INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENTFOR

INSECT PESTSOF

PULSES

BY- RAKESH KR MEENA

INTRODUCTION

Pulse crops are : COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Red Gram (Pigeon Pea, Arhar) Cajanus cajan(L.)

Black Gram (Urd, Mash) Phaseolus mungo R.

Bengal-gram Cicer arietinum L.

Cowpea Vigna sinensis (L.)

Green-gram (Mung) Phaseolus aureus R

Lentil Lens culinaris M.

Peas Pisum sativum L.

Moth bean Phaseolus aconitifolius J.

Horse-gram Dolichos biflorus L.

Chickling Pea Lathyrus sativus L.

(Handbook of Agriculture, 2003)

Pulses, rich in proteins form an important part of Indian dietary.

Average yield level of pulses are 550-650 kg/ha in India ; 1140 kg in China, 1600 kg in USA and a world average of 900 kg/ha. (Atwal et al., 2003)

Insect Pests, about 200 species found feeding, but one dozen cause significant and consistent damage to pulse crops. (Reed and Lateef, 1990)

Problems Associated With Insecticide UseToxicity Dangers Natural Enemy Destruction Resistance to Insecticides Host Plant Resistance Differences in Susceptibility

Why Practice IPM?Keep a Balanced EcosystemPesticides can be IneffectiveIPM is not DifficultSave MoneyPromote a Healthy EnvironmentMaintain a Good Public Image

Integrated Pest Management: “Integrated Pest Control is a pest management that, in the context of the associated environment and the population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as possible and maintains the pest population at levels below those causing economic injury.”

(FAO, 1975)

Pod borerHelicoverpa (Heliothis) armigera, Helicoverpa assulta, Heliothis viriplaca, Heliothis peltigera(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Distribution Helicoverpa armigera is commonly found throughout the tropics and subtropics in Asia. It is the single most important constraint to pulses. High level of insecticide resistance, make this species one of the most difficult pest to manage.

INSECTS PESTS OF PULSES

Description Adult H. armigera have a wing span of about 40 mm with dull brown forewings. A single female lay up to 2000 small white eggs usually singly. In pigeonpea,eggs are laid on flower buds and young pods while in chickpea eggs are usually deposited on foliage. Full-grown larvae are 30 to 40 mm long and may have various body color and banding patterns. Pupation occurs in the soil or in plant debris.

SymptomsThe Helicoverpa spp. destroys buds, flowers, and pods. If flowers and pods are not available, larvae will feed upon foliage

Legume (or Cowpea) Pod borer Maruca vitrata (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)DistributionMaruca vitrata attacks several leguminous crops throughout Asia. Description

Eggs are laid in small clusters of 10 to 15 on leaves, buds, and flowers. A full-grown larva measures 15 mm in length, with a pale body lined by rows of conspicuous black spots on its dorsal surface. Adults have distinctive white bands on forewings with a wing span of 20 mm. M. vitrata becomes a menace in early-season pigeonpea especially in areas with high relative humidity.

Symptoms Larvae feed from inside a webbed mass of leaves, buds, and pods. This behaviour makes Maruca a foliage feeder and pod borer.

Pod-Sucking Bugs

Clavigralla gibbosa Spinola, Clavigralla scutellaris, Anoplocnemis spp , Riptortus spp (Hemiptera:Coreidae)Nezara viridula (Hemiptera:Pentatomidae )

Distribution Several species and genera of pod-sucking bugs attack pigeon pea and other legumes in Asia. For pigeonpea, the most dangerous genera are the Clavigralla gibbosa and Nezara viridula, the green stinkbug,found on many legumes and other hosts throughout the tropics and subtropics.

Description

Clavigralla bugs are brown-gray.The eggs of the two Clavigralla species are easily separated; those of C.scutellaris being smooth and shiny, and not roughly sculptured like the C. gibbosa's C. gibbosa generally lays clusters of 10-12 eggs compared to the 18-20 of C.scutellaris's. Nezara viridula is 15 mm long, normally green, but may also have some yellow coloration. All of the pod-sucking bugs lay their eggs in clusters on leaves and pods.

