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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 1 INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER Prepared by Cherry Caroline S. Chua, 11-2012 Revised by Joanna J. Orejola, 09-2013 GROUP IA (1): ALKALI METALS Possess only one valence electron Very reactive chemically Seldom found free in nature Lithium, Sodium, and potassium metals are stored under keroseneViolent (exothermic, explosive) reaction with water Hydrogen, H (Gk. hydro, water; genes, forming – produces water when burned with oxygen) Lithium, Li (Gk. lithos, rock – because it occurs in rocks) Sodium, Na (L. sodanum, headache remedy; symbol, L. natrium, soda) Potassium, K (L. kalium, potash) Rubidium, Rb (L. rubidius, dark red – discovered with the spectroscope, its spectrum shows red lines) Cesium, Cs(L. caesium, blue – spectral lines are blue) Francium, Fr (France) HYDROGEN, H “Inflammable Air” Lightest element Among the alkali metals, only Hydrogen can exist as a monovalent ion (H + ) or a monovalent anion (H - ) Isotopes: o Protium Most abundant isotope o DeuteriumHeavy hydrogen D2O, heavy water o Tritium Radioactive isotope Hydrogen, under normal conditions, exist as a diatomic molecule (H2), though this form is not very useful pharmaceutically Industrial uses: o Haber process (production of ammonia) o Hydrogenation of oils o Inflating balloons WATER, H2O Natural Water/Mineral Water contain dissolved minerals (Ca +2 , Mg +2 , Fe +3 , Na + , K + , HCO3 - , SO4 -2 , Cl - ), varying amounts of suspended matter (clay, sand, microorganisms, fragments of plants and animals), and traces of dissolved atmospheric gases, ammonia, and metabolic decomposition products Not fit for drinking Example CHARACTERISTICS ALKALINE WATER o contain appreciable quantities of Na2SO4, MgSO4 and NaHCO3 CARBONATED WATER o contains CO2 under pressure and usually effervesce on coming to the surface o contain calcium and magnesium carbonates in solution as bicarbonate o can be natural or artificial CHALYBEATE WATER o Contains iron in solution or in suspension o Characterized by its ferruginous taste o Forms ferric hydroxide or ferric oxide upon exposure to air LITHIA WATER o Do not contain appreciable quantities of lithium, either as carbonate or chloride SALINE WATER (PURGATIVE WATER) o Contain relatively high amounts of MgSO4, Na2SO4 and NaCl SULFUR WATER o Contains dissolved H2S and deposit S upon exposure to the atmosphere SILICEOUS WATER o Water that contain soluble alkali silicates Water Hardnessdue to presence of dissolved minerals in water Soft waterWater that does not contain appreciable amounts of Ca +2 and Mg +2 ions Hard waterWater that contains appreciable quantities of minerals Temporary hardness o Contains mainly dissolved calcium and magnesium bicarbonate o Can be removed by boiling (promotes formation of insoluble calcium carbonate) or by addition of lime, Ca(OH)2 o Permanent hardness o Contains mainly dissolved calcium and magnesium sulfate and chloride in water o Cannot be removed by boiling o Water softening is achieved by the use of ion-exchange resins Potable Water water that is fit to drink USP Definition: Water that is obtained by distillation, ion exchange, or reverse osmosis meets standards for freedom from coliform organisms water treated to remove insoluble matter through appropriate coagulating, settling, and filtering processes; destruction of pathogenic microorganisms by aeration, chlorination, or other methods, and improvement of palatability through aeration and filtration through charcoal water fluoridation o Achieved via addition of sodium fluorosilicate o For prevention of dental caries o Drawback: could cause dental fluorosis (mottling of teeth) Purified Water Intended for use as an ingredient of official preparations and in tests and assays unless otherwise specified
Transcript
Page 1: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 1

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY

REVIEWER

Prepared by Cherry Caroline S. Chua, 11-2012

Revised by Joanna J. Orejola, 09-2013

GROUP IA (1): ALKALI METALS

Possess only one valence electron

Very reactive chemically

Seldom found free in nature

Lithium, Sodium, and potassium metals are stored under

kerosene→Violent (exothermic, explosive) reaction with water

Hydrogen, H →(Gk. hydro, water; genes, forming – produces water

when burned with oxygen)

Lithium, Li →(Gk. lithos, rock – because it occurs in rocks)

Sodium, Na →(L. sodanum, headache remedy; symbol, L. natrium,

soda)

Potassium, K →(L. kalium, potash)

Rubidium, Rb →(L. rubidius, dark red – discovered with the

spectroscope, its spectrum shows red lines)

Cesium, Cs→ (L. caesium, blue – spectral lines are blue)

Francium, Fr → (France)

HYDROGEN, H

“Inflammable Air”

Lightest element

Among the alkali metals, only Hydrogen can exist as a monovalent

ion (H+) or a monovalent anion (H-)

Isotopes:

o Protium →Most abundant isotope

o Deuterium→ Heavy hydrogen

D2O, heavy water

o Tritium →Radioactive isotope

Hydrogen, under normal conditions, exist as a diatomic molecule

(H2), though this form is not very useful pharmaceutically

Industrial uses:

o Haber process (production of ammonia)

o Hydrogenation of oils

o Inflating balloons

WATER, H2O

Natural Water/Mineral Water

contain dissolved minerals (Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+3, Na+, K+, HCO3-, SO4-2,

Cl-), varying amounts of suspended matter (clay, sand,

microorganisms, fragments of plants and animals), and traces of

dissolved atmospheric gases, ammonia, and metabolic

decomposition products

Not fit for drinking

Example CHARACTERISTICS

ALKALINE WATER

o contain appreciable quantities of Na2SO4, MgSO4 and NaHCO3

CARBONATED WATER

o contains CO2 under pressure and usually effervesce on coming to the surface

o contain calcium and magnesium carbonates in solution as bicarbonate

o can be natural or artificial

CHALYBEATE WATER

o Contains iron in solution or in suspension o Characterized by its ferruginous taste o Forms ferric hydroxide or ferric oxide upon

exposure to air

LITHIA WATER o Do not contain appreciable quantities of lithium, either as carbonate or chloride

SALINE WATER (PURGATIVE WATER)

o Contain relatively high amounts of MgSO4, Na2SO4 and NaCl

SULFUR WATER o Contains dissolved H2S and deposit S upon exposure to the atmosphere

SILICEOUS WATER

o Water that contain soluble alkali silicates

Water Hardness→ due to presence of dissolved minerals in water

Soft water→Water that does not contain appreciable amounts of

Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions

Hard water→Water that contains appreciable quantities of minerals

Temporary hardness

o Contains mainly dissolved calcium and magnesium

bicarbonate

o Can be removed by boiling (promotes formation of insoluble

calcium carbonate) or by addition of lime, Ca(OH)2

o Permanent hardness

o Contains mainly dissolved calcium and magnesium sulfate

and chloride in water

o Cannot be removed by boiling

o Water softening is achieved by the use of ion-exchange resins

Potable Water

water that is fit to drink

USP Definition: Water that is obtained by distillation, ion exchange,

or reverse osmosis

meets standards for freedom from coliform organisms

water treated to remove insoluble matter through appropriate

coagulating, settling, and filtering processes; destruction of

pathogenic microorganisms by aeration, chlorination, or other

methods, and improvement of palatability through aeration and

filtration through charcoal

water fluoridation

o Achieved via addition of sodium fluorosilicate

o For prevention of dental caries

o Drawback: could cause dental fluorosis (mottling of teeth)

Purified Water

Intended for use as an ingredient of official preparations and in tests

and assays unless otherwise specified

Page 2: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 2

Not for parenteral preparations

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, H2O2

Agua oxigenada, agua oxenada

Oxygenated acid, oxygenated water

Use: treatment for Vincent’s stomatitis (severe form of gingivitis), as

mouthwash

Commercial availability:

o 10-volume solution (3% w/v) and 20-volume solution (6% w/v)

o Hydrogen Peroxide Topical Solution, USP

o 3% w/v stabilized aqueous solution

o 10-volume solution

o Stabilizer: acetanilide 0.03%

LITHIUM, Li Lithos - “Earth”

Lightest metal

Pharmacologic action of lithium compounds:

o Mood stabilizer (depressant)

o Diuretic

LITHIUM BROMIDE, LiBr

Combined sedative effects of lithium ion and bromide ion

LITHIUM CARBONATE, Li2CO3

Brand names: Eskalith®, Lithase®, Quilonium-R®

Widely used in the prophylaxis and treatment of bipolar disorders and

mania and in the maintenance treatment of recurrent depression

Also used for treatment of mania:

o Lithium Citrate

o Lithium Hydroxide

o Lithium Oral Solution

SODIUM, Na

From Latin word “natrium”

Principal extracellular ion

Accumulation of too much sodium in the body causes fluid retention

Cation of choice for organic medicinals

CALCIUM DISODIUM EDETATE, C10H12N2Na2 CaO8

Used in antidotal therapy for certain heavy metal poisoning

(particularly for lead)

Does not precipitate hypocalcemia

EDETATE DISODIUM, C10H14N2Na2O8.2H2O

EDTA Disodium salt

Pharmacologic Use: Chelating agent administered IV in the

emergency treatment of hypercalcemia

Hypocalcemia may occur if the drug is administered too rapidly or to

patients who are not initially hypercalcemicLife threatening

Not used in treatment of heavy metal poisoning since

hypocalcemia rapidly develops

MONOBASIC SODIUM PHOSPHATE, NaH2PO4

Component of Fleet enema

Fleet Enema is composed of Sodium Phosphate and Sodium

Biphosphate

Saline laxative

o Not absorbed from the intestines

Systemic and urinary acidifier

With Methenamine, treatment of cystitis (release of formaldehyde)

o Hairs of corn, as decoction – used for cystitis

Source of phosphorus in hypophosphatemia and TPN

Indirectly lowers plasma calcium levels→Excess plasma phosphate

interacts with plasma calcium and is transferred to the bone

Used in the treatment of hypercalcemia

DIBASIC SODIUM PHOSPHATE, Na2HPO4

Sodium Phosphate, Phosphate of Soda

Dibasic phosphate ion is the primary anion in the intracellular fluid

Saline laxative

Antihypercalcemic, as oral solution

TRIBASIC SODIUM PHOSPHATE, Na3PO4

No pharmacologic use

Used for cleaning glass apparatus

Very alkaline reaction with water (corrosive)

