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INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS CHEM 4811
CHAPTER 12
DR. AUGUSTINE OFORI AGYEMANAssistant professor of chemistryDepartment of natural sciences
Clayton state university
CHAPTER 12
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC)
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
- Mobile phase is a gas
- Column is open tubular
- Sample is injected through a thin rubber disc (septum)
- Sample is vaporized upon entering a heated glass port
- A carrier gas (He, N2, H2) carries vaporized sample to a detector
- Detector temperature is higher than column temperatureto keep solutes in the gaseous state
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Liquid Sample Size0.1 to 2 µL for analytical chromatography
20 to 1000 µL for perspective chromatography
Gas Sample Size0.5 to 10 mL (gas tight syringe should be used)
INSTRUMENTATION
- Injectors (syringes, autosamplers)
- The column
- Detectors
SAMPLE INJECTION
- Sample is injected through a thin rubber disc (septum)to a heated glass port where it is vaporized
- Injection is commonly done with syringes
- Syringe needle must be very narrow
- Wide needle could cut out a plug of the septum (coring)
Autosamplers- Can analyze 100 or more liquid samples without manual injection
- Samples are put in autosampler vials which are capped with septa
Split Injection
- Good for open tubular columns
- Complete injection may be too much for an open tubular column
- 0.1 to 10% of the injected sample reaches the column
- Not good for quantitative analysis(higher boiling point components may not be vaporized)
SAMPLE INJECTION
Splitless Injection
- Suitable for quantitative analysis
- Suitable for analysis of low concentrations of solutes(trace componenets)
- Dilute solution with low-boiling solvent is used
- About 80% of the injected sample reaches the column
SAMPLE INJECTION
Solvent Trapping
- Sample is initially injected at about 40o below boiling point of sample
- A thin band of solute is trapped
- Column temperature is later raised
SAMPLE INJECTION
Cold Trapping
- Used for high-boiling solutes
- Sample is initially injected at about 150o below boiling point of solutes of interest
- Solvent and low-boiling solutes are eluted
- High-boiling solutes are trapped in a narrow band
- Column temperature is later raised
SAMPLE INJECTION
On-column Injection
- Sample is injected directly into the column
- Used for compounds that decompose at temperaturesabove their boiling points
- Solvent trapping or cold trapping is employed to trap a narrow band of analyte
- Column temperature is increased afterwards to initiate chromatography
SAMPLE INJECTION
OPEN TUBULAR COLUMN
- Stationary phase is usually made of fused silica (SiO2)(silicone polymers)
- Liquid or solid stationary phase is coated on the inner wall
- Stationary phase may be porous carbon
- Another type is porous layer open tubular (PLOT) for relatively small molecules
Molecular Sieves
- Included in the stationary phase
- Has cavities and made of inorganic materials
- Used to dry gaseous solutes
- Strongly retains H2O
- Separates other small molecules (CH4, H2, O2, N2, CO2)
OPEN TUBULAR COLUMN
- Polar column is usually used for polar solutes
- Nonpolar column is usually used for nonpolar solutes
- Tailing is seen when stationary phase bakes and SiOH groups(silanol) forms on the silica surface
OPEN TUBULAR COLUMN
Nonpolar Stationary Phase- Solutes are eluted in order of increasing boiling point
- Solutes with higher vapor pressure are eluted faster
Polar Stationary Phase- Solutes are separated based on polarity
- Less polar solutes are eluted faster than strongly polar solutes
OPEN TUBULAR COLUMN
GUARD COLUMN
- Collects nonvolatile solutes that are not eluted
- Attached to the front of a chromatography column5 to 10 meters long
- Has no stationary phase and is silanized
- Ends are cut off with time to discard nonvolatile solute buildup
OPEN TUBULAR COLUMN VS PACKED COLUMN
- Gives better separation
- Narrower peaks
- Handles smaller samples (analytical chromatography)
COLUMN TEMPERATURE
Increase in Column Temperature- Increases solute vapor pressure
- Decreases retention time
- Results in sharp peaks
Temperature Programming- Used to separate compounds with a wide range of
boiling points and polarities
ELUTION AND RESOLUTION
Elution and resolution behavior depends on
- The composition of the stationary phase and mobile phase gas
- Column dimensions (length)
- Column phase ratio (internal diameter and film thickness)
- Column gas flow (pressure)
- Column temperature
DETECTORS
Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS)- Very sensitive and the most versatile
- Major problem is interfacing
Flame Ionization Detector (FID)- Destructive, mass-flow detector
- For almost all organic compounds (not for CO, CO2, HCN)- Low detection limits
Thermal Conductivity Detectors (TCD)- Nondestructive, concentration detector
- Not sensitive to narrow columns (diameter < 0.53 mm)
Electron Capture Detector (ECD)- Very sensitive to halogen-containing compounds
- Insensitive to ketones, alcohols, and HCs- Nondestructive, mass-flow detector
Electrolytic Conductivity Detector (ELCD)- For organic compounds with halogen, N, or S substituent
- Destructive, Mass-flow detector
Sulfur Chemiluminescence Detector (SCD)- For organic compounds with S atoms only
- Destructive, mass-flow detector
DETECTORS
Sulfur – Phosphorus Flame Photometric Detector (SP-FPD)- For organic compounds with S or P atoms
- Destructive, mass-flow detector
Nitrogen – Phosphorus Detector (NPD)- Selectively sensitive to nitrogen and phosphorus
- Used for analysis of drugs- Destructive, mass-flow detector
Photoionization Detector (PID)- For organic compounds with more easily ionizable π-electrons
- Nondestructive, mass-flow detector
DETECTORS
Helium Ionization Detector (HID)- Universal detector for everything except neon
- Nondestructive, mass-flow detector
Atomic Emission Detector (AED)- Selective for compounds containing many atoms
- Tunable- Destructive, mass-flow detector
DETECTORS
GC-MS
GC-IR
GC-GC or GC2 (2D-Gas Chromatography)
HYPHENATED TECHNIQUES
- Environmental pollution monitoring
- Analysis of contaminants
- Biochemical, medical, and pharmaceutical research
APPLICATIONS
- Complex molecules (DNA, RNA) are too large to be volatilized and may decompose
- HPLC is preferred for analyzing such molecules
- Not suitable for solutions in aqueous media
LIMITATIONS