The adults and nymphs of all of these bugs use their piercing mouthparts to penetrate the pod wall and suck the liquid from developing seeds. Damaged seeds become shriveled, and develop dark patches. The injury being similar to that of drought stress and the impact of these pests has been underestimated in the past. Seeds spoiled by pod- sucking bugs neither germinate nor acceptable as human food.

Symptoms

Melanagromyza obtusa ( Diptera:Agromyzidae)

Distribution Melanagromyza obtusa is a widespread and major pest of pigeonpea in Asia. It has a narrow host range and only feeds on pigeonpea and closely related species.

Podfly

The small, black fly is about 5 mm in length. Eggs are laid in the wall of an immature pod. The white maggots feed on the developing seed and reach a length of 3 mm before pupating.

Description

Pod fly infested pods do not show external evidence of damage until the fully-grown larvae chew holes in the pod walls. This hole provides an emergence "window" through which the adults exit the pod. Pod fly damaged seeds will not germinate and are unfit for human consumption.

Symptoms

Plume moth Exelastis atomosa ( Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)Distribution This species is widely distributed on several legumes in Asia. It is common in pigeonpea and is a major pest in several areas of India.

Adult plume moths measure 10mm in length, and have fringed wings that are held perpendicular to the body at rest. Eggs are laid singly on buds and pods. The full-grown larva is about 15mm long, green, and has a spindle-shaped body covered with short spines. Plume moth caterpillars are more rampant during the post rainy season than during the rainy season.

Description

Larvae feed on buds, flowers and pods, resulting in reduced yields.

Symptoms

BeanflyOphiomyia phaseoli (Diptera:Agromyzidae)

Host plants Common bean, cowpea, mungbean, blackgram and soybean Damage Larva feeds on leaves, stems, and taproots that lead to wilting and death of affected parts and plants on severe infestation.

The pupa is barrel-shaped, yellow with a brownish-tinge and distinctly darker ends. It has well-defined segments with black anterior and posterior breathing organs. It becomes dark-brown before the adult emergence. The adult has metallic-black color about ¼ in size than that of a common housefly.

Description

The eggs are oval, clear, and milky- white in color. These are laid in holes of leaves near the petiole. The maggot is small and white in color with brown head.

Eriophyid mite Aceria cajani( Acarina :Eriophyidae )Red spider mite Schizotetranychus cajani (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Distribution These mites are widespread and common in pigeon pea throughout South Asia. Both eriophyid and spider mites are generally found on the lower leaf surface. The eriophyid mite, A. cajani, is the vector of the pigeon pea sterility mosaic disease, the most serious viral disease of this crop.

Mites

Plants infected with sterility mosaic disease develop light green, chlorotic foliage. Leaves have a mosaic pattern and early infection results in reproductively sterile plants. Spider mites cause yellow or white spots on the upper surface of the infested leaflets. Heavy infestation results in bronzing of the leaves, followed by defoliation.

Symptoms

Pigeonpea leaves damaged by red spider mites

The eriophyid mite is about 0.2 mm long and difficult to see without magnification (10 x or more). They are light-colored, long and spindle-shaped, and deposit their eggs on young foliage. In contrast, spider mites are larger at 0.5 mm, oval- shaped, and dark-colored. Both groups of mites can complete a generation in less than two weeks under optimum conditions. Dispersal is either a direct plant-to-plant or wind-aided.

Schizotetranychus cajani (red spidermite) Aceria cajani (eriophyid mite: close-up)

Description

Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) Aphis craccivora Koch in pigeonpea and chickpea, Aphis fabae Scopoli in pigeonpea Myzus persicae (Sulzer) in pigeonpea, Macrosiphum spp in pigeon pea Acrythosiphon pisum (Harris) in chickpea

Distribution Several species of aphids have been reported in pigeonpea and chickpea, among which A. craccivora is the most prevalent. This species is widely distributed and has a broad host range.

