Integration and Automation of Manufacturing Systems

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Integration and Automationof

Manufacturing Systems

by: Hugh Jack

© Copyright 1993-2001, Hugh Jack

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PREFACE

1. INTEGRATED AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING . . . .13

1.1 INTRODUCTION 131.1.1 Why Integrate? 131.1.2 Why Automate? 14

1.2 THE BIG PICTURE 161.2.1 CAD/CAM? 171.2.2 The Architecture of Integration 171.2.3 General Concepts 19

1.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 22

2. AN INTRODUCTION TO LINUX/UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

2.1 OVERVIEW 232.1.1 What is it? 232.1.2 A (Brief) History 242.1.3 Hardware required and supported 252.1.4 Applications and uses 252.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 262.1.6 Getting It 262.1.7 Distributions 272.1.8 Installing 27

2.2 USING LINUX 282.2.1 Some Terminology 282.2.2 File and directories 292.2.3 User accounts and root 312.2.4 Processes 33

2.3 NETWORKING 342.3.1 Security 35

2.4 INTERMEDIATE CONCEPTS 352.4.1 Shells 352.4.2 X-Windows 362.4.3 Configuring 362.4.4 Desktop Tools 37

2.5 LABORATORY - A LINUX SERVER 372.6 TUTORIAL - INSTALLING LINUX 382.7 TUTORIAL - USING LINUX 402.8 REFERENCES 41

3. AN INTRODUCTION TO C/C++ PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . . .43

3.1 INTRODUCTION 433.2 PROGRAM PARTS 443.3 CLASSES AND OVERLOADING 503.4 HOW A ‘C’ COMPILER WORKS 52

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3.5 STRUCTURED ‘C’ CODE 533.6 COMPILING C PROGRAMS IN LINUX 54

3.6.1 Makefiles 553.7 ARCHITECTURE OF ‘C’ PROGRAMS (TOP-DOWN) 56

3.7.1 How? 563.7.2 Why? 57

3.8 CREATING TOP DOWN PROGRAMS 583.9 CASE STUDY - THE BEAMCAD PROGRAM 59

3.9.1 Objectives: 593.9.2 Problem Definition: 593.9.3 User Interface: 59

Screen Layout (also see figure): 59Input: 60Output: 60Help: 60Error Checking: 61Miscellaneous: 61

3.9.4 Flow Program: 623.9.5 Expand Program: 623.9.6 Testing and Debugging: 643.9.7 Documentation 65

Users Manual: 65Programmers Manual: 65

3.9.8 Listing of BeamCAD Program. 653.10 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 663.11 LABORATORY - C PROGRAMMING 66

4. NETWORK COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

4.1 INTRODUCTION 684.2 NETWORKS 69

4.2.1 Topology 694.2.2 OSI Network Model 714.2.3 Networking Hardware 734.2.4 Control Network Issues 754.2.5 Ethernet 764.2.6 SLIP and PPP 77

4.3 INTERNET 784.3.1 Computer Addresses 794.3.2 Computer Ports 80

Mail Transfer Protocols 81FTP - File Transfer Protocol 81HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol 81

4.3.3 Security 82Firewalls and IP Masquerading 84

4.4 FORMATS 85

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4.4.1 HTML 854.4.2 URLs 874.4.3 Encryption 884.4.4 Clients and Servers 884.4.5 Java 894.4.6 Javascript 894.4.7 CGI 89

4.5 NETWORKING IN LINUX 894.5.1 Network Programming in Linux 91

4.6 DESIGN CASES 1024.7 SUMMARY 1034.8 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 1034.9 LABORATORY - NETWORKING 104

4.9.1 Prelab 1054.9.2 Laboratory 107

5. DATABASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

5.1 SQL AND RELATIONAL DATABASES 1095.2 DATABASE ISSUES 1145.3 LABORATORY - SQL FOR DATABASE INTEGRATION 1145.4 LABORATORY - USING C FOR DATABASE CALLS 116

6. COMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

6.1 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS 1196.1.1 RS-232 122

6.2 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS UNDER LINUX 1256.3 PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS 1296.4 LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING AND PROGRAMMING

1306.5 LABORATORY - STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER 130

7. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLCs) . . . . . . .134

7.1 BASIC LADDER LOGIC 1367.2 WHAT DOES LADDER LOGIC DO? 138

7.2.1 Connecting A PLC To A Process 1397.2.2 PLC Operation 139

7.3 LADDER LOGIC 1417.3.1 Relay Terminology 1447.3.2 Ladder Logic Inputs 1467.3.3 Ladder Logic Outputs 147

7.4 LADDER DIAGRAMS 1477.4.1 Ladder Logic Design 1487.4.2 A More Complicated Example of Design 150

7.5 TIMERS/COUNTERS/LATCHES 151

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7.6 LATCHES 1527.7 TIMERS 1537.8 COUNTERS 1577.9 DESIGN AND SAFETY 159

7.9.1 FLOW CHARTS 1607.10 SAFETY 160

7.10.1 Grounding 1617.10.2 Programming/Wiring 1627.10.3 PLC Safety Rules 1627.10.4 Troubleshooting 163

7.11 DESIGN CASES 1647.11.1 DEADMAN SWITCH 1647.11.2 CONVEYOR 1657.11.3 ACCEPT/REJECT SORTING 1657.11.4 SHEAR PRESS 166

7.12 ADDRESSING 1687.12.1 Data Files 169

Inputs and Outputs 172User Numerical Memory 172Timer Counter Memory 172PLC Status Bits (for PLC-5s) 173User Function Memory 174

7.13 INSTRUCTION TYPES 1747.13.1 Program Control Structures 1757.13.2 Branching and Looping 175

Immediate I/O Instructions 179Fault Detection and Interrupts 181

7.13.3 Basic Data Handling 182Move Functions 182

7.14 MATH FUNCTIONS 1847.15 LOGICAL FUNCTIONS 191

7.15.1 Comparison of Values 1917.16 BINARY FUNCTIONS 1937.17 ADVANCED DATA HANDLING 194

7.17.1 Multiple Data Value Functions 1957.17.2 Block Transfer Functions 196

7.18 COMPLEX FUNCTIONS 1987.18.1 Shift Registers 1987.18.2 Stacks 1997.18.3 Sequencers 200

7.19 ASCII FUNCTIONS 2027.20 DESIGN TECHNIQUES 203

7.20.1 State Diagrams 2037.21 DESIGN CASES 206

7.21.1 If-Then 207

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7.21.2 For-Next 2077.21.3 Conveyor 208

7.22 IMPLEMENTATION 2097.23 PLC WIRING 209

7.23.1 SWITCHED INPUTS AND OUTPUTS 210Input Modules 211Actuators 212Output Modules 213

7.24 THE PLC ENVIRONMENT 2167.24.1 Electrical Wiring Diagrams 2167.24.2 Wiring 2197.24.3 Shielding and Grounding 2217.24.4 PLC Environment 2237.24.5 SPECIAL I/O MODULES 224

7.25 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2277.26 REFERENCES 2377.27 LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING TO A PLC 238

8. PLCS AND NETWORKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240

8.1 OPEN NETWORK TYPES 2408.1.1 Devicenet 2408.1.2 CANbus 2458.1.3 Controlnet 2468.1.4 Profibus 247

8.2 PROPRIETARY NETWORKS 248Data Highway 248

8.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2528.4 LABORATORY - DEVICENET 2588.5 TUTORIAL - SOFTPLC AND DEVICENET 258

9. INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262

9.1 INTRODUCTION 2629.1.1 Basic Terms 2629.1.2 Positioning Concepts 266

Accuracy and Repeatability 266Control Resolution 270Payload 271

9.2 ROBOT TYPES 2769.2.1 Basic Robotic Systems 2769.2.2 Types of Robots 277

Robotic Arms 277Autonomous/Mobile Robots 280

Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs) 2809.3 MECHANISMS 2819.4 ACTUATORS 282

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9.5 A COMMERCIAL ROBOT 2839.5.1 Mitsubishi RV-M1 Manipulator 2849.5.2 Movemaster Programs 286

Language Examples 2869.5.3 Command Summary 290

9.6 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2919.7 LABORATORY - MITSUBISHI RV-M1 ROBOT 2969.8 TUTORIAL - MITSUBISHI RV-M1 296

10. OTHER INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299

10.1 SEIKO RT 3000 MANIPULATOR 29910.1.1 DARL Programs 300

Language Examples 301Commands Summary 305

10.2 IBM 7535 MANIPULATOR 30810.2.1 AML Programs 312

10.3 ASEA IRB-1000 31710.4 UNIMATION PUMA (360, 550, 560 SERIES) 31910.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 32010.6 LABORATORY - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT 33010.7 TUTORIAL - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT 33110.8 LABORATORY - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT 33210.9 TUTORIAL - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT 332

11. ROBOT APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333

11.0.1 Overview 33311.0.2 Spray Painting and Finishing 33511.0.3 Welding 33511.0.4 Assembly 33611.0.5 Belt Based Material Transfer 336

11.1 END OF ARM TOOLING (EOAT) 33711.1.1 EOAT Design 33711.1.2 Gripper Mechanisms 340

Vacuum grippers 34211.1.3 Magnetic Grippers 344

Adhesive Grippers 34511.1.4 Expanding Grippers 34511.1.5 Other Types Of Grippers 346

11.2 ADVANCED TOPICS 34711.2.1 Simulation/Off-line Programming 347

11.3 INTERFACING 34811.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 34811.5 LABORATORY - ROBOT INTERFACING 35011.6 LABORATORY - ROBOT WORKCELL INTEGRATION 351

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12. SPATIAL KINEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352

12.1 BASICS 35212.1.1 Degrees of Freedom 353

12.2 HOMOGENEOUS MATRICES 35412.2.1 Denavit-Hartenberg Transformation (D-H) 35912.2.2 Orientation 36112.2.3 Inverse Kinematics 36312.2.4 The Jacobian 364

12.3 SPATIAL DYNAMICS 36612.3.1 Moments of Inertia About Arbitrary Axes 36612.3.2 Euler’s Equations of Motion 36912.3.3 Impulses and Momentum 370

Linear Momentum 370Angular Momentum 371

12.4 DYNAMICS FOR KINEMATICS CHAINS 37212.4.1 Euler-Lagrange 37212.4.2 Newton-Euler 375

12.5 REFERENCES 37512.6 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 376

13. MOTION CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390

13.1 KINEMATICS 39013.1.1 Basic Terms 39013.1.2 Kinematics 391

Geometry Methods for Forward Kinematics 392Geometry Methods for Inverse Kinematics 393

13.1.3 Modeling the Robot 39413.2 PATH PLANNING 395

13.2.1 Slew Motion 395Joint Interpolated Motion 397Straight-line motion 397

13.2.2 Computer Control of Robot Paths (Incremental Interpolation)40013.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 40313.4 LABORATORY - AXIS AND MOTION CONTROL 408

14. CNC MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409

14.1 MACHINE AXES 40914.2 NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) 409

14.2.1 NC Tapes 41014.2.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 41114.2.3 Direct/Distributed Numerical Control (DNC) 412

14.3 EXAMPLES OF EQUIPMENT 41414.3.1 EMCO PC Turn 50 41414.3.2 Light Machines Corp. proLIGHT Mill 415

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14.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 41714.5 TUTORIAL - EMCO MAIER PCTURN 50 LATHE (OLD) 41714.6 TUTORIAL - PC TURN 50 LATHE DOCUMENTATION: (By Jonathan

DeBoer) 41814.6.1 LABORATORY - CNC MACHINING 424

15. CNC PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426

15.1 G-CODES 42815.2 APT 43615.3 PROPRIETARY NC CODES 44015.4 GRAPHICAL PART PROGRAMMING 44115.5 NC CUTTER PATHS 44215.6 NC CONTROLLERS 44415.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 44515.8 LABORATORY - CNC INTEGRATION 446

16. DATA AQUISITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448

16.1 INTRODUCTION 44816.2 ANALOG INPUTS 44916.3 ANALOG OUTPUTS 45516.4 REAL-TIME PROCESSING 45816.5 DISCRETE IO 45916.6 COUNTERS AND TIMERS 45916.7 ACCESSING DAQ CARDS FROM LINUX 45916.8 SUMMARY 47616.9 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 47616.10 LABORATORY - INTERFACING TO A DAQ CARD 478

17. VISIONS SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479

17.1 OVERVIEW 47917.2 APPLICATIONS 48017.3 LIGHTING AND SCENE 48117.4 CAMERAS 48217.5 FRAME GRABBER 48617.6 IMAGE PREPROCESSING 48617.7 FILTERING 487

17.7.1 Thresholding 48717.8 EDGE DETECTION 48717.9 SEGMENTATION 488

17.9.1 Segment Mass Properties 49017.10 RECOGNITION 491

17.10.1 Form Fitting 49117.10.2 Decision Trees 492

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17.11 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 49417.12 TUTORIAL - LABVIEW BASED IMAQ VISION 49917.13 LABORATORY - VISION SYSTEMS FOR INSPECTION 500

18. INTEGRATION ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502

18.1 CORPORATE STRUCTURES 50218.2 CORPORATE COMMUNICATIONS 50218.3 COMPUTER CONTROLLED BATCH PROCESSES 51418.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 51618.5 LABORATORY - WORKCELL INTEGRATION 516

19. MATERIAL HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518

19.1 INTRODUCTION 51819.2 VIBRATORY FEEDERS 52019.3 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 52119.4 LABORATORY - MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM 521

19.4.1 System Assembly and Simple Controls 52119.5 AN EXAMPLE OF AN FMS CELL 523

19.5.1 Overview 52319.5.2 Workcell Specifications 52519.5.3 Operation of The Cell 526

19.6 THE NEED FOR CONCURRENT PROCESSING 53419.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 536

20. PETRI NETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537

20.1 INTRODUCTION 53720.2 A BRIEF OUTLINE OF PETRI NET THEORY 53720.3 MORE REVIEW 54020.4 USING THE SUBROUTINES 548

20.4.1 Basic Petri Net Simulation 54820.4.2 Transitions With Inhibiting Inputs 55020.4.3 An Exclusive OR Transition: 55220.4.4 Colored Tokens 55520.4.5 RELATIONAL NETS 557

20.5 C++ SOFTWARE 55820.6 IMPLEMENTATION FOR A PLC 55920.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 56420.8 REFERENCES 565

21. PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . .566

21.1 OVERVIEW 56621.2 SCHEDULING 567

21.2.1 Material Requirements Planning (MRP) 56721.2.2 Capacity Planning 569

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21.3 SHOP FLOOR CONTROL 57021.3.1 Shop Floor Scheduling - Priority Scheduling 57021.3.2 Shop Floor Monitoring 571

22. SIMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572

22.1 MODEL BUILDING 57322.2 ANALYSIS 57522.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS 57622.4 RUNNING THE SIMULATION 57922.5 DECISION MAKING STRATEGY 579

23. PLANNING AND ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581

23.1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER 58123.2 PROJECT COST ACCOUNTING 583

24. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587

25. APPENDIX A - PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588

25.1 TOPIC SELECTION 58825.1.1 Previous Project Topics 588

25.2 CURRENT PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS 590

26. APPENDIX B - COMMON REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591

26.1 JIC ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS 59126.2 NEMA ENCLOSURES 592

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PREFACE

I have been involved in teaching laboratory based integrated manufacturing courses since

1993. Over that time I have used many textbooks, but I have always been unsatisfied with their

technical depth. To offset this I had to supply supplemental materials. These supplemental materi-

als have evolved into this book.

