silicon,
which has the ability of controlled electrical conductivity by
the addition of very small amounts of selected impurities. In
this manner, two types of semiconductor are formed; p-type
and n-type, which together generate an electrical field at any
p-n junction without the addition of an external power supply.
As with any power conversion device, the conversion will be
less than 100% efficient, determined by unavoidable losses
and ultimately set by thermodynamics. Solar cell output
power is the product of electrical current and voltage, which
can be optimised only by a compromise between generating
maximum current and maximum voltage. The current
depends on the particular semiconductor chosen from a
diverse family of elements and compounds but it is also
directly dependent on the illuminated area – the reason for
most solar panels being as large as possible. The voltage is
dependent on the p-n junction structure, and its magnitude is
the same for all cell areas, but also ultimately depends on the
particular semiconductor. Without introducing too many
concepts, we should appreciate that the solar spectrum
encompasses ultraviolet through to infrared wavelengths, and
that a semiconductor has a threshold wavelength for optical
absorption, above which it will be transparent: to absorb most
of the solar spectrum would require a material with an
infrared threshold wavelength.
Fig 2. Polycrystalline Si PV module
Fig 3. Single crystal Si PV module
Unfortunately this means that its p-n junction field is weak,
giving an unavoidably low output voltage. Semiconductors
that give the best combination of voltage and current have
a threshold wavelength just into the infrared end of the
visible spectrum, which means that they are opaque to
visible light. The remainder of the absorbed energy merely
heats up the cells.
How we select a suitable semiconductor for solar cells
requires scientific consideration, of course, but must also
factor in such economic issues as the processing of the
basic material into p-n junctions and the abundance or
scarcity of the materials required.
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In contrast, thin-film cells are generally more sparing in their
use of semiconductor material but may be less perfect in
structure than the traditional bulk crystalline materials,
hence giving a lower performance. The first of this type to
gain a significant market share used amorphous silicon
films, currently having efficiencies of ~10% from a thickness
only one 200th of a standard silicon cell. More efficient thin-
film solar converters use compound semiconductors such
as those based on combinations of copper, indium, gallium,
and selenium (“CIGS” cells), attaining almost 20%
efficiency whilst still saving on the use of material. Currently
the lowest thin film module price is around 62 euro cents
per watt.
3. Solar cell operational considerations
Regardless of the type of solar cell, it is necessary to connect
them in series and parallel arrangements, much as is done
for conventional batteries. Each cell typically generates only
half a volt, thus it is essential to connect several in series to
produce a useful voltage, and this is true for modules which
themselves may produce only low voltage outputs. Whereas
the voltage increases only slowly with intensity, the output
current is directly dependent on the illumination intensity (and
as noted above depends on the collection area). This has an
immediate consequence for real installations, as the solar
input will change according to the time of day, the season,
and the weather. Temperature changes also impact on solar
cell performance, with current increasing somewhat with
temperature, and voltage decreasing at a rate of ~0.4% per
oC rise. If the generated power is to be fed into the electrical
grid, then an inverter (to be added to the installation cost) will
convert the generated DC power into 50Hz AC and will take
care of synchronisation and timing issues required by supply
network regulations, as well as ensuring that the electrical
load is matched to the generated current and voltage to the
greatest effect.
This matter of variation in illumination becomes a planning
consideration when the question of the orientation and
inclination of an array of modules is to be decided. For the
highest output, the solar cells should be normal to the rays of
the Sun, but to avoid frequent adjustments (solar tracking is
essential for optical concentrators) it is usual to select an
orientation close to south-facing in the northern hemisphere,
and compromise with a fixed inclination several degrees less
than the angle of latitude (around 36o in the UK). However,
building regulations may override this, by requiring that
modules are within a few degrees of the roof angle.
Fig. 4. PV solar cell operation and output characteristics
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Shadowing of all or part of a solar cell array will also have
considerable effects on the output power. If local topography or
adjacent structures will cause shadowing of part of an array at
any time, it may be effective to divide the array into separate
sectors, each having its own inverter, to prevent the shadowed
components from reducing the generated current: whilst this
increases capital costs, new developments in micro-inverters
afford a solution for each module to have its own inverter.
Valuable guidance on designing and installing solar modules
(including safety, testing and commissioning) is provided by the
DTI Guide to the Installation of PV Systems (“Photovoltaics in
Buildings”). This is required guidance for installers to gain
certification for the Microgeneration Installation Standard (MIS
3002 for PV), which is essential for any householder to apply for
the UK Feed in Tariff. The second edition of 2006 requires
installers to supply an estimate of performance based on the
Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings
(SAP 2005), which provides a simple formula for the energy
produced per year according to the installed peak power rating,
orientation, tilt and shadowing. The new third edition will provide a
more accurate and detailed model, which is closer to the models
employed by many installers today. This estimate will be of
interest to anyone wishing to know the financial payback period.
Another payback period should be considered by those
concerned with energy accounting, namely the pay-back period
for solar cells to deliver the energy embedded in them during their
manufacture and installation. Cells based on single-crystalline
materials such as conventional silicon cells have the longest pay-
back time, of several years, depending on the actual location.
Thin-film cells repay their lower energy consumption in less than
a year, again depending on location, and also have around half
the lifecycle CO2 emissions of crystalline cells.
4. Novel developments
Given these restrictions on economically improving the
performance of existing photovoltaic module types, are there any
new concepts to be investigated?
Fig. 5 Luminescent collector Image by Lindsay Wilson, PhD Heriot-Watt University 2012
Whilst the fundamental rules of physics cannot be broken,
new materials and technologies may offer some hope. The
arrival of nanotechnology has offered new structures for
better transparent conducting contacts (e.g. silver
nanowires and graphene layers) and for enhanced optical
absorption of thin-film cells (e.g. by plasmonic light-
trapping).
The sunlight spectrum may be converted to a wavelength
range that is more strongly absorbed by the cell’s
semiconducting material, by using luminescent materials:
for instance, these may collect UV and blue light, and emit
orange light (Fig. 5). These colourful components may be
incorporated into a plastic covering sheet for solar cells or
else the solar cells may be attached around the edge of a
thick plastic sheet which captures the incoming light,
changes its colour, and guides it to the cells. This would
present the user with a different coloured solar array than
the ubiquitous blue or black, albeit with lower power
conversion efficiency, and the option of collecting PV
electricity from a window rather than a wall or opaque roof.
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Multiple quantum wells, extremely thin layers, of different
semiconductors are another nanotechnology option for
increasing the utilisation of the solar spectrum but the
fabrication method is expensive and so these cells are more
suitable for optical concentration, with which they have
achieved 27% efficiency.
In contrast to these largely inorganic materials, solar cells are
being developed with organic molecules and polymers. The
oldest type is the dye-sensitized cell (or Graetzel cell) which
combines elements of nanotechnology, organic chemistry
and luminescent materials in a liquid-based photochemical
device having an efficiency of ~11% at present. The dye that
absorbs the sunlight is coated on nanoparticles of transparent
titanium dioxide (the anode) immersed in a liquid electrolyte
along with a second electrode of platinum. Electrons are
freed from the dye, flow into the TiO2 and pass into the
external load; the circuit is completed by electrons flowing
through the load and back via the platinum cathode into the
electrolyte and thence into the dye. The key feature is the
photo-active dye, which must be protected from UV which
tends to degrade it.
Polymer-based solar cells are true photovoltaic devices that
use solid state materials only. They are potentially capable of
large scale production using a liquid process to coat a
suitable substrate. Polymer synthesis is rather a specialised
science and the combinations that have been studied are not
readily available. Best efficiencies to date are ~8% but their
stability is still an issue, as the materials are sensitive to air
and moisture.
5. Flexible solar cells
Aside from increasing the performance of photovoltaic
modules there is a market interest in foldable, rollable and
otherwise flexible arrays. A typical thin-film amorphous silicon
product is the series of low power rollable arrays on polyester
made by Iowa Thin Film Technologies, which are suitable for
leisure and marine activities.
Similar technology is used by the equally established Uni-
Solar modules, but with triple-junction amorphous silicon
solar cells. Each of these products costs several euros per
watt. Global Solar and others produce thin-film CIGS arrays
for building integrated installation. Another compound
semiconductor that is capable of making thin-film solar cells
is cadmium telluride, CdTe. This uses high temperature
synthesis and so can only be put on to metal foils or
polymers such as polyimide (e.g. Kapton).
It would be appropriate for building integrated PV on flat
roofs or facades because its performance does not drop off
as much as silicon when heated. Although there were
health worries about CdTe, fire and leaching tests have
shown that these were needless. EMPA in Switzerland has
produced 13.5% efficient CdTe cells on polyimide but one
of the biggest manufacturers of CdTe modules on glass,
First Solar, has recently scaled back production as its
market share has fallen. At an earlier stage of development
are the organic-based tandem cells produced by Heliatek in
Germany on a polyester sheet, but with the intention of
producing building-integrated arrays.
Our own research is into flexible solar cells that are added
directly on to polymer textiles. Without going into
technological details, the fabrication uses low temperature
vacuum-based synthesis of thin-film silicon from gases, in a
similar manner to that used for amorphous silicon (which is
actually an alloy of hydrogen and silicon). Most compound
semiconductors must use high temperature vacuum
processes, which prohibits any common polymer substrate.
We are able to use polyester, a polymer that is widely
available in continuous sheet or woven forms but any
substrate that can withstand a temperature of ~200oC
would be possible. Although these cells will not have the
performance of equivalent cells on glass or metal sheet,
they target different applications, such as awnings and
tensile architecture fabrics.
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In order to demonstrate this use, we must move from a small area
batch coating process to a continuous roll-to-roll process, still
some way off, but much of that technology already exists in other
industries.
6. Concluding remarks
I have given a brief guide to how solar cells work and what cell
types are currently available, as well as a flavour of newer
developments. Any PV array will require consideration of site-
specific factors and I have indicated how the output energy is
determined which is a necessary part of estimating financial and
energy payback times. Each of these outlines is overly brief and
so a few references for further reading are added below. Finally I
have tried to show that developments in materials offer a solution
to the somewhat stark appearance of conventional PV modules,
with the prospect that architects may have greater flexibility in
designing PV into their new buildings.
Bibliography
“Solar cell efficiency tables (Version 38)”, M A Green, K
Emery, Y Hishikawa, W Warta, and E D Dunlop, Progress in
Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 19, 565-572
(2011).