MINOR PESTS

A. craccivora is common in a number of leguminous crops. The adults are black and shiny, up to 2 mm long and some are winged. The nymphs are similar to the adults but smaller. Aphids colonize the young shoots, flowers, and pods of crops. Young leaves of seedlings become twisted under heavy infestation. Seedlings may wilt, particularly under moisture-stressed conditions. However, a more notable issue in chickpea (yellow in kabuli-types).is stunt disease, caused by the bean leaf-roll virus transmitted by these aphids. Scraping the lower part of the stem reveals brown phloem, a characteristic of the disease.

Description

Description Adults are about 1mm long. Both adults and nymphs feed on flowers. Minute eggs are laid in flowers and flower bud tissues. When flowers begin to senescence the thrips move to new flowers A generation takes about 3 weeks.

Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Distribution Several genera and species of thrips attack pigeonpea flowers in Asia. The most common species is Megalurothrips usitatus

Symptoms A large number of (up to 50) thrips may be present in each pigeonpea flower. This species also occurs in the flowers of a number of annual and perennial crops. Heavy thrip infestations may result in flower drop.

Distribution This species is widely distributed on several legumes in Asia. Description Adults are small, brown moths with a wingspan of about 20 mm. Eggs are laid in clusters of 2-12 on fully mature pods. The young larvae are green, but become pinkish- red, as they get older. Larvae feed inside the pod, reaching a maximum length of 15 mm.

Lima bean pod borer Etiella zinckenella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

The presence of dry, light-colored frass granules, and webbing in the pod is an indication of Etiella infestation.

Symptoms Larvae are generally found infesting maturing and dried pods. Lima bean pod borer populations build up by the end of the pigeon pea season, when the temperature is high.

Whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera:Aleyrodidae)

Damage

Whiteflies, both the nymph and adults, pierce and suck the sap of the leaves, causes the weakening,yellowing, early wilting of the plant resulting in reduced plant growth.

Whitefly produces honeydews that serve as the substrates for the growth of black sooty molds on leaves and fruit. The mold reduces photosynthesis causing the poor plant growth of the plant.

Description Eggs are oval-shaped, stand vertically on the leaf surface. They are deposited on the underside of leaves, sometimes in a circle or oval- shaped patterns. Nymph are transparent, ovate, and about 0.3 to 0.7 mm in size and they move around on the plants looking for a feeding site upon hatching. Adults are about 1mm long with two pairs of white wings and light- yellow bodies. Their bodies are covered with waxy powdery materials.

Empoasca kerri Pruthi (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)Distribution In most areas where pigeonpea is grown, jassids are found feeding on this crop. In India, Empoasca kerri is the species most commonly reported from pigeonpea and other legumes. It is a serious pest of mungbean in almost all part of the country.

Jassids or Leaf hoppers

Symptoms Leaflets damaged by jassids are cup-shaped and have yellow edges and tips. Seedlings that have sustained considerable feeding by jassids may be stunted and have red-brown leaflets followed by defoliation. In case of heavy infestation, leaves turn brown, curl from the edges and dry.

These small green insects 2.5 mm long suck sap from both the upper and lower surface of the leaflets. The nymphs and adults have similar shape and color, but the nymphs do not have wings and run sideways when disturbed. Eggs are laid along veins on the underside of leaflets. One generation requires 2 weeks under optimum conditions.

Description

Nymph Adult

Tobacco caterpillar (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)Spodoptera litura, S. littoralis, S. frugiperda, S. eridania Damage Seedlings are often cut off at ground level. Larvae can be found in the soil (up to a depth of about 5 cm) near the plant host. They always curl-up when disturbed. Cutworms feed only at night. Generally, they are not found on plants or on the soil surface during the day. Young caterpillars eat the soft leaves of the plant. The full grown caterpillars are capable of eating the entire plant. The newly hatched larvae feed from the base towards the tip of the leaf. At this stage, they first feed on the epidermis and may discolor the entire leaf surface.

Description

Eggs are tiny pearl white, round, and have a ridged surface. Newly hatched larvae are greenish and about 1 mm long,full-grown larva has a cylindrical body, brown or brownish-black with a tinge of orange. The adult has dark brown forewings with distinctive black spots and white and yellow wavy stripes. The hind wings are whitish with grayish margins.