SODIUM ACETATE, NaCH3COO

Diuretic

Systemic and urinary alkalizer

Pharmaceutical necessity used in solutions for hemodialysis and

peritoneal dialysis

Alkalinizing agent for Benedict’s Solution

SODIUM ASCORBATE, NaC6H7O6

Vitamin C supplement

Antioxidant

SODIUM BICARBONATE, NaHCO3

Baking Soda

Solvay process

Bicarbonate ion is the 2nd major anion in the extracellular fluid

Systemic alkalizer

Systemic antacid

o Readily absorbed by the body

o Could cause systemic alkalosis

o Rebound hyperacidity

Pharmaceutically used as source of carbonation for effervescent

preparations

o Organic acid component: tartaric, citric, ascorbic acid

o CO2 enhances palatability of preparation

Page 3: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 3

Antidote for zinc poisoning (ingestion)

Enhance elimination of acidic drugs

4 commonly used antacids

o Sodium Bicarbonate

o Calcium Carbonate

o Magnesium Hydroxide

o Aluminum Hydroxide

SODIUM BORATE, Na2B4O7

Borax

Pharmaceutic necessity: alkalinizing agent

Externally: as eyewash, buffer→Water-softener

SODIUM CARBONATE, Na2CO3

Anhydrous – soda ash

Dihydrate – trona

Decahydrate – soda crystals, washing soda, sal soda

Carbonating agent

SODIUM CHLORIDE, NaCl

Table salt, rock salt, sea salt, solar salt, dendritic salt

Chloride is the major extracellular anion

Electrolyte replenisher

o NSS→ 0.9% w/v NaCl in water

o Ringer’s Solution NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 in water→Isotonic

Solution of Three Chlorides

o Lactated Ringer’s NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, sodium lactate

→Hartmann’s Solution

o Oral rehydration salts→NaCl, glucose, KCl, sodium citrate

Tonicity-adjusting agent

Condiment

Preservative

SODIUM CITRATE, Na3C6H5O7

In vitro: anticoagulant, forming complex with Ca++ necessary for

blood clotting

In vivo:

o Systemic and urinary alkalizer

o Expectorant

o In vivo (parenteral): blood coagulant

o Excessive oral administration of citrate salts can have a

laxative effect

Best expectorant: water vapor

SODIUM FLUORIDE, NaF

Anticariogenic agent (1.1%) in dentifrices

Excess of fluoride ion causes dental fluorosis (mottling of teeth)

NaMFP (Sodium Monofluoride Phosphate) →also used in

dentifrices

Fluoride ion is toxic and should not be ingested in large amounts

o Precautions for use in children

Nonpharmaceutical use:

Rodenticide and insecticide

Hydrofluoric Acid is used in glass etching and causes slow-healing

burns (antidote: calcium gluconate)

SODIUM FORMALDEHYDE SULFOXYLATE

Best antidote for mercuric chloride poisoning

SODIUM GLUCONATE, NaC6H11O7

Electrolyte replenisher

Gluconate salts:

o less irritating

o water soluble

o Acceptors of hydrogen ions produced by metabolic processes

and act as indirect source of bicarbonate ions

SODIUM HYDROXIDE, NaOH

Caustic soda, lye, sosa, soda lye

Very deliquescent→ readily absorb water from the environment and

readily dissolve in the water that was absorbed

Saponifying agent→ Manufacture of soaps

o Soft Soap vs. Hard Soap

Corrosive

Readily attack glass

Too alkaline to be of medicinal value→rapidly destroys tissue

(caustic)

Pharmaceutical use:

o alkalinizing agent to form soluble sodium salts of various drugs

o Pharmaceutical necessity in preparation of Glycerin

Suppositories

Ingestion of solutions of sodium hydroxide causes liquefaction

necrosis/ saponification necrosis

(vs. strong acids – coagulative necrosis)

SODA LIME, NaOH. Ca(OH)2

Calx sodica

Mixture of calcium hydroxide and sodium or potassium hydroxide or

both

Good carbon dioxide absorber for anesthesia machines, oxygen

therapy, and metabolic tests

SODIUM HYPOPHOSPHITE, NaHPO2

Reducing agent

SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE, NaOCl

Household bleach, Chlorox → 4-6% w/w NaOCl in water

Bleaching agent

Disinfectant (oxidizing property)

Dakin’s Solution → disinfectant

Labarraque’s Solution (~2.5%) →disinfectant

Page 4: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 4

Modified Dakin’s Solution(450-500 mg NaOCl per 100 mL

solution)→ antiseptic

SODIUM IODIDE, NaI

Iodide is an essential ion necessary for synthesis of triiodothyronine

and thyroxine

Source of iodine

o Lack of iodine→ simple or colloid goiter Iodides: expectorant

action (oral administration)

expectorant

Pharmaceutical use→ Solubilizer of iodine in iodine-containing

preparations such as Iodine Tincture and Iodine Solution

Protect from moisture and light

SODIUM METABISULFITE, Na2S2O5

Water-soluble antioxidant→Good reducing agent

A combination of sodium bisulfite and sodium metabisulfite in

varying proportions

It is the bisulfite of commerce and for all practical purposes

possesses the same properties as the true bisulfite

Antioxidant for drugs which contain phenol or catechol nucleus (e.g:

phenylephrine HCl, epinephrine HCl solutions) to prevent oxidation

to quinones; also in Vitamin C solutions (usually 0.1%)→Solutions

must be acid in pH

Antimicrobial property:

o Fermentation industries

o Preservative and bleach in food

To prepare water-soluble analogs of water-insoluble drugs (e.g.:

menadione sodium bisulfite)

Drawback of sulfites and SO2 → Hypersensitivity reactions in

susceptible individuals (angioedema, bronchospasm, anaphylaxis)

SODIUM NITRATE, NaNO3

Chile saltpeter, salitre

Preservative

SODIUM NITRITE, NaNO2

Internally acts as a vasodilator due to relaxation of smooth muscle

(can cause lowering of blood pressure)

Antidote for cyanide poisoning

Used for curing meats and fish

o Color development

o Flavor production (with sodium chloride)

o Preservation against bacteria

However: carcinogenic

SODIUM NITROPRUSSIDE, Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] . 2H2O

Hypotensive agent

SODIUM PERBORATE, NaBO3

Mild disinfectant and deodorant

Readily releases oxygen in contact with oxidizable matter

SODIUM POLYMETAPHOSPHATE

Calgon®, Graham’s salt

Water-softener

detergent

SODIUM POLYSTYRENE SULFONATE

Brand name: Kayexalate

Cation-exchange resin for treatment of hyperkalemia resulting from

kidney failure

SODIUM POTASSIUM TARTRATE, NaKC4H4O6 . H2O

Rochelle Salt, Sal Seginette

Saline laxative→ poorly absorbed in the intestine

Sequestering Agent in Fehling’s Solution

Acidity Regulator in food

SODIUM SACCHARIN

Artificial sweetener

SODIUM STARCH GLYCOLATE

Brand name: Explotab

Tablet disintegrant

SODIUM SULFATE, Na2SO4 . 10H2O

Glauber’s salt

Saline laxative→ Sulfate ion poorly absorbed in GIT

SODIUM TARTRATE, Na2C4H4O6

Primary standard for Karl Fischer Reagent used for Water Content

Determination

Laxative

Diuretic

NOT converted to bicarbonate inside the body

SODIUM THIOCYANATE, NaSCN

Hypotensive agent

Also used in cleaners for contact lenses and as antioxidant

synergist in cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations

SODIUM THIOSULFATE, NaS3O3

Hypochlor, Photographer’s hypo, hypo

Sodium hyposulfite (misnomer)

Antidote for cyanide poisoning, in conjunction with sodium nitrite

Used as volumetric solution in titration

Acids decompose thiosulfate to sulfur

Bases decompose thiosulfate to sulfate

Prone to bacterial decomposition

Removal of chlorine from aqueous solutions

Page 5: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 5

MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE (MSG)

Brand: Ajinomoto

Flavor enhancer

o Imparts a meat flavor to foods (flavor enhancer)

o Sharpens weaker flavors already present in food without

adding any significant taste of their own

Causes Chinese Restaurant Syndrome→ some individuals

sensitive to glutamate: light-headedness, headache, uncomfortable

sense of warmth, difficulty in breathing

POTASSIUM, K

“Kalium”

Principal intracellular cation

Deficiency state → Hypokalemia

o Due to severe burns, diarrhea, or other causes

o Signs and symptoms: muscle weakness and muscle paralysis

Pharmacologic action:

o Diuretic

o Involved in muscle contraction

DIBASIC POTASSIUM PHOSPHATE, K2HPO4

Potassium Phosphate

Treatment of hypercalcemia

o Favors deposition of calcium and phosphate in the bone

o A portion is converted to pyrophosphate, a chelator of calcium,

the complex excreted in the urine

o High plasma phosphate levels decrease calcitriol levels and

decrease absorption of calcium

Used in conjunction with monobasic salt for potassium or phosphate

deficiency

Reagent for various buffers and parenteral fluids

No longer used as laxative

MONOBASIC POTASSIUM PHOSPHATE, KH2PO4

Sorensen’s Potassium Phosphate

For treatment of hypercalcemia →Used in conjunction with the

dibasic salt

Urinary acidifier

o For treatment of calcific kidney stones (nephrolithiasis)

→decrease in free calcium excretion in the urine decreases

stone formation and acidification of urine and free

pyrophosphate ion favor dissolution of stones

o Can cause diarrhea

POTASSIUM ACETATE, KCH3COO

Urinary and systemic alkalizer

Diuretic

Antacid

POTASSIUM ALUM, AlK(SO4)2 .12H2O

Tawas

Astringent

Styptic

Antiperspirant

Deodorant

POTASSIUM BICARBONATE, KHCO3

Systemic antacid

Diuretic

Electrolyte replenisher

May cause hyperkalemia on prolonged use

Carbonating agent for Magnesium Citrate Oral Solution, USP

POTASSIUM BITARTRATE, KHC4H4O6

Cream of tartar, argol, acid potassium tartrate

Occurs in acidulous fruits = grapes

Saline laxative

Ingredient on baking powder to raise dough

POTASSIUM BROMIDE, KBr

Depressant

Sedative

Used for preparation of samples for IR analysis (pellets)