This book is designed to focus on topics relevant to the modern manufacturer, while avoiding

topics that are more research oriented. This allows the chapters to focus on the applicable theory

for the integrated systems, and then discuss implementation.

Many of the chapters of this book use the Linux operating system. Some might argue that

Microsoft products are more pervasive, and so should be emphasized, but I disagree with this. It is

much easier to implement a complex system in Linux, and once implemented the system is more

reliable, secure and easier to maintain. In addition the Microsoft operating system is designed

with a model that focuses on entertainment and office use and is incompatible with the needs of

manufacturing professionals. Most notably there is a constant pressure to upgrade every 2-3 years

adding a burden.

The reader is expected to have some knowledge of C, or C++ programming, although a

review chapter is provided. When possible a programming example is supplied to allow the reader

to develop their own programs for integration and automation.

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1. INTEGRATED AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTUR-ING

Integrated manufacturing uses computers to connect physically separated processes. When

integrated, the processes can share information and initiate actions. This allows decisions to be

made faster and with fewer errors. Automation allows manufacturing processes to be run auto-

matically, without requiring intervention.

This chapter will discuss how these systems fit into manufacturing, and what role they play.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

An integrated system requires that there be two or more computers connected to pass infor-

mation. A simple example is a robot controller and a programmable logic controller working

together in a single machine. A complex example is an entire manufacturing plant with hundreds

of workstations connected to a central database. The database is used to distribute work instruc-

tions, job routing data and to store quality control test results. In all cases the major issue is con-

necting devices for the purposes of transmitting data.

• Automated equipment and systems don’t require human effort or direction. Although this

does not require a computer based solution

• Automated systems benefit from some level of integration

1.1.1 Why Integrate?

There is a tendency to look at computer based solutions as inherently superior. This is an

assumption that an engineer cannot afford to entertain. Some of the factors that justify an inte-

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grated system are listed below.

• a large organization where interdepartmental communication is a problem• the need to monitor processes

• Things to Avoid when making a decision for integration and automation,

- ignore impact on upstream and downstream operations- allow the system to become the driving force in strategy- believe the vendor will solve the problem- base decisions solely on financials- ignore employee input to the process- try to implement all at once (if possible)

• Justification of integration and automation,

- consider “BIG” picture- determine key problems that must be solved- highlight areas that will be impacted in enterprise- determine kind of flexibility needed- determine what kind of integration to use- look at FMS impacts- consider implementation cost based on above

• Factors to consider in integration decision,

- volume of product - previous experience of company with FMS- product mix- scheduling / production mixes- extent of information system usage in organization (eg. MRP)- use of CAD/CAM at the front end.- availability of process planning and process data* Process planning is only part of CIM, and cannot stand alone.

1.1.2 Why Automate?

• Why ? - In many cases there are valid reasons for assisting humans

- tedious work -- consistency required- dangerous- tasks are beyond normal human abilities (e.g., weight, time, size, etc)- economics

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• When?

Figure 1.1 - Automation Tradeoffs

• Advantages of Automated Manufacturing,

- improved work flow- reduced handling- simplification of production- reduced lead time- increased moral in workers (after a wise implementation)- more responsive to quality, and other problems- etc.

• Various measures of flexibility,

- Able to deal with slightly, or greatly mixed parts.- Variations allowed in parts mix- Routing flexibility to alternate machines- Volume flexibility- Design change flexibility

hard automation

manual assemblyrobotic assembly

manual

flexible

fixed

unit cost

constant production volumes

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1.2 THE BIG PICTURE

How Computers Can Be Used in an Automated Manufacturing System

• Some Acronyms

CAD - Computer Aided/Automated Design - Design geometry, dimensions, etc.

CAE - Analysis of the design done in the CAD system for stresses, flows, etc. (often described as part of CAD)

CAM - Computer Aided/Automated Manufacturing - is the use of computers to select, setup, schedule, and drive manufacturing processes.

CAPP - Computer Aided Process Planning - is used for converting a design to a set of pro-cesses for production, machine selection, tool selection, etc.

PPC - Production Planning and Control - also known as scheduling. Up to this stage each process is dealt with separately. Here they are mixed with other products, as required by customer demand, and subject to limited availability of manufacturing resources.

Factory Control - On a minute by minute basis this will split up schedules into their required parts, and deal with mixed processes on a factory wide basis. (This is very factory specific, and is often software written for particular facilities) An example system would track car color and options on an assembly line.

Workcell Control - At this system level computers deal with coordination of a number of machines. The most common example is a PLC that runs material handling sys-

CAD

CAE

CAPP PPC CAM

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tems, as well as interlocks with NC machines.

Machine Control - Low level process control that deals with turning motors on/off, regu-lating speeds, etc., to perform a single process. This is often done by the manufac-turers of industrial machinery.

1.2.1 CAD/CAM?

• A common part of an integrated system

• In CAD we design product geometries, do analysis (also called CAE), and produce final

documentation.

• In CAM, parts are planned for manufacturing (eg. generating NC code), and then manufac-

tured with the aid of computers.

• CAD/CAM tends to provide solutions to existing problems. For example, analysis of a part

under stress is much easier to do with FEM, than by equations, or by building prototypes.

• CAD/CAM systems are easy to mix with humans.

• This technology is proven, and has been a success for many companies.

• There is no ‘ONE WAY’ of describing CAD/CAM. It is a collection of technologies which

can be run independently, or connected. If connected they are commonly referred to as CIM

1.2.2 The Architecture of Integration

• integrated manufacturing systems are built with generic components such as,

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- Computing Hardware- Application Software- Database Software- Network Hardware- Automated Machinery

• Typical applications found in an integrated environment include,

- Customer Order Entry- Computer Aided Design (CAD) / Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)- Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)- Materials (e.g., MRP-II)- Production Planning and Control (Scheduling)- Shop Floor Control (e.g., FMS)

• The automated machines used include,

- NC machines- PLCs- Robotics- Material Handling / Transport- Machines- Manual / Automated Assembly Cells- Computers- Controllers- Software- Networks- Interfacing- Monitoring equipment

• On the shop floor computers provide essential support in a workcell for,

- CNC - Computer Numerical Control- DNC - Direct Numerical Control of all the machine tools in the FMS. Both CNC and

DNC functions can be incorporated into a single FMS.- Computer control of the materials handling system- Monitoring - collection of production related data such as piece counts, tool changes, and

machine utilization- Supervisory control - functions related to production control, traffic control, tool control,

and so on.

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1.2.3 General Concepts

• Manufacturing requires computers for two functions,

- Information Processing - This is characterized by programs that can operate in a batch mode.

- Control - These programs must analyze sensory information, and control devices while observing time constraints.

• An integrated system is made up of Interfaced and Networked Computers. The general

structure is hierarchical,

• The plant computers tend to drive the orders in the factory.

• The plant floor computers focus on departmental control. In particular,

- synchronization of processes.- downloading data, programs, etc., for process control.- analysis of results (e.g., inspection results).

• Process control computers are local to machines to control the specifics of the individual

processes. Some of their attributes are,

- program storage and execution (e.g., NC Code),- sensor analysis,- actuator control,- process modeling,- observe time constraints (real time control).

• The diagram shows how the characteristics of the computers must change as different func-

tions are handled.

Corporate

Plant

Plant Floor

Process Control

Mainframes

Micro-computers

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• To perform information processing and control functions, each computer requires connec-

tions,

- Stand alone - No connections to other computers, often requires a user interface.- Interfaced - Uses a single connection between two computers. This is characterized by

serial interfaces such as RS-232 and RS-422.- Networked - A single connection allows connections to more than one other computer.

May also have shared files and databases.

• Types of common interfaces,

- RS-232 (and other RS standards) are usually run at speeds of 2400 to 9600 baud, but they are very dependable.

• Types of Common Networks,

- IEEE-488 connects a small number of computers (up to 32) at speeds from .5 Mbits/sec to 8 Mbits/sec. The devices must all be with a few meters of one another.

- Ethernet - connects a large number of computers (up to 1024) at speeds of up to 10 Mbits/sec., covering distances of km. These networks are LAN’s, but bridges may be used to connect them to other LAN’s to make a WAN.

• Types of Modern Computers,

- Mainframes - Used for a high throughput of data (from disks and programs). These are ideal for large business applications with multiple users, running many programs at once.

- Workstations (replacing Mini Computers) - have multiprocessing abilities of Mainframe, but are not suited to a limited number of users.

- Micro-processors, small computers with simple operating systems (like PC’s with msdos) well suited to control. Most computerized machines use a micro-processor

FasterResponseTimes

MoreComplexComputations

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architecture.

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1.3 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. What is concurrent (parallel) processing and why is it important for workcell control?

(ans. to allow equipment to do other tasks while one machine is processing)

2. What is meant by the term “Device Driver”?

(ans. a piece of hardware that allows a connections to a specific piece of hardware)

3. CAD and CAM are,

a) Integrated production technologies.b) The best approaches to manufacturing.c) Part of CIM.d) None of the above.

(ans. c)

4. FMS systems are,

a) faster than robots.b) a good replacement for manual labor.c) both a) and b)d) none of the above.

(ans. d)

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2. AN INTRODUCTION TO LINUX/UNIX

2.1 OVERVIEW

Linux is a free UNIX clone that was developed by volunteers around the world. Although

Linux is almost a decade old, it went largely unnoticed by the general public until a couple of

years ago. Since then it has become very popular with individual users, universities and large cor-

porations. For example, IBM has made it a major part of their business strategy for server hard-

ware. Many software companies already offer Linux versions of their software, including

products such as Oracle, Labview and MSC Nastran. Other companies have developed embedded

applications using Linux. Currently Linux can be found in devices as small as a wristwatch [1]

and as large as a Beowulf class supercomputer [2]. The popularity of Linux is based on three fac-

tors:

- costs are lower because the software is free and it runs well on less expensive hardware.- it has more software, capabilities, and features than other operating systems.- the source code is open, so users can customize the operating system to meet their needs.

This chapter will present the Linux operating system in general, and its current status in comput-

ing.

2.1.1 What is it?

Linux is an open source operating system. It is open because users and developers can use the

source code any way they want. This allows anyone to customize it, improve it and add desired

features. As a result Linux is dynamic, evolving to respond to the desires and needs of the users.

In contrast, closed operating systems are developed by a single corporation using static snapshots

of market models and profit driven constraints.

Linux is free. This allows companies to use it without adding cost to products. It also allows

people to trade it freely. And, with the profit motive gone, developers have a heightened sense of

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community interest. The Linux community has developed a tremendous spirit because of these

core development concepts.

2.1.2 A (Brief) History

Linux has existed since the early 1990s [3], but it grew out of previous developments in com-

puting [4]. It was originally developed to be a Unix clone that would run on low cost computer

hardware. Unix was developed in the 1970s. Through the 1970s and early 1980s it was used on

large computers in companies and universities. During this time many refinements and enhance-

ments were made. By the mid 1980s Unix was being used on many lower priced computers. By

the end of the 1980s most universities were making use of Unix computers in computer science

and engineering programs. This created a wealth of graduates who understood what they could

expect from a mature operating system. But, it also created a demand to be able to do high level

work at home on low priced machines.

Early in the 1990s Linux started as a project to create a Unix clone that would run on a per-

sonal computer. This project gained momentum quickly and by the mid 1990s it was ready for

users. The first groups to adopt it were hobbyists, academics and internet services. At this time the

general public was generally unaware of Linux but by the end of the 1990s it was beginning to

enter the public sphere. By 2000 it had entered the popular press, and it was cited as a major threat

to at least one existing operating system vendor. Now, it is available off-the-shelf in software and

book stores.

1970s- Unix developed at AT&T labs by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie1980s- Unix became popular on high end computers- The Unix platform is refined and matures- Some versions of Unix were available for PCs - most notably QNX1990s- Linus Torvalds begins working on a free Unix clone for PCs in 1991- Others join the project it gets the name ‘Linux’- By 1993 Linux begins to enter the mainstream of computer users- Linux machines constitute a large number of servers on the Internet- Many large companies begin to support Linux - e.g. Dell, IBM

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2000s- Home and office users are supported with free office software- Linux is available in consumer products, such as Tivo recorders

2.1.3 Hardware required and supported

Modern computers have ample power for most computer applications. This is more true for

Linux. At present there are versions of linux that will run on any platform from an IBM main-

frame computer to a Palm Pilot. The smallest Linux installations can fit on a single floppy disk,

and run on a diskless computer with a few MB of memory. On the other end of the spectrum,

Linux will run on most high end computer systems. An average user would expect reasonable per-

formance on a computer with an old Pentium 100 processor, 64MB of memory, and 2 GB of disk

space. On newer computers the performance of the operating system is extremely fast. The list

below gives some idea of the capabilities, but complete lists of supported hardware are available

[5].

CPU- Intel family and clones, down to ‘386 processors- Macintosh (Motorola)- Others: Alpha, MIPS, Sparc, etc.Memory- 16MB is a good minimum, 64MB is recommendedDisk- 200MB is a minimum, 2GB is recommendedScreen- Any sizeNetwork- Any typeOthers- Most PC hardware is supported - or will be soon

2.1.4 Applications and uses

By itself an operating system is somewhat useless, software applications are added to give

desired functionality. Some of the common applications that a computer might be used for are

listed below. Linux will support all of these applications, and more, with the right software [6].

Office - word processing, spreadsheets, etc.

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Web and Internet Servers - host web sitesServer - databases and other institutional functionsEmbedded - inside devices such as Tivo TV recordersPDAs - an operating system for small handheld computersDevelopment - software authoring

2.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages

A partial list of advantages and disadvantages is given below. The cost, stability and open

nature of the system have been winning over a large number of corporate adopters. But, adoption

has been slowed by people who don’t understand the nature of free software or have a perception

that it is difficult to use. In some cases there are also some software packages that are not avail-

able for Linux, and won’t run under simulators [22] - the most notable of these applications are

first person shooting games.

Advantages:Free - paying for it is optionalOpen - the source code is available and can be changedGoodwill - developers and users are very helpfulFaster - it doesn’t require newer hardware, extra memory and larger disksStable - it is very uncommon for Linux to crash (no blue screens)Flexibility - more capabilities and featuresComplete - all of the software is available and open - no ‘extra’ software to buySecurity - very secure - unauthorized users can’t change machine settingsSimplicity - point and click configuration

Disadvantages:Compatibility - some programs will not run under simulatorsMisunderstanding - some people believe ‘you get what you pay for’

2.1.6 Getting It

There are multiple distributions of Linux. While these all contain the Linux Kernel, they

often include different pieces of software, and installation processes vary somewhat. The basic

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licensing agreement that Linux is distributed under requires that even if it is sold for a fee, it must

be made available at no cost and it may also be copied freely by the user. As a result you can often

download these distributions over the network at no cost [12][13]. The total download size can be

up to 600MB. An alternative is to buy a distribution (the typical cost is $30) which includes a

floppy disk, a CD-ROM and a brief manual. These can be found at any store that sells software.