“Photovoltaics in Buildings, Guide to the installation of PV
systems” 2nd Edition, 2006. [3rd
edition in draft]
“Will we exceed 50% efficiency in photovoltaics?”, A Luque,
J. Appl. Phys. 110, 031301 (2011).
Solar market research and analysis:
http://www.solarbuzz.com/
Fig. 6 Solar cells on textile
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j.Pod Timber System
John Barr, John Barr Architects
Chris Sanders, Glasgow Caledonian University
Image1.
Since 2004 John Barr Architects has been engaged in an ongoing programme of design, research and development of low-cost,
low-carbon, sustainable construction systems. Regional factors are critical. Research began in Japan, and initial work addressed
the particular circumstances there. The ongoing programme addresses other regions of the world. The following is a synopsis of
progress to date.
Issue
Small, affordable houses were formerly commonplace in Japan
but, since the 1980’s, they have been disappearing rapidly to be
replaced by developers’ apartment blocks. Seen as backward
and structurally unsafe in earthquake conditions there has been
little interest in saving them, no policy of refurbishment by
government and no attempt to find a modern equivalent. The two
houses in Image.1 are all that remain of a once-vibrant
community just to the north of Osaka station. Japanese house-
building companies are amongst the most advanced in the world
but they offer products for the affluent. For the young, the old and
the impoverished the choice has been stark: hold out against the
steamroller of ‘improvement’ and become marooned in an aging
and potentially unsafe house or take one of the apartments on
offer.
The starting point for this programme of R&D was the search for
a modern and safe equivalent of the traditional small, affordable,
Japanese house. Other issues addressed were:
Sustainability: The use of sustainable materials, sustainably
sourced and manufactured.
Flexibility: The traditional Japanese house could be small
because of the flexibility of internal planning, the ability to
expand or contract spaces and for one space to have multiple
functions.
Buildability: Construction should not require specialised plant,
processes or skills.
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Programme
Sustainability: Japan is over 70% forest but its timber has
fallen into disuse as a construction material, being
replaced by steel frame, reinforced concrete and timber
imported from North America. In collaboration with teams
from Kyoto University the architects investigated the use
of native forest thinnings, promoting carbon capture,
reducing carbon miles and stimulating both the local
forestry and manufacturing industries.
Flexibility: In order to achieve total flexibility of internal
planning it was important that the structure should be
capable of resisting earthquake and wind loads without
resort to structural partitions or structural facades.
Rigorous, full-scale testing was carried out at Fukuyama
University to prove the structural design and ensure
approval from the Japanese government for use in
construction.
Buildability: The structural design of the system is
sophisticated but the architects worked with
manufacturers to develop simple production methods,
requiring no specialised plant or manufacturing skills. The
system is ideal for off-site manufacture, with the attendant
benefits in quality control, health-and-safety and speed of
construction on site. Whilst developed as a volumetric
system it possesses advantages not shared by other
volumetric systems:
The simplicity of construction allows it to be
manufactured locally rather than at centralised,
specialised facilities.
It can be delivered to site in either volumetric or flat-
pack form.
Results
The result is an innovative construction system for which
there was no precedent in the Japanese building codes.
Images 2 and 3 illustrate a project for twenty units of
community housing, which encapsulates every aspect of
the original concept. Timber from the region was used, the
system manufactured by a local company and the housing
constructed by a local contractor in a reduced time. The
result is affordable housing for the local community that is
modern, flexible and safe. The local authority that
commissioned the project is now planning a second
scheme of twice this size. Although the initial driver for the
program was the lack of affordable housing, projects
completed to date also include classrooms, research
facilities and offices, some of which are illustrated in
Images 4 to 8. (For more examples visit
http://www.jpod.uk.com/)
Image 2.
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Image 3.
Image 4.
Image 5.
Image 6.
Image 7.
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Image 8.
Full Circle
In 2008 the team received funding from the Japanese
government to carry out further development and testing of the
system for use in the construction of earthquake shelters and in
the stabilisation of existing timber structures. Approval to use
the system in this way was granted in 2009 and it is now being
used by local authorities to stabilise old housing stock and allow
the refurbishment of neighbourhoods that would previously
have been demolished as being potentially unsafe. Images 9 to
12 illustrate the first such project to be completed and were
taken a few hundred yards from the photograph shown in
Image.1. This neighbourhood has been saved, but the
developer blocks from previous clearances can be seen
looming in the background.
Image 9.
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Image 10.
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Image 11.
Image 12.
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Further Developments
Following the successful implementation of the system in Japan,
the architect undertook a similar programme of design, testing
and development in the U.K., utilising local timber. Like Japan,
the U.K. has a requirement for affordable housing and large areas
of under-utilised forest. The potential benefits are similar and the
research programme was supported by funding from the Scottish
Government. This work, carried out in conjunction with
Strathclyde University and Buro Happold, established the viability
of the system for structural use using native, C16 timber. J.Pod
Holdings Ltd was established to develop and commercialise the
system in the UK and opened discussions with housebuilders and
construction companies. However, in order to utilise the system in
the UK, analysis and quantification of its thermal performance
was necessary. As the system adopts innovative construction
techniques, the values that are required in order to complete SAP
calculations and obtain a Building Warrant did not exist and had
to be modelled and calculated. With the aid of CIC Start funding,
j.Pod Holdings approached Glasgow Caledonian University and,
in particular, Dr. Chris Sanders, a leader in this field, with a
request to carry out the required modelling and analysis. Below
are extracts from his report, which demonstrates the excellent
thermal performance of the system.
1.0 Introduction
This report covers the analysis of the thermal performance of an
innovative building system, the j.Pod, developed by John Barr
Architects. The j.Pod is based on modules constructed with
timber ribs, with a high level of insulation between the ribs. A
number of modules can be put together, side by side, end to end
or stacked vertically to form larger buildings.
The report discusses the factors that affect heat loss through:
the plane areas: the walls, floor, roof and doors and
windows, which are characterised by their area and U-
value, and
the joints between the plane areas: corners, wall-
roof and wall-floor junctions and the window
surrounds which are characterised by their length
and ψ-value and are also areas with a higher risk
of mould growth
The thermal performance parameters are calculated for
the details of a j.Pod building and assembled to assess
their contribution to the total heat loss from the building.
2.0 Fabric Heat Loss
The total fabric heat loss from a building is made of:
a) Heat flow through the plane areas: the walls,
floor, roof, and the doors and windows. These
are characterised by an area in m2 and a U-value
in W/m2K.
b) Heat flow through the joints between these areas:
the eaves, corners wall/floor junctions and the
jamb, lintel and sill of the windows and doors.
There are characterised by a length in metres
and the linear thermal transmittance or ψ-value in
W/mK.
The total fabric heat loss is made up from:
Hf = ΣA·U + ΣL·ψ W/K.
2.1 Plane area U-values
The U-values of plane areas that are composed of simple
parallel planes of material (e.g. a brick - cavity – block
wall) can be simply worked out by adding the
contributions of the individual layers. The methodology
for this is defined in the BRE document, BR
443,‘Conventions for U-value calculations’ and the
associated software package, the BRE U-value
calculator.
However, when a structure includes significant repeating
elements which cross the insulation, such as the studs in
a timber framed wall or the ribs in the j.Pod, the
calculation is more complex.
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Reasonable approximations have been developed for common
constructions, however these will not apply to the j.Pod. The U-
value can be calculated by modelling a representative section
of the wall or roof and calculating the heat flow through it. If the
calculated heat flow through the model is Q Watts, with a
temperature difference of ΔT across it, the U value is given by
WLΔT
QU W/m
2K
Ground floors are more complex, as the heat loss through them
depends as much on the size and shape of the house as the
amount of insulation present. The procedure for calculating the
U-value is specified in BS EN ISO 13370:1998 ‘Thermal
performance of buildings – Heat transfer via the ground –
Calculation methods’; this involves calculating the thermal
resistance of the insulated floor deck, using the method
described above, and then inserting this into the BS 13370
equations.
2.2 Thermal Bridges
Thermal bridges are areas of the building fabric, where,
because of the geometry or the presence of high conductivity
materials, heat flows are higher than elsewhere. Besides
increasing energy demand in the building, thermal bridges also
cool the internal surface and are common sites for
condensation and mould growth.
Two parameters, which are described in more detail in BRE
Information Paper IP 1/06 ‘Assessing the effects of thermal
bridging at junctions and around openings’, are used to
characterize the performance of thermal bridges.
The surface temperature is assessed by the f-value or
temperature factor,
f = (Ts – Te) / (Ti – Te)
where: Ts, Ti and Te are the surface, inside air and outside air
temperatures.
IP 1/06 specifies that the f-value should be greater than
0.75 to prevent mould growth. In other words, with
internal and external temperatures of 20°C and 0°C,
respectively, the surface temperature should be greater
than 15°C.
The heat loss is characterized by the linear thermal
transmittance or ψ-value in W/mK; this represents the
extra heat loss at a junction over and above the heat loss
through the adjacent plane areas, the walls and floors
etc. The ψ-value is found by constructing a model of the
junction – for example the roof eaves. The model is
extended far enough away from the junction so that the
heat flow is unaffected by the presence of the junction,
about 1metre is usually sufficient. The ψ-value is then
calculated from:
rrww ULULWΔT
QΨ W/mK
Where:
Q is the heat flow through the model in W
ΔT is the temperature difference across the model in °C
W is the width of the model in m
Lw and Lr are the lengths of the wall and roof in m
Uw and Ur are the U-values of the wall and roof in W/m2K
IP1/06 gives a table of default ψ-values for a range of
junctions. These values are used as the default values in
the SAP 2005 and sBEM software. It is recommended in
IP1/06 that Σl.ψ, the sum of the products of the lengths
and ψ-values of all the thermal bridges, is less than 0.08
times the external area of the house. This will be easily
achieved if the default ψ-values are used. If the ψ-value
of one of the thermal bridges is slightly higher than the
default value it is possible to trade off this value against
the other lower values, especially if the length of the
bridge is relatively short, such as a window sill or lintel.
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2.3 Analysis methods used
The analysis was carried out with the thermal analysis software
package TRISCO, supplied by Physibel of Belgium. This
software is fully compatible with the relevant standard
referenced in the Building Regulations: BS EN ISO
10211:2007: Thermal bridges in building construction - Heat
flows and surface temperatures – Detailed calculations’
The models were constructed using the conventions specified
in the guidance document ‘Conventions for calculating linear
thermal transmittance and temperature factors’, BR497 by Tim
Ward and Chris Sanders published by BRE on behalf of the
DCLG.