POTASSIUM CARBONATE, K2CO3

Potash, Pearl ash, Salt of tartar, Salt of wormwood

Pharmaceutical necessity (basic property)

Carbonating agent

POTASSIUM CHLORATE, KClO3

Deodorant action due to oxidizing capability

POTASSIUM CHLORIDE, KCl

Potassium salt of choice for potassium replenishment

Electrolyte replenisher

Component of Ringer’s Injection

As IV injection, administered as drip, not push →Muscles and heart

contracts

Used in lethal injection

Component of Ringer’s and Darrow’s Solution (composition: KCl,

NaCl and sodium lactate)

High local concentrations in the GIT can lead to ulceration

POTASSIUM CITRATE, K3C6H5O7

Systemic alkalizer

Osmotic diuretic

POTASSIUM GLUCONATE, KC6H11O7

Electrolyte replenisher for hypokalemic states

Less irritating compared to potassium chloride

Page 6: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 6

POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE, KOH

Caustic potash, lye potash

Strong base; very corrosive

Saponifying agent

Used for manufacture of soft soap

POTASSIUM IODIDE, KI

Iodide salt of choice

Expectorant

Solubilizer for iodine

Prolonged use could lead to hypothyroidism

Excessive amounts could lead to Iodism

o a condition produced by excessive amounts of iodine in the

body

o characterized by increased lacrimation and salivation, rhinitis,

weakness, and skin eruption

Used for prevention of goiter

o Iodine, in the form of iodide, is a necessary nutrient for the

synthesis of thyroid hormones

For treatment of hyperthyroidism

To prepare for thyroid surgery (with anti-thyroid medications)

o As saturated solution

To protect the thyroid in cases of radiation emergency

o Tablets, oral solution

Drug of choice for cutaneous lymphatic sporotrichosis (SSKI 1g/mL)

Used for prevention of goiter

Iodine, in the form of iodide, is a necessary nutrient for the

synthesis of thyroid hormones

For treatment of hyperthyroidism

To prepare for thyroid surgery (with antithyroid medications)

As saturated solution

To protect the thyroid in cases of radiation emergency

Tablets, oral solution

Drug of choice for cutaneous lymphatic sporotrichosis (SSKI 1g/mL)

POTASSIUM METABISULFITE, K2S2O5

Antioxidant

Can trigger allergic reactions in hypersensitive individuals

POTASSIUM NITRATE, KNO3

Saltpeter, salitre, salt prunelle

Used as a meat preservative

Tooth-desensitizing agent

POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE,KClO4

Strong oxidizing agent

Anti-thyroid agent (for the treatment of hyperthyroidism)

As blocking agent for I-131

POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE, KMnO4

Mineral chameleon

Dark purple or almost black crystals or granular powder, almost

opaque by transmitted light and with a blue metallic luster by

reflected light

Strong oxidizing agent

Local anti-infective, antiseptic, deodorant

Used as volumetric solution in titrimetry

POTASSIUM SORBATE, KC6H7O2

Pharmaceutical aid → preservative (0.2%)

Antimicrobial → control growth of yeasts and mold in enteral

formula, foods, and cosmetic preparations

Relatively ineffective above pH 6.5

POTASSIUM THIOCYANATE, KSCN

Hypotensive agent

SULFURATED POTASH, K2Sx. . K2S2O3

Liver of sulfur, hepar sulfuris, potassa sulfurata

o Irregular, liver brown pieces rapidly changing to greenish-

yellow on exposure to air

o Possess odor of hydrogen sulfide

Used in preparation of White Lotion

Reacts with zinc sulfate to precipitate zinc sulfide

o Source of sulfide ion in preparation of White Lotion, USP used

in dermatological practice as:

Astringent, protective, mild antimicrobial and antifungal

Treatment of parasitic diseases of the skin

AMMONIA AND AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

Ammonium ion is a hypothetical alkali metal

Pseudo-alkali metal ion

Generally, ammonium compounds are very water soluble

BUT: ammonium hydroxide is a weak base as compared to alkali

hydroxides which are strong bases

Pharmacologic action:

o Osmotic diuretic

o Buffer component

o Expectorant

AMMONIA, NH3

Synthesized via Haber Process

Involves combination of hydrogen and nitrogen gas at high

pressures to produce ammonia

Used in pharmacy in dilute form as respiratory stimulant

Household ammonia: 10% NH3 and is known as 16o ammonia

(degrees Baumé)

STRONG AMMONIA SOLUTION

Stronger ammonia water, stronger ammonium hydroxide solution,

spirit of Hartshorn

Prepared by Haber process: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + heat

o Contains 27% to 31% w/w of NH3

Page 7: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 7

o Very pungent and characteristic odor

o Strongly alkaline to litmus even when diluted

o On exposure to air it loses ammonia rapidly

o Solution is caustic and vapors irritating (avoid inhalation)

o Cool container well before opening, cover the closure with

cloth while opening

AMMONIA WATER

Dilute Ammonia Solution

o Contains 9.5-10.5% w/w of NH3

o Used as reflex respiratory stimulant

o To neutralize insect stings and jellyfish stings of Portuguese

man-of-war

AROMATIC AMMONIA SPIRIT

Respiratory stimulant

Components: Ammonium Carbonate, NF and Strong Ammonia

Solution, NF

Components: Ammonium Carbonate, NF and Strong Ammonia

Solution, NF, volatile oils (nutmeg and lemon) and ethanol

AMMONIATED MERCURY, HgNH2Cl

White precipitate

Topical anti-infective

AMMONIUM ACETATE, Al(CH3COO3)3

Spirit of Mindererus

Buffer Component

AMMONIUM ALUM, Al(NH4)(SO4)2•12H2O

Depressant

Tawas

Astringent

Styptic

Antiperspirant

Deodorant

AMMONIUM BROMIDE, NH4Br

Depressant

Sedative

AMMONIUM CARBONATE, (NH4)2 CO3

Ammonia crystal, sal volatile, ammonium sesquicarbonate,

Preston’s salt, Hartshorn, baker’s ammonia

Composed of ammonium bicarbonate and ammonium carbamate

(NH2COONH4)

Readily converted to ammonium carbonate in the presence of

ammonia

Expectorant

Respiratory stimulant – decomposes to NH3 and CO2

Source of ammonia for “smelling salts”

Used in the preparation of Aromatic Ammonia Spirit

o Spirit of sal volatile, Spirit of Hartshorn

o Used as a respiratory stimulant in cases of hysterical syncope

AMMONIUM CHLORIDE, NH4Cl

Muriate of Hartshorn, sal ammoniac

Diuretic

Expectorant

Systemic acidifier

Urinary acidifier

AMMONIUM FERRIC CITRATE

hematinic

AMMONIUM IODIDE, NH4I

expectorant

AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE, (NH4)2HPO4

Formerly used as diuretic

Used as buffering agent in pharmaceutical preparations

GROUP IB (11): COINAGE METALS

Copper

Silver

Gold

COPPER AND COPPER COMPOUNDS

COPPER, Cu

Cuprum

Only reddish colored metal

Third most malleable metal

Excellent conductor of heat (surpassed only by silver and gold) and

electricity (surpassed by silver)

Forms two series of salts

o Cuprous ion (Cu+1)

Readily undergo disproportionation

Water insoluble

All are white except Cu2S and Cu2O

o Cupric ion (Cu+2)

Generally blue in solution

Important alloys

o Bronze → Cu and Sn

o Brass → Cu and Zn

Present on hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase

Respiratory proteins – chromoproteins

Color is due to copper

Pharmacologic action:

o Protein precipitant (heavy metal)

o Enhances utilization of iron

Toxicity: Wilson’s Disease

o Accumulation of too much copper in the body

o Antidote: Penicillamine (Cuprimine)

Page 8: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 8

COPPER ACETO-ARSENATE

Paris green

Insecticide

CUPRIC SULFATE, CuSO4 . 5H2O

Blue vitriol, blue stone, Roman vitriol, Salzburg vitriol

Component of Benedict’s solution, Fehling’s solution and Barfoed’s

solution→Test for reducing substances

Bordeaux Mixture→Cupric sulfate and lime (CaO)

o Algaecide and fungicide in swimming pools

Enhance utilization of iron

Antidote for phosphorus poisoning

SILVER AND SILVER COMPOUNDS

SILVER, Ag

“Argentum”

Very soft, ductile and malleable metal

Fine silver 99.9% pure – too soft

Usually alloyed to give strength while preserving ductility and

beauty of the metal

o Sterling Silver (92.5% Ag, 7.5% Cu, usually)

Pharmacologic action:

o Protein precipitant (heavy metal)

o Oligodynamic action

Toxicity : Argyria

o Darkening of skin due to chronic use of silver preparations

o Antidote: NSS

SILVER IODIDE, AgI

germicide

SILVER NITRATE, AgNO3

Lunar caustic

Water soluble salt of silver

Lapiz infernularis (caustic pencil)

Component of indelible ink

Used for treatment of warts

1% ophthalmic solution: prophylaxis for gonorrhea ophthalmia

neonatorum (can cause blindness to the newborn)

Tollen’s Reagent (ammoniacal silver nitrate)

o Silver mirror test (presence of reducing substances, such as

aldehydes)

SILVER PROTEINATES

Silver Proteinate Medicinal Use % Ag

Mild Silver Protein (Argyrol) Antiseptic for eyes 19-23

Strong Silver Protein (Protargol) Antiseptic for ears and

throat

7.5-8.5

Colloidal Silver Protein(Collargol) General germicide 18-22

GOLD AND GOLD COMPOUNDS

GOLD, Au

“Aurum”

King of all metals

Most malleable metal

Best conductor of electricity

Precious metal – expensive

Very soft and ductile

Can only be dissolved by:

o Aqua Regia (3 parts HCl: 1 part HNO3)

o Selenic Acid

Purple of Cassius→Colloidal gold with stannic hydroxide

Toxicity: Gold dermatitis

o Antidote: BAL/ Dimercaprol

GOLD COMPOUNDS

Used for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Aurothioglucose

Gold Sodium Thiomalate

Auranofin→ p.o.