Sometimes the distribution will have a higher cost for ‘deluxe’ versions - this more costly pack-

age often includes telephone support.

2.1.7 Distributions

In total there are hundreds of Linux distributions. Many of these are specialized for features

such as embedded systems, foreign languages, internet servers and security. The list below is for

user-friendly installation and usage. The most successful of these distributions is Redhat. Some

distributions, such as Mandrake, are based on the Redhat distribution, but with enhancements.

Redhat - the original consumer friendly Linux [7]Mandrake - a Redhat derivative [8]Caldera - another well established distribution [9]Debian - a release that focuses on stability [10]SuSe - yet another distribution [11]

2.1.8 Installing

Each distribution of Linux will have a slightly different installation procedure, but they all

follow the basic steps below. The total time to install Linux will between one to two hours. Users

with a high level of knowledge can opt to do advanced setup, and new users will have the option

of letting the system suggest installation options.

1. Turn off the computer.

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2. Insert a provided floppy disk (you can also boot from a CD on newer computers)3. Turn the computer on, it will start to load Linux4. You will be asked some questions about the type of installation you want5. Linux will format the disks, and start to load the software6. While it is loading you will be able to set times, dates and passwords7. You be asked to set up the graphics for the window manager8. When the installation is done the computer will reboot, and you will be ready to use it

2.2 USING LINUX

This section is a brief overview of the Linux operating system. The intention is to overview

the basic components in the operating system. An administrator can manage the operating system

using the graphical user interface (GUI), or using typed commands. New users often prefer to use

the system using the GUI. Advanced users often prefer to use commands to administer the sys-

tem, they are often faster and more reliable.

Commands can be typed in a command window. Typed commands are case sensitive, and

most commands are lower case. Spaces are used to delimit (separate) commands and arguments,

so they should also be used when typing. Linux allows users to perform some very sophisticated

operations with a single command. But, while learning this should not pose a problem, unless

logged in as root. While learning the user is encouraged to use a normal user account so that acci-

dental damage to the system can be minimized.

2.2.1 Some Terminology

The terms below are some of the keywords that are unique to Linux. These will appear during

the installation, or during common usage of the system.

booting When a Linux computer starts it checks the hardware, and then startssoftware. The process of booting takes less than a minute in most cases

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kernelThe core of the operating system that talks to all hardware and programsshellA windows that allows you to type commandspermissionsControl who can change whatGNU(Gnu’s Not Unix) A group that develops free software comprising a largeportion of LinuxrootThis is the user name of the system administrator

2.2.2 File and directories

The directory and file structure of Linux is hierarchical, much like other popular operating

systems. The main directory for the system is call root and is indicated with a single slash ‘/’.

There are a number of subdirectories listed below that are used for storing system files, user files,

temporary files and configuration files. A sample of the standard directories are shown below, and

can be viewed with a file manager, or with keyboard commands. If other disks are used, such as a

CDROM, or floppy disk, they are mounted under the root directory. (i.e., there are no ‘C’, ‘A’ or

other drives, they are all under ‘/’.) (Note: the UNIX slash is ‘/’, not the ‘\’ used on DOS.)

A list of some of the more important directories follows with a brief description of each.

Most users have their home directories under the ’/home’ directory. Most of the other directories

are of interest to the system administrator.

/etc - device and software configuration files are kept here/tmp - temporary files are created here

/

home bin lib

davisa

bin

jackh

public_html

....etc....

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/home - user directories are kept here/var - this is a place for log files, mail storage, etc./usr - software is installed under this directory/dev - where devices are kept - they are accessed like files/bin - some of the programs are kept in this directory

Every file and directory has a unique name which can be used to refer to it. Sometimes it is

useful to be able to refer to groups of files without typing the name of each one. Wildcard allow

file and directory names to be matched to patterns. The list below shows some of the wildcards

commonly used.

*Any string?Any Character..The directory above.this directory~your home directory

Some examples of filenames with wildcards, and files they would match are shown below.

Ad*Advertise Advent.not AdAd?Ad. AdeAd?.?Ade.d??e.*ape.exe eee.thisisanother../hi.*hi.there (in directory above)~/*.therehi.there (in your home directory)

Filenames can contain numbers, letters and a few other symbols, but care should be used to

avoid symbols that also have meaning to Linux, such as the asterisk ’*’. File names that begin

with a period ’.’ are system files that are normally hidden. For example, most users will have a file

in their home directories called ’.profile’ or ’.login’. These are used when a user logs.

Some of the standard Linux commands for files and directories are listed below. Most of the

file and directory names can be used with wildcards.

cd newdir change directory to ’newdir’pwd show present working directoryls list the files in the current directory

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ls -la list the files in the current directory in full formls files list files that match the ’files’rm files removes the named ’files’rm * removes all the files in the current directory (use with care)rm /* removes all of the files in the computer (only do this if you are insane)mkdir namemake a directory ’name’rmdir nameremove a directory ’name’mv from tomove a file/directory ’from’ an old name ’to’ a new namecp from to copy a file ’from’ the an old name ’to’ a new namemore file type out the contents of ’file’ on page at a timecat file type out the contents of ’file’vi file a text editor for ’file’ (some commands given below)

‘dd’ - cut a line (command mode)’p’ - paste a line below the current line (command mode)‘x’ - delete a character (command mode)‘r’ - replace a character (command mode)‘R’ - replace a string (command mode -> edit mode)‘a’ - append to a line (command mode -> edit mode)‘i’ - insert a string (command mode -> edit mode)‘:w’ - write to a file (command mode)‘:q’ - quit from a file (command mode)ESC - move from edit to command modecursor key - move the cursor

du check the disk usage of the current directorydu ~ check the disk usage of your home directorydf check total disk space availablesort this will sort the contents of a fileln -s to from create a symbolic link ’from’ a name ’to’ a filegrep thing filessearch ’files’ for the string ’thing’compress file compress a ’file’uncompress file uncompress a ’file’

2.2.3 User accounts and root

Linux follows very strict conventions for file and directory permissions. These require that

each file and directory be given specific permissions for public reading, writing and execution.

Each user is given their own account with a password, so that access to the system is controlled.

Only the root user can access all files and directories on the system. Other users are limited to files

they own, or files that have been marked public. Typically the root user is only used for adminis-

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tration, and normal users use non-root accounts. This generally keeps the system safe from care-

less damage, and security breaches. Each user has their own home directory, normally in the ‘/

home’ directory. The permissions for files and directories are set so that the user has complete

control over that directory.

The permissions for files can be seen by doing a directory listing with ’ls -la’. This will show

flags something like ’-rwxrwxrwx jackh user’ for a file that everybody can read ’r’, write ’w’

or execute ’x’. The leftmost ’rxw’ is for the user ’jackh’, the second ’rwx’ is for the group ’user’

and the rightmost ’rwx’ is for everybody on the system. So if the permissions were ’-rwxr--r--’

everybody on the system can read the file, but only the owner can write and execute it.

For security reasons, write permissions for files are normally only allowed for the owner, but

read permissions are normally given to all. Execute permissions are normally set for all users

when the file can be executed, such as a program. Sometimes more than one user wants to have

access to a file, but there are reasons to not permit permission to everybody. In this case a group

can be created and given permission to use a file.

Commands that are oriented to users and permissions follow.

passwd user change the password for a userchmod flags files change the permission ’flags’ for ’files’chown user files change the owner of ’files’ to ’user’finger user give information about a ’user’who look at who is logged into your machinelast a list of the last users logged inwhoami give your current user namesu - name change to a different userchgrp group files add a ’group’ to a file

Most of the user information is stored in the ’/etc’ directory. For example, user account infor-

mation is stored in the ’passwd’ file. User passwords are stored in the ’shadow’ file. Group infor-

mation is stored in the ’groups’ file. It is possible to add users to the system by editing these files,

but there are commands that make it easier to update and maintain these files.

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The ’passwd’ command is used to change user passwords. In general passwords are the main

line of defense against unwanted intruders. Most systems will do simple password checks when

passwords are entered. In general, if a password can’t be found in a dictionary or index of a book

it will generally be safer.

2.2.4 Processes

At any one time there are multiple programs (processes) running on a Linux computer. When

you run a program it becomes another process also running on the computer. Each process is

given it’s own unique process ID number (PID). Each process is given it’s own private memory

space, and allowed to run for a fraction of a second every second.

The list of commands below allow the processes in the computer to be seen. They also allow

the general state of the machine to be determined.

ps -aux Print a list of processes running on the computerkill -9 pid Kill a process with ’pid’ running on the computer (uses the PID # from ps -ef)passwd userChange the password of a ’user’date print system date and timewho show who is logged into the machineexit this will logout a userfg bring background processes to the foregroundbg send a stopped process to the background<CNTL>Chitting this key sequence will kill a running process<CNTL>Zhitting this key sequence will stop a running process, but not kill itcommand &any command followed by an ’&’ ampersand will be run in the background

Simple commands can be combined together with pipes to make more complicated functions.

An example is ’ls | more’. By itself ’ls’ will list all the files in a directory. ’more’ is normally used

to print out text files. But in this case the output of ’ls’ is passed (piped) through ’more’ so that it

only prints one screen at a time. Multiple commands can be combined on a single command line

by separating them with a colon ’:’. For example the command ’ls ; ls ..’ would list the contents of

the current directory, then the parent directory.

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Output from functions can be redirected to files instead of the screen. For example ’ls >

temp’ will take the normal output from the ’ls’ function, and write it into a textfile called ’temp’.

Input to functions can be directed into a program. For example ’sort < temp’ will make the file

’temp’ the input to the sort command.

Simple batch files can be created by putting a list of commands in a normal text file. The file

can then be made executable using the command ’chmod 755 filename’. The program can then be

run using ’./filename’.

2.3 NETWORKING

Networks are a key component of Linux operating systems. Each computer on a network

may have a name, such as ’claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu’, but each computer must have a number,

such as ’148.61.104.215’. You can log into other Linux and Unix machines with commands such

as ‘telnet claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu’, ’telnet 148.61.104.215’ or ‘rlogin claymore.engi-

neer.gvsu.edu’. This allows you to sit at one machine, and use many others, even around the

world.

You can also access other computers with public access directories using the ‘ftp’ command.

For example try ‘ftp ftp4.netscape.com’. This will connect you to a computer some place in the

U.S. When it asks you for your ‘login name’ type ‘anonymous’. When it asks for a ‘password’,

enter your name. You may now move around using ls, pwd, cd, etc. If you want to get a file from

some directory, type ‘binary’, then type ‘get filename’, or ’get filenames’. ‘quit’ ends every-

thing. If you log into a machine with FTP and you have write permissions you can also write files

to the machine using ’put filename’ or ’mput filenames’. If you use FTP to log into a computer

that you have account on you will be able to move outside of the limited ftp directories.

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2.3.1 Security

Security is not a significant problem for a computer that is not connected to a network, and

passwords will protect it from ‘honest thieves’. When connected to a network there is potential for

security problems. These problems become more serious when the computer is connected to the

network 24 hours a day. General rules to keep a computer safe (this applies to non-Linux comput-

ers also) are:

keep user passwords safe - these can be the start of a security breachprotect the root password - loosing this throws the system wide openshut down unneeded programs - network programs sometime have bugs that open doorsapply patches - software updates help close security holes

2.4 INTERMEDIATE CONCEPTS

Above the basic features of the Linux system are a number of more advanced features and

commands. Some of these are listed below.

pine a simple interface for mail usagemail a somewhat bothersome mail tool (see pine).man func bring up a manual page for ’func’man -k stringbrings up information on ’string’tar -xvf file.tar extract files from an archive file ’file.tar’tar cvf - files > file.tar put ’files’ into an archive file ’file.tar’

2.4.1 Shells

When one logs into a Linux system, you are actually running a program (shell) this is in some

ways similar to DOS. In the standard shell you are given a prompt, where you type your com-

mand. If it is not a built-in command, it searches on the disk according to a user-specified search

path, for an executable program of that name. Almost all commands are programs that are run in

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this manner. There are also executable shell scripts, similar to command files on DOS. Linux is

limited to running a program of a size equal to the sum of its memory, and swap space. As the sys-

tem is multi-tasking, any program (or part thereof) that is not currently being run when extra

memory is required, is swapped (moved) out to the disk, until it is ready to run again.

In shells there are environment variables set. Some of the commands that can be used to view

these are shown below. They can be set by editing the appropriate text files.

alias prints a list of command aliasesprintenv prints a list of the environment variablesset prints a list of the environment variables

2.4.2 X-Windows

The GUI in Linux is actually two programs working together. The basic program is called X

windows, and it provides basic connection to the screen, mouse, keyboard and sound card. The

look-and-feel of the GUI is provided by the window manager. One simple window manager is

called ‘fvwm’ and it can behave like Windows 95/98. Newer window managers include Gnome

and KDE. While these both provide similar capabilities and features, most users develop personal

preferences for a single window manager.

2.4.3 Configuring

Devices and settings can be configured under X-windows using graphical tools. Settings can

also be configured with text files, but this is not necessary. Examples of settings that the user or

root might want to change are:

Modem properties for internet connectionNetwork card properties for connection to a LANPrinter type and location

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Customize the windows settings and behaviorSound card settings and sounds for Window events

2.4.4 Desktop Tools

Most users focus less on the Operating System, and more on the programs that it will run.

The task list below includes many of the applications that would be desired by the average user.

Most of the listed applications are free, with the exception of the games. Many of these packages

are a standard part of Linux distributions.

• Office Software - these include spreadsheets, word processors, presentation software, drawingtools, database tools, 3D graphics tools

Star Office [14]KOffice [15]

• File and Internet BrowsersNetscape - allows browsing of the internet [16]Files - there are many file viewers that ease directory browsingEazel - allows active directory browsing [17]

• Administration and UtilitiesApache - the most popular web server program [18]Postgres and MySQL - Database programs [19] [20]Replace a microsoft networking server [21]DOS/Windows Simulator VMWare [22]

• EntertainmentAudio and videoTools (GIMP - similar to photoshop)Games (Quake, Doom, SimCity)

2.5 LABORATORY - A LINUX SERVER

Purpose: To set up a Linux server that can be used for controlling automation.

Overview: At the core of every integrated manufacturing system is a server. A server is a computer,

running a networked operating system that can connect to many other computers.

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The function of a server is to communicate information between different devices on the factory floor.

The most important part of a server is the operating system. Mature operating systems such as Unix and Linux are well established, while newcomers, such as Windows NT are trying to establish themselves.

Pre-Lab:1. Go to the web site www.linux.org and read about Linux.2. Go to the RedHat Linux site and read the installation instructions. (www.redhat.com)

In-Lab:1. Locate a computer to use. Install Linux using the following instructions.2. After the installation is done and the computer has been rebooted go through the follow-

ing Linux tutorial. 3. If you need more practice with linux try another basic user tutorial (www.linux.org).4. Update the main webpage on the machine, and create a web page for yourself also in

your own public_html directory.

Submit (individually):1. Have the machine up and running properly, including X-windows.2. Have a running web server with a main web page, and for you.

2.6 TUTORIAL - INSTALLING LINUX

This section outlines the steps and choices that were used while installing Redhat 7.0. You can also refer to other installation guides (www.redhat.com) in the event of problems.