Mylabris pustulata Thunberg, Mylabris thunbergii Billberg, Mylabris spp (Coleoptera: Meloidae)

Distribution

Blister beetles are widespread in pigeonpea in Asia.

Blister beetles

Symptoms

Adult beetles feed on flowers and tender pods, and may have a significant impact on yields, especially of short-duration genotypes.

Description

Thus, while the adults may cause considerable damage, the larvae are beneficial.

Mylabris pustulata adults measure about 25 mm in length and have red and black alternating bands on the elytra. Other species may vary in size but all are brightly colored. Eggs are usually laid in the soil and the diet of the larvae consists of other soil insects, including major pests.

Amsacta albistriga Walker, Spilosoma (Diacrisia) obliqua (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae ) Euproctis subnotata(Lepidoptera:Lymantriidae)

Distribution Larvae of a number of widely distributed, polyphagous lepidopterans feed on pigeonpea leaves. Three of the most dominant listed above, the damage caused by them is similar.

Lepidopteran defoliators

DescriptionLarvae of Amsacta spp. and S. obliqua are up to 50 mm long with reddish-brown hairs.E. subnotata are smaller, up to 25 mm long, darker, and less hairy.

Symptoms Amsacta albistriga and Spilosoma obliqua are the two most common of several species of "hairy caterpillars" that attack pigeonpea during the vegetative phase. Euproctis subnotata, also attack pigeonpea.

Leaf webber Grapholita (Cydia) critica ( Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

DistributionGrapholita (Cydia) critica is commonly found in pigeonpea throughout South Asia.

Description

G. critica is an inconspicuous, brown moth with a wingspan of 10-15 mm. The cream-yellow larva reaches a length of about 10mm before pupating within the webbed plant material.

Symptoms Larvae produce silk and use it to hold leaflets together. They feed from inside a web of leaflets, flowers, and pods. When infestation includes the terminal bud, further growth of that shoot may be severely impaired. Infestations may begin as early as the seedling stage and continue through to the flowering and podding stages. Though primarily a foliage feeder, G. critica may also attack reproductive structures, especially when infestation occurs late in the development of the crop. In such cases, the leaf webber also behaves as a pod borer.

Distribution Myllocerus spp and Phyllobius spp are widespread in Asia in pigeonpea and several other host plants. The biology of these species is not fully known.

Leaf-damaging weevils Myllocerus undecimpustulatus , Phyllobius spp(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Symptoms Grubs live in the soil, where they feed manly on roots. Though common, the damage caused by adults and grubs is not significant enough to merit separate control measures.

Pod wasp Tanaostigmodes cajaninae ( Hymenoptera: Tanaostigmatidae)

Distribution Pod wasp is a minor but widely encountered pest of pigeonpea in India. Its incidence outside of India is not known. Symptoms Eggs are laid very early in pod development. Feeding by the grubs produces malformed pods that do not grow at all. Locules containing pod wasp remain undeveloped giving an abnormal appearance to the pod.

The Basic Methods of IPM:All of the components of an IPM approach can be grouped into Four major steps.1. Preventative Measures to prevent pest buildup• Cultural Controls• Pest-Resistant Varieties• Biological Controls• Physical Barriers• Use of Pheromones2. Monitoring (Scouting) of pests: o Regular checking of the area; o Early detection of pests; o Proper identification of pests; o Identification of the effects of biological control agents. 3. Assessment of Pest situation Forecasting Economic Thresholds4. Best Action (Control Measures) to be taken When To Apply The Pesticide Choice Of Insecticides Calendar-Based Application

LEGAL APPROACHES

APPROACHES TO PEST MANAGEMENT

Integrated Pest Management of Tobacco caterpillar on Blackgram

I. Cultural :

Timely tillage to expose pupae Removal of alternate hosts Early sowing to escape severe broods Raise trap crops like castor for oviposition, larval development.

II. Mechanical

Monitor with Pheromone traps @ 10/ha Remove egg masses / skeletonized leaves Pick and destroy the grown up larvae.

Pest Management in Pulses

III. Biological

Spray NPV @ 500 LE/ha Spray BT @ 1kg/ha Errect bird perches @50/ha.