GROUP IIA (2): ALKALINE EARTH METALS

2 valence electrons

Form divalent ions

Selected General Reactions of Group 2A Elements:

Equations Reaction

M + 2H2O → M(OH)2 + H2↑ • Be probably reacts with

steam

• Mg reacts with hot water

• Ca, Sr and Ba reacts rapidly

with cold water

M + 2HCl → MCl2 + H2↑ • All metals react with acids,

liberating H2

Be + 4NaOH →

Na2[Be(OH)4] + 2Na+

• Be is amphoteric

• Only Be reacts with NaOH

2M + O2 → 2MO • Normal oxide formed by all

group members

Ba + O2 (excess)→ BaO2 • Tendency and stability in forming peroxides increases with increasing atomic number

• Ba forms peroxides

M + H2 → MH2 • All metals from hydrides

3M + N2 → M3N2 • All form nitrides at high temperatures

BERYLLIUM, Be

Not used pharmaceutically

Most toxic metal

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MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS

MAGNESIUM, Mg

Lightest of all structurally important metals

Natural sources:

o Silicate – talc, asbestos

o Carbonate – magnesite, dolomite

o Sulfate – kieserite

Mg2+:

o 2nd most abundant intracellular cation

o Found in chlorophyll

o Grignard Reagent (RMgX) used for synthesis of alcohols

o Pharmacologic action:

Cathartic

Depressant action

Natural calcium-channel blocker

MAGNESIUM CARBONATE, MgCO3

Magnesia

2 forms: light and heavy

Antacid

Laxative

MAGNESIUM CITRATE, Mg3(C6H5O7)2

Lemonada purgante, purgative lemon

Saline cathartic

MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE, Mg(OH)2

Milk of Magnesia, Magnesia Magma

Antacid

Side effect: can cause diarrhea

MAGNESIUM OXIDE, MgO

Calcined Magnesia

Antacid

Laxative

Component of Universal Antidote→ MgO, activated charcoal, tannic

acid

Not effective for cyanide and kerosene poisoning

MAGNESIUM SULFATE, MgSO4

Epsom salt

Oral administration: cathartic

Intramuscular administration: anticonvulsant

HYDRATED MAGNESIUM TRISILICATE (TALC), 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O

Soapstone, French chalk

Softest mineral

Dusting powder

Clarifying agent

Filtering aid

Adsorbent

MAGNESIUM TRISILICATE, 2MgO . 3SiO2 . H2O

Antacid

Advantages:

o Can protect ulcers by forming a protective coating on the

stomach

o Gelatinous consistency provides prolonged antacid effect

CALCIUM AND CALCIUM COMPOUNDS

CALCIUM, Ca

Calcium ion is the second most abundant extracellular cation

Sources:

o Dolomite MgCO3CaCO3

o Fluorite CaF

o Gypsum CaSO4

o Phosphate Rock Ca3(PO4)2

o Apatite CaF and Ca3(PO4)2

Pharmacologic action:

o Blood coagulation factor

o needed for the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin

o Release of neurotransmitters (norepinephrine)

o Muscle contraction

o Structural material of bones and teeth

Vitamin D is required for maximum absorption of Calcium

Vitamin C = Fe absorption

Vitamin E = Se absorption

Calcium deficiency:

o Osteomalacia (adults)

o Rickets (children)

o Osteoporosis

CALCIUM BROMIDE, CaBr2

Sedative/depressant

CALCIUM CARBIDE, CaC2

Kalburo

CALCIUM CARBONATE, CaCO3

Two important forms:

o Precipitated Calcium Carbonate

Commercially produced by chemical means

o Prepared Calcium Carbonate

Native, calcium carbonate purified by elutriation

2 crystal forms:

o Aragonite

o Calcite → natural birefringent crystal

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Iceland Spar→very pure form of calcite

Polarimeters

Optical birefringence

Antacid

Can cause rebound hyperacidity

CALCIUM CHLORIDE, CaCl2

Muriate of lime

Electrolyte replenisher in hypocalcemic states

Component of Ringer’s solution

CALCIUM GLUCONATE, C12H22CaO14

Most commonly used calcium salt as electrolyte replenisher

Less irritating than Calcium Chloride

CALCIUM HYDROXIDE, Ca(OH)2

Slaked lime, milk of lime, calcium hydrate

Saponifying agent

CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE, Ca(OCl)2

Bleaching agent

Disinfectant

CALCIUM OXIDE, CaO

Lime, Quicklime, Calx, Apog, Burnt Lime, Calx Usta

Component of Bordeaux mixture → insecticide

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE, Ca3(PO4)2

Bone ash

Antacid

Major component of bone

Product of cremation

CALCIUM SULFATE, (CaSO4)2.H2O or CaSO4 .1/2H2O

Plaster of Paris

Used in surgical cast

CaSO4 2H2O

Gypsum, terra alba

Dentifrice

STRONTIUM AND STRONTIUM COMPOUNDS

STRONTIUM, Sr

Imparts crimson red to a nonluminous flame

STRONTIUM CHLORIDE, SrCl2

Tooth desensitizing agent

Active ingredient in Sensodyne toothpaste

BARIUM AND BARIUM COMPOUNDS

BARIUM, Ba

“heavy”

Toxicity: Baritosis

o inhalation

o ingestion of water-soluble barium compounds:

o Muscle stimulating action

o Antidote: Magnesium Sulfate

BARIUM HYDROXIDE, Ba(OH)2.8H2O

Component of Barium Hydroxide Lime

Similar to soda lime

CO2 absorber

A saturated solution of barium hydroxide in water is known as

baryta water

BARIUM SULFATE, BaSO4

Radiopaque for imaging of GIT

Can cause constipation

RADIUM

RADIUM,Ra

Discovered by Marie Curie

Radioactive

Old unit for radioactivity: Curie

SI unit: Becquerel

Diagnostic purposes

Treatment of certain types of cancers

GROUP IIB (12):VOLATILE METALS/VOLATILE ELEMENTS

Zinc Family

Metals have relatively low melting points

Zinc

Cadmium

Mercury

ZINC AND ZINC COMPOUNDS

ZINC, Zn

Present in insulin

Container for batteries and dry cells

Protective coating in galvanized iron

Pharmacologic properties:

o Astringent

o Antiseptic

o Antiperspirant

o Deodorant

o similar to Aluminum

Deficiency state: Parakeratosis

o Skin appears to be scaly, thickened and inflamed

Important in immune system

Deficiency state leads to impaired immunity

Antidote for Zn2+ poisoning: Sodium Bicarbonate

ZINC CHLORIDE, ZnCl2

Butter of Zinc

Burnett’s Disinfecting Fluid

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Antiseptic found in mouthwashes

Dentin desensitizer

ZINC OXIDE, ZnO

Zinc White

Component of Lassar’s Paste

mild antiseptic

Astringent

Topical protectant

Toxicity: Metal Fume Fever

o occupational disease from inhalation of ZnO fumes

ZnO heated with CoO → Rinman’s Green (CoZnO2)

Thenard’s Blue → Cobalt metaaluminate

ZINC PEROXIDE, ZnO2

Antiseptic

Properties similar to that of hydrogen peroxide

Release of nascent oxygen provides powerful oxidizing action

HYDRATED ZINC SILICATE

Natural calamine

prepared calamine→ ZnO with traces of ferric oxide as impurity

ZINC SULFATE, ZnSO4

White vitriol

Used as ophthalmic astringent

o 0.25% aqueous solution is the only FDA-approved OTC

ophthalmic astringent

Used in preparation of White Lotion

o Sulfurated potash and zinc sulfate

o Active ingredient in White Lotion: ZnS

o Scabicide, topical anti-infective

ZINC-EUGENOL CEMENT

Dental protective

Source of eugenol: clove oil

CADMIUM AND CADMIUM COMPOUNDS

CADMIUM, Cd

Pharmacologic action of water-soluble compounds→ Astringent

Heavy metal

Very poisonous

Toxicity: Itai-itai disease (Japan)

Source of cadmium: cigarette smoking

Antidote: BAL/ Dimercaprol

Cadmium has high affinity for metallothioneins (stress proteins)

CADMIUM CHLORIDE, CdCl2

Emetic

Used for tinea infections

CADMIUM SULFIDE, CdS

Only yellow sulfide

Antiseborrheic agent (for dandruff)

Capsebon

CADMIUM SULFATE, CdSO4

Ophthalmic antiseptic

MERCURY AND MERCURY COIMPOUNDS

MERCURY, Hg

Hydrargyrum, quicksilver, asoge

Forms two series of salts:

o Mercurous, Hg22+ →More difficult to absorb

o Relatively less toxic compared to Hg+2

o Mercuric (Hg2+)

Source→Cinnabar (Aethrop’s mineral), - HgS

Encountered in thermometers, amalgams

Toxicity : Minamata Disease

Signs and symptoms

o Metallic taste, thirst, soreness of throat, salivation, sore gums,

bloody diarrhea, severe gastric pain, vomiting (ingestion of

inorganic Hg salts)

o Acute poisoning→Hg+2: severe vomiting, damage to

intestinal mucosa, diuresis, additional renal damage

o Chronic poisoning→Behavioral and personality changes,

decreased visual acuity, tremors, insomnia, ataxia

o Mad hatter’s disease

Hg compounds were used to convert fur to felt

Tremors, behavioral changes in makers of felt hats

(1900’s)

Toxic Forms

o Hg+2 > Hg2+2 > Hgo

o Organic mercury more toxic than inorganic mercury

(methylmercury)

o Organic mercury toxicity:

Brain damage

Numbness

Loss of vision

Deafness

Madness

Death

o Elemental and methylmercury → CNS

o Mercury vapor → pulmonary irritant

o Methylmercury → teratogenic

o Inorganic mercury salts – corrosive to skin, eyes, GIT,

nephrotoxic

o Chronic inhalation of Hg vapor

Tremor, neuropsychiatric disturbances

Gingivostomatitis

Erethism

Mood changes

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Acrodynia (children)→Pain in extremities, pinkish

discoloration and desquamation (“pink disease”),

hypertension, profuse sweating, anorexia, insomnia,

irritability or apathy, rash

Mechanism of Toxicity

o Cumulative poisons

o Once absorbed, Hg+2 concentrates in kidneys

o Combine with –SH groups of protein leading to inactivation

(generally for heavy metals)