1. Open the computer to determine the following information.- video card type and memory- network card type- mouse type

2. Insert the distribution floppy disk and CD and turn on the computer. The computer will start to boot automatically. After some time a graphical interface should appear and you will be asked questions.

3. The choices that I made follow in sequence. You should adapt these to the computer you have. The settings I expect you will need to change are marked with an asterisk ’*’.Language selection - EnglishKeyboard - Generic 101-key PC

- US English- Enable dead keys

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*Mouse - Microsoft IntellimouseInstall Options - Custom SystemPartitioning - using disk druid

Delete all disk partitions*Add a partition - mount ’/’, size 1500MB, partition type Linux Native*Add a partition - partition type Linux Swap, size remaining about 50MB

Formating - ’/dev/hda1 /’Lilo Configuration - "Create Boot Disk" selectedInstall Lilo on ’/dev/hda MBR’

- did not use linear mode- no kernel parameters- left the rest as is

Network - configured with "DHCP", "activate on boot"Timezone - "Detroit"Account Configuration

- entered a root password*- added a user account for myself ’jackh’

Authentication Configuration - left all as isSelecting Package Groups - the following list were the only ones chosen

Printer SupportX Window SystemGnomeKDEMail/WWW/News ToolsDOS/Windows ConnectivityGraphics ManipulationGamesMultimedia SupportNetworked WorkstationDialup WorkstationWeb ServerSQL ServerNetwork Management WorkstationAuthoring/PublishingDevelopmentKernel DevelopmentUtilities

X Configuration*- Generic High Freq. SVGA 1024x768 @ 70Hz*- ATI Mach 64, 1MB memory- don’t set ’use graphical login’

4. Installation will start and it takes about 30-60 minutes.5. When done you will be prompted to put a formatted floppy disk in the drive and create

a boot disk. This is good for emergencies and is highly encouraged. Don’t forget to label the disk.

6. When prompted reboot the system. Don’t forget to remove the floppy and CDROM.

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7. Once the system has rebooted, login as root. Start XWindows using ’startx’.8. If you reach this point you have completed the installation successfully.

2.7 TUTORIAL - USING LINUX

1. Login with your username and password. Later you can logout with ’logout’ or ’exit’. (Note: you can also use ’shutdown -h now’ to stop the machine.)

2. After you have logged in you should see a flashing cursor. Type ’startx’ to start the X-windows GUI. This will take some time, but when done you will have a windowed interface.

3. First we want to open a command window. Point to the bottom of the screen and locate the icon that looks like a computer screen. Click on it once with the left mouse but-ton. A command window will pop up on the screen. Click on the border of the win-dow, the keyboard will then be focused on the window, and commands will work there.

4. Enter the commands below in order and observe the results. They should allow you to move around directories and see the files listed there. Some of the options will change how you see the files.lsls -lls -lals -larls -latls -lartpwdcd .. ; ls -lacd ~

5. Use the manuals to find other options for the ‘ls’ command with ‘man ls’.6. Explore the hard drive to find what is there. The following directories are particularly

important./etc - the machine configuration and boot files/opt - some packages will be installed here/bin and /usr/bin - executable files/sbin and /usr/sbin - executable files for the root user and system/usr/doc - help files/home - use directories are here/mnt - mounted disk drives are attached here/proc - system status is kept here/var/log - system log files are kept here/tmp - temporary files are stored here

7. Change to the directory ’/etc’, and look at the contents of the file ’fstab’ with the com-mand ’more fstab’. This file contains a list of the disk drives in the computer. You can find more information about it with ’man fstab’.

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8. Return to your own directory and create a subdirectory called public_html with the command ’mkdir public_html’. Change to that directory and create a new file using the vi editor with ’vi index.html’. Enter the following text into that file. The editor has two modes. In command mode each key will cause an action. In edit mode each key is added to the text. Hitting ’ESC’ at any time puts the editor back into command mode. To move into edit mode hit ’i’ then start typing text. To erase a single character hit ’x’. When you are done editing the program use ’:wq:’ to save the file and quit. Refer to the previous section in the text more details on the commands.

<HTML><BODY>Hi</BODY></HTML>

9. When done save and quit the editor. Make sure the permissions of your file and the ’public_html’ directory are correct with the command ’chmod 755 index.html ~/public_html ~’.

10. Use netscape to look at you web page and see if it is there. You can do this using ’netscape &’. You can see the file by opening it. You should also be able to see the file by typing ’http://127.0.0.1/~YOURNAME’, where ’YOURNAME’ is you user ID.

11. Look at the list of processes running on the computer with ’ps -aux’. Notice that the columns indicate what is running, the status of the process, etc. You can get more information about this using ’man ps’

12. Log into claymore using ’telnet claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu’ or ’telnet 148.61.104.215’. use ’ls’ to look at the files in your directory. When done looking around your account use ’exit’ to logout.

13. Now, look at some of the programs in the Window manager.

2.8 REFERENCES[1] http://www.ibm.com[2] http://www.beowulf.org, “The Beowulf Project”.[3] Hasan, R., “History of Linux”, http://ragib.hypermart.net/linux.[4] Polsson, K., “Chronology of Personal Computers”, http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/complist[5] http://www.linux.org/hardware/index.html, “Linux Friendly Hardware”[6] http://www.linux.org/apps/index.html, “Applications”[7] http://www.redhat.com[8] http://www.mandrake.org[9] http://www.caldera.com[10] http://www.debian.com[11] http://www.suse.com[12] http://www.sunsite.unc.edu[13] http://www.linux.com[14] http://www.staroffice.com[15] http://www.koffice.kde.org[16] http://www.netscape.com

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[17] http://www.eazel.com[18] http://www.apache.org[19] http://www.postgresql.org[20] http://www.mysql.com[21] http://www.samba.org[22] http://www.vmware.com

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3. AN INTRODUCTION TO C/C++ PROGRAMMING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The C programming language was developed at Bell Laboratories in the Early 1970’s. The

language was intended to provide a high level framework for data and functions while allowing

highly efficient programs. By the 1980s the language had entered widespread usage and was in

use for the development of many high level programs. By the 1990s most new software projects

were written in C. Some of the advantages of C are listed below.

• Machine Portable, which means that it requires only small changes to run on other com-puters.

• Very Fast, almost as fast as assembly language.• Emphasizes structured programming, by focusing on functions and subroutines.• You may easily customize ’C’ to your own needs.• Suited to Large and Complex Programs.• Very Flexible, allows you to create your own functions.

More recently C++ was developed to add object-oriented capabilities to C. In simple terms

the object oriented extensions allow data and functions to be combined together. In general the

advantages that C++ add over C are those listed below. In general, any C program can be com-

piled with C++, while C++ programs will often not compile with a C compiler.

• Reusable source code can reduce duplication• Encapsulation of data and functions reduces errors• It is easy to interchange software modules

ASIDE: The expression object-oriented has been misused recently. This was a particular problem with those marketing software. In truth, these techniques are mainly of use only to the programmer. From the users perspective, they will be unaware of whether the souce code of the program is object-oriented or not.

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This chapter will act as a basic introduction or review of C and C++ programming. C pro-

gramming is discussed first to lay the foundations, and this is followed with a discussion of C++

programming extensions. The end of the chapter discusses structured program design techniques.

If you are already fluent in C and C++ I suggest you skip this chapter.

3.2 PROGRAM PARTS

C programs are basically simple text programs that follow a general set of rules (syntax). Fig-

ure 3.1 shows the classic beginners program that will add two numbers and print the result. The

first line in this example is a comment. Comments are between ’/*’ and ’*/’ can stretch over many

lines. Comments can also be the end of a line if they follow ’//’. The ’main()’ program declaration

indicates where the program starts. The left and right curly brackets ’’ and ’’ are used to group

together a set of program statements, in this case the program. Notice that the program statements

are indented to indicate how they are grouped. This is a very valuable structuring technique that

makes the programs much easier to read.

Figure 3.1 - A Program to Add Two Numbers (and results)

The program begins with the definition of three variables, ’x’, ’y’ and ’z’. All three are

defined to be ’int’ integers and the value of ’y’ is set to ’2’. The statement is terminated with a

/* A simple program to add two numbers and print the results */

main() int x, y = 2, z; // define three variables and give one a valuex = 3; // give another variable a valuez = x + y; // add the two variablesprintf(“%d + %d = %d\n”, x, y, z); // print the results

Results (output):

3 + 2 = 5

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semicolon to separate it from the next statement. The next line assigns a value of ’3’ to ’x’. The

following line adds the values of ’x’ and ’y’ and assigns the value to ’z’. The last statement in the

program, ’printf’, prints the values with a format statement. The first string in the command is a

format string. In the string a ’%d’ indicates an integer, and ’\n’ indicates an end of line. The

remaining characters in the format string are printed as shown. The format string is followed by

the variables in the format string, in the same sequence. The result of the program shown that

when it is run it prints ’3 + 2 = 5’.

Some of the general rules that are worth noting are listed below.

• lower/UPPER case is crucial, and can never be ignored.• Statements can be on one or more lines but must be separated by semi-colons ‘;’.• Statements consist of one operation, or a set of statements between curly brackets , • There are no line numbers.• Lines may be of any length.

The data types for C are listed below with typical data sizes. Sometimes these sizes may be

larger or smaller. Their behavior of ’char’, ’short’, ’int’ and ’long’ can be modified when pre-

ceded with ’unsigned’. For example an integer ’x’ defined with ’int x;’ could have a value from -

32768 to 32767, but if defined with ’unsigned int x;’ it can have a value from 0 to 65535.

char (1 byte ascii character), short (1 byte signed integer), int (2 byte signed integer), long (4 byte signed integer), float (4 byte floating point IEEE standard), double (8 byte floating point IEEE standard).

Beginners will often write a program in a single ’main’ function. As the program becomes

more complex it is useful to break the program into smaller functions. This makes it easier to

write and read. Figure 3.2 contains an example program that uses subroutines to perform the same

function as the program in Figure 3.1. As before the ’main()’ program function is the starting

point for program execution. The subroutine ’add’ is defined after ’main’, so a function prototype

is required before. A prototype just indicates the values that are passed, and the function return

type. In this example the values 3 and 2 are passed to the ’add’ function. In the add function these

values are then put into ’a’ and ’b’. The values are then added and assigned to ’c’. The value of ’c’

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is then returned to the main function where it is assigned to ’z’.

Figure 3.2 - Program to add numbers with a function:

Every variable has a scope. This determines which functions are able to use that variable. If a

variable is global, then it may be used by any function. These can be modified by the addition of

static, extern and auto. If a variable is defined in a function, then it will be local to that function,

and is not used by any other function. If the variable needs to be initialized every time the subrou-

tine is called, this is an auto type. static variables can be used for a variable that must keep the

value it had the last time the function was called. Using extern will allow the variable types from

other parts of the program to be used in a function.

Figure 3.3 - Program example using global variables:


int add(int, int); /* Declare a integer function called ‘add’ */

main() int x = 3, y = 2, z; /* define three variables and give values */z = add(x, y); /* pass the two values to ‘add’ and get the sum*/printf(“%d + %d = %d\n”, x, y, z); /*print the results */

int add(int a, int b) /* define function and variable list */int c; /* define a work integer */c = a + b; /* add the numbers */return(c); /* Return the number to the calling program */


int x = 3, /* Define global x and y values */y = 2,add(); /* Declare an integer function called ‘add’ */

main() printf(“%d + %d = %d\n”, x, y, add()); /*print the results */

int add() /* define function */return(x + y); /* Return the sum to the calling program */

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Other variable types of variables are union, enum and struct. Some basic control flow state-

ments are while(), do-while(), for(), switch(), and if(). A couple of example programs are given

below which demonstrate all the ’C’ flow statements.

Figure 3.4 - Program example with a for loop:

Figure 3.5 - Examples of Other Loops

Figure 3.6 - An If-Else Example

/* A simple program to print numbers from 1 to 5*/

main() int i;for(i = 1; i <= 5; i = i + 1)

printf(“number %d \n”, i); /*print the number */

main() // A while loopint i = 1;while(i <= 5)

printf(“number %d \n”, i);i = i + 1;

main() // A do-while loopint i = 1;do

printf(“number %d \n”, i);i = i + 1;

while(i <= 5)

main() int x = 2, y = 3;if(x > y)

printf(“Maximum is %d \n”, x); else if(y > x)

printf(“Maximum is %d \n”, y); else

printf(“Both values are %d \n”, x);

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Figure 3.7 - A Switch-Case Example

#include <filename.h> will insert the file named filename.h into the program. The *.h exten-

sion is used to indicate a header file which contains ‘C’ code to define functions and constants.

This almost always includes “stdio.h”. As we saw before, a function must be defined (as with the

‘add’ function). We did not define printf() before we used it, this is normally done by using

#include <stdio.h> at the top of your programs. “stdio.h” contains a line which says ‘int printf();’.

If we needed to use a math function like y = sin(x) we would have to also use #include <math.h>,

or else the compiler would not know what type of value that sin() is supposed to return.

#define CONSTANT TEXT will do a direct replacement of CONSTANT in the program with

TEXT, before compilation. #undef CONSTANT will undefine the CONSTANT.

Figure 3.8 - A More Complex Example

main()int x = 3; /* Number of People in Family */switch(x) /* choose the numerical switch */case 0: /* Nobody */

printf(“There is no family \n”);break;

case 1: /* Only one person, but a start */printf(“There is one parent\n”);break;

case 2: /* You need two to start something */printf(“There are two parents\n”);break;

default: /* critical mass */printf(“There are two parents and %d kids\n”, x-2);break;

#include <stdio.h>#include <math.h>#define TWO_PI 6.283185307#define STEPS 5

main() double x; /* Current x value*/for(x = 0.0; x <= TWO_PI; x = x + (TWO_PI / STEPS))printf(“%f = sin(%f) \n”, sin(x), x);

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#fictive, #finder, #if, #else and #else can be used to conditionally include parts of a program.

This is used for including and eliminating debugging lines in a program. Statements such as

#define, #include, #fictive, #finder, #if, #else, /* and */ are all handled by the Preprocessor, before

the compiler touches the program. Matrices are defined as shown in the example. In ‘C’ there are

no limits to the matrix size, or dimensions. Arrays may be any data type. Strings are stored as

arrays of characters.

i++ is the same as i = i + 1.

Figure 3.9 - Printing ASCII Values

Pointers are a very unique feature of ‘C’. First recall that each variable uses a real location in

#include “stdio.h”#define STRING_LENGTH 5

main() int i;char string[STRING_LENGTH]; /* character array */gets(string); /* Input string from keyboard */for(i = 0; i < STRING_LENGTH; i++)

printf(“pos %d, char %c, ASCII %d \n”,i, string[i], string[i]);

INPUT:

HUGH<return>

OUTPUT:

pos 0, char H, ASCII 72

pos 1, char U, ASCII 85

pos 2, char G, ASCII 71


pos 4, char , ASCII 0

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memory. The computer remembers where the location of that variable is, this memory of location

is called a pointer. This pointer is always hidden from the programmer, and uses it only in the

background. In ‘C’, the pointer to a variable may be used. We may use some of the operations of

‘C’ to get the variable that the pointer, points to. This allows us to deal with variables in a very

powerful way.