IV. Plant Products/Insecticides

Spray Neem based compounds. Synthetic Pesticides Follow need based application. Spray chlorpyriphos (1250 ml/ha), quinolphos (1250 ml/ha), endosulfan (1000ml/ha) etc. Use hydraulic /pneumatic hand compression sprayers (400-500 l/ha) or Mist blowers (135-165 l/ha). Ensure thorough coverage (About 400-500 l/ha). Avoid mixtures. Avoid sub-lethal dosages

Integrated Pest Management of Helicoverpa on Blackgram

I. Cultural Summer ploughing Avoid monocropping Follow crop rotation Avoid staggered sowing Adopt wider row spacing (more than 2 metres) Use recommended dose of fertilizers Cultivate tolerant / recouping varieties(Sharad,Bahar,ICP-4,PDA-2). Grow intercrops

Kharif : sorghum, soybeany, greengram, blackgram, bajra Rabi : coriander, cowpea, greengram, groundnut.

Discourage synthetic pyrethroids. Cultivate short duration varieties. Adopt community approach

II. Mechanical

Monitor with Pheromone traps @10/ha Dislodge the larvae by shaking the plants and destroy.

III. Biological

Release Trichogramma chilonis twice at weekly intervals @65000/ha. Keep bird perches @50/ha. Spray HaNPV @500 LE /ha or B.T. @ 1kg/ha in pigeonpea, and 250 LE in chickpea at egg hatch is potent,can be repeated at 15-20 days intervals.

IV. Plant Products

Use Neem oil @5ml/l or Repelin @ 10ml/l or NSKE @ 50g/l

V. Synthetic Pesticides The recommended action threshold for Helicoverpa in chickpea is 2 small larvae per plant. Plant protection operations should be initiated in pigeon pea when one notices.

1 small larva or 3 eggs per plant in short-duration. 3 small larvae or 5 eggs per plant in medium-duration. 5 small larvae or 10 eggs per plant in long-duration.

Follow need based application Avoid cocktail mixtures Aim the sprayings at early instars Apply endosulfan @ 2.0 l/ha or chlorpyriphos @ 2.5 l/ha or quinalphos @ 2.0 l/ha or acephate @ 1.0kg/ha alternatively during flowering & pod formation stage. Ensure thorough coverage (900-1000 l/ha). Use hydraulic / pneumatic hand compression sprayers (900-1000 l/ha). Discourage synthetic pyrethroids Avoid sublethal dosages

Cultural Method To effectively control pests the use of pesticides may be necessary. However, the following practices may be useful in suppressing the pest population. (Chandra et al., 1983)

Sowing early or at the normal time. Late sowing results in more pest infestation and damage. Deep plowing of the field in summer. Ploughing just before chickpea sowing will destroy cocoons. Deep summer ploughing to expose the pupae of cut worm and pod-borer for natural enemies and scorching sunlight. Wider spacing of 45 cm rows. The plant has a physiological compensation therefore a density of 50 to 80 plants/m2 may not affect the yield. Ratoon crop and volunteer plants of pigeonpea are major sources of pest carry-over. They need to be destroyed. Intercropping with mustard, wheat, barley, linseed, safflower and sorghum tend to reduce the infestation.

Integrated Pest Management

Mechanical Method Use of pheromone trap for monitoring of adult male population. A threshold level of 5-6 moths/trap during March-April is recommended to start control operations. Mechanical collection and destruction can be successfully carried out only when the pest attack just starts in case of Heliothis armigera and gram semilooper and cut worms.

Mixed cropping with mustard or linseed is advised as it minimises the infestation of pod-borer. Resistant varieties like G 130,C 124,Avrodhi,ICC 506,C 235 are less susceptible to Heliothis armigera. Practice crop rotation, Planting non-leguminous crops every cropping season breaks the life cycle of bean pod borers. Blister beetle , grey weevils, brown bug, leaf tier, and hairy caterpillars can be manually controlled on a limited scale by handpicking, shaking, bagging or catching in nets

Various parasites like Microbracon and Apanteles parasitize the caterpillars of gram cut worm and Trichogramma minutum has proved very successful as an egg parasitoid of Heliothis armigera in USA. Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium is also known to damage midgut of epithelium of Plucea orichalcea (Gram semilooper). Use Spinosads and Avermectins produced by actinomycetes.