Antidotes

o Sodium Formaldehyde Sulfoxylate, NF

Best antidote for Hg poisoning, especially Hg2+

Reduces Hg+2 to Hg2+2, less soluble

o Penicillamine (Cuprimine®)

For elemental Hg

o Dimercaprol (BAL)

not used for poisoning with metallic and organic mercury

for inorganic Hg salts only

o DMSA (Succimer) – water-soluble analog of BAL

Chelating agents

For all types of mercury posioning

May redistribute Hg to brain from other tissue

Pharmacologic action

o Diuretic, useful for cardiac edema

o Antiseptic – protein precipitant action

o Antisyphilitic

o Cathartic

o Parasiticide and fungicide

MERCUROUS CHLORIDE, Hg2Cl2

Calomel

Cathartic

Active ingredient in Ly-Na

MERCURIC CHLORIDE, HgCl2

Corrosive sublimate

disinfectant

MERCURIC IODIDE, HgI2

Treatment of syphilis

KI and HgI2 → Mayer’s reagent

o most sensitive alkaloidal reagent

o White precipitate (+ result)

MERCURIC OXIDE, HgO

Yellow precipitate

Ophthalmic anti-infective

GROUP IIIA (13) – BORON/ALUMINUM FAMILY

Mg has a diagonal relationship with aluminium

BORON AND BORON COMPOUNDS

BORIC ACID, H3BO3

Sal sedativum Hombergi, Boracic acid, orthoboric acid

Toxic by ingestion or dermal absorption

o Boiled lobster appearance of skin

o Reddish-orange color of skin

Eyewash (2%) – antiseptic property

Tonicity adjusting agent

Buffer component

o Standard pH buffer pH 8-10: Alkaline Borate Buffer

o Pharmaceutical buffer systems:

Feldman’s (pH 7-8.2)

Atkins and Pantin (pH 7.6-11) – Borate buffer system

Gifford’s (pH 6-7.8)

Sorensen’s (pH 5.9-8) – Phosphate buffer system

o Borate buffers are used in ophthalmic and nasal solutions and

external preparations (NOT for parenteral preparations)

o Limitation of phosphate buffers: formation of precipitate with

certain metal ions (Ag, Zn, Al)

SODIUM BORATE, Na2B4O7 .10H2O

Sodium tetraborate decahydrate

Borax

Dobell’s Solution

o aqueous solution of sodium borate, sodium bicarbonate,

phenol, and glycerol

o used as an astringent or antiseptic wash for the throat and

nose

ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM COMPOUNDS

ALUMINUM, Al

Most abundant metal

3rd most abundant element

Abrasive

Toxicity (inhalation)→ Shaver’s Disease

o Neurotoxin (brain)

o Cause Alzheimer’s disease in elderly

Source→Cryolite 3NaFAlF3

ALUMINUM CHLORIDE, AlCl3 . 6H2O

Astringent

Antiseptic

Antiperspirant

Deodorant

ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE, Al(OH)3

Gastric antacid

Brand names: Amphojel, Cremalin

Side effects:

o Constipation

o Can interfere with absorption of phosphates

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Maalox

o Combination of Mg(OH)2 and Al(OH)3

o Counteract side effects of one another

ALUMINUM PHOSPHATE, AlPO4

Gastric antacid

Brand name: Phosphagel

Advantage over Al(OH)3→Does not interfere with phosphate

absorption

ALUMINUM CARBONATE, Al2(PO4)3

Treatment of phosphatic calculi → Promotes elimination of

phosphate via fecal route

ALUM

Tawas

Ammonium Alum and Potassium Alum

Antiperspirant

Astringent

Deodorant

ALUMINUM OXIDE, Al2O3

Alumina

Treatment of silicosis

ALUMINUM SILICATES

Bentonite

o Soapclay, mineral soap

o Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate

o Bentonite Magma

5% suspension in water

Suspending agent

Kaolin

o China clay

o Native hydrated aluminum silicate

o Adsorbent→ Treatment of mild diarrhea

o Demulcent

Pumice

o Complex silicate of aluminum, sodium and potassium

o Volcanic origin

o Dental abrasive

Disadvantage: too abrasive for daily use

GALLIUM

Melts at near body temperature

Substitute for mercury in the manufacture of arc lamps

Treatment of cancer-related hypercalcemia by binding with

transferrin

GROUP IVA (14) – CARBON FAMILY

Nonmetallic in character

CARBON AND CARBON COMPOUNDS

CARBON, C

Exclusively nonmetallic

Only element which can form multiple bonds with itself

CATENATION→ Chain-formation

2 allotropic modifications of Carbon:

o Crystalline

Diamond (tetrahedral)

Graphite (planar

o Amorphous

Coal and anthracite

Activated Charcoal

o Residue from destructive distillation of various organic

materials treated to increase its adsorptive power

o Official in the USP: fine form

o Used as adsorbent (poisoning by ingestion)

Effective for alkaloidal poisons

Ineffective against cyanide and kerosene

o Treatment of diarrhea

CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2

Carbonic acid gas

Most potent respiratory stimulant

Stored in GRAY containers

Used for treatment of persistent hiccups

Toxicity through suffocation

Dry ice→ solid form

o Used as refrigerant

o For treatment of acne, warts, corns and eczema

CARBON MONOXIDE, CO

Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas

Systemic poison

Mechanism of Action: binds to hemoglobin of blood leading to

hypoxia

CO has higher affinity for hemoglobin compared to oxygen gas

Treatment:

o 100% Oxygen→inhalation

o Artificial Air→80% He and 20% O2

o CO2-O2 mixture

o Hyperbaric Oxygen

SILICON AND SILICON COMPOUNDS

SILICON, Si

Second most abundant element

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SILICON DIOXIDE, SiO2

Silica

Inert

Very abundant in nature

Glass is made up of silica and other additives

Causative agent of silicosis

o Signs and symptoms similar to TB

o Haemoptysis – blood in sputum

o Silica becomes deposited in the lungs --- irritation

o Alumina forms a coat with silica particles (antidote

Glass

Pure silica fused with

sodium carbonate

Effect

With MnO2 Mask blue green color of iron usually present

in glass

With Boron (as borate) Decrease coefficient of expansion of glass

With Potassium Render glass brown with light-resistant

property→ amber-colored glass

With Lead Increase refractive index of glass

Rare Earths Selectively absorb light of certain

wavelengths

Purified Siliceous Earth

o Adsorbent

o Filtering aid

o Clarifying agent

Silicates

o Magnesium trisilicate

o Aluminum silicates → Bentonite, Pumice, Kaolin

o Attapulgite → Diatabs, Polymagma, Quintess

o Mg5(Si8O20)(OH)28H2O

o Adsorbent → used for diarrhea

Simethicone

o Polymer of dimethylsiloxane

o Antiflatulent

o Antifoaming agent

TIN AND TIN COMPOUNDS

TIN, Sn

“Stannum”

Used in production of cans

two series of salts:

o Stannous (Sn+2)

o Stannic (Sn+4)

STANNOUS FLUORIDE, SnF2

Anticariogenic agent\

Vs. Sodium Fluoride → at least 4 applications\Stannous Fluoride →

only one application

BUT: solutions should be freshly prepared

STANNOUS PEROXIDE, SnO

Germicide against Staphylococcal organisms

LEAD AND LEAD COMPOUNDS

LEAD, Pb

“Plumbum”

Protein precipitant (heavy metal)

Forms two series of salts:

o Plumbous (Pb+2)

o Plumbic (Pb+4)

Poisoning: Plumbism/ Saturnism

o Automobile exhaust

o Canned foods

o Old lead pipes

o Paints containing lead

o Diagnosis: foot drop/wrist drop

o Most serious effect→ Lead encephalopathy

Memory loss

Irritability

Clumsiness

Projectile vomiting

LEAD ACETATE, Pb(CH3COO3)2

Sugar of Lead

Astringent

Used for the preparation of Lead Subacetate Solution

LEADSUBACETATE, Pb(CH3COO3)2

Pb(CH3COO3)2 + PbO

Goulard’s Extract

Antiseptic

Astringent

GROUP IVB (4) – TITANIUM FAMILY

TITANIUM AND TITANIUM COMPOUNDS

TITANIUM, Ti

Titans

o Sons of the Earth

o Chemically: powerful reducing agent

TITANIUM DIOXIDE, TiO2

Solar ray protectant w/ high refractive index→Sunblock

White pigment

o High coverage area

o Opacifying agent

o White capsules

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o Pilocarpine Ocusert System (for glaucoma)

o Provides white background for easy visibility

ZIRCONCIUM AND ZIRCONIUM COMPOUNDS

ZIRCONIUM, Zr

Similar to Aluminum

Antiperspirant

Deodorant

Forms:

o Aluminum Zirconium Trichlorohydrate

o Aluminum Zirconium Tetrachlorohydrex Gly

o Aluminum Zirconium Tetrachlorohydrex PG

o Aluminum Zirconium Tetrachlorohydrex PEG

Zirconium salts are are known to cause skin granuloma

Use of antiperspirants/deodorants have been linked to breast

cancer→ no clear scientific evidence

Use in aerosols prohibited → pulmonary granuloma

ZIRCONIUM OXIDE, ZrO

Former official compound

Antiperspirant

Treatment of athlete’s foot

ZIRCONIUM CARBONATE, ZrCO3

Former official compound

Antiperspirant

Treatment of athlete’s foot

GROUP VA (15) – NITROGEN FAMILY

NITROGEN AND NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

NITROGEN, N2

Exists as a diatomic molecule in ordinary conditions

“without life”

Synonyms: Azote, Mephitic Air

Provides an inert atmosphere for readily oxidizable pharmaceuticals

Used as a carrier gas in GC

Stored in BLACK containers

Liquid nitrogen:

o Used as a refrigerant

o Cryogenic preservation

NITRATES, NO3-; NITRITES, NO2-

Used as preservatives

NO3- NO2- N-nitrosoamines (carcinogenic)

NITROUS OXIDE, N2O

Laughing gas, sweet air

Inhalatory anesthetic

Stored in BLUE containers

PHOSPHORUS

PHOSPHORUS, P

Light- carrier

“St. Elmo’s Fire”