Figure 3.10 - A Sample Program to Get a String

3.3 CLASSES AND OVERLOADING

Classes are the core concept behind object oriented programing. They basically allow data

and functions to be grouped together into a complex data type. The example code below shows a

class definition, and a program that uses it.

#include “stdio.h”

main() int i;char *string; /* character pointer */gets(string); /* Input string from keyboard */for(i = 0; string[i] != 0; i++)

printf(“ pos %d, char %c, ASCII %d \n”,i, string[i], string[i]);

INPUT:

HUGH<return>

OUTPUT:


pos 1, char U, ASCII 85

pos 2, char G, ASCII 71


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Figure 3.11 - A Simple Class Definition

The class is defined to have a public integer called’value’ and a public function called

’result’. The function ’result’ is defined separately outside of the class definition. In the ’main’

program the class has two instances ’A’ and ’B’. The ’value’ values in the classes are set, and then

the result function is then called.

A more sophisticated example of a class definition follows. The program shown does exactly

the same as the last program, but with some useful differences. This class now includes a con-

structor function ’bill’. This function is automatically called when a new instance of ’bill’ is cre-

ated. In the main program the instances are not created initially, but pointers ’*A’ and ’*B’ are

created. These are then assigned instances with the calls to ’new bill()’. At this point the construc-

tor functions are called. Finally, when the instances are used, because they are pointers, the ’->’

are used instead of ’.’.

class bill public:

int value;void result();

bill::result()printf("The result is %d \n", value);

;

main()bill A;bill B;

A.value = 3;B.value = 5;A.result();B.result();

PROGRAM OUTPUT:

The result is 3

The result is 5

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Figure 3.12 - Another Class Example

3.4 HOW A ‘C’ COMPILER WORKS

A ‘C’ compiler has three basic components: Preprocessor, First and Second Pass Compiler,

and Linker.

class bill public:

bill(int);int value;void result();

bill::bill(int new_value)value = new_value;

bill::result()printf("The result is %d \n", value);

;

main()bill *A;bill *B;

A = new bill(3);B = new bill(5);A->result();B->result();

PROGRAM OUTPUT:

The result is 3

The result is 5

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Figure 3.13 - How Programs Are Compiled

3.5 STRUCTURED ‘C’ CODE

The Preprocessor

Will remove comments, replace strings which have a defined value, include programs, and remove unneeded characters.

The First and Second Pass

The compiler will parse the program and check the syn-tax. TheSecond Pass produces some simple machine language, which performs the basic functions of the program.

The Linker

The compiler will combine the basic machine language from the first pass and combine it with the pieces of machine language in the compiler libraries. An opti-mization operation may be used to reduce execution time.

Source code “filename.c”

#include files(like “stdio.h”)

Library files

ASCII Text Code

Object Code (*.o)

Executable Code(*.exe)

(*.so)

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• A key to well designed and understandable programs.

• Use indents, spaces and blank lines, to make the program look less cluttered, and give it a

block style.

• Comments are essential to clarify various program parts.

• Descriptive variable names, and defined constants make the purpose of the variable obvi-

ous.

• All declarations for the program should be made at the top of the program listing.

Figure 3.14 - Program Structure Examples

3.6 COMPILING C PROGRAMS IN LINUX

A Sample of a Bad Program Structure:

main()int i;for(;i<10;i++)printf(“age:%d\n”,i);

A Good Example of the same Program:

#include <stdio.h>#define COUNT 10 /* Number of counts in loop */

main() int i; /* counter */

for(i = 0; i < COUNT; i++) /* loop to print numbers */printf(“age:%d\n”, i);

exit(0);

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The basic C compiler is called ’gcc’, or ’g++’ for C++. These can be put on a command line.

For example ’gcc bob.c -o bob’ will compile a C program in the file ’bob.c’, and store the result in

a program file ’bob’.

Function libraries linked in with ’-l___’. For example to use a math function the math library

must be included in the compilation line with ’-lm’. The debugger can be used if ’-g’ is included

in the compilation line. For example, if a program was compiled with ’gcc -g bob.c -o bob’, it

could be run in the debugger with ’xxgdb bob’. This then allows you to step through the program

line by line, set break points, see where it crashed, or print data values. The compiler can be set to

be extra picky (which also helps find errors) when compiled with the flag ’-Wall’

3.6.1 Makefiles

Programmers quickly tire of constantly typing commands to compile programs. To help with

this problem, the make utility was developed. A programmer will create a ’makefile’ to describe

how a program is to be compiled. This file can be called ’makefile’ or ’Makefile’ by default. The

contents then describe when a file should be compiled.

The sample makefile below shows a simple makefile. The lines beginning with ’#’ are com-

ments. The line containing the ’all:’ indicates the main program(s) to make. In this example the

only program to make is ’bob’, notice that a later line starts with ’bob:’. The next three lines

define variables that can be reused. Later in this example the ’$(CC)’ will be replaced with ’gcc’,

the ’$(CFLAGS)’ with ’-Wall -g’, and so on. To make the required program ’bob’ both ’bob.c’

and ’bill.o’ are needed. When run the make tool will check to see if the files on the disk have been

updated and things need to be recompiled. Only if the program files have changed will the com-

piler be run, otherwise the compilation will not be done because it is not necessary. If it is neces-

sary it will execute the commands on the following lines.

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Figure 3.15 - A Sample Makefile

Initially creating a makefile seems to be alot of effort, but if you run the compiler 10 times

you will save enough time to make it worth while. It also makes it easier for others to compile the

programs later.

3.7 ARCHITECTURE OF ‘C’ PROGRAMS (TOP-DOWN)

3.7.1 How?

A program should be broken into fundamental parts (using functions for each part) and then

assembled using functions. Each function consists of programs written using the previous simpler

functions.

## A sample makefile#

all: bob

CC=gccCFLAGS=-Wall -gLIBS = -lm

bob: bob.c bill.o$(CC) $(CFLAGS) bob.c -o bob $(LIBS)

bill.o:bill.c bill.h$(CC) $(CFLAGS) -c bill.c

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Figure 3.16 - Defining Program Structure By Function

• A Clear division should be maintained between program levels.

• Never use goto’s, they are a major source of logic errors. Functions are much easier to use,

once written.

• Try to isolate machine specific commands (like graphics) into a few functions.

3.7.2 Why?• A top-down design allows modules to be tested as they are completed. It is much easier to

find an error in a few lines of code, than in a complete program.

• When programs are complete, errors tend to be associated with modules, and are thus much

easier to locate.

• Updates to programs are much easier, when we only need to change one function.

• It is just as easy to change the overall flow of a program, as it is to change a function.

Application of ‘C’ to a CAD Program

Example with a Car

Frame

EngineSuspension Body

Wheel

Frame is like one subroutinewhich also calls othersubroutines like Suspension

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3.8 CREATING TOP DOWN PROGRAMS1. Define Objectives - Make a written description of what the program is expected to do.

2. Define Problem - Write out the relevant theory. This description should include variables,

calculations and figures, which are necessary for a complete solution to the problem. From this

we make a list of required data (inputs) and necessary results (output).

3. Design User Interface - The layout of the screen(s) must be done on paper. The method of

data entry must also be considered. User options and help are also considered here. (There are

numerous factors to be considered at this stage, as outlined in the course notes.)

4. Write Flow Program - This is the main code that decides when general operations occur.

This is the most abstract part of the program, and is written calling dummy ‘program stubs’.

5. Expand Program - The dummy ‘stubs’ are now individually written as functions. These

functions will call another set of dummy ‘program stubs’. This continues until all of the stubs are

completed. After the completion of any new function, the program is compiled, tested and

debugged.

6. Testing and Debugging- The program operation is tested, and checked to make sure that it

meets the objectives. If any bugs are encountered, then the program is revised, and then retested.

7. Document - At this stage, the operation of the program is formally described. For Program-

mers, a top-down diagram can be drawn, and a written description of functions should also be

given.

Golden Rule: If you are unsure how to proceed when writing a program, then work out the

problem on paper, before you commit yourself to your programmed solution.

Note: Always consider the basic elements of Software Engineering, as outlined in these

course notes.

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3.9 CASE STUDY - THE BEAMCAD PROGRAM

3.9.1 Objectives:

• The program is expected to aid the design of beams by taking basic information about beam

geometry and material, and then providing immediate feedback. The beam will be simply sup-

ported, and be under a single point load. The program should also provide a printed report on the

beam.

3.9.2 Problem Definition:

• The basic theory for beam design is available in any good mechanical design textbook. In

this example it will not be given.

• The inputs were determined to be few in number: Beam Type, Beam Material, Beam Thick-

ness, Beam Width, Beam Height, Beam Length, Load Position, Load Force.

• The possible outputs are Cross Section Area, Weight, Axial Stiffness, Bending Stiffness,

and Beam Deflection, a visual display of Beam Geometry, a display of Beam Deflection.

3.9.3 User Interface:

3.9.3.1 - Screen Layout (also see figure):• The small number of inputs and outputs could all be displayed, and updated, on a single

screen.

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• The left side of the screen was for inputs, the right side for outputs.

• The screen is divided into regions for input(2), input display and prompts(1), Beam Cross

section(3), Numerical Results(4), and Beam Deflection(5).

3.9.3.2 - Input:• Current Inputs were indicated by placing a box around the item on the display(1).

• In a separate Prompt Box(2), this input could be made.

• The cursor keys could be used to cursor the input selector up or down.

• Single keystroke operation.

• Keys required: UP/DOWN Cursors, F1, F2, F4, numbers from ‘0’ to ‘9’, ‘.’, ‘-’, and

<RETURN>. In the spirit of robustness it was decided to screen all other keys.

3.9.3.3 - Output:• Equations, calculations, material types, and other relevant information were obtained from a

text.

• Proper textual descriptions were used to ensure clarity for the user.

• For a printed report, screen information would be printed to a printer, with the prompt area

replaced with the date and time.

3.9.3.4 - Help:• A special set of help information was needed. It was decided to ensure that the screen

always displays all information necessary(2).

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3.9.3.5 - Error Checking:• Reject any input which violates the input limits.

• A default design was given, which the user could modify.

• An error checking program was created, which gives error messages.

3.9.3.6 - Miscellaneous:• The screen was expressed in normalized coordinates by most sub-routines.

• Colors were used to draw attention, and highlight areas.

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3.9.4 Flow Program:

Figure 3.17 - A Sample Executive Program

3.9.5 Expand Program:

• The routines were written in a top down fashion, in a time of about 30 hours. These routines

are listed below.

main()/* * EXECUTIVE CONTROL LEVEL * * This is the main terminal point between the * various stages of setup, input, revision * and termination. * * January 29th, 1989. */

static int error;

if((error = setup()) != ERROR) screen(NEW);screen(UPDATE);while((error = input()) != DONE)

if(error == REVISED) screen(NEW);screen(UPDATE);

error = NO_ERROR;

kill();if(error == ERROR)

printf(“EGA Graphics Driver Not Installed”);

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• Condition and error flags were used to skip unnecessary operations, and thus speed up

response. A response of more than 0.5 seconds will result in loss of attention by the user.

Routines Used In Package:

• main() - to be used as the main program junction.

• setup() - to set up graphics mode and printer.

• screen() - A function to draw, or refresh part of the screen. In the interest of program

speed, this function uses some low level commands.

• calculations() - perform the calculations of outputs from the inputs

• picture() - draws the beam cross section and deflection of beam. For the sake of speed,

this section will use low level commands.

• input() - A function which controls the main input loop for numbers, controls, error

screening, and any calls to desired routines. Input uses both higher and lower level commands

for the sake of speed.

• printes() - A function to print the EGA screen.

• printer() - A function to remove help messages from the screen, and then dumps the

screen to the printer.

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Figure X - Function Hierarchies

3.9.6 Testing and Debugging:

• The testing and debugging was very fast, with only realignment of graphics being required.

This took a couple of hours.

screen()

printer()

main()

printes()

input() kill()

calculations()

picture()

setup()box()

text()

enter()

draw_line()

In this case we see that most of the routines are at the bot-tom of the design tree. This structure shows a clear division of tasks, to their basic parts. On the above dia-gram, none of the functions calls any of the functions to the left of it, only to the right. In this case main() will call setup(), screen(), input() and kill() directly.

Top Down

High LevelExecutive Subroutine

Low LevelSpecific Subroutines

Machine Dependence Increases

Consideration of detail

Consideration of flow

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3.9.7 Documentation

3.9.7.1 - Users Manual:• The documentation included an Executive Summary of what the Program does.

• The Objectives of the program were described.

• The theory for beam design was given for the reference of any program user, who wanted to

verify the theory, and possible use it.

• A manual was given which described key layouts, screen layout, basic sequence of opera-

tions, inputs and outputs.

• Program Specifications were also given.

• A walk through manual was given. This allowed the user to follow an example which dis-

played all aspects of the program.

3.9.7.2 - Programmers Manual:• Design Strategy was outlined and given.

• A complete program listing was given (with complete comments).

• Complete production of this Documentation took about 6 hours.

3.9.8 Listing of BeamCAD Program.

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• Written for turbo ‘C’


1. What are the basic components of a ‘C’ compiler, and what do they do?

2. You have been asked to design a CAD program which will choose a bolt and a nut to hold

two pieces of sheet metal together. Each piece of sheet metal will have a hole drilled in it that is

the size of the screw. You are required to consider that the two pieces are experiencing a single

force. State your assumptions about the problem, then describe how you would produce this pro-

gram with a Top Down design.

3. What are some reasons for using ‘C’ as a programming language?

4. Describe some of the reasons for Using Top-Down Design, and how to do it.

3.11 LABORATORY - C PROGRAMMING

Purpose:

To practice programming in ‘C’.

Overview:

C programming is an essential tool for developing automated systems. It can be used to develop customized applications for communication and data handling.

Pre-Lab:

Review C programming.

In-Lab:

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1. Start up the linux machine, and get X-windows running.2. Create a new directory with ‘mkdir src’, and then enter the directory with ‘cd src’.3. Use the ‘kedit test.c’ text editor to enter the program below.

4. Compile the program with ‘cc test.c -o test’. Run the program with ‘./test’.5. Modify the program to only print every second number.6. Write a number guessing game that will randomly pick a number between 1 and 100.

The user can then guess the number, and the computer will give clues ‘high’ or ‘low’ until the value is guessed. The program will then quit. Use a top-down pro-gramming approach.

Submit (individually):

1. All program listings, with comments.

#include <stdio.h>

main()char work[20];int i, start, stop;

printf(“enter a start value:”);scanf(“%d”, &start);printf(“enter a stop value:”);scanf(“%d”, &stop);for(i = start; i <= stop; i++) printf(“value %d \n”, i);

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4. NETWORK COMMUNICATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The simplest form of communication is a direct connection between two computers. A net-

work will simultaneously connect a large number of computers on a network.