Fig. 1. Cross section of materials in TRISCO model
Fig. 2 . Cross section of temperatures calculated with TRISCO
Fig. 3. Internal surface temperatures calculated with TRISCO
Figs.1 to 3 and Table.1 illustrate the thermal images and
results produced for one junction, based on the use of
mineral wool as the primary insulating material.
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Wall Type
Added insulation
Tmin
°C
f-value
Q W
Lw
m Uw
W/m2K
Lc
m Uc
W/m2K
Ψ-value
W/mK
Wall A None 18.66 0.933 43.248 1.333 0.138 4.568 0.153 0.0185
Wall B None 18.63 0.932 43.276 1.333 0.139 4.568 0.153 0.0187
Wall A2 Minwool 18.43 0.921 42.688 1.333 0.138 4.568 0.153 0.0068
Wall B2 Minwool 18.48 0.924 42.649 1.333 0.139 4.568 0.153 0.0056
Wall A3 PIR 18.38 0.919 42.519 1.333 0.138 4.568 0.153 0.0033
Wall B3 PIR 18.46 0.923 42.455 1.333 0.139 4.568 0.153 0.0016
Table 1. Summary of calculation parameters for the side wall - roof junction
3.0 Summary
The U-values calculated with TRISCO are shown in Table 2.
Those for the walls and roof apply to any size of building. In
Table 3, battens 'offset' or 'inline' refers to internal battens
creating a service zone behind the internal wall-lining and
‘additional insulation’ refers to insulation placed within this
zone at junctions. The U-value of the ground floor is
calculated from the thermal resistance of the floor deck
derived from TRISCO and entered into the BRE U-value
calculator and depends on the dimensions of the building.
For a single pod 7.5m by 5.5m, giving a floor area of 41.25m2
and a perimeter of 26m, the U-value is 0.142 w/m2K.
If the building was doubled in size by putting two pods
together side by side, the dimensions would be 7.5m by 11m,
giving a floor area of 82.5m2 and a perimeter of 37m, giving a
lower ground floor U-value of 0.137 W/m2K. All of these are
based on the use of mineral wool as the primary insulating
material.
Tables 3, 4 and 5 summarise the calculated f-values and ψ-
values from each of the junctions. Also included, where
possible, are the default ψ-values from IP1/06 and the
calculated ψ-value as a percentage of the IP1/06 values.
All the calculated f-values are well above the 0.75 limit for
mould growth, most of them above 0.90.
U W/m2K
Side Wall Option A 0.138
Side Wall Option B 0.139
Roof 0.153
End Wall 0.146
Ground Floor Varies – max. 0.142
Table 2 – Calculated U-values
This means that that there is no risk of mould growth even
in extreme internal conditions.
Almost all the ψ-values are below the IP1/06 default values;
many of them substantially below.
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Wall type Additional insulation f-value
Ψ-value W/mk
IP1/06 W/mK
Ψ as % of IP1/06
Side Wall/roof
battens in line None 0.933 0.019 0.24 7.7
battens offset None 0.932 0.019 0.24 7.8
battens in line Minwool 0.921 0.007 0.24 2.9
battens offset Minwool 0.924 0.006 0.24 2.4
battens in line PIR 0.919 0.003 0.24 1.4
battens offset PIR 0.923 0.002 0.24 0.7
Side wall/ Intermediate Floor
battens in line None 0.934 0.010 0.07 14.1
battens offset None 0.935 0.010 0.07 14.2
battens in line Minwool 0.925 -0.010 0.07 -14.8
battens offset Minwool 0.924 -0.013 0.07 -18.2
battens in line PIR 0.923 -0.017 0.07 -23.8
battens offset PIR 0.921 -0.020 0.07 -28.7
Side Wall/ Ground floor
battens in line None 0.914 0.018 0.16 11.0
battens offset None 0.905 0.018 0.16 11.3
battens in line Minwool 0.905 0.006 0.16 3.6
battens offset Minwool 0.891 0.005 0.16 3.0
battens in line PIR 0.903 0.002 0.16 1.4
battens offset PIR 0.888 0.001 0.16 0.4
Table 3 – Summary of calculated f-values and ψ-values for side wall junctions
f-value Ψ-value W/mk
IP1/06 W/mK
Ψ as % of IP1/06
Side Wall/End Wall 0.939 0.044 0.09 48.5
End wall/ Roof 0.932 0.034 0.06 55.9
End wall /Intermediate floor 0.969 0.043 0.07 55.9
End wall/Ground floor 0.932 0.012 0.16 7.4
Window Jamb – Internal 0.949 0.029 0.05 58.0
Window Jamb – External 0.840 0.045 0.05 90.4
Window Lintel – Internal 0.959 0.230 0.05 7.7
Window Lintel – External 0.844 0.049 0.30 16.2
Window Sill – Internal 0.965 0.030 0.04 74.2
Window Sill – External 0.879 0.043 0.04 106.7
Table 4 – Summary of calculated f-values and ψ-values for end wall junctions
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Junction of pods end to end
f-value Ψ-value W/mk
Side wall/Side wall : battens in line 0.972 0.0086
Side wall/Side wall : battens offset 0.973 0.0089
Roof/Roof 0.976 0.0109
Junction of pods side to side
End wall/End wall: cavity open 0.951 0.039
End wall/End wall: cavity filled 0.950 0.033
Roof/Roof: cavity open 0.946 0.025
Roof/Roof: cavity filled 0.948 0.010
Table 5 – Junctions between pods
There is a significant difference between the results from the
window surrounds depending on the positioning of the frame
relative to the wall. Positioning the frame on the inside of the
wall gives much better f-values and ψ-values compared to
positioning it on the outside. The window sill with the frame
on the outside is the only case where the calculated ψ-value
exceeds the IP1/06 values. The relatively small length of this
junction means that it will make a small contribution to heat
loss.
Table 6 shows the different components of the fabric heat
loss from a typical 7.5 by 5.5 m two storey house built with
j.Pods, using the U-values and ψ-values calculated and
summarised above. The windows are assumed to be in the
end walls with a single door in one of the side walls. A high
performance triple glazing system with PVC frame, low-e
glass and krypton fill, giving a glazing U-value of 1.7 W/m2K
is assumed.
The table shows that the thermal bridging makes up only 6%
of the total heat loss, compared to about 10% for a typical
modern house. The low fabric U-values mean that the
widows and door make up more than half the total fabric loss,
despite their high performance specification.
Plane areas Area U-
value AU % of total
side walls 79.5 0.138 10.97 15.1
end walls 38.57 0.147 5.67 7.8
Roof 41.25 0.153 6.31 8.7
ground floor 41.25 0.142 5.86 8.0
Windows 19.73 1.7 33.54 46.0
Door 3.45 1.7 5.87 8.0
All plane areas 68.22 93.6
Joints Length ψ-
value Lψ
side wall eaves 15.0 0.019 0.28 0.4
gable wall eaves 10.8 0.034 0.37 0.5
side wall internal floor 15.0 0.010 0.15 0.2
gable wall internal floor 10.8 0.043 0.46 0.6
corner 21.2 0.044 0.92 1.3
side wall ground floor 15.0 0.018 0.26 0.4
gable wall ground floor 10.8 0.012 0.13 0.2
Window & door jamb 26.2 0.045 1.18 1.6
Window & door lintel 12.5 0.052 0.65 0.9
Window sill 5.8 0.045 0.26 0.4
All Joints 4.67 6.4
Total 72.89 100.0
Table 6 – Components of the fabric transmission of a
typical house
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58
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF DOMESTIC LAUNDERING – RESEARCH CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES
Colin D A Porteous, Mackintosh School of Architecture
Introduction
‘Environmental Assessment of Domestic Laundering’ is
the formal title of a multi-disciplinary, 3-year research
project funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences
Research Council (EPSRC), which was completed earlier
this year.
The Mackintosh Environmental Research Unit (MEARU),
within the Mackintosh School of Architecture at The Glasgow
School of Art, led the project in conjunction with two other
research units – Research on Indoor Climate and Health
(RICH) at Glasgow Caledonian University and Energy
Systems Research Unit (ESRU) at the University of
Strathclyde.
RESEARCH …
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Respectively the roles were investigative architectural fieldwork,
laboratory work associated with moisture in air and materials,
and advanced computer modelling, the last again with moisture
to the fore. The emphasis on moisture is understandable –
laundering is inescapably a wet process – and moisture has
implications for indoor air quality (IAQ) and health, due
principally to mould spores, dust mites and chemicals (used in
laundering and released from materials and furnishings). IAQ in
turn relates to energy consumption for space heating, with
control of ventilation playing an increasingly crucial role in
limiting fossil fuel consumption and carbon emissions.
All laundering appliances consume electricity, but drying,
whether by machine or not, may also exert a considerable
influence on thermal energy for space heating; while washing
machines require quantities of heated water, which is then
discarded as ‘grey’ liquid waste; and steam irons, as modest
consumers of electricity, also add moisture and chemicals to
the air and are quite labour intensive.
This already indicates that the scope of the study was complex,
and this article intends to briefly chart some of the challenges
and opportunities involved. It also serves to introduce ‘Healthy
Low Energy Home Laundering’, a Design Guide by Rosalie
Menon and the present author, which is a key publication
arising from the study and now available free-online at
www.homelaundrystudy.net.
This is of relevance to all involved in housing procurement and
refurbishment from those that devise and improve building
standards – statutory and best practice – to those who develop
and design. In a nutshell, the guide suggests relatively simple,
but important, changes to standards, which offer significant
improvements to quality of life, wellbeing and health. In other
words, if implemented as recommended, they signify
considerable beneficial economic impact.
Opportunities
Certain opportunities arising from research projects of this
nature may be regarded as ‘planned’. All research is based
on an underpinning hypothesis or a series of related
hypotheses, which allows the necessary methodology to be
scoped in advance. In this case, the interactive
environmental nature of the study, briefly summarised
above in the introduction, dictated the lines of enquiry. It
was known in advance that the environmental impacts were
likely to be significant in terms of energy, and previous
studies had indicated that it was likely that subtler ‘quality-
of-life’, wellbeing and health issues would also be found.
Intrinsically, multi-disciplinary, collaborative research
provides more scope for new knowledge than a single
discipline within one institution; and accordingly also tends
to open up funding opportunities. Other opportunities that
we may regard as ‘unplanned’ fall into two sub-categories –
unplanned in the sense of chance, and unplanned in the
sense that the precise nature of analytical outcomes can
never be known in advance, if a research project is to add
new insights to a body of knowledge. Both occurred in this
instance, and have indeed led to significant findings.