Essential constituent of protoplasm, nervous tissue and bones

Three main allotropic forms:

o White Phosphorus

Colorless or white solid with waxy appearance

Darkens on exposure to light

Sometimes called Yellow Phosphorus, color due to

impurities

Stored under water→ handled using forceps

When exposed to air in the dark, it emits a greenish light

and gives off white fumes with garlicky odor

Uses: rat poison

VERY POISONOUS!

o Acute Ingestion: Garlic odor of breath, luminous

vomitus, severe GI irritation, bloody diarrhea, liver

damage →general protoplasmic poison

o Chronic Poisoning: bony necrosis, esp. the mandible

(“phossy jaw”)

o Black Phosphorus

Resembles graphite in texture

Produced from white P under high pressures

Stable in air

Does not catch fire spontaneously

o Red Phosphorus

Appears as red to violet powder

Properties of red P are intermediate between those of

black and white P

Insoluble in organic solvents (vs. White P which is soluble

in certain org. solvents)

Less chemically active compared to White P

Relatively nontoxic unless it contains White P as impurity

Uses: safety matches, pyrotechnics

Phosphates→ Of physiologic and medicinal importance

ARSENIC AND ARSENIC COMPOUNDS

ARSENIC, As

Lewisite metal

Salvarsan/ Compound 606/ Arsphenamine→ First anti-syphilis

drug by Paul Ehrlich

Paris Green – cupric aceto-arsenite

o Rodenticide, insecticide, pigment, blue colorant for fireworks

o Made by combining cupric sulfate and arsenic trioxide

o Cu(C2H3O2)2·3Cu(AsO2)2

Scheele’s Green – cupric hydrogen arsenite

Fowler’s Solution – 1% potassium arsenite solution (KAsO2)

o Antileukemic (before)

Donovan’s Solution – arsenic (III) iodide solution

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o For trypanosome infections, rheumatism, arthritis, malaria, TB,

diabetes (before)

Acute poisoning:

o Digestive problems – vomiting, abdominal pains, diarrhea

accompanied by bleeding

o Mees lines – characteristic white lines on nails

o Hair loss

Chronic poisoning: Arsenicosis

o Smelters, patients treated with arsenicals, drinking water with

high levels of arsenic

o cancer

Antidote: BAL (Dimercaprol)

General protoplasmic poison

o Arsenious ion (As+3):

High affinity for –SH compounds

Trivalent arsenic more toxic than pentavalent arsenic

o Toxic to all types of cells

Napoleon Bonaparte→Arsenic detected on hair strand

ARSENIC TRIOXIDE, As2O3

Synonyms: arsenious oxide, white arsenic, arsenic (III) oxide,

arsenicum album

Amphoteric oxide

Used as a wood preservative

Primary standard in titrimetric analysis

Trisenox – used as treatment for leukemia that is not responsive to

first line agents→ Induces cancer cells to undergo apoptosis

ANTIMONY AND ANTIMONY COMPOUNDS

ANTIMONY, Sb

“Stibium”

Antimony glance

o Most important source of antimony

o Sb2S3

o Red-orange in color

Pharmacologic action of water-soluble compounds:

o Astringent

o Emetic

o Expectorant

o Anthelmintic

Kills and expels intestinal worms

Vs. vermifuge→ only expels worms

ANTIMONY POTASSIUM TARTRATE, C8H4K2O12Sb2.3H2O

Tartar emetic

Brown mixture

o Emetic

o Expectorant

o For treatment of schistosomiasis (liver fluke)

Schistosoma japonicum→ requires 2 hosts: snails and humans

BISMUTH AND BISMUTH COMPOUNDS

BISMUTH, Bi

“beautiful meadow”

Astringent

Antiseptic

Protectant

Bismuth compounds are poisonous

Cause black stools --- combination with sulfide ion

Antidote: Dimercaprol

BISMUTH SUBNITRATE, Bi(OH)2NO3

Used as antacid, with astringent and antiseptic properties

BISMUTH HYDROXIDE, Bi(OH)3

Milk of Bismuth→ bismuth hydroxide and bismuth subcarbonate in

suspension in water

o Prepared from Bismuth subnitrate, nitric acid, ammonium

carbonate, strong ammonia solution, and purified water

o Internal protective for gastric ulcers

o Bismuth salts inhibit growth of H. pylori

BISMUTH CITRATE

Colloidal bismuth subcitrate used in tx of PUD

BISMUTH SUBCARBONATE

BISMUTH SUBGALLATE

BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE (“PINK BISMUTH”)

Active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol and Kaopectate

Anti-inflammatory, bactericidal, antacid

Bismuth Subsalicylate Magma

VANADIUM

Insulin-mimetic effect (vanadate, vanadyl ion, coordination

compounds)

Drawback: toxicity of the metal

GROUP VB (5)

TANTALUM

Unaffected by body fluids → inert

Sheet form → surgical repair of bones

GROUP VIA (16): CHALCOGENS (OXYGEN FAMILY)

OXYGEN AND OXYGEN COMPOUNDS

OXYGEN, O2

Dephlogisticated air, Empyreal air, “Yne”

Exists as a diatomic molecule under ordinary conditions

Consists of 1/5 of air, by weight (in free form)

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 17

Consists of 7/8, by weight, of water and in minerals (in combined

state)

Obtained industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air

Three allotropes:

o Nascent→[O]

o Atmospheric/ molecular→O2

o Ozone→O3

Employed as a therapeutic gas in the treatment of conditions

involving hypoxia

Stored in GREEN containers

Very active chemically

o Combines directly with elements except Hg, Ag, Au and

members of the Pt family

o Second most electronegative element (vs. fluorine)

o Oxides (-2 oxidation state)

Metallic

Nonmetallic

Amphoteric

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, H2O2

Oxidation state of oxygen is -1

Good oxidizing and reducing agent

Pure solutions are stable

Commercial solutions are stabilized by acetanilide and addition of

acid (e.g., H3PO4)

Commonly available in 3% and 6% solution

Reagent: 30% solution

30% Solution

o Hydrogen Peroxide Concentrate, USP

o Disinfectant, powerful oxidant

3% Solution (10-volume solution)

o Hydrogen Peroxide Topical Solution, USP

o Antiseptic (oxidizing germicide)

6% Solution (20-volume solution)

o Hair bleach

Hydrogen Peroxide in anhydrous glycerin (1.5%)

Urea Peroxide in anhydrous glycerin (4-10%)

Carbamide Peroxide Topical Solution

o More preferred for treatment of oral and ear infections

ZINC PEROXIDE AND SODIUM PERBORATE

Former official compounds

OZONE, O3

Powerful oxidizing agent→ Disinfectant, bleach (industrial)

SULFUR AND SULFUR COMPOUNDS

SULFUR, S

Brimstone, Shulbari (Sanskrit: enemy of copper), Asupre

Several allotropes

o At room temp.: α-Sulfur (rhombic sulfur) is stable

o At equilibrium point (96oC): β-Sulfur (monoclinic sulfur)

becomes the stable form

Occurs in free state and in combination, mainly as sulfides and

sulfates

Constitutes 0.05% of the crust of the Earth

Pharmaceutical Sulfur

PRECIPITATED

SULFUR

SUBLIMED SULFUR WASHED SULFUR

Milk of Sulfur; Lac

sulfur

Flowers of Sulfur

Made by boiling Sulfur

with Lime and

precipitating the

filtered solution with

HCl

Made by treating

Sublimed Sulfur with

Ammonia to dissolve

impurities, particularly

arsenic and to remove

traces of acid

Very fine, pale

yellow, amorphous or

microcrystalline

powder, odorless and

tasteless

Fine, yellow,

crystalline powder,

with faint odor and

taste

Fine, yellow crystalline

powder, with faint odor

and taste

Readily dissolves in

carbon disulfide

Slowly and usually

incompletely

soluble in carbon

disulfide

Slowly and usually

incompletely soluble

in carbon disulfide

Used in ointments

and lotions

Used as cathartic

Used as scabicide --- fungicidal action

Keratolytic effect

Stimulant cathartic

Stimulates hair growth

Depilatory – as thioglycollate

Fumigant – SO2

Antiseborrheic agent – as SeS2

Pharmaceutically relevant chemical forms:

o Sulfide (-2 oxidation state)→ Hydrogen sulfide and soluble

sulfides react readily with finely divided sulfur to produce

polysulfides, Sx-2

o Sulfite (+4 oxidation state)

o Sulfate (+6 oxidation state

SULFUR OINTMENT

Prepared from precipitated sulfur, mineral oil and White Ointment

10% Sulfur

SULFURATED LIME

Vleminckx’s Solution

SULFURATED POTASH

Liver of Sulfur

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 18

Consist mainly of polysulfide, thuisulfate and sulfate

Prepared by careful heating of a solution of potassium carbonate

and sublimed sulfur

Used in the form of lotions, ointments, and aqueous solutions for

treatment of psoriasis

Also has antiparasitic activity

WHITE LOTION

Prepared from Sulfurated Potash and Zinc sulfate

o Astringent and protective

SELENIUM SULFIDE, SeS2

SeS2 and SeS2 Lotion (Selsun Blue)

2.5% suspension used for the topical treatment of seborrheic

dermatitis

o Hands should be washed off --- Se is toxic

o Should not come in contact in eyes and mouth

o Cadmium Sulfide, in the past, was also used for this purpose

SULFUR DIOXIDE, SO2

Acid anhydride of sulfurous acid

Oxyacid: sulfurous acid

Used pharmaceutically as antioxidant and preservative

SODIUM METABISULFITE, Na2S2O5

Obtained when sodium bisulfite is crystallized on an atmosphere of

sulfur dioxide

Forms bisulfite upon dissolving in water

Should be used when sodium bisulfite is specified

Antioxidant

SODIUM THIOSULFATE, Na2S2O3

Prepared from sulfur reacing with sulfite ions

Antidote for cyanide poisoning

Analytical reagent for determination of iodine

SODIUM SULFATE, Na2SO4

Saline cathartic

SELENIUM

SELENIUM, Se

Selena→ moon

Toxic → Prolonged contact with skin causes contact dermatitis

Important trace element

Absorbed very slowly on the skin

Promotes absorption of Vitamin E

GROUP VIB (6)