Data communications have evolved from the 1800’s when telegraph machines were used to

transmit simple messages using Morse code. This process was automated with teletype machines

that allowed a user to type a message at one terminal, and the results would be printed on a remote

terminal. Meanwhile, the telephone system began to emerge as a large network for interconnect-

ing users. In the late 1950s Bell Telephone introduced data communication networks, and Texaco

began to use remote monitoring and control to automate a polymerization plant. By the 1960s data

communications and the phone system were being used together. In the late 1960s and 1970s

modern data communications techniques were developed. This included the early version of the

Internet, called ARPAnet. Before the 1980s the most common computer configuration was a cen-

tralized mainframe computer with remote data terminals, connected with serial data line. In the

1980s the personal computer began to displace the central computer. As a result, high speed net-

works are now displacing the dedicated serial connections. Serial communications and networks

Topics:

Objectives:• To understand network types and related issues• Be able to network using Ethernet• To understand the Internet topics related to shop floor monitoring and control

• Networks; topology, OSI model, hardware and design issues• Network types; Ethernet• Internet; addressing, protocols, formats, etc.

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are both very important in modern control applications.

4.2 NETWORKS

A computer with a single network interface can communicate with many other computers.

This economy and flexibility has made networks the interface of choice, eclipsing point-to-point

methods such as RS-232. Typical advantages of networks include resource sharing and ease of

communication. But, networks do require more knowledge and understanding.

Small networks are often called Local Area Networks (LANs). These may connect a few

hundred computers within a distance of hundreds of meters. These networks are inexpensive,

often costing $100 or less per network node. Data can be transmitted at rates of millions of bits

per second. Many controls system are using networks to communicate with other controllers and

computers. Typical applications include;

• taking quality readings with a PLC and sending the data to a database computer.• distributing recipes or special orders to batch processing equipment.• remote monitoring of equipment.

Larger Wide Area Networks (WANs) are used for communicating over long distances

between LANs. These are not common in controls applications, but might be needed for a very

large scale process. An example might be an oil pipeline control system that is spread over thou-

sands of miles.

4.2.1 Topology

The structure of a network is called the topology. Figure 22.12 shows the basic network

topologies. The ’Bus’ and ’Ring’ topologies both share the same network wire. In the ’Star’ con-

figuration each computer has a single wire that connects it to a central hub.

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Figure 22.12 - Network Topologies

In the ’Ring’ and ’Bus’ topologies the network control is distributed between all of the com-

puters on the network. The wiring only uses a single loop or run of wire. But, because there is

only one wire, the network will slow down significantly as traffic increases. This also requires

more sophisticated network interfaces that can determine when a computer is allowed to transmit

messages. It is also possible for a problem on the network wires to halt the entire network.

The ’Star’ topology requires more wire overall to connect each computer to an intelligent

hub. But, the network interfaces in the computer become simpler, and the network becomes more

reliable. Another term commonly used is that it is deterministic, this means that performance can

be predicted. This can be important in critical applications.

For a factory environment the bus topology is popular. The large number of wires required

for a star configuration can be expensive and confusing. The loop of wire required for a ring

topology is also difficult to connect, and it can lead to ground loop problems. Figure 12.13 shows

a tree topology that is constructed out of smaller bus networks. Repeaters are used to boost the

signal strength and allow the network to be larger.

...

A Wire Loop Central Connection

LAN

StarRing

Bus

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Figure 22.13 - The Tree Topology

4.2.2 OSI Network Model

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model in Figure 22.14 was developed as a tool to

describe the various hardware and software parts found in a network system. It is most useful for

educational purposes, and explaining the things that should happen for a successful network

application. The model contains seven layers, with the hardware at the bottom, and the software at

the top. The darkened arrow shows that a message originating in an application program in com-

puter #1 must travel through all of the layers in both computers to arrive at the application in com-

puter #2. This could be part of the process of reading email.

...

R

R

R

R Repeater

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Figure 22.14 - The OSI Network Model

The ’Physical’ layer describes items such as voltage levels and timing for the transmission of

single bits. The ’Data Link’ layer deals with sending a small amount of data, such as a byte, and

error correction. Together, these two layers would describe the serial byte shown in Figure 22.3.

The ’Network’ layer determines how to move the message through the network. If this were for

an internet connection this layer would be responsible for adding the correct network address. The

’Transport’ layer will divide small amounts of data into smaller packets, or recombine them into

one larger piece. This layer also checks for data integrity, often with a checksum. The ’Session’

layer will deal with issues that go beyond a single block of data. In particular it will deal with

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Message

Message

Message

Message

Packet

Frame

Bit

Layer Computer #1 Unit of Transmission

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Interconnecting Medium

Computer #2

Application - This is high level software on the computer.Presentation - Translates application requests into network operations.Session - This deals with multiple interactions between computers.Transport - Breaks up and recombines data to small packets.Network - Network addresses and routing added to make frame.Data Link - The encryption for many bits, including error correction added to a

frame.Physical - The voltage and timing for a single bit in a frame.Interconnecting Medium - (not part of the standard) The wires or transmission

medium of the network.

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resuming transmission if it is interrupted or corrupted. The ’Session’ layer will often make long

term connections to the remote machine. The ’Presentation’ layer acts as an application interface

so that syntax, formats and codes are consistent between the two networked machines. For exam-

ple this might convert ’\’ to ’/’ in HTML files. This layer also provides subroutines that the user

may call to access network functions, and perform functions such as encryption and compression.

The ’Application’ layer is where the user program resides. On a computer this might be a web

browser, or a ladder logic program on a PLC.

Most products can be described with only a couple of layers. Some networking products may

omit layers in the model. Consider the networks shown in Figure 22.15.

4.2.3 Networking Hardware

The following is a description of most of the hardware that will be needed in the design of

networks.

• Computer (or network enabled equipment)• Network Interface Hardware - The network interface may already be built into the com-

puter/PLC/sensor/etc. These may cost $15 to over $1000.• The Media - The physical network connection between network nodes.

10baseT (twisted pair) is the most popular. It is a pair of twisted copper wires ter-minated with an RJ-45 connector.

10base2 (thin wire) is thin shielded coaxial cable with BNC connectors10baseF (fiber optic) is costly, but signal transmission and noise properties are

very good.• Repeaters (Physical Layer) - These accept signals and retransmit them so that longer net-

works can be built.• Hub/Concentrator - A central connection point that network wires will be connected to.

It will pass network packets to local computers, or to remote networks if they are available.

• Router (Network Layer) - Will isolate different networks, but redirect traffic to other LANs.

• Bridges (Data link layer) - These are intelligent devices that can convert data on one type of network, to data on another type of network. These can also be used to isolate two networks.

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• Gateway (Application Layer) - A Gateway is a full computer that will direct traffic to different networks, and possibly screen packets. These are often used to create fire-walls for security.

Figure 22.15 shows the basic OSI model equivalents for some of the networking hardware

described before.

Figure 22.15 - Network Devices and the OSI Model

Figure 22.15X - The OSI Network Model with a Router

1 - physical

2 - data link

3 - network

4 - transport

5 - session

6 - presentation

7 - application

repeaterbridge

gateway

router

switch

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Layer Computer #1

Interconnecting Medium

Computer #2

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Network

Data Link

Physical

Router

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4.2.4 Control Network Issues

A wide variety of networks are commercially available, and each has particular strengths and

weaknesses. The differences arise from their basic designs. One simple issue is the use of the net-

work to deliver power to the nodes. Some control networks will also supply enough power to

drive some sensors and simple devices. This can eliminate separate power supplies, but it can

reduce the data transmission rates on the network. The use of network taps or tees to connect to

the network cable is also important. Some taps or tees are simple ’passive’ electrical connections,

but others involve sophisticated ’active’ tees that are more costly, but allow longer networks.

The transmission type determines the communication speed and noise immunity. The sim-

plest transmission method is baseband, where voltages are switched off and on to signal bit states.

This method is subject to noise, and must operate at lower speeds. RS-232 is an example of base-

band transmission. Carrierband transmission uses FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) that will switch

a signal between two frequencies to indicate a true or false bit. This technique is very similar to

FM (Frequency Modulation) radio where the frequency of the audio wave is transmitted by

changing the frequency of a carrier frequency about 100MHz. This method allows higher trans-

mission speeds, with reduced noise effects. Broadband networks transmit data over more than one

channel by using multiple carrier frequencies on the same wire. This is similar to sending many

cable television channels over the same wire. These networks can achieve very large transmission

speeds, and can also be used to guarantee real time network access.

The bus network topology only uses a single transmission wire for all nodes. If all of the

nodes decide to send messages simultaneously, the messages would be corrupted (a collision

occurs). There are a variety of methods for dealing with network collisions, and arbitration.

CSMA/CD (Collision Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) - if two nodes start talking and detect a collision then they will stop, wait a random time, and then start again.

CSMA/BA (Collision Sense Multiple Access/Bitwise Arbitration) - if two nodes start

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talking at the same time the will stop and use their node addresses to determine which one goes first.

Master-Slave - one device one the network is the master and is the only one that may start communication. slave devices will only respond to requests from the master.

Token Passing - A token, or permission to talk, is passed sequentially around a network so that only one station may talk at a time.

The token passing method is deterministic, but it may require that a node with an urgent mes-

sage wait to receive the token. The master-slave method will put a single machine in charge of

sending and receiving. This can be restrictive if multiple controllers are to exist on the same net-

work. The CSMA/CD and CSMA/BA methods will both allow nodes to talk when needed. But, as

the number of collisions increase the network performance degrades quickly.

4.2.5 Ethernet

Ethernet has become the predominate networking format. Version I was released in 1980 by a

consortium of companies. In the 1980s various versions of ethernet frames were released. These

include Version II and Novell Networking (IEEE 802.3). Most modern ethernet cards will support

different types of frames.

The ethernet frame is shown in Figure 20.21. The first six bytes are the destination address

for the message. If all of the bits in the bytes are set then any computer that receives the message

will read it. The first three bytes of the address are specific to the card manufacturer, and the

remaining bytes specify the remote address. The address is common for all versions of ethernet.

The source address specifies the message sender. The first three bytes are specific to the card

manufacturer. The remaining bytes include the source address. This is also identical in all ver-

sions of ethernet. The ’ethernet type’ identifies the frame as a Version II ethernet packet if the

value is greater than 05DChex. The other ethernet types use these to bytes to indicate the datal-

ength. The ’data’ can be between 46 to 1500 bytes in length. The frame concludes with a ’check-

sum’ that will be used to verify that the data has been transmitted correctly. When the end of the

transmission is detected, the last four bytes are then used to verify that the frame was received

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correctly.

Figure 22.21 - Ethernet Version II Frame

• TCP vs UDP

4.2.6 SLIP and PPP

Ethernet connections are not always practical for computers at a distance, or when network-

ing hardware is not available. A common alternative is to use a serial connection, such as a tele-

phone modem. Network data packets are passed using a protocol such as Serial Line Internet

Protocol (SLIP) and Point to Point Protocol (PPP).

At present the alternatives for data transfer are listed below. This is a short list, but it can be

expected to grow quickly over time.

Phone lines with modem (dial up) - this runs at speeds up to 56Kbaud, with a peak data rate of about 3KB/sec. These are used for network connection that lasts from a few minutes to hours. This is very widespread and universally supported, but expect this 40 year old technology to be phased out over the next decade.

Direct serial connection - this can be done with a direct connection between serial ports on two computers using SLIP or PPP. The peak rates can reach over 6KB/sec. This method can also be done using a low speed radio modem.

Direct parallel connection - this is done by connecting the parallel ports on two computers together and using Parallel Line Interface Protocol (PLIP). Data rates approaching 1MB/sec are possible.

ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) uses dedicated phone lines that

6 bytes destination address

6 bytes source address

2 bytes ethernet type

46-1500 bytes data

4 bytes checksum

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require a special interface card. Data rates reach 56Kbaud, but lines can be added in parallel to increase the speed. These tend to be high cost and are less popular.

DSL - Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) - This technology uses an existing residential phone line, but at frequencies above the audio range. The network connection is always active, but telephone usage can be permitted at any time. These have a faster data transfer rate than dial up connections, but still have a higher cost.

Cable - These broadband networks provide a permanent network connection that uses existing cable television networks. Special networking hardware is required. These networks are notable because the download speeds is higher than the download speed.

Satellite - These connections are available at a high cost and are suitable for remote loca-tions where other communications access is not possible.

Fiber - Not available yet, but should be soon in high population areas. Expect very high speed access.

4.3 INTERNET

The Internet is a collection of networking technologies, such as Ethernet, SLIP, PPP and oth-

ers that allows computers to communicate and exchange information. The concept of the Internet

began with ARPANET which was funded as a Department of Defense project in 197x. In 198x

the Internet was developed, and began to replace the ARPANET. By the late 1980s the Internet

was widespread between most universities, colleges, major companies and government agencies

around the world. Finally, the Internet hit widespread public usage by the mid 1990s. Today it is

the accepted defacto standard network in the world.

Originally the Internet was used to exchange email and files. It was common to anonymously

log into a remote computer, with FTP, and upload and download files. In the early 1990s a number

of new applications were developed to make interaction with remote computers easier. For exam-

ple ’archie’ made it easy to search for files by names. ’wais’ and ’gopher’ were early predecessors

to ’mosiac’ which then lead to ’netscape’. At that time (about 1993) the face of the internet started

to change, thanks to the World Wide Web (WWW). Non-professional users of the internet started

to arrive through the America On-Line (AOL) service. This also coincided with the first major

case of ’spam’, where a legal firm mass mailed advertisements for immigration services. Finally,

by the mid 1990s microsoft stopped referring to the Internet as a ’fad’. Today, most people and

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companies vie for an Internet presence.

This section will outline some of the core concepts that are important when designing appli-

cations that use the Internet.

4.3.1 Computer Addresses

Most users are familiar with text computer names, such as ’www.gvsu.edu’. But, these names

are only for convenience, and the same computer can have multiple names. Consider the example

below. The machine ’claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu’ can also be called with ’www.eod.gvsu.edu’.

In actuality, each computer on the network has a unique four number address. Both of the names

below refer to the same computer with the numerical address ’148.61.104.215’. The digits of the

address can range from 0 to 255.

When a text computer name is supplied it is converted to a numerical address before network

access occurs. Consider the case where a computer name is typed into a web browser. The web

browser will then call another computer called a Domain Name Server (DNS). The DNS com-

puter has a database of local and remote computers names and numbers. It will convert the com-

puter name to a number, and then return it to the web browser. The web browser then uses the

computer number to connect to the named computer.

The number has four parts. The first two digits ‘148.61’ indicate to all of the internet that the

computer is at ‘gvsu.edu’ (we actually pay a yearly fee to register this). The third number indi-

cates what LAN the computer is located on (Basically each sub-network has its own number).

Finally the last digit is specific to a machine. This addressing method makes it easy to direct net-

Machine Name:

IP Number:

Alternate Name:

claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu

148.61.104.215

www.eod.gvsu.edu

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work traffic.

There are different classes on networks. The largest is a class A, in which the entire network

begins with the same number such as ’148.’, allowing up the last three numbers to be used for

local network addresses. The next smaller network is class B, in which the first two numbers are

designated, for example ’148.61.’. A class C network specifies the first three digits, such as

’148’61.104.’, and can have up to 256 addresses. The ’netmask’ indicates how many computers

can be on a network. A common netmask is ’255.255.255.0’ which indicates the local network

can have up to 256 computers. A netmask of ’255.255.255.254’ would indicate that there are only

two computers on the network.