One ‘chance’ opportunity in particular, which was not
planned at the time the research bid was formulated, was
employing a microbiologist on the MEARU survey team
who had also had previous research experience involving
the built environment in general and housing in particular.
This provided the capability to analyse air samples from
each of the main spaces in twenty-two case studies; a
capability that had not been envisaged in the original
research protocol. For example, aspergillus fumigatus, was
present in 25% of cases. This “causes invasive allergenic
disease” where immune systems are vulnerable (Cramer et
al, 2011), and “can be very dangerous” (University of
Cambridge, 2011).
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Moreover, both aspergillus, present in all the dwellings
sampled, and penicillium, present in all but one (95%),
“contaminate indoor spaces biologically” and “are important
sources of allergens” (Haas et al, 2007). However, although
the opportunity to acquire this knowledge was unexpected
at bid stage, the relevance in terms of potential health
impacts would depend partly on vulnerability of occupants
and partly on concentrations.
A less expected finding with health implications arising from
this opportunity was a strong association between the
overall concentration of mould spores and the presence of
passive indoor drying. Spore concentration is measured in
‘colony forming units’ per unit volume (CFU/m3). The living
rooms and bedrooms in the group that predominantly
passively dried indoors averaged over three times a limit
value used in Finland – 500 CFU/m3 for airborne fungal
spores for indoor air in urban areas in winter (Ministry of
Social Affairs and Health, 2003 (Finland); cited in ‘WHO
guidelines for indoor air quality: dampness and mould’,
2009). The Finnish standard is same value used in earlier
Danish research (Reponen et al, 1992). It is estimated that
6-10% of the population and 15-55% of atopics (those
vulnerable to hay fever, asthma and eczema) are sensitized
to fungal allergens (Institute of Medicine, 2000, p165). Even
the group that predominantly used tumble dryers averaged
nearly one third more than 500 CFU/m3, but very few of the
households did not dry passively indoors to some extent,
and control of ventilation was found to be generally poor.
There were, as one might expect, many potentially
confounding variables to the evident association between
passive indoor drying and spore concentration. However,
statistical analysis showed none of these to be significant.
The other aspect of a research opportunity such as this,
unforeseen at the planning stage but yielding an apparently
significant result, is that it becomes necessary to conduct a
literature search in this field. This in turn identified a larger
survey in the north of France, which had anticipated such an
association, but had not found it (Roussel et al, 2008). The
problem then is to find a rationale to explain why or how a
study in Glasgow can indicate a strong statistical association
between two variables, while one in France does not. This is
where a research opportunity starts to present itself as a
research problem! Suffice to say that a possible rationale was
found (Porteous et al, 2012).
In general, the widening or furthering of a literature review
during the course of a research project should be regarded as
an opportunity, even if un-planned or at least not fully planned
at the outset. An example of this for the laundering study was
that initial data collected from 100 dwellings by means of
face-to-face questionnaire included use of fabric softeners
and type of detergent – i.e. biological (with enzymes) or non-
biological. It was not known at planning stage whether or not
this information would prove particularly relevant, especially
since the sample envisaged was entirely urban and
connected to a main sewage system. However, it was found
that approximately half used biological detergents exclusively,
and that would have had significance for septic tanks or reed-
bed systems commonly associated with rural contexts. It was
also found that approximately half used fabric softeners, and,
when put together with the prevalence of indoor passive
drying and poor ventilation control, this statistic merited a
further review of literature to ascertain any potential harmful
effects on indoor air quality (IAQ).
RESEARCH …
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61
Work by Steinemann (2009) found that a typical scented liquid detergent emitted five chemicals listed in the USA as toxic or hazardous.
In this instance it was work on the west coast of North America
that proved to be of interest. A team in Seattle had recently
found that one chemical by-product of unregulated fragrances
in fabric softeners is acetaldehyde, classified as a ‘harmful
substance and carcinogenic’ (Steinemann et al, 2008); while
another team in Vancouver had pointed out 22 years previously
that the rate of off-gassing of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) increases for those that are water-soluble, such as
aldehydes, proportionately with relative humidity (Arundel et al,
1986). In other words, applied to the situation found in Glasgow
where a symptom of poor IAQ was high humidity, it seemed
that fabric softeners could be at least as significant as use of
building materials or furnishing products that contained
formaldehyde. Work by Caress and Steinemann (2009) has
also indicated ‘fragrance sensitivity’ in the American population,
with significant proportions reporting either adverse health
effects or irritation. This brings in many scented household
products, including washing detergents. Again, work by
Steinemann (2009) found that a typical scented liquid detergent
emitted five chemicals listed in the USA as toxic or hazardous.
Such findings indicate a need for epidemiological research to
ascertain whether there is any evidence that such products do
indeed have a negative health impact on occupants, and
whether there is any evidence that branded ecological products
are safer in this regard.
Another opportunity, which was planned from the outset, was to
gain insights into occupancy patterns as well as IAQ by means
of measuring CO2 as an indicator, and thence to attempt to
match concentrated periods of occupation with moisture
increases. The aim of this relative to laundering was to isolate
periods of passive indoor drying in the absence of occupants,
and thereby to identify the impact of the drying material on
humidity levels. However, in terms of representing a research
‘opportunity’, this proved to be quite challenging, among several
other factors associated with collected data.
Challenges
In practice, with regard to the issue raised immediately
above, such isolation of passive indoor drying from other ‘wet’
aspects of occupancy, or ingress of moist ambient air, proved
arduous for a number of reasons. Sample size is perhaps the
key one with which to start. On the one hand, a reasonable
sample size is required in order to establish categories of
difference; while on the other, the larger the sample, the more
variables occur and the more a research team finds itself at
risk of being overwhelmed by the sheer quantity of data –
‘finding a needle in haystack’ and ‘not seeing the wood for the
trees’ spring to mind. A primary reason that the contributors to
humidity level were of interest is that a body of research by
others has established limits (relative humidity as a function
of temperature, and absolute humidity) above which excess
populations of dust mites is likely to be problematic (Arlian
and Veselica, 1981; Platts-Mills and De Weck, 1989;
Cunningham, 1998; Niven et al, 1999). Since a causal
association between dust mites and incidence of asthma has
also been established for well over a decade (Institute of
Medicine, 2000, p5, p144), any contribution to humidity in
dwellings by laundering processes is important; and in turn
this sets of a considerable search in the data for explanations
of moisture surges, particularly prolonged ones.
The original research bid envisaged 100 dwellings to be
initially surveyed, with some spot measurements of key
environmental conditions (temperature, relative humidity and
CO2), and a fairly comprehensive questionnaire to cover
specific and contextual issues related to domestic laundering.
From this sample, it was planned to closely monitor at least
10% (i.e. ten dwellings) over fortnightly periods. Although
identifying and visiting 100 volunteer households over a
reasonable demographic and architectural range proved
harder than expected, this task was fulfilled over a period of
approximately one full calendar year.
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62
It was also decided, since air-sampling and analysis was
possible and useful, that the number of monitored
households should increase, and 22 volunteers were
identified from the cohort of 100; again with monitoring
taking place during all seasons, although with proportionally
fewer winter cases than was the case for the initial surveys.
Apart from measuring the three key environmental
conditions continuously over daily cycles, the aim was to
directly measure power used by as many of the washing
machines and tumble dryers as possible – in practice, for a
number reasons, the former proving easier than the latter.
In addition the volunteer householder was asked to keep a
diary of key events associated with laundering, this on a
prepared pro forma for each day that any laundering activity
took place during the monitoring period. Similar to the
original questionnaire, this included contextual as well
direct information – for example, heating and ventilation
measures adopted. The human element inherent in the
diary recordings introduced the issue of quality into an
otherwise quantitative process of data collection. However,
it proved invaluable in the quest to isolate the moisture
impact of events such as passive indoor drying. Masking of
this activity by the presence of occupants, and their own
output of moisture along with that produced by other ‘wet’
activities, proved to be the norm. Migration of moisture from
space to space and occasional marked ingress of humid
ambient air through open windows were added
complications. Nevertheless, careful sifting of all available
data in all 22 of the case studies did yield a positive result.
In terms of challenge, what this involves is not simply
identifying averages, maxima and minima, from spreadsheets
of data, but getting into the specifics of family habits and
doing a great deal of cross-referencing from the available
sources. In this regard, the initial questionnaires of all 100
households and the detailed day-to-day diaries of the 22
monitored case studies were initially compared with each
other for consistency, and thereafter correlated with
measured tabular data and graphs. In addition, appliances
had to be checked with manufacturers’ sources. For example,
a householder’s assertion that the tumble dryer was of the
condensing type was found to be false when large hikes in
relative humidity corresponded with tumble drying; the
explanation being that the dryer was in fact a simple venting
type, but with no venting taking place other than directly into
the host room. By contrast, data for other vented dryers
indicated much more modest increases in humidity during
drying cycles, these consistent with some backdraught
ingress of moisture through windows held ajar to facilitate
venting of a flexible hose. Again, this involved some
painstaking cross-referral of diaries and measurement, and
the work also yielded different results for householders who
were using condensing dryers – i.e. with no perceptible rise in
indoor humidity. Other cross-checking for consistency
included entries in the original questionnaire as to rooms
used for passive indoor drying, and related habits concerning
heat and ventilation, with corresponding entries in the diary
during monitoring.
RESEARCH …
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63
This process of ‘digging’ into relevant habits of the 22 ‘case
study’ households, essentially in order to identify a narrative of
similarity and difference between them, ultimately constituted
the core of the MEARU technical report – a ‘quarry’ from which
outputs such as The Design Guide and technical papers were
excavated. The linked comparative analytical process, began
by contrasting a household where all drying was done by a
communal tumble-drying facility to one where it was all done
passively indoors; and ended with a pair with contrasting
demographics, seasons, construction type and heating
systems, but the same approach to indoor drying. There were
no short cuts – all 22 case studies were thoroughly examined,
even though the quality of diary keeping varied considerably.
Summary tables and key observations follow the set of
individual sections on each household. In turn, data from all 100
households surveyed is examined, again including summary
tables and observations. References conclude the report after
appendices – e.g. measured ironing experiments and statistical
analysis – and the two sets of observations are synthesised as
conclusions in the initial executive summary.
Some conclusions were initially provisional as the entire survey
and monitoring process by MEARU related to partly parallel and
partly sequential lines of investigation by RICH and ESRU.