Light traps are also used to control cutworms. Neem seed kernel extract (5%) is more effective.

Biological Method

1 2 3

1. Pupa of Apanteles (wasp) parasite Helicoverpa armigera 2. Pupa of Campoletis chlorideae, a parasitoid of Helicoverpa armigera3. H. armigera larva effected by NPV

Chemical Method The insecticide application is essential at the appropriate time to discourage a pest population increase, especially at the initiation of flowering and at pod formation. In cutworm prone areas, presowing treatment of soil with broadcasting of chlorphyriphos (20 EC) 3 litre or lindane (20EC) 4 litre/ha in 10 kg of sand may be used to control the pest. Spraying indoxacarb (Avaunt 14.5 SC) @250 ml/ha and 0.07% endosulfan 35 EC @ 3 litre /ha against Heliothis armigera and gram semilooper infesting the crop at ETL.

Antifeedants Triphenyl tin hydroxide (TTH) and Triphenyl tin acetate(TTA) effectively deterred the caterpillars of Heliothis armigera from feeding. Brestan had been found effective against the larvae of cut worms.

Aphids

The winged adults that land on chickpea may be deterred and fly off, or be killed by the acid exudates on leaves and pods. Chickpea genotypes with little or no exudates maintain the largest colonies. Aphids are seldom key economic pests for either pigeonpea or chickpea crops. Natural enemies and abiotic factors generally keep aphid populations in check. Both general predators and specific parasitoids, such as the Aphytis spp. inflict heavy mortality on aphid colonies. Among abiotic factors, rain and wind can dramatically reduce aphid infestations.

Management for Other Pests

Jassids Jassids are usually a minor pest of pigeonpea. They can become a serious threat if the seedling stage is heavily infested. Under these conditions, application of any contact or systemic insecticide is adequate restraint.

Plume moth Exelastis atomosa can be quelled by the same insecticides, excluding HaNPV, employed to suppress outbreaks of H. armigera.

Pod Sucking Bugs Because pod-sucking bugs are highly mobile, insecticides may be inadequate in repressing the extent of their spread, especially in small fields. Natural enemies, in particular various species of egg parasitoids can cause high levels of bug mortality by the end of the season. e.g. Gryon clavigrallae and Gryon fulviventre. Antilochus coqueberti (Hemiptera:Pyrrhocoidae) and a predatory mite,Bochartia sp.(Acarina:Erythraeidae) prey on nymphs and adults.

Podfly No specific control strategy has been universally implemented for podfly management. However, use of systemic insecticides can lessen the extent of podfly damage. Work on developing podfly-resistant pigeonpea genotypes is in progress and may provide the ultimate solution to this problem. Parasitic Hymenopteran that attack the larval stage are Euderus spp. (Hymenoptera:Eulophidae) and Ormyrus spp. (Hymenoptera:Ormyridea).

Pod wasp This species is probably a secondary pest resulting from the increasing use of pesticides on pigeonpea which have destroyed its natural enemies. In India, pod wasp populations do not cause appreciable harm to warrant any control.

Thrips Populations of thrips can become quite large, though there is no evidence that thrips cause losses in yield. Pigeonpea plants produce more flowers than the plant can sustain, so many are lost naturally. Economic threshold level is: 20% of the plant population is infested with thrips. No specific control measures are needed for the management of thrips.

Marcua vitrata This is a leading pest of pigeonpea and other grain legumes in many areas of Asia. Indeterminate pigeonpea genotypes suffer less damage than the determinate-type. This difference in susceptibility among genotypes may be used to develop cultivars resistant to this insect. Relatively few natural enemies (no egg parasitoids) have been reported to attack M. vitrata. Chemical control is complicated by the fact that larvae live in well- protected webs. Systemic pesticides may accomplish more restraint than contact insecticides.

Lima bean pod borer In India, E. zinckenella is not ranked a noteworthy offender of pigeonpea, deserving any explicit course of action.