When a packet of information is sent it passes through many computers between the sender

and receiver. Each of the computers is configured to know where the next computer is upstream

and downstream. The ’gateway’ is the computer on a local area network that passes a packet out

to the Internet. For example, if my computer address is 192.168.1.20, the gateway is probably

192.168.1.254. Any packets travelling to/from the Internet will travel through the gateway com-

puter.

The current standard of four number network addresses is called IPV4. This addressing

scheme is ultimately limited, and so the address space is being expanded from four numbers to six

in the newer IPV6 standard. This standard also introduces some enhancements for security and

other applications.

4.3.2 Computer Ports

On the network information is sent in packets. These are addressed to a computer using the

IPV4 address, but they also include a port number between 0 and 65535. The port number indi-

cates what service they are trying to access. In general the first 1000 are allocated to well known

and agreed upon services, such as email and web serving. Other port numbers in the low thou-

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sands are for less common network services, and numbers in the high thousands are used by user

programs. An abbreviated list of common network ports is given below. On any computer the

may or may not be active.

23? 24? - telnetxxx - ftp25 - smtp80 - http110 - pop3118 - sqlserv143 - imap515 - printer520 - router1433 - mssql26000 - quake

4.3.2.1 - Mail Transfer Protocols

Sending and receiving email involves different protocols. Mail is sent using a protocol called

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Mail is retrieved with Post Office Protocol (POP) or

Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP). All of these protocols are handled with programs listening

on different ports on the server.

4.3.2.2 - FTP - File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a very old and well supported method for transferring files

between computers. Advanced users will often use it with typed commands, but there are also

hundreds of graphical clients that hide the typed commands.

4.3.2.3 - HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used for retrieving web pages from remote sites. It

uses simple commands to get text files from the remote computer.

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4.3.3 Security

In normal situations the main focus of security is to protect access to data systems and the

information they contain. When dealing with automated systems security issues could lead to

major economic losses through damaged equipment, or even loss of life!

Security violations normally come from disgruntled employees, but recently anonymous

crackers (incorrectly called hackers in the press) have become a significant threat. Modern operat-

ing systems and software are often designed with some security features. Most assume that there

is limited physical access to the computer. The most elaborate security system doesn’t work if the

the hard drive is stolen. The best strategy to keep a system safe is to understand how hackers can

break into a computer. What follows are the most common type of attacks.

Social engineering involves the use of people and trust to get access to a computer. This often

involves understanding the psychology of trust and exploiting it to get passwords and other infor-

mation. A common ruse to get an employee password is as follows. Call an employee in a com-

pany likely to have a high level of software access, such as a secretary of a high level executive.

Claim to be from the IT (Information Technology) department, talk for a while and then ask for

help solving a problem with the password account. When agreement is obtained, ask the secretary

to change the account password, and let you know what the new one is.

Crackers will also practice ’surfing’. Shoulder surfing involves peeking over the shoulder of

users as they enter passwords. Garbage surfing involves taking a garbage can before being emp-

tied and searching the contents for useful information, such as credit card numbers. Cubicle surf-

ing involves checking for posted passwords around computers. Some users hate to remember

passwords and will post them for all to see (or sometimes taped to the bottom of the keyboard). To

protect against these types of problems the following strategies help,

• inform users that their passwords are to be given to NOBODY, especially unseen.

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• allow users to select their own password, they are more likely to remember them, and not write them down. Assigning cryptic passwords and changing them often ensures that even the most advanced users will write it down somewhere.

• check user passwords for simplicity. Problem passwords include a single word in the dic-tionary, a users first/last name, a first/name followed by ’1’, common jargon and popular phrases, curse words, etc.

• watch the activity of simpler users. One easy way to do this is with the command ’last | more’. This will show a list of users, when they logged in, and how they logged in. Look for irregularities, such as a low end user who suddenly starts using telnet and ftp.

• set up access policies for users and equipment. Keep unauthorized people away from secure computers and work areas.

The advent of the Internet has made anonymous crackers more common. Most computers can

be accessed from the Internet, even if indirectly. Two major threats include a denial of service

(DOS) attack and a break-in. DOS attacks involve flooding a site with irregular network packets,

sent from other computers (that were victims of break-ins). The outcome of this attack is that net-

work access slows so much it becomes unusable.

Break-ins occur when a security hole is found in the operating system, or when a virus or tro-

jan horse is downloaded by a user. Security holes in an operating system often involve network

services, such as ftp and mail servers. When planning to break into a computer most crackers will

first identify which services are active on a computer. After this they will try to exploit known

vulnerabilities to get access to the computer. After breaking in they will try to install software so

that they will have future access to the computer, and hide their presence. Most crackers will

return to the computer they have broken into numerous times until discovered.

Viruses are designed to spread indesciminately and infect computers. Once infected the virus

often lays dormant for a while before executing some mission such as spreading to other pro-

grams/files, displaying a message, or erasing a hard drive. Like real viruses, the damaging ones

often burn-out quickly, the milder ones spread and become a nuisance. Previously these were only

spread through downloaded programs, and they could only be activated by somebody running

software. Recently viruses have started to exploit holes in consumer oriented software. In simple

terms, the same features that make the software easy to use also make it a security threat. This

means that users can get viruses from an email message without reading it. Trojan horses are pro-

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grams that actually do something useful (unlike viruses). but they include some ’unwanted

extras’. These might give a cracker access to the system running the trojan horse program, or

worse. These can be added to trusted software by modifying the source code of a useful software

package, and then releasing it for use. Administrators might download and install the software

believing it is the regular version, but instead install the security holes. These security problems

can be lessened with the following strategies.

• Networking hardware is available to reduce or eliminate the effects of DOS attacks, this should be considered on any critical internet sites.

• Security holes can be closed by applying software patches are made available when vul-nerabilities are discovered. These should be downloaded and applied whenever available. Security advisories are available from (www.cert.net?) and (www.bugtraq.org?).

• Firewalls can be used to shield critical, or vulnerable computers from outside access.• To avoid viruses (mostly for microsoft computers) - Don’t download and run programs

from untrusted sources. Use virus checking software, and keep it updated.• Don’t use servers for tasks other than serving, especially with convenience software,

such as mail readers.• Avoid trojan horses by only downloading software from a trusted site.

When breaking into a computer the goal is to obtain the ’root’ or ’Administrator’ account. If

a cracker ever gets a few minutes at the keyboard logged in as ’root’ or ’Administrator’, they can

give themselves easy access. System administrators should not leave their account logged in with-

out an automatic screen lock function. The administrator should also track the usage of their

account to look for any irregular activities.

4.3.3.1 - Firewalls and IP Masquerading

A firewall is a single computer that acts as a point of contact between an untrusted network

(the Internet) and a secure network. The firewall computer will have two or more network cards

that it will monitor differently. Generally it is set up to allow traffic to pass from the internal net-

work to the outside world with greater freedom than it allows network traffic to enter the secure

network. This allows computers behind a firewall to get access to outside computers. Any

requests they make are mirrored to outside computers, who may then respond to the requests.

Requests from computers behind the firewall all seem to come from the firewall itself. There is no

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way for an outside computer to access a computer behind the firewall.

4.4 FORMATS

Formats are different from protocols, although they are often confused. Protocols are used for

transferring information, but formats define the information format. For example, http is a proto-

col often used for transferring files. The most common file format transferred with http is html,

although it can transfer other types of files.

4.4.1 HTML

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is the defacto standard format for information on the

World Wide Web (WWW). It basically allows text to be generally formatted with embedded

images. When viewed, the display is adjusted to suit the browser. These documents also include

hypertext links that allow a user to go to another HTML page, or download a file by ’clicking’ on

linked text. Recently there have been many additions that allow more control over the ’look-and-

feel’, but result in larger files and less portability. HTML files can be created with programs, or

edited by hand.

A simple HTML file is shown in Figure X.X. It uses tags to define the beginning and end of

definitions. The entire document begins and ends with the tags ’<HTML>’ and ’</HTML>’. The

body of the document begins and ends with ’<BODY>’ and ’</BODY>’. Highlighted text is

between ’<Hx>’ and ’</Hx>’, where ’x’ varies from ’1’ for the boldest to ’5’ to the lightest. Lists

can be defined with the tags ’<UL>’ and ’</UL>’, and each point in the list begins with ’<LI>’.

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Figure X.X - A Simple HTML File and The Output

The file in Figure X.X add a few features to the previous example. The first part is a header

section that defines a title of the document. This title will appear on the top bar of the browser

window. An image will appear after the heading and before the list, the image displayed is called

’test.gif’. The two items in the list now have hypertext links. The first is to a file called

’other.html’, the second is to another web site ’www.cnn.com’.

<HTML><BODY>

<H1>Title</H1><P>This is a list</P><UL>

<LI>One<LI>Two

</UL></BODY>

</HTML>

Title

This is a list

• One

• Two

HTML File:

The Output:

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Figure X.X - A More Advanced HTML File

4.4.2 URLs

• In HTML documents we need to refer to resources. To do this we use a label to identify the

type of resource, followed by a location.

• Universal Resource Locators (URLs)

- http:WEB_SITE_NAME

- ftp:FTP_SITE_NAME

- mailto:USER@MAIL_SERVER

- news:NEWSGROUP_NAME

<HTML><HEAD>

<TITLE>A Sample Page</TITLE></HEAD><BODY>

<H1>Title</H1><P>This is a list</P><IMG SRC="test.gif"><UL>

<LI><A HREF="another.html">One</A><LI><A HREF="http://www.cnn.com">Two</A>

</UL></BODY>

</HTML>

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4.4.3 Encryption

• Allows some degree of privacy, but this is not guaranteed.

• Basically, if you have something you don’t want seen, don’t do it on the computer.

4.4.4 Clients and Servers

• Some computers are set up to serve others as centers of activity, sort of like a campus library. Other computers are set up only as users, like bookshelves in a closed office. The server is open to all, while the private bookshelf has very limited access.

• A computer server will answer requests from other computers. These requests may be,- to get/put files with FTP- to send email- to provide web pages

• A client does not answer requests.

• Both clients and servers can generate requests.

• Any computer that is connected to the network Client or Server must be able to generate requests. You can see this as the Servers have more capabilities than the Clients.

• Microsoft and Apple computers have limited server capabilities, while unix and other computer types generally have more.

Windows 3.1 - No client or server support without special softwareWindows 95 - No server support without special softwareWindows NT - Limited server support with special versionsMacOS - Some server support with special softwareUnix - Both client and server models built in

• In general you are best advised to use the main campus servers. But in some cases the extra effort to set up and maintain your own server may also be useful.

• To set up your own server machine you might,1. Purchase a computer and network card. A Pentium class machine will actually provide

more than enough power for a small web site.2. Purchase of copy of Windows NT server version.3. Choose a name for your computer that is easy to remember. An example is ‘artsite’.

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4. Call the Information technology people on campus, and request an IP address. Also ask for the gateway number, netmask, and nameserver numbers. They will add your machine to the campus DNS so that others may find it by name (the number will always work if chosen properly).

5. Connect the computer to the network, then turn it on.6. Install Windows NT, and when asked provide the network information. Indicate that

web serving will be permitted.7. Modify web pages as required.

4.4.5 Java

• This is a programming language that is supported on most Internet based computers.

• These programs will run on any computer - there is no need for a Mac, PC and Unix version.

• Most users don’t need to program in Java, but the results can be used in your web pages

4.4.6 Javascript

• Simple programs can be written as part of an html file that will add abilities to the HTML page.

4.4.7 CGI

• CGI (Common Gateway Interface) is a very popular technique to allow the html page on the cli-ent to run programs on the server.

• Typical examples of these include,- counters- feedback forms- information requests

4.5 NETWORKING IN LINUX

page 90

Configuration files are under /etc

Recompile kernel in some cases, such as a firewall. or new hardware

Loadable modules

DHCP versus static IP

Most modern versions of Linux simplify hardware detection and setup. The steps below can

help perform the basic operations, or find problems.

A. Installing a normal ethernet network connection:

1. During the installation process you will be asked for network parameters.2. Enter a unique name for the machine and the network name.3. (for DHCP) All that should be required is a setting for DHCP.3. (for a static IP) You will need to enter the static IP number for the machine, as well as a

netmask and gateway. If you are connecting to another network you can get these from a network administrator. If you are connecting your own network (not on the Internet) you can simply pick values like those below. Note that you need some sort of network router with an IP address of 192.168.1.254 for this to work.IP address: 192.168.1.20netmask: 255.255.255.0Gateway: 192.168.1.254nameserver: none

B. Troubleshooting an ethernet connection to the Internet,

1. Check to see if the network card is recognized with ’more /proc/modules’ The card should be in the list. If not the kernel module must be installed.

2. Check to see if the network is setup with ifconfig. You should see ’eth0’ or something similar. If it is not setup, the network parameters must be checked.

3. Check to see if the network is connected properly with ping to the local gateway, or another local machine - use the IP number, not the name. For example, ’ping 148.61.104.254’. If this fails the gateway or broadcast addresses are probably incorrect.

4. Check the connection to the outside with a ping such as ’ping 148.61.1.10’. If this is not allowed there is probably a problem with the outside connection

5. Verify that the nameserver is working alright with a ping to a named machine such as, ’ping www.linux.org’.

6. If all of these things work the network connection should be alright.C. Installing a dialup connection

1. During the installation make sure that the location of your modem is correctly identi-fied. Note: Winmodems are very popular because of their low cost, but there are very few Linux drivers. But... you are advised to spend the money for a non-Win-modem anyway, they are more reliable and they don’t use your computers

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resources.2.

D. Troubleshooting a dialup connection

1. Use a terminal program to dial the Internet service provider’s number manually. If you don’t get a response there is a problem with the modem installation.

2. After connected try providing your login ID and password and see if you get in. Expect to see garbage after this. If login is refused you need to check the user ID and pass-word again.

3. Check ...E. Setting up a firewall (this requires some work)

1. To set up a firewall the kernel must be recompiled to include network options such as multicasting, and firewall services.[KERNEL OPTIONS]

2. Shut down the computer and add a second network card in the machine and reboot.3. Check to see if the card is recognized with ’more /proc/modules’. Both ethernet cards

should be listed. If not you will need to edit the network startup files. These are normally in ’/etc/...’ or for slackware ’/etc/rc.d’. An example file follows. Reboot and check for both network cards again.[NETWORK CONFIG FILES]

4. Use ’ipchains’ to add services to pass, and modify the ’hosts.allow’ and ’hosts.deny’ files to control access.[ipchains file declarations][hosts.allow file][hosts.deny file]

4.5.1 Network Programming in Linux

The following listings show network usage in Linux. The general method of network connec-

tion is different for servers and clients.

For servers.....

For clients....