Aside from the analysis of air samples, the role of RICH was to
investigate and quantify the moisture behaviour of particular
building materials; this information along with that of MEARU
then enabling enhanced modelling by ESRU. On the one hand
the latter was concerned with quantifying the energy and
environmental impacts of passive drying in rooms, using
scenarios derived from the MEARU case studies, but with the
ability to systematically control key variables. On the other
hand, the modelling also focussed on testing the viability of a
specific potential solution – passive drying but in a small
‘quarantined’ heated and ventilated space. This included testing
various lining materials and ventilation control protocols.
The underlying design strategy of such modelling was that
what could work for a minimal drying cupboard could work in
larger dual-purpose spaces such as utility room or sun-
porches, always providing the exhaust air is prevented from
circulating within the other parts of the dwelling. One driver
for this particular line of the research was the key finding
arising from the air-sampling opportunity – “a strong
association between the concentration of mould spores and
the presence of passive indoor drying” – and the potential
heath implications immanent in this finding. The other drivers
were that passive drying indoors tended to be inherently
energy profligate, as well as adding to risk of increased dust
mite populations; while the primary energy consumption of
electricity for tumble dryers was high, older appliances
involved further detriment in terms of added space heating
demand and added humidity. Moreover, it was commonly
agreed by respondents that tumble drying was not
satisfactory for all types of material, and tended to be
associated with a greater incidence of ironing; this activity
possibly adding to the issues of VOCs associated with
unregulated fragrances.
The science itself proved quite challenging. There was an
expectation at project-planning stage that hygroscopic
(moisture-absorbent) linings to ‘wet’ rooms would help to
moderate humidity peaks; in other words act as a ‘moisture
buffer’, this based on a considerable body of work by others
(Salonvaara et al, 2004; Rode et al, 2005; Mortensen et al,
2005); later augmented during the course of the project
(Janssen and Roels, 2009; Vereeken et al, 2011). Laboratory
work by RICH confirmed that particular materials such as
untreated clay board would absorb considerably more
moisture than more usual materials such as painted
plasterboard at high ranges of humidity. However, simulations
by ESRU of minimal drying cupboard revealed that the small
area of lining material would only be marginally useful in
reducing such peaks, whereas the systems of ventilation and
their rates of exhaust were influential (Kelly et al, 2012).
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64
In other words, the holistic linkages were complex. In
addressing all of the above under the sub-heading
‘challenges’, the aphorism of Gregory Bateson (1979)
seems apposite: “Science probes; it does not prove.” And in
such a probing quest, the words of renowned architect
Serge Chermayeff and his colleague Alexander Tzonis
(1971) also have resonance: “Rationality as a system of
procedure in problem solving does not inhibit inspiration.
Inspiration is a special moment in a rational process, which
acts as an accelerator on the path towards the desired
goal.”
In this instance metaphoric braking and gear changing
curtailed such acceleration. For example, the lack of any
coherent association between concentration of airborne
spore and visible evidence of mould growth was initially
puzzling as there was apparent logic behind such a link
(although the same absence was also found in the work of
other researchers). The association that was found may not
have been inspirational, but, given all the other potential
influences, it was relatively unexpected and quite an
exciting moment in the lengthy research endeavour. Again,
although the statistical analysis is a validated formulaic
software process, with averages as the starting point, there
was a collateral process of finding the logic behind specific
outliers in the ‘box plots’.
Another line of investigation that proved more challenging
than expected was one of a ‘what if?’ nature. Specifically, if
the Passivhaus standard were achieved for space heating
and a commensurate standard for water heating, what would
be the proportion left within the overall primary energy limit for
power, and what proportion of this would be consumed by
laundering appliances? This proved to be another major line
of enquiry, involving a further review of relevant literature,
notably that relating to the Market Transformation Programme
of DEFRA1, which was progressing at the same time as the
Glasgow laundering investigation. In this quest, even the
overall efficiency of grid electricity from its various generating
sources to its metered consumption in homes is not as
straightforward to acquire as one might imagine (DEFRA,
2011). However, setting the issue of primary energy
consumption to one side, it suffices to say here that the
Glasgow survey indicated consumption for laundering
appliances was below DEFRA’s estimated UK average,
especially for tumble-drying. Even so, the amount consumed
by them was significant and the overall Passivhaus standard
very hard to achieve, especially for small floor areas.
And if such findings represented view-points along the
research journey, there was one significant set-back or
metaphoric breakdown at a critical stage close to the
destination – a fire seated in the heart of ESRU’s domain,
with consequent problems of cleaning computers, recovering
data, re-running simulations and so forth. Fires are of course
commonly caused by human frailty, but errors are not
confined to such dramatic and infrequent events. For
example, it can occur relatively easily in transcribing data
from spreadsheets – e.g. wrong address, wrong room, or
wrong variable – and, even within a single table, transposition
into the wrong row or column can occur. And not all recorded
data is reliable – e.g. if an indoor sensor is placed on a wall,
which can be in the path of direct sunlight, it will give
erroneous readings for key environmental parameters.
RESEARCH …
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65
Moreover, the adage ‘rubbish in, rubbish out’ remains a human
risk regardless of the mathematical sophistication of a dynamic
simulation programme. Knowing an approximate answer in
advance is useful, but back-of-envelope calculations can also
be misleading – e.g. where a short time-step influence such as
evaporative cooling in a confined space is involved.
Concluding thoughts
The above ruminations of opportunities and challenges serve to
emphasise the continuity of research – one finding leading to
another in ever widening circles rather like the ripples of a
stone, or perhaps a series of stones, landing in still water. A
clear case has been made that domestic laundering is
environmentally significant, and that part of that significance
relates to public health, which in turn implies a need for a
specific lines of new epidemiological research. The combined
implications for energy efficiency and health imply a high level
of socio-economic impact. A related area could be the issue of
chemical contaminants in grey waste water; this in turn raising
issues such as water management and conservation, and heat
recovery from waste water. Another part of the significance is
the need for relatively minor, but important, changes to both
statutory standards and best practice. This is the main
message of the Design Guide: Healthy Low Energy Home
Laundering. However, other aspects of the guide are aimed
more at cultural changes and business opportunities. For
example, putting both together, there are opportunities for
reverting to more communal laundering facilities, but ones that
take advantage of modern technology – e.g. using the heat
from combined heat and power (CHP) generation to offset
drying energy. Other more esoteric papers to be published in
journals will be of interest to more specialised spheres of
research and knowledge transfer.
In general terms, the fit of this research project lies within two
overlapping regions of interest – firstly, energy efficiency
(ranging from fuel poverty to global warming), secondly, public
health (with various allergic reactions and respiratory ailments
to the fore).
A key energy-health mediator is indoor air quality (with mould
spores, mites and VOCs in the frame). Back in the 19th and
first two thirds of the 20th century, health held sway. Now we
need to find workable ways of reconciling health and energy
efficiency. At present we seem to be too complacent about
the efficacy of technical solutions – e.g. mechanical heat
recovery ventilation – where there are evident pitfalls, some
technical design issues, some technical quality control issues,
some human control issues. We say “seal tight, ventilate
right” and we now commonly achieve the former, but rarely
the latter. Above all, it is the vagaries of all such factors in
combination, creating such a complexity of interactive
variables that it seems we must rely more on theories of
probability and fuzzy logic. Whatever scientific approaches
are used to analyse, synthesise and enlighten, ultimately it is
primarily our democratically elected representatives and their
officials that we must rely on to initiate appropriate action,
and, even more essential, to follow though on it.
Notes
1) DEFRA = Department of Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs; with logo versions of the acronym used such as ‘defra’
or ‘Defra’.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of the Engineering and Physical
Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Contract:
EP/G00028X/1, is gratefully acknowledged, as is the
unstinting support of all colleagues associated with the
project in MEARU, RICH and ESRU (full list in Design Guide),
all the housing associations and individual householders who
cooperated with the surveys and monitoring, and finally the
invaluable library support at The Glasgow School of Art.
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66
Drying on balconies or verandas is reasonably convenient, perfectly healthy, and consumes no energy.
RESEARCH …
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Steinemann, A. C., Gallagher, L. G., Davis, A. L. and MacGregor, I. C. (2008) ‘Chemical Emissions from Residential Dryer Vents During Use of Fragranced Laundry Products’, Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1SSN 1873-9318.
Steinemann, A. C. (2009) ‘Fragranced consumer products and undisclosed ingredients’, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 29, 32-38.
University of Cambridge (2011) ‘Fungi and Lichens’, Map of Life, http://www.mapoflife.org/browse/category_30_fungi-and-lichens/
Vereeken, E., Roels, S. and Janssen, H. (2009) ‘In situ determination of the moisture buffer potential of room enclosures, Journal of Building Physics, 34(3), 223-246.
WHO Regional Office for Europe (2009) WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: dampness and mould, 40, ISBN: 7989289041683.
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Towards Low Technology - Higher Performance Architecture:
Potentials of Alternative Construction in West Scotland
Bianca-Daniela Ion, University of Strathclyde Glasgow
Considering current problems in matters of sustainability that
holistically affect economic, social, political and environmental
concerns, numerous reasons suggest a change of mindset in
design and construction approaches to be beneficial and
necessary in order to tackle building impact. The construction
industry is highly correlated to the emergence and
sustainment of these problems; over 50% of the planets’
resources are transformed into construction materials and
building operation alone is responsible for 42% of the final
energy consumption and 35% of all green house gas
emissions in the EU. Furthermore, the construction industry is
one of the biggest contributors to the provision of employment
and a stable economy. With this overall impact on
environment and human lives, the sector is largely
accountable to the reduction biodiversity and causing
environmental deprivation, however, as such it also has great
potential to contribute to long‐term sustainability.
The notion of Low Technology in architecture provides a
holistic response to all this problems. It is based on the
principles of simple function, ease of manufacture, ease of
use, robustness and ease of maintenance. The concept has a
history of at least 3000 years, during which knowledge of
nature and climate has been passed on from generation to
generation ensuring building suitability to site, local weather
conditions, long lifecycles and good levels of comfort. In
contrast to the popular notion of High Tech, which relies on a
strategy of compensation aiming to balance out inner climate
conditions with intelligent building technology, Low Tech
interacts directly with site and climate in order to minimise
energy demand by taking advantage of material properties
combining these with architectural and constructive
measures.
A direct dialog between indoor and outdoor climate is
achieved by using simple but strategic design and
regionally available natural materials such as earth, straw
or hemp.