Chromium and Molybdenum→ Important trace elements

CHROMIUM AND CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS

CHROMIUM, Cr

Glucose Tolerance Factor

Essential trace element

Deficiency symptoms are similar to that of DM

Forms

o Hexavalent Chromium, Cr6+

Toxic

Dichromate→ strong oxidizing agent

Primary standard – Sodium Thiosulfate VS

Chromate →precipitant

o Trivalent Chromium , Cr3+

CHROMIC CHLORIDE AND CHROMIC CHLORIDE INJECTION

CHROMIUM PICOLINATE

MOLYBDENUM AND MOLYBDENUM COMPOUNDS

MOLYBDENUM, Mo

Essential trace element

Cofactor for enzymes associated with flavin-dependent enzymes

Cofactor for Xanthine Oxidase

Important for bacterial fixation of atmospheric oxygen

MOLYBDENUM OXIDE, MoO

with ferrous sulfate → hematinic

URANIUM, U

Radioactive element

Discovered by Becquerel

Never employed in medicine as such

Used in atomic reactors and atomic bombs

GROUP VIIA (17): HALOGENS

Halogen = Sea-salt producer

FLUORINE AND FLUORINE COMPOUNDS

FLUORINE, F2

Most electronegative element

Strongest oxidizing agent

SODIUM FLUORIDE, NaF

Sodium Fluoride Tablets; Oral Solution

Sodium Fluoride and Phosphoric Acid Gel

Sodium Fluoride and Phosphoric Acid Topical Solution

Also used in the treatment of osteoporosis

Excess fluoride in adults:

o Weakening of bones

o Adverse effects on the kidney

o Low IQ

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 19

o Suppressive effect on thyroid, particularly when iodine is

deficient

Excess fluoride in children→ dental fluorosis

STANNOUS FLUORIDE, SnF2

easily air-oxidized

Stannous Fluoride Gel

SODIUM MONOFLUOROPHOSPHATE

Anticariogenic agent added in dentifrices

CHLORINE AND CHLORINE COMPOUNDS

CHLORINE, Cl2

Dephlogisticated muriatic acid

Chlorine is used as a water disinfectant

Cl- →principal extracellular cation

CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS

Dichlorodifluoromethane, CCl2F2

o Freon

o Refrigerant; aerosol propellant

o Implicated in ozone layer depletion

HYDROCHLORIC ACID, HCl

In diluted form→ treatment for gastric achlorrhydria

present in gastric juice

Pepsinogen is secreted by chief cells, which is activated by HCl

secreted by parietal cells, to pepsin

Diluted Hydrochloric Acid is official --- 10% w/v solution

SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE, NaOCl

Bleaching agent

Disinfectant

Sodium Hypochlorite Solution (Dakin’s Solution)

o Effective germicide, viricide, and deodorant

o Strong oxidizing agent

Sodium Hypochlorite Topical Solution

o 0.025% NaClO, pH 8 (close to 7.4), buffered with phosphate

o allows tissues to regenerate – healing of burns

o Antiviral and antimicrobial

BROMINE AND BROMINE COMPOUNDS

BROMINE, Br2

Dark, reddish brown fuming liquid with suffocating odor

Powerful caustic and germicide

Mainly used as a chemical reagent

Poisoning: Bromism

o Skin eruption

o Headache

o Weakness

o Psychosis

o NaCl and Ammonium Chloride

Bromine TS

Bromine Water→1% Bromine in water

Bromine VS

Koppeschaar’s Solution

0.1 N Bromine VS

Components

Br -→ internally acts as a sedative (depressant)

Three Bromides Elixir

IODINE AND IODINE COMPOUNDS

IODINE, I2

Heaviest nonmetallic element

Easily undergoes sublimation, giving off violet vapor

Solid with metallic sheen

Poisonous→ Antidote: Starch solution

I-

o Expectorant

o Antiseptic

o Essential trace element necessary for synthesis of T3 and T4

hormones

o T3 – triiodothyronine – more active

o T4 – thyroxine – more numerous

o Toxicity: Iodism

o Deficiency state: Simple Goiter

Dangerous for pregnant women – cretinism

Prevention: iodized salt

Iodine Preparations

Iodophors

Iodine complexed with an organic complexing agent as solubilizer

Povidone Iodine (Betadine)

Advantages:

o Reduced irritation

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 20

o Reduced oral tox o Lack of staining potential o Low incidence of idiosyncratic reactions o Slow release of iodine o Stability, virtually 0 vapor pressure of I2

Phenolated iodine solution→ Boulton’s solution

ASTATINE, At

The only metallic and radioactive halogen

GROUP VIIB (7)

MANGANESE AND MANGANESE COMPOUNDS

MANGANESE, Mn

Essential trace element

Cofactor involved in protein synthesis, phosphorylation, fatty acid,

and cholesterol synthesis

Toxicity: similar to Parkinsonism

o Muscle tremors

POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE, KMnO4

Mineral chameleon

Strong oxidizing agent

Antiseptic

Drawback: staining of skin

TECHNETIUM, Tc

“technetos” – artificial

First element produced artificially

GROUP VIIIA (18)

HELIUM, He

Second lightest gas

Inhalation of pure helium produces Donald Duck -like sound

Component of Artificial Air

BROWN container

80% He and 20% O2

NEON, Ne

Advertising purposes – as Neon lights

ARGON, Ar

Most abundant noble gas

Substitute for nitrogen as inert atmosphere for pharmaceuticals

KRYPTON, Kr

Least abundant noble gas

Inhalational anesthesia, also Xenon

RADON, Rn

“Niton”

Used for the treatment of certain types of cancers

GROUP VIIIB (8): IRON TRIAD

First Triad: Fe, Co, Ni

Second Triad: Rh, Ru, Pd

Third Triad: Os, Ir, Pt

IRON AND IRON COMPOUNDS

IRON, Fe

“Ferrum”

Common ores

o Hematite (Fe2O3)

o Pyrite/ “Fool’s Gold” (FeS2)

o Iron stone FeCO3

Exists in two oxidation states

o Fe2+ →aqueous solutions are green in color

o Fe3+ →aqueous solutions are yellow to orange to brown in

color

In the body:

o Hemoglobin→iron in blood

o Transferrin→Transport form of iron in the body

o Ferritin→ Storage form of iron in the body

Physiologic role

o Hematinic → In +2 oxidation state

For correction of microcytic hypochromic anemia (iron

deficiency anemia)

Toxicity

o Cardiac collapse

o GI distress

o Black stools

FERROUS SULFATE, FeSO4.7H2O

Green vitriol

FERROUS GLUCONATE

Fergon

Produces less gastric irritation compared to Ferrous Sulfate

FERROUS FUMARATE

Toleron

More stable compared to Ferrous Sulfate

FERROUS CARBONATE, FeCO3

Chalybeate Pills

Blaud’s Pills

Ferruginous Pills

IRON + AMMONIUM ACETATE

Basham’s Mixture

o Astringent

o Styptic

Page 21: Inorganic Chemistry Review

INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 21

FERRIC CHLORIDE, FeCl3

Astringent

Styptic

Test for presence of tannins

FERRIC SUBSULFATE SOLUTION

Monsel’s Solution

Basic ferric sulfate solution

Prepared from ferrous sulfate and nitric and sulfuric acids

Used as styptic (hemostatic agent)

FERROUS FERRICYANIDE

Turnbull’s Blue

FERRIC FERROCYANIDE

Prussian Blue

COBALT AND COBALT COMPOUNDS

COBALT, Co

Development of erythrocytes and hemoglobin

As Co+2: central metal ion in Vit. B12 (Cyanocobalamin)

Permanent magnets

Used on the manufacture of beers

o Enhances foam quality

COBALTOUS, CoCl2

Lover’s Ink

Sympathetic Ink→ Used as indicator in silica gel beads

pink→ wet

blue→ blue

NICKEL AND NICKEL COMPOUNDS

NICKEL, Ni

Old Nick’s Copper

Found in fossil fuel combustion

Fancy jewelries

Nickel itch --- contact dermatitis

Exists in +2 oxidation state evelopment of erythrocytes and

hemoglobin

NICKEL CARBONATE, NiCO3

Tonic

NICKEL SULFATE, NiSO4

Tonic

Parasiticide

RUTHENIUM, Ru

Ru complexes are investigated for its anticancer properties

PALLADIUM, Pd

catalyst in organic reactions

OSMIUM, Os

Heaviest and most dense metal

Osmium Tetroxide, Osmic Acid

Staining of specimens for electron microscopy

PLATINUM, Pt

Catalyst in organic reactions

Production of crucibles and wires

Cisplatin → prostate cancer

Cis-diamminedichloroplatinum

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

FLAME TEST

ANION GROUP

CATION GROUP

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 22

SILVER HALIDES

Silver halides are light sensitive >> they easily darken upon

exposure to light

Silver halides have a characteristic curdy appearance

All silver halides are insoluble in dil. Nitric acid solution

AgCl – white curdy ppt soluble in diluted ammonia solution

AgBr – light yelow curdy ppt partially soluble in diluted ammonia

solution

AgI – yellow curdy ppt insoluble in diluted ammonia solution

ACTIVITY SERIES

Useful for predicting displacement reactions

For non-metals: F2>Cl2>Br2>I2

For metals

o Metals located above hydrogen can displace hydrogen gas

from acids

o Metals located above the series are more active and can

displace salts of metals from solutions

o Metals located below the series are easily reduced into their

metallic states

source: www.sjesci.wikispaces.com

USP OFFICIAL IDENTIFICATION TESTS

ACETATE

1. Warm with conc sulphuric acid and 95% ethanol→ ethyl

acetate (plastic balloon, fruity odor)

2. Neutralize solution then add ferric chloride TS→ ferric acetate

(blood red solution, destroyed by addition of mineral acids)

ALUMINUM

1. With 6N ammonium hydroxide → aluminum hydroxide (white

gelatinous precipitate insoluble in excess of the reagent)

2. With sodium hydroxide TS or sodium sulphide TS→ aluminum

hydroxide (white gelatinous precipitate soluble in excess of the

reagent)

AMMONIUM

1. Add excess 1N sodium hydroxide and warm→ ammonia

(pungent odor, vapour turns red litmus to blue)

ANTIMONY

1. Acidify with hydrochloric acid, add hydrogen sulphide →

antimony sulphide (orange precipitate, insoluble in 6N

ammonium hydroxide, soluble in ammonium sulphide TS)

2. Neutral pH then add ferric chloride→ ferric acetate (blood red

solution, destroyed by addition of mineral acids)