Leaf webber The leaf webber damage is very conspicuous, causing farmers anxiety about possible yield losses. Although leaf-webber infestation being highly visible may induce the use of chemical pesticides, its impact on yield is usually negligible. In fact, plants may produce side branches to compensate for the loss of terminal buds. A large number of parasites and predators are also associated with this pest (e.g. Spiders and mites) Inappropriate use of chemical pesticides may have a negative impact on the natural enemies that attack major pigeonpea pest and little effect on well-protected, leaf webber larvae housed in the webbed leaves.

Mite

In general, mite attack by itself does not pose an economic problem in Asia. However, the transmission of sterility mosaic disease by mites can cause significant yield reductions. The selective use of resistant cultivars is the most effective solution. Rain can also substantially reduce mite populations. Attack by red spider mites may become severe in pigeonpea plants grown in greenhouses as the intensive chemical apraying eradicates diseases that red spider mites would otherwise succumb to. A number of generalist predators such as Spiders and Coccinellids that feed on mites keep their population under control. Several Tetranychus spp have developed high levels of resistance to one or more pesticides, hence caution is advised in their use as a preventive step against further mite outbreaks.

Blister beetles In locations where pigeonpea is a primary crop, the after effect of blister beetles is inconsequential because their numbers are diluted over a large area. Pigeonpea genotypes that flower early or crops cultivated on small holdings, may suffer substantial injury inflicted by these insects. Chemical control may fail because the beetles are large and robust, and highly mobile. Manual picking and destruction of adult blister beetles is often the only practical control measure.Bean fly Intercropping legumes with corn lessens the attack of bean fly. Mulching plants with rice straw. Hilling-up or ridging of young plants 4-5 weeks after planting. Crop rotation with non leguminous crops. Avoid late planting if infestation is prevalent in the area. Plant at the same time as with other farmers in the area. Plough under all plant residues from the field after harvest.

Table. Cost of plant protection in IPM and non-IPM fields at different locations in India, 1997-2000.

Cost of Plant Protection (Rs/ha)

Location, State IPM Non IPM Cost reduction in IPM over control(%)

Hamsanpalli, AndhraPradesh 898 1144 21.5

Bollibaithanda, Andhra Pradesh 1194 1870 36.1

Chincholi, Andhra Pradesh 859 1618 46.9

Kanjar, Andhra Pradesh 649 1467 55.8

Punukula, Andhra Pradesh 458 1017 55.0

Itagi, Karnataka 846 1448 41.6

Ashta,Maharastra 800 - -

All farmers in the village implemented IPM Rs 100=US$ 2.25 approx.

Source: IFAD-ICRISAT, IPM Project Technical Report 2003

Table. Development of Genetically modified crops at ICRISAT for resistance to Insect pests.Crop Constraint Genes Status

Pigeonpea

Pod borer -Helicoverpa

cry1Ab,cry1Ac

T3-T4 plants under contained field testing in 2003-05

Chickpea Pod borer –Helicoverpa

cry1Ab,cry1Ac

T2 plants under contained field testing in 2004-05

Table. Screening techniques, genetic information and material generated at ICRISAT with a potential for IPM in the semi-arid tropics.

Crop Screening techniques

Resistance source/released cultivar

Mechanisms/ inheritance

Pigeonpea- Helicoverpa

Field screening

ICP 7203-1 / ICPL 332

Trichomes, flavonoids

Chickpea- Helicoverpa

Field screening, cage and detachedleaf assay

ICC 506 / ICCV 10 Oxalic and malic acids. Additive gene action

(Sharma, H. C., 2006)

(Sharma, H. C., 2006)

CONCLUSION

*Arthropod management includes, in order of preference:-

Preventive tactics (i.e. enhancement of natural controls, cultural methods, plant resistance, behavioural controls).

Remedial tactics ( i.e. augmentative or inundative releases of natural enemies,mechanical or physical methods,microbial pesticides,biorational pesticides, selective pesticides and lowest effective dosage of broad spectrum pesticides).

* A successful IPM programme takes time, money, patience, short and long term planning, flexibility and commitment.

* Must contribute to producers’ economic goals and requisites for acceptance by society.

THANKS