The question of locality as a response to the mitigation of
global warming has been prevailing since the 1992 UN
Conference on Environment and Development and the
presentation of the Agenda 21, which states that the
solutions to global problems are individually tailored local
approaches. For developed countries, which use
disproportional amounts of resources to their population
size, this requires a major swift towards energy
conservation in building design. However, the whole extent
of the industry also plays an important part within this
process starting with the utilisation of local, indigenous and
benign materials. In Scotland, due to the climate with a
yearly average relative humidity of 82%1 and strong winds,
the use of regional materials is challenging on all levels –
from extraction to construction. However, a growing
industry-wide interest suggests potential of alternatives to
common materials as it is realised that technology cannot
provide the ultimate solution to a problem it has caused.
In order to test the potentials of natural materials in the
climate of west Scotland, a building site in Glasgow (Figure
1) was chosen as a basis for examination of performance,
strategic building orientation and overall suitability of natural
materials in a residential context. It is estimated that
approximately a quarter of the total building total stock will
be new build by 2050.
RESEARCH …
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Figure 1. Project Site
To date, the residential sector is responsible for a yearly
amount of 25 to 27% of the total economy carbon emissions
and deep emission cuts are hence an imperative if the
government set targets of 80% emission reduction by 2050
as well as the 2016 zero carbon policy for new build homes
are to be achieved.
The current poor performance of buildings throughout the
U.K. however, are limiting new property carbon emissions
allowances to a minimum2 while stricter regulations make
building increasingly unaffordable - potentially kindling a
housing crisis and inherent social problems3.
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Figure 2. Project Structure
Accordingly, housing urgently requires innovation, thus a
building model of semi-detached house was developed for
research purposes. The building complies with current
Scottish Building Regulations and was tested in a whole-
building computer simulation using WUFI software for
hygrothermal building modelling. The program ensures
realistic results as it is validated through laboratory as well
as field testing by the renowned Fraunhofer Institute of
Building Physics. It includes output of inner temperatures,
inner relative humidity, mould growth conditions, heat gain
and loss as well as operational energy requirements for
achieving a set comfort profile. Accordingly, building
performance was investigated in passive scenarios as well
as including HVAC and operational cost effectiveness.
Environmental sustainability was evaluated via a calculation
of embodied energy and embodied carbon.
Six natural materials categorised in thermal mass
(Rammed Earth and Cob), insulation (Straw Bale and
Hemp-Lime) and hybrid construction (Light Clay and Adobe
Hybrid), were tested against a Timber Frame Base Case in
two case studies with east and south main facade
orientation (Figure 2). Timber frame is currently the most
popular construction method in Scottish new housing with
67.8%1 despite the country’s comparatively low account of
woodland – 19% compared to EU average of 42%4 - thus
rendering ecological aspects of timber construction rather
moot.
However, research findings highlighted an overall good
performance of materials and the Low Tech approach and
thus adequacy of alternative materials to the Scottish
climate.
RESEARCH …
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Figure 3. Thermal Transmittance (U-Value)
U-values of the case-dependent wall assemblies directly
indicating their thermal properties (Figure 3). The Timber
Frame Base Case marks the current standard set by the 2011
Scottish building regulations at 0.25 W/m²K. The simulation
showed that bare thermal mass assemblies consisting of
solely Rammed Earth or Cob are unable to perform to current
requirements, however, the insulation and hybrid construction
Straw Bale, Hemp-Lime, Light-Clay and Adobe Hybrid not
only over-perform but also achieve the much stricter
Passivhaus requirements for thermal transmittance of 0.15
W/m²K.
On this basis, the influence of strategic building orientation
was examined. In order to do so, all material scenarios had to
be investigated for achievable passive conditions – excluding
HVAC. The whole-building simulation attained overall higher
mean temperatures, lower relative humidity and fewer heat
loss with a south facing main facade as opposed to an east
facing front. Accordingly, the essential challenge to test the
potentials of solar gains in Glasgow’s rainy climate has
exposed the existence of potentials to be expanded upon.
However, the simulation further showed that a building
constructed entirely from natural materials would not
significantly benefit from the heat storage capacity of
internal building elements such as floors and separating
walls (Figure 4). A hybrid construction of common building
elements and external walls from Straw Bale, Hemp-Lime
or Light Clay achieves the highest inner temperature.
However, compared to industrial materials, all natural
materials majorly benefit from their moisture regulative and
natural desiccation properties, which is especially important
for humid climates. According to findings of the Fraunhofer
Institute of Building Physics the ideal relative humidity in
enclosed spaces is between 30 and 70%. The maintenance
of the ideal humidity is not only important for material
performance but moreover for occupant’s health and
comfort. Hydration of the building material can impair
insulative properties and lead to irreversible damage to
occupants’ health caused by mould growth.
Figure 4. Passive Inner Climate
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Figure 5. Favourable Conditions for Mould Growth
There is generally accepted connection between poor housing
and ill health; however, studies conducted in Glasgow6 show
that the highest risk to health in housing is attached to cold,
damp and mouldy conditions suggesting a direct link between
cold and excess mortality rates. Typically, there are 20,000
more deaths recorded between January and March than
average U.K. yearly rates, which is correlated to respiratory
conditions as a main cause and found two to three times more
likely to occur with patients living in damp homes. Furthermore,
dampness within or around building elements influences their
thermal performance due to conductivity changes and can
cause damage to the construction via mechanical forces such
as contraction, expansion or stress. However, the research
findings for a passive building showed that the insulation
models Straw Bale and Hemp-Lime perform best and keep
inner relative humidity to around 65%; the Base Case however,
with results around 70%, would require dehumidification to
safeguard from moisture induced damage. Figure 5 further
details the invaluable moisture regulative properties of natural
materials.
The holistic building performance simulation in WUFI
calculates typical hygrothermal effects - such as moisture
sources and sinks inside a room and moisture input from
the envelope – thus exposing mould growth potential with a
building.
Accordingly, the total risk of fungal growth is significantly
higher in the mixed construction building models than in the
buildings, which are exclusively built from natural materials.
The indication that mould is more likely to develop within
the inorganic substrate might seem unorthodox however, is
explicable considering Glasgow’s extremely humid climate
and the fact that most materials are capable of sustaining
mould growth if the conditions for desiccation do not exist.
A constant combination of substrate, nutrients such as
debris from dust and skin-cells, and humidity will develop
fungi between 24 hours and 10 days of the provision of the
growing conditions7. Accordingly, Figure 5 shows the
continuous hours of mould growth allows an accurate
conclusion of mould growth risk within the different
constructions. The graph reveals that the buildings from
predominantly natural materials are at the lowest risk of
developing fungi due to their moisture regulating properties
that make substrates unsuitable for mould thus ensuring
lasting prevention. Common materials often use biocides,
which work for limited time only and often cause allergic
reactions and other health issues. Reasonably, adding
reactive Ventilation and Air Conditioning systems (HVAC)
that balances out harmful climate preconditions eliminates
mould growth potential. The system keeps relative humidity
to an ideal of 52 to 55% indifferent of the construction
however with highly varying requirements of operative
energy and therefore cost.
RESEARCH …
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A calculation of energy cost from energy requirements
according to WUFI directly compares cost effectiveness of
alternatives to the majority of current Scottish construction in
timber frame. The average energy consumption for space
heating in U.K. dwellings built after 2000 is about 140 kWh
per square metre per year (kWh/m²a) according to BRE
estimates. The continuous tightening of building regulations
over the years however, show their positive effect in the Base
Case (0), which only minimally surpasses the EU definition of
Low Energy Buildings that is a use of 40 to 60 kWh/m²a for
space heating. Straw Bale, Hemp-Lime and Light Clay
however match the requirements in all scenarios (Figure 6).
However, to put energy efficiency in monetary terms, it was
assumed that all energy demand is covered by standard
electricity at a rate of £0.1125 per kWh excluding annual fixed
cost. Hemp‐ Lime (Case 4) is the most cost-effective with
monthly costs of £54.43 (£653.16 a year) for a 88.5 m²
house. Operational cost of Light Clay (5), Straw‐ Bale (3) and
Adobe Hybrid (6) are lower than the Base Case (0) running
cost of £61.56 a month, however compared to the heating
cost of Cob and thus the existing U.K. housing stock, all afore
mentioned cases are approximately twice as energy and cost
effective (Figure 7).
Figure 6. Operational Energy per square metre
Figure 7. Operational Cost
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Finally, regional appropriateness of alternative materials is a
question of environmental sustainability. It has to be pointed out
that this is a particularly ambivalent endeavour that will
probably never be fully convertible and comparable in numbers.
However, for research purposes, a calculation of Embodied
Energy (EE) and Embodied Carbon (EC) per square meter was
undertaken.
Transport to site can often make a significant contribution the
overall EE and EC values, therefore a close comparison
especially within a regional context is important. Available data8
for EE and EC gives numbers for energy use from material
extraction to factory gate (‘cradle to gate’). Accordingly, the
average distance to site was included to the cradle‐to‐gate
results by adding energy use data of 2.19 MJ per km and
carbon emissions of 1.12 kgCO2 per km9. Due to lorry capacity,
limits on transportation are either imposed by maximum weight
or volume, resulting in U.K. average hauling distances of 242.6
miles (390.42 km) by volume and 106.8 miles (171.9 km) by
weight.
There is an ambiguity within the topic of local materials and
transport. The U.S. green building certification system LEED for
example, defines material sourcing within a radius of 500 miles
(805 km) as local. The paradox within the topic of natural
materials however are the high gauges of around 500 mm
necessary for basic assembly, but shorter average
transportation distance for high density materials, which is
clearly derived from industrial practice. Despite the fact that
subjecting earth for instance, to a 172 km drive to site sounds
absurd, assembly width alone would suggest that reasoning
according to common practice is questionable in this case. It is
generally possible to source materials locally from farms or the
site itself as many completed Low Tech projects have shown.
Accordingly, both, the application of haulage as well as
disregarding transport emissions have a rationale in a
discussion on alternative construction - the former for
consideration of large-scale developments, which might
include prefabricated components, and the latter for one-off
projects and self-build.
In terms of sustainability however, the thermal mass
models Rammed Earth and Cob, which proved unfit for
purpose and climate, are among the most sustainable.
Including transport, Cob has the lowest EE in all scenarios.
Despite their 500 mm thick walls, this suggests that further
investigations and development of the material has grounds
for adaptation of material to fit the Scottish climate.
However, excluding transport and despite its thick walls, the
Straw Bale model has the overall lowest EE per m² in all
Scenarios. In comparison, the Timber Frame Base Case
has an EE of approximately 720 MJ/m² higher than the
Straw Bale construction although its walls measure only
200 mm compared to 340 mm in Straw Bale.