BARIUM

1. With 2N sulphuric acid→ barium sulfate (white precipitate,

insoluble in hydrochloric or nitric acid)

2. Yellowish green color to a nonluminous flame, blue through

green glass

BENZOATE

1. Neutral pH, add ferric chloride TS→ ferric benzoate (salmon-

colored precipitate)

2. In concentrated solutions, add 2N sulphuric acid→ benzoic

acid (white precipitate, soluble in ethyl ether)

BICARBONATE

1. Add acids→CO2 (effervescence, gives white precipitate upon

addition of calcium hydroxide TS)

2. Add drops of phenolphthalein TS→ (no color formation)

BISMUTH

1. Dissolve in light excess nitric or hydrochloric acid then dilute

with water→ bismuth hydroxide (white precipitate colored

brown by hydrogen sulphide, the resulting compound dissolves

in warm mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and water)

BORATE

1. Acidify solution with hydrochloric acid, drops of iodine TS,

drops of polyvinyl alcohol solution(1 in 50) → (intense blue

color)

2. Add sulphuric acid, add methanol, ignite→ (green-bordered

flame)

BROMIDE

1. Add chloroform, then chlorine TS dropwise, shake→ bromine

(red to reddish brown lower organic layer)

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 23

2. With silver nitrate TS→ silver bromide (yellowish white

precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, slightly soluble in 6N

ammonium hydroxide)

CALCIUM

1. 2 drops methyl red TS, neutralize with 6N ammonium

hydroxide, add 3N hydrochloric acid until solution is pink, add

ammonium oxalate TS→ calcium oxalate (white precipitate,

insoluble in 6N acetic acid, soluble in hydrochloric acid)

2. Acidified solution→ transient yellowish red color to

nonluminous flame

CARBONATE

3. Add acids→CO2 (effervescence, gives white precipitate upon

addition of calcium hydroxide TS)

4. Add drops of phenolphthalein TS→ (fuschia pink solution)

CHLORATE

1. Add silver nitrate→no precipitate

2. Add sulphurous acid → white precipitate insoluble in nitric

acid, soluble in 6N ammonium hydroxide

3. ignition→chlorides (forms white precipitate with silver nitrate

TS, insoluble in nitric acid, soluble in ammonium hydroxide)

4. Add sulphuric acid to dry sample→ decrepitation, greenish

yellowish gas

CHLORIDE

1. To sample solution Add silver nitrate TS→ silver chloride

(white curdy precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, soluble in slight

excess of 6N ammonium hydroxide)

2. To dry salts, add equal weight manganese dioxide moisten

with sulphuric acid, gently heat→ chlorine gas (turns starch

iodide paper to blue)

CITRATE

1. Add a few mg of dry salt to 15 ml pyridine, dissolve or suspend

in 1 ml water, shake then add 5ml acetic anhydride then

shake→ light red color

COBALT

1. Add 3N hydrochloric acid, heat on steam bath with equal

volume nitroso-2-naphthol in 9N acetic acid→ red precipitate

2. Sample solution, saturate with potassium chloride, add

potassium nitrite and acetic acid→ potassium cobaltinitrite

(yellow precipitate)

3.

COPPER

1. Acidify with hydrochloric acid, metallic iron→ copper metal (red

film on surface of iron)

2. Excess 6N ammonium hydroxide→ deep blue solution

3. With potassium ferrocyanide TS→ cupric ferrocyanide (reddish

brown precipitate, insoluble in dilute acids)

HYPOPHOSPHITE

1. strong heating→ phosphine (flammable gas)

2. with mercuric chloride TS→ mercurous chloride become

metallic mercury with excess hypophosphite (white precipitate

turns gray)

3. with sulphuric acid and cupric sulphate TS→ cuprous oxide

(reddish brown precipitate, insoluble in diluted acids)

IRON

1. Ferrous or ferric solution with ammonium sulphide TS→

ferrous or ferric sulphide (black precipitate, soluble in 3N

hydrochloric acid with evolution of hydrogen sulphide)

Ferric Salts

1. Acid solutions with potassium ferrocyanide TS→ ferric

ferrocyanide (dark blue gelatinous precipitate)

2. With 1N sodium hydroxide→ ferric hydroxide (reddish brown

gelatinous precipitate)

3. With ammonium thiocyante TS→ ferric thiocyanate (deep red

colored solution, cannot be destroyed with dilute mineral acids)

Ferrous Salts

1. with potassium ferricyanide TS→ ferrous ferricyanide (dark

blue gelatinous precipitate, insoluble in 3N hydrochloric acid,

soluble in 1 N sodium hydroxide)

2. With 1N sodium hydroxide→ ferrous hydroxide (green-white

gelatinous precipitate, turns brown upon shaking)

LACTATE

1. Acidified with sulphuric acid, add potassium permanganate,

heat→ acetaldehyde (filter paper moistened with 20%

morpholine and sodium nitroferricyanide TS turns blue)

LEAD

1. With 2 N sulphuric acid→lead sulphate (white precipitate,

insoluble in 3N hydrochloric or 2N nitric acid, soluble in 1N

warm sodium hydroxide or ammonium acetate TS)

2. With potassium chromate TS→ lead chromate (yellow

precipitate, insoluble in 6N acetic acid but is soluble in 1N

sodium hydroxide)

LITHIUM

1. With sodium carbonate TS and made alkaline with sodium

hydroxide→ lithium carbonate (white precipitate on boiling,

soluble in ammonium chloride TS)

2. Rendered acidic then nonluminous flame→ red colored flame

3. 2 N sulphuric acid→ no precipitation

MAGNESIUM

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 24

1. With ammonium chloride, ammonium carbonate, dibasic

sodium phosphate TS→magnesium ammonium phosphate

(white crystalline precipitate, insoluble in 6N ammonium

hydroxide.

MANGANESE

1. With ammonium sulphide TS→manganese sulphide (salmon-

colored precipitate, soluble in acetic acid)

MERCURY

1. Salt solutions, metallic copper is added→ metallic mercury

(deposits with silvery appearance)

2. With hydrogen sulphide→ mercuric/mercurous sulphide (black

precipitate, insoluble in ammonium sulphide TS and in boiling

with 2N nitric acid.

Mercuric Salts

1. With 1N sodium hydroxide →mercuric oxide (yellow

precipitate)

2. With potassium iodide TS→ potassium mercuric iodide (scarlet

precipitate, soluble in excess reagent)

Mercurous Salts

1. With 1N sodium hydroxide →black precipitate

2. With hydrochloric acid→mercurous chloride (white precipitate,

blackened by 6N ammonium hydroxide)

3. With potassium iodide TS→ potassium mercurous iodide

(yellow precipitate, turns green upon standing)

NITRATE

1. With equal volume sulfuric acid, cooled, add ferrous

sulfate→brown color is produced at the junction of 2 liquids

2. When heated with sulphuric acid and metallic copper→

brownish-red fumes

3. Cannot decolorize potassium permanganate

NITRITE

1. With dilute mineral acid or with 6N acetic acid→ brownish-red

fumes

2. With starch-iodide paper→ turns paper blue

OXALATE

1. Neutral or alkaline solutions with calcium chloride TS→calcium

oxalate (white precipitate, insoluble in 6N acetic acid but

dissolved by hydrochloric acid)

2. Hot acidified solution, add permanganate→ decolorization

PERMANGANATE

1. When acidified with sulphuric acid is decolorized by hydrogen

peroxide TS, sodium bisulfite TS, in the cold, and by oxalic

acid, in hot solution

PEROXIDE

1. Slightly acidified with sulphuric acid, add ether, add potassium

dichromate TS→ deep blue solution that is more soluble in the

ether layer

PHOSPHATE

1. With silver nitrate→silver phosphate (yellow precipitate,

soluble in 2N nitric acid and in 6N ammonium hydroxide)

2. Acidified solutions with ammonium molybdate→ammonium

phosphomolybdate (yellow precipitate soluble in 2N nitric acid

and in 6 N ammonium hydroxide

POTASSIUM

1. Impart violet color in nonluminous flame

2. Neutral or moderately concentrated solutions, with sodium

bitartrate TS→white crystalline precipitate soluble in 6N

ammonium hydroxide and solutions of alkali hydroxides and

carbonates, hastened by addition of glacial acetic acid or

ethanol)

SALICYLATE

1. With ferric chloride TS→ferric salicylate (violet solution)

2. Moderately concentrated solutions with addition of

acids→salicylic acid (white crystalline precipitate)

SILVER

1. With hydrochloric acid→silver chloride (white curdy precipitate,

insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in 6 N ammonium hydroxide)

2. With 6N ammonium hydroxide and formaldeyhde→ silver

mirror upon warming

SODIUM

1. To a 2mL solution, add 2ml 19% potassium carbonate and

heat to boiling, then add potassium pyroantimonate TS then

boil→ white precipitate

2. Impart persistent yellow color to nonluminous flame

SULFATE

1. With barium chloride TS →barium sulphate (white precipitate,

insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid)

2. With lead acetate TS→lead sulphate(white precipitate soluble

in ammonium acetate TS)

3. With hydrochloric acid→no precipitation (distinction from

thiosulfates)

SULFITE

1. With 3N hydrochloric acid→sulfur dioxide(blackens filter paper

moistened with mercurous nitrate TS

TARTRATE

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INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY REVIEW 25

1. Few mg of the sample salt to 2 drops of sodium metaperiodate

solution (1 in 20), 1 drop 1N sulphuric acid, then sulphurous

acid, then few drops fuchsin-sulfurous acid TS→ reddish pink

color

THIOCYANATE

1. With ferric chloride TS →ferric thiocyanate(red colored

solution, not decolorized by concentrated mineral acids)

THIOSULFATE

1. With hydrochloric acid→ white precipitate that turns yellow and

sulphur dioxide blackens filter paper moistened with mercurous

nitrate TS

ZINC

1. With sodium acetate and hydrogen sulfide→zinc sulphide

(white precipitate, insoluble in acetic acid, but dissolved by 3N

hydrochloric acid)

2. With ammonium sulfide→zinc sulphide (white precipitate,

neutral medium)

3. With potassium ferrocyanide TS→ zinc ferrocyanide (white

precipitate, insoluble in 3 N Hydrochloric acid)


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