Generally, the research found evidence supporting an
alternative to industrial construction methods without
compromising comfort standards. The hygrothermal
computer simulation in WUFI gave the overall best results
for the insulation models Hemp‐Lime and Straw Bale,
followed by the hybrid models Light Clay and Adobe Hybrid,
which combine insulation and thermal mass. Despite their
basic assembly, these cases performed comparably to the
Timber Frame Base Case, thus to current building
regulations, and at times even to Passivhaus standard.
RESEARCH …
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Growing interest in these alternatives motivated by the
realisation that building efficiency targets are increasingly
difficult to reach with industrial construction methods in an
economy‐ driven world, suggests that the market demand will
be rapidly growing as well. However, current developments
further indicate that the implementation of local materials and
construction methods are necessary for construction to move
towards a circular economy10
, which is based on a
transformation of the familiar linear model – ‘take, make,
dispose’ – into a cyclical model. Construction has to focus on
using goods more intensively and materials to their full
potential, extending life-cycles and designing for eventual
dismantling in order to achieve government aims such as
Scotland’s Zero Waste Plan.
In summary, natural material construction benefits from a high
sustainable and thermal performance while being potentially
cheaper than industrial construction. Drawbacks are currently
resulting from a lack of research especially in Scotland, local
suppliers and experienced planners and labour force. This
creates major hurdles towards a wider acceptance as the
U.K. construction industry is rather generally suspicious
towards innovation and will most likely only be persuaded by
an economic argument.
However, it is only logical that prevailing technological
solutions in material resourcing, production and building
operation cannot provide sustainable, long-term solutions and
while it has to be highlighted that the performance of the best
cases is not significantly better than Base Case results, they
proved to be at the least comparable despite their simple
assembly while surpassing in environmental, economic and
health concerns. In order to ensure continuing survival on the
planet society must strive to become more sustainable as a
whole. As such, sustainability has to be addressed in a
holistic manner considering every aspect of human lives.
Accordingly, Low Tech provides many basic answers to
today’s conundrums.
Figure 8. Embodied Energy and Embodied Carbon per Square metre
_______________________________________ 1 www.meteonorm.com
2 Boardman 2007. Home Truths: A Low-Carbon Strategy to Reduce UK
Housing Emissions by 80%by 2050. Oxford: University of Oxford’s Environmental Change Institute. 3 Barker 2004. Delivering Stability: Securing our Future Housing
Needs. Review of Housing Supply.Final Report-Recommendations.
London: Crown. 4 UK Timber Frame Association: www.uktfa.com
5 EuroStat 2010. Environmental statistics and accounts in Europe:
2010 edition. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. 6 Wilkinson 1999. Poor Housing and Ill Health – A Summary of
Research Evidence. The Scottish Office Central Research Unit 7 Sedlbauer 2001. Vorhersage von Schimmelpilzbildung auf und in
Bauteilen. Thesis (PhD). Lehrstuhl für Bauphysik, Universität Stuttgart. 8 Hammond and Jones 2008. Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE).
University of Bath. 9 Vanek and Campbell 1999. UK road freight energy use by product: trends and analysis from 1985 to 1995. Transport Policy. Volume 6, Issue 1, p 236-246. 10
The work will be presented at the conference “The Circular Economy: New Opportunities for Design and Construction in Scotland" to be held at the University of Strathclyde on the 1st June 2012. For information see pages 22-23 of this issue of Innovation Review.
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Fife Housing Innovation Showcase
Bill Banks, Kingdom Housing Association
Fig. 1 Site masterplan
Owned and managed by Kingdom Housing Association, Dunlin Drive, Dunfermline, was chosen as the site for a five phase
master plan to build 121 new affordable homes. The showcase element is the first phase of 27 new homes for social rent.
Fig. 1. Site perspective
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Main Aims and Objectives
The main objective of the showcase is to develop different
forms of Modern Methods of Construction, which demonstrate
design flexibility and have the ability to be integrated into
larger developments. They must also have the capabilities to
be mainstreamed across larger affordable housing
programmes.
The main aims of the showcase are to:
Test and demonstrate different house systems and
renewable technologies.
Test the cost, energy performance and flexibility of a
number of new systems.
Trial and promote sustainable housing products.
Let the construction industry itself showcase new and
innovative products.
Deliver wider Community Benefits across the
showcase.
Promote affordable housing in Fife.
Showcase sustainable housing methods.
Partnership
The showcase is a partnership between Kingdom Housing
Association, Fife Council and 10 different House System
Providers / Developers. The project is also supported by Fife
Construction Forum and Green Business Fife Network.
Training opportunities for the showcase are being progressed
through Fife Works and Opportunities Fife and educational
activities are also being progressed with the local primary
schools, Carnegie, Adam Smith and Elmwood Colleges and
St Andrews and Napier Universities.
Funding
The Showcase cost is £3.5 million and funding assistance
has been provided by the Scottish Government, Fife Council
2nd
Homes Council Tax Fund and private finance through
Kingdom Housing Association.
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House System Providers We initially received over 150 registrations of interest from which 10 different house systems were selected.
House System
Provider House System Description
Powerwall Space Frame Systems / Assist Architects
Powerwall Volumetic Space Frame
A structural steel frame Volumetic System can be designed to meet any client/architectural design.
The system achieves high performance in thermal, acoustic and air-tightness specification up to 22 storeys high.
Campion Homes Ltd / Scotframe
Scotframe Val-U-Therm
A closed panel system which uses injected polyurethane insulation to fully fill every millimetre within each panel.
A suite of thermal solution options are available which can produce a U value as low as 0.08W/m2K if required.
Stewart Milne Construction
Sigma II Build System
Higher levels of prefabrication, to reduce build process and materials waste.
A fabric 1st approach to carbon compliance, resulting in easy to use, comfortable and
low maintenance affordable housing.
Campion Homes Ltd / Porotherm
Porotherm Block System
A precision engineered clay block structural walling system.
Offers a modern construction method with the reassuringly traditional values of clay.
CUBE RE:treat Structural Insulated Panels
A Cost effective, environmental and energy efficient solution.
Constructed by assembling pre-manufactured panels that are heavily insulated, removing the need for additional insulation.
Campion Homes Ltd / Scottish Passive House Centre
1 x Passive House
1 x Standard Timber Frame House
A semi-detached 2 storey house accredited as built to Passive House standards.
The remaining semi-detached unit will be constructed to current standards providing a control against which the effectiveness of the enhanced Passive House standards can be measured.
Future Affordable Closed Panel Wall System
A K2 wall system, designed to minimise cold bridging and be pre-fabricated from small section Scottish timber, each of the 3 houses being built will be constructed using different building regulations i.e. 2010, 2013 & 2016.
Thermobond insulation quilt, manufactured from recycled textiles sourced primarily from Scottish woollen mills.
Lomond Homes Lomond Breathing Wall
A high performance, cutting-edge construction technology.
Highly insulated, timber-framed, external wall construction, using dynamic insulation to recover and recycle heat energy which would otherwise be lost to the outside air.
CCG OSM IQ (Off Site) Building System
An IQ System to deliver closed panel, timber frame, wall, roof and floor cassette panels for domestic and non-domestic buildings using off-site construction.
Can deliver low energy, low carbon, zero carbon and Passivhaus building performance levels, using a multitude of building components, from natural, breathable & hygrgroscopic, through to high performance, hi-technology methods.
Bobin Developments Beco Wall Form Integrated Concrete Formwork
Block components lock together to provide a formwork system into which concrete is poured.
Upon setting, the concrete becomes a high strength structure and the form work remains in place as thermal insulation.
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Fig. 2 Infrastructure Works Start
Infrastructure Works
Campion Homes, one of Kingdom Housing Association’s
framework contractors is carrying out the main infrastructure
works on the site, installing services and providing serviced
plots for the house system providers.
Framework Consultants
The following Framework Consultants have also been
appointed to work on the Showcase. These Consultants will
also be appointed for the other phases on the Showcase;
Hardies – Employers Agent / CDM Co-ordinator
Oliver & Robb – Architects
Scott Bennett Associated – Engineers
Renewables
Various types of renewable technologies are being
incorporated into the properties. Some of the renewables
were integrated into the original house type design as they
are required to meet current building regulations.
Enhanced renewables have also been incorporated into
some of the units.
Programme
The infrastructure work started on site in September 2011
and the first house building began in November 2011. The
properties were completed at the end of April 2012.
Exhibition
An Exhibition to showcase the products, services and
technologies, related to the properties, was held from 15th
May until 31 May 2012.
It included a week long programme of media visits, technical
tours, seminars and visits from education groups, followed by
a further period of two weeks for organised tours and open
viewings. This was also an opportunity for other consultants,
contractors and suppliers to showcase their own sustainable
products and services.
Monitoring and Evaluation
The monitoring and evaluation programme is also being
progressed in conjunction with Napier University and other
key partners.
The monitoring and evaluation programme will proved and
analysis of performance outputs and include a post
occupancy study.
Fig. 3 Works on site
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Block 2 –Scotframe Val.U-Therm System
Block 4 - Porotherm System
Block 5 - Structural Insulated Panels
Block 6 Passive House, Kingdom Control House
Block 3 - Sigma II Build System
Block 10, Beco Wall Form System
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Block 7 – Future Affordable, Closed Panel System
Block 8 - Lomond Breathing Wall System
Block 1 - Powerwall Volumetic Space frame
System, being manufactured in the factory
Block 9 – IQ, Off-site Building System
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KATIE’S COTTAGE
Chris Hall & Micheal Holliday
Roots Design Workshop
Introduction
This article marks an important moment for Roots Design
Workshop: the completion of the practice’s first built project.
Although Katie’s Cottage sunroom extension is a relatively small
building this article will use the project as a case study to explore
issues which are common across the work of the practice: how
Roots receive commissions, approach design, and strive to
create buildings which are part of an evolving rural condition.
Roots Design Workshop
Roots Design Workshop (Roots) formed as part of a Masters
project at the University of Strathclyde in the summer of 2009
where the author’s recognised the lack of employment
opportunities in the recession and chose to set up a
hypothetical business as a student project. The business
would either fail spectacularly, which would lead to interesting
academic conclusions, or would succeed and leave the Part 2
student team with something to build upon when graduating.
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As part of this student project the team turned their focus away
from the university studio and decided to put themselves in a
position which academic studies hadn’t prepared them: working
with real people on real projects. The team set themselves up
as ‘architectural designers in residence’ on the Isle of Tiree,
where one of the authors was from. The team hosted ‘design
workshops’, in collaboration with an Environmental Engineering
student, where members of the public could approach the team
for advice on building projects which they had. This approach
was a success, leading to a number of direct commissions.
The process was documented by an independent film-maker
who was commissioned by SUST [4] and led to a Masters with
Distinction for the team members. The team built upon this
momentum and formally incorporated the practice in early 2010
with a business model that was informed by the student project;
Roots Design Workshop is therefore a mobile, accessible
architectural and environmental design practice who travel to
rural and isolated communities that do not usually have access
to professional design services.
This business model has led to Roots gaining Part 3
accreditation, winning the Shell LiveWIRE ‘Young Entrepreneur
of the Year’ - Scotland 2010, attending MacKay-Lyons
Sweetapple Architects ‘Ghost 13’ conference in Nova Scotia.
and being invited to present at the international Shetland Power
of Place conference and the Royal Society of Architects in
Wales annual conference.
This business model has also led to a number of commissions
across the country which allow Roots to work with community
groups and individuals on a varied range of projects. Roots’
accessible approach to the Architect-Client relationship is
informed by William Isaacs statement that “...dialogue is a
conversation in which people think together in relationship.
Thinking together implies that you no longer take your own
position as final. You relax your grip on certainty and listen to
the possibilities that result simply from being in a relationship
with others - possibilities that might not otherwise have
occurred” [2].
This approach has led to Roots learning much from residents
of rural communities who intuitively understand the
relationship between people, vernacular architecture,
contemporary design, the landscape and the climate. This
has evidently been the case on the Isle of Tiree, where the
student project first started and where Katie’s Cottage is
situated.
The Project
Isle of Tiree
The Isle of Tiree has been described as “Rìoghachd barr fo
thuinn; the Kingdom whose summits are lower than the
waves” [3]. This name, which still appears in romantic tales
indicates the natural topography of the island, which is
perhaps one of the lowest and flattest landscapes in Scotland.
This means that buildings feature prominently in the
landscape and views of the distinctive settlement patterns can
be seen from afar. Tiree is a Special Built Environment Area
within Argyll & Bute and the local Planning Department’s
‘Sustainable Design Guide’ states this requires that “the
island’s built form manifests for the most part a balanced and
unified historical and cultural tradition which new development
needs to respect” [1].
Roots have developed a deep understanding of these needs;
one of the Directors grew up there while the practice have
taken an active role in researching the vernacular thatched
houses, blackhouses and white houses. This understanding
allows Roots to make cogent proposals about alterations to
existing buildings or new-build projects.
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Katie's Cottage - Existing before the extension
Katie’s Cottage
Roots were invited to make one such proposal for a new extension
to the south gable of Ian and Elspeth Gillies’ existing white house
cottage on the Isle of Tiree following a successful introduction at
one an early ‘design workshops’. The brief was to create an
alternative living space to those in the cottage: one with more
natural light, greater views out and a contemporary language that
respected the existing building. Roots chose to acknowledge the
existing lean-to porch, which the Client had proudly built
themselves, by referencing its form and use of materials. In this way
the new extension would continue the evolutionary tradition of
adding to the building to suit modern circumstances, but in a way
which produced a coherent small building cluster.
The extension therefore takes on the form of a traditional lean-to,
but one made from a series of wall and roof planes that slide past
and over one another. This creates an internal space which can be
completely enclosed or open, made possible by three primary
design features: corner openings with a moveable glass wall, sliding
external shutters and an over-hanging standing seam zinc roof.
Ground Floor Plan
Section A
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Section B
Original Concept Sketch
Corner Openings with Moveable Glass Wall
A pair of cantilevered corner openings allow uninterrupted
views to three points of the compass, including the length of
Balephetrish Beach. This was made possible by David
Narro Associates (the project Structural Engineers) solution
of inter-locking edge beams with bat angle brackets and
holding down straps to the back span of the beam. Roof
joists were fixed to this and the gable wall on hangers. This
created cantilevered corner openings suitable for the
installation of the moveable glass wall.
View out towards Balephetrish Beach
A Sunparadise Monoslide 60 slide-and-stack system of
modular thermally broken aluminium panels created a
moveable glass wall in the South West corner opening. These
panels run on a single track and flush-close frames naviagate
the corner before being parked remotely. A Sunparadise
Supetherm 80 Fixed Panel and Single Door in the South East
corner provide an alternative access entrance (depending on
which direction the wind is blowing). Integrated venetian
blinds on a magnetic track provide shading while interlocking
EPDM seals and an additional protective coating finish
provide a weather rating suitable for the exposed maritime
site.
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86
Junction between moveable glass wall, timber cladding, sliding
shutters, zinc roof and existing wall
A Sunparadise Monoslide 60 slide-and-stack system of
modular thermally broken aluminium panels created a
moveable glass wall in the South West corner opening. These
panels run on a single track and flush-close frames naviagate
the corner before being parked remotely. A Sunparadise
Supetherm 80 Fixed Panel and Single Door in the South East
corner provide an alternative access entrance (depending on
which direction the wind is blowing). Integrated venetian blinds
on a magnetic track provide shading while interlocking EPDM
seals and an additional protective coating finish provide a
weather rating suitable for the exposed maritime site.
The installation of this system required close liaisons
between the Main Contractor, John MacKinnon Builders
Ltd, and the Sunparadise installation team, who hadn’t
worked on a remote Scottish island before. Tolerances of
within ±5mm were achieved on all structural openings so
the moveable glass wall, fixed unit and glass door were fully
installed in three working days to suit the ferry timetable
(not a normal concern for mainland projects but vital on an
island with limited transport connections).
Sliding Shutters
In order to protect the glazing from the worst of the winter
weather sliding external timber shutters were integrated into
the design. The were made by John MacKinnon Builders
Ltd using a solid larch frame and 19mm vertical tongue and
groove larch cladding, supplied by Russwood. This was
chosen to compliment the horizontal tongue and groove
cladding on the porch which the Client had proudly built and
stained with Beaumont Blue Cuprinol to match.
The shutters are hung using the Coburn Straightaway
700SS series. The top stainless steel channel (with
additional guides to avoid the shutters rattling in the wind)
are rebated into a frame which is concealed by a larch
fascia while the morticed bottom roller runs on a discrete
stainless steel track. The shutters are bottom hung to
reduce the load on the cantilevered corners which meant
the concrete haunch was laid to tolerances of ±3mm.
Standing Seam Zinc Roof The shallow-pitch roof was designed to compliment the
porch and to respect the original white house by ensuring it
did not protrude above the eaves line of the existing roof.
This was finished with pre-weathered graphite grey
standing seam zinc by Rheinzink to compliment the planar
nature of the windows and timber cladding.
BEST PRACTICE …
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87
View from Balephetrish Beach with the extension completely open
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88
Although there were previously no standing seam zinc roofs on
the island Argyll & Bute Planning Department complimented
the contemporary design move during pre-application
discussions and encouraged a high level of quality and control.
Zinc fascias, verges, rainwater goods and step coverings were
also specified to achieve consistency through a limited palette
of materials. All zinc work was installed by HL Metals, who
undertook additional site visits before work started to ensure a
suitable substrate and to offer constructive suggestions to how
key details could be improved.
Construction Process
The authors are aware that this is not the first article to be
published in these pages which deals with the challenges
thrown up by this type of construction project but would
suggest that a build like this was ambitious as a first project to
go on-site immediately upon graduating. The clear channels of
communication established at the earliest ‘design workshops’,
on-going encouragement from the Client, and experience of
the local Contractor combined to ensure a smooth construction
process
Completion
The success of this project is down to an understanding by the
Client, Contractor and Consultants of how the extreme climate
effects buildings on Tiree; and the ability to integrate specialists
sub-contractors with no experience of these conditions.
There is a traditional Gaelic saying on Tiree: "An Iar's an ear
an dachaidh as fhearr - cul righri gaoith agus aghaidh ri ghrein"
which translates as "To east and west the house that's best -
back to the wind, face to the sun". Roots follow the advice in
this proverb on most projects in spite of modern technology.
However, the views from this site demanded openings on
three sides, which was satisfied by cantilevering corner
openings. Sliding timber shutters were added here to
protect from the worst of the winter weather. These
shutters also provide the occupants with control of their
environment; by being able to completely open or shut the
extension this passive approach to sustainability should
ensure the extension can be used year round rather than
only when the sun is out.
The Client encouraged a contemporary architectural
language which Roots were delighted to pursue. Upon
completion the Client has added a ground-mounted PV
array and has proposals for timber decking. In this way, the
sunroom extension quietly becomes subsumed in the latest
chapter of an evolving rural building cluster.
Conclusion
Roots Design Workshop formed following a student project
which explored whether Part 2 students could run a practice
in the current economic climate. Roots have proven this to
be possible and now have a sustainable business with a
number of live commissions. This is not because a mobile
office working in rural communities is intrinsically better
than other business models but rather because the model
perfectly suits the practice’s Directors and Clients; spending
time in communities, speaking with local people and
learning about place have each informed the practices
modus operandi.
This article has focussed on one project on the Isle of Tiree
but the practice have proactively applied these techniques
to projects or workshops in Shetland, the Uists, Inverness,
Coll, Mull and Iona. This has led to recognition, invitations
to lecture and Part 3 accreditation.
BEST PRACTICE …
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89
Roots are pleased to have successfully delivered their first
building on-site and to have worked with such a supportive
team who bought into the original concept and embraced the
attention to detail required. Roots are also pleased with the
reaction of the Client to the completed building, who
commented:
“We are more than satisfied with the work undertaken by the
Roots Directors, Christopher Hall and Micheal Holliday. From
initial conceptual ideas and sketches, to full planning
consents, building warrant, tendering and project
management, the Directors have demonstrated a meticulous
attention to detail, extremely effective communication skills,
and above all, a keen awareness and appreciation for our
requirements as their clients. The completed project is
everything that we hoped for, and fully mirrors the initial draft
sketches and drawings.”
Although this article represents the completion of the first
building on-site the practice are excited about working with
similarly encouraging teams on further commissions on Tiree
and beyond.
This will allow for a continued examination of how to find
work in a recession, further learning from local people and
traditions, and a deeper understand of how the weather
affects life in remote climates. Roots want to explore not
only what it means to create contemporary rural architecture
or new rural clusters - but what it means to be modern rural
people.
References
1. Argyll & Bute Council. Isle of Tiree Sustainable Design
Guide
2. Issacs, W. Dialogue and the Art of Thinking Together.
Doubleday: New York; 1999
3. McColl, Rev A., 1791. The Old Statistical Account,
number 29, p393
4. www.youtube.com/rootsdesignworkshop
The extension drew on the language of the existing porch
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Details of some building facades at Scotland’s Housing Expo Two connected long houses on Shetland
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