Listing X.1 - network_io.cpp

page 92

#include "network_io.h"

#include <sys/poll.h>#include <sys/ioctl.h>#include <linux/tcp.h>

#include <stdio.h>#include <string.h>#include <unistd.h>#include <fcntl.h>

network_io::network_io()type = _READ;level = 0;

network_io::~network_io()if(type == _READ)

if(level > 1)if(level > 2)

end_read_connection();deinit_read();

else if (type == _WRITE)

int network_io::set_remote_host(char *_host_name, int host_socket)static int error;static int nm_a,

nm_b,nm_c,nm_d;

struct hostent*hp;unsigned charaddress[4];

error = NO_ERROR;strcpy(host_name, _host_name);host_socket_number = host_socket;

// Set up server descriptor, get host reference and error trapwrite_connection.sin_family = AF_INET;if((host_name[0] > ’9’) ||(host_name[0]<’0’))

hp = gethostbyname(host_name); else

sscanf(host_name, "%d.%d.%d.%d",&nm_a, &nm_b, &nm_c, &nm_d);

address[0] = (unsigned char)(nm_a);address[1] = (unsigned char)(nm_b);address[2] = (unsigned char)(nm_c);address[3] = (unsigned char)(nm_d);hp = gethostbyaddr((char *)address, 4, AF_INET);

if(hp != 0)/* complete descriptor set up. */bcopy((char *)hp->h_addr,

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(char *)&(write_connection.sin_addr),hp->h_length);

else error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: unknown network host");error = ERROR;

return error;

int network_io::set_local_host(int socket_num)static int error;

error = NO_ERROR;socket_number = socket_num;

return error;

int network_io::writer(char *string)static int error;

error = NO_ERROR;

// Open a new socket for the write, and check for errors.error = init_write();if(error == NO_ERROR) error = open_write_connection();if(error == NO_ERROR) error = write_to_connection(string);if(error == NO_ERROR) error = end_write_connection();if(deinit_write() == ERROR) error = ERROR;

return(error);

int network_io::reader(char *buf, int length)static interror; // Error return variable

error = NO_ERROR;

// Wait for a socket connection request, then get its reference.buf[0] = 0;if(wait_read_connection() == NO_ERROR)

if(read_from_connection(buf, length) == ERROR)// Close socket connection to remote write client.end_read_connection();

return(error);

int network_io::init_write()static int error;struct hostent *gethostbyname();

error = NO_ERROR;/* Open a new socket for the write, and check for errors. */if((rw_socket = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0)) >= 0)

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write_connection.sin_port = htons(host_socket_number); else

error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: opening stream socket");error = ERROR;

return error;

int network_io::open_write_connection()static int error;

error = NO_ERROR;if(connect(rw_socket, (struct sockaddr *) &(write_connection), sizeof(write_connection))

< 0)error = ERROR;error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: Connecting stream Socket");

return error;

int network_io::write_to_connection(char *text)static int error;

error = NO_ERROR;if(write(rw_socket, text, strlen(text) /* +1 */) < 0)

error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: writing on stream socket");error = ERROR;

return error;

int network_io::write_stuff_done()int error;

error = NO_ERROR;return error;

int network_io::check_connection()int error;int count;struct pollfd ufds;

error = NO_ERROR;ufds.fd = rw_socket;ufds.events = POLLOUT | POLLIN | POLLPRI | POLLERR | POLLHUP | POLLNVAL;count = poll(&ufds, 1, 0);if((ufds.revents & 16) != 0) error = ERROR;

return error;

int network_io::end_write_connection()static int error;

error = NO_ERROR;

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return error;

int network_io::deinit_write()static int error;

error = NO_ERROR;close(rw_socket);rw_socket = ANY;

return error;

int network_io::init_read()static int error; // low level socket numberunsigned length; // temporary work variablestatic struct sockaddr_inserver; // read socket descriptorstatic struct hostent*hp;char text[100];

// Open internet socket, and check for error.error = ERROR;gethostname(text, 100); /* who are we? */hp = gethostbyname(text); if((hp != NULL) && (read_socket = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0)) >= 0)

// Set up server descriptor for binding name.memset(&server, 0, sizeof(struct sockaddr_in));server.sin_family = hp->h_addrtype;server.sin_port = htons(socket_number);// Bind the socket, and check for error.level = 1;int flag = 1;setsockopt(read_socket, SOL_SOCKET, SO_REUSEADDR, (char *)&flag, sizeof(int));if(bind(read_socket, (struct sockaddr *)&server, sizeof(struct sockaddr_in)) >=

0)

// Check for valid socket bindinglength = sizeof(server);if(getsockname(read_socket, (struct sockaddr *)&server, &length) >=

0)error = NO_ERROR;// Set up variables for success// Zero because anything higher would allow// messages to arrive out of sequence.listen(read_socket, 0);

else error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: getting socket name");

else

error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: binding stream socket");

else error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: opening stream socket");

return(error);

int network_io::read_stuff_waiting()int error,

count;struct pollfd ufds;

page 96

error = ERROR;ufds.fd = read_socket;ufds.events = POLLIN | POLLPRI | POLLOUT;count = poll(&ufds, 1, 0);if((ufds.revents & 1) > 0)

error = NO_ERROR;

return error;

int network_io::wait_read_connection()static int error;unsigned size;static struct sockaddr addr;

error = NO_ERROR;size = sizeof(struct sockaddr);fcntl(read_socket, F_SETFL, O_NONBLOCK);rw_socket = accept(read_socket, &addr, &size);

level = 2;if(rw_socket < 0)

error = ERROR;// error_log("ERROR: warning:accept");

return error;

int network_io::read_from_connection(char *buf, int length)int error;int len;

error = NO_ERROR;// Empty input bufferbuf[0] = 0;// Read string into buffer from socketfcntl(rw_socket, F_SETFL, O_NONBLOCK);len = read(rw_socket, buf, length);if(len < 0)

// error_log("ERROR: reading stream message");// error = ERROR;if(errno != 11)

printf("errno=%d ", errno);

else buf[len] = 0;

return error;

int network_io::end_read_connection()int error;int a;

error = NO_ERROR;a = close(rw_socket);level = 1;

page 97

return error;

int network_io::deinit_read()int error;int a;

error = NO_ERROR;a = close(read_socket);level = 0;

return error;

char *network_io::get_address()static char work[MAXIMUM_HOST_NAME_LENGTH];struct sockaddr_inaddress;int i,

addr[4];long int_address;

#ifndef SGI// Sun Versionget_myaddress(&address);int_address = address.sin_addr.s_addr;

#else// SGI Versionint_address = gethostid();

#endif// SUN & SGI versionfor(i = 0; i < 4; i++)

addr[i]=int_address & 0xFF;int_address >>= 8;

#ifdef OTHER_UNIX

sprintf(work, "%d.%d.%d.%d",(int)addr[3], (int)addr[2], (int)addr[1], (int)addr[0]);

#else// This is for linuxsprintf(work, "%d.%d.%d.%d",

(int)addr[0], (int)addr[1], (int)addr[2], (int)addr[3]);#endif

return work;

char *network_io::get_remote_client()staticchar work[100];struct sockaddr address;socklen_t len;

len = sizeof(address);if(getpeername(rw_socket, &address, &len) == 0)

sprintf(work, "%u.%u.%u.%u", address.sa_data[2], address.sa_data[3], address.sa_data[4], address.sa_data[5]);

// printf("Got address [%s]\n", work);//strcpy(work, address);

else strcpy(work, "unknown network address");

return work;

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Listing X.2 - network_io.h

#ifndef _NETWORK_IO#define _NETWORK_IO

#include <errno.h>#include <linux/socket.h>#include <sys/types.h>#include <netdb.h>#include <rpc/rpc.h>#include <unistd.h>

#define ANY 0 // Indicates no socket number prechosen

#define MAXIMUM_HOST_NAME_LENGTH100class network_io

public:int socket_number;int rw_socket;// int read_connection;char host_name[MAXIMUM_HOST_NAME_LENGTH];int host_socket_number;int read_socket;struct sockaddr_inwrite_connection;// char incoming_string[MAXIMUM_STRING_SIZE];

int type;int level;#define _READ 200#define _WRITE 201

network_io();~network_io();

int set_remote_host(char*, int);int set_local_host(int);int reader(char*, int);int writer(char*);int init_write();int open_write_connection();int write_to_connection(char*);// int write_to_read_connection(char*);int end_write_connection();int deinit_write();int init_read();int wait_read_connection();int read_from_connection(char*, int);// int read_from_write_connection(char*, int);int end_read_connection();int deinit_read();int read_stuff_waiting();int write_stuff_done();int check_connection();char* get_remote_client();

char *get_address();;

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#endif

Listing X.3 - network.cpp

#include "../network_io/network_io.h"#include <time.h>

network_io *network;int mode;char *params;char received_temp[200];int connect_flag;time_t now_time;time_t last_time;int timeout;

int main()timeout = 5; // the default timeout

return 1;

int deinit()int error;

error = NO_ERROR;if(network != NULL) delete network;

return error;

int process_command();int check_network();

int step()int error;

error = NO_ERROR;error = check_network();if(error == NO_ERROR) error = process_command();

return error;

int check_network()int error;

error = NO_ERROR;

if(*state == WAITINGFORCONNECTION)if(connect_flag == TRUE)

page 100

if(mode == LISTENER)if(network->wait_read_connection() == NO_ERROR)

char text[200];*state = CONNECTIONESTABLISHED;*received_flag = FALSE;*send_flag = FALSE;sprintf(text, "Got a connection from %s", network-

>get_remote_client());error_log(WARNING, text);time(&last_time);

else if(mode == TALKER)

if(network->open_write_connection() == NO_ERROR)*state = CONNECTIONESTABLISHED;*received_flag = FALSE;*send_flag = FALSE;time(&last_time);

else if(*state == CONNECTIONESTABLISHED)

if(*send_flag == TRUE)network->write_to_connection(send_buf);// printf("Sending String [%s]\n", send_buf);send_buf[0] = 0;*send_flag = FALSE;// time(&last_time); // You can keep the connection alive by writing// but this doesn’t guarantee that the remote client is still there

if(*received_flag == FALSE)

if(network->read_from_connection(received_temp, 199) != ERROR)if(strlen(received_temp) > 0)

strcpy(received, received_temp);*received_flag = TRUE;time(&last_time);// printf("Got String [%s]\n", received);

time(&now_time);if((network->check_connection() == ERROR) || ((mode == LISTENER) &&

(difftime(now_time, last_time) > timeout)))if(mode == LISTENER)

network->end_read_connection(); else if(mode == TALKER)

network->end_write_connection();*state = WAITINGFORCONNECTION;connect_flag = FALSE;

return error;

int process_command()int error;int i, len;int port;

error = NO_ERROR;if(*change_lock == TRUE)

if(*command == INITIALIZE)

page 101

if(*state == NOTINITIALIZED)if(mode == LISTENER)

port = atoi(params);if(port > 0)

network = new network_io();network->set_local_host(port);network->init_read();//now ready to listen*state = WAITINGFORCONNECTION;connect_flag = FALSE;

else error_log(MINOR, "Parameter did not hold

a valid port");*error_flag = ERROR;

else if(mode == TALKER)

len = strlen(params);for(i = 0; i < len; i++)

if(params[i] == ’:’)params[i] = 0;port = atoi(&(params[i+1]));break;

if((i < len) && (port > 0))

network = new network_io();network->set_remote_host(params, port);network->init_write();*state = WAITINGFORCONNECTION;connect_flag = FALSE;

else error_log(MINOR, "Address string was not

properly formed");*error_flag = ERROR;

else

error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: Mode not defined yet");*error_flag = ERROR;

else

error_log(MINOR, "Network talker initialize command in wrong state");

*error_flag = ERROR;

else if(*command == CONNECT)if(*state == WAITINGFORCONNECTION)

connect_flag = TRUE;

else if(*command == DISCONNECT)if(*state == CONNECTIONESTABLISHED)

if(mode == TALKER)network->end_write_connection();

else if (mode == LISTENER)network->end_read_connection();

*state = WAITINGFORCONNECTION;connect_flag = FALSE;

else error_log(MINOR, "Cannot disconnect network unless

connected");*error_flag = ERROR;

else if(*command == UNINITIALIZE)

if(*state == WAITINGFORCONNECTION)if(mode == TALKER)

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network->deinit_write(); else if (mode == LISTENER)

network->deinit_read();delete network;network = NULL;*state = NOTINITIALIZED;

else error_log(MINOR, "Cannot uninitialize network unless

waitingforconnection");*error_flag = ERROR;

else if(*command == SET)

if(*operand1 == MODE)if(*state == NOTINITIALIZED)

mode = *operand2; else

error_log(MINOR, "Can’t set network mode after initialization");

*error_flag = ERROR;

else if(*operand1 == PARAM)if(*state == NOTINITIALIZED)

if(params != NULL) delete params;params = new char[strlen(operand3)+1];strcpy(params, operand3);

else error_log(MINOR, "Can’t set network parameters, in

wrong state");*error_flag = ERROR;

else if(*operand1 == TIMEOUT)

timeout = *operand2; else

error_log(MINOR, "Network SET type not recognized");*change_lock = FALSE;*error_flag = ERROR;

else

error_log(MINOR, "Network command not recognized");*error_flag = ERROR;

*change_lock = FALSE;

return error;

4.6 DESIGN CASES

Consider the case of the network

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4.7 SUMMARY

• Networks come in a variety of topologies, but buses are most common on factory floors.• The OSI model can help when describing network related hardware and software.• Networks can be connected with a variety of routers, bridges, gateways, etc.• Ethernet is common, and can be used for high speed communication.• The internet can be use to monitor and control shop floor activities.


1. Explain why networks are important in manufacturing controls.

(ans. These networks allow us to pass data between devices so that individually controlled sys-tems can be integrated into a more complex manufacturing facility. An example might be a serial connection to a PLC so that SPC data can be collected as product is made, or recipes downloaded as they are needed.)

2. Is the OSI model able to describe all networked systems?

(ans. The OSI model is just a model, so it can be used to describe parts of systems, and what their functions are. When used to describe actual networking hardware and software, the parts may only apply to one or two layers. Some parts may implement all of the layers in the model.)

3. What are the different methods for resolving collisions on a bus network?

(ans. When more than one client tries to start talking simultaneously on a bus network they inter-fere, this is called a collision. When this occurs they both stop, and will wait a period of time before starting again. If they both wait different amounts of time the next one to start talking will get priority, and the other will have to wait. With CSMA/CD the clients wait a random amount of time. With CSMA/BA the clients wait based upon their network address, so their pri-ority is related to their network address. Other networking methods prevent collisions by limit-ing communications. Master-slave networks require that client do not less talk, unless they are responding to a request from a master machine. Token passing only permits the holder of the token to talk.)

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4.9 LABORATORY - NETWORKING

Purpose: To expose you to the architecture and components of a modern computer network.

Objectives: To be able to set up a switch and computers to communicate over an Intranet network.

Background:

Computers can be connected via a network. At a minimum this requires a network card in at least two computers and a connecting cable between them. These computers can then pass packets of information back and forth for basic communication. This type of connection is commonly used by people playing games such as Quake at home. A more mature network, like that found in a factory, must be more sophisto-cated.

The most fundamental concept in a network is the data packets and the protocol for exchanging them. The current Internet protocol is called IPV4 (this will be replaced by IPV6 in the near future). In this protocol each client on a network has a 4 byte (0-255) address, normally shown in the form ‘aaa.bbb.ccc.ddd’. In our case the university is a ‘class B’, so it owns all addresses that start with ‘148.61.ccc.ddd’. Most engineering students use a ‘class C’ network with the addresses ‘148.61.104.ddd’. In theory there are up to 256 clients on the engineer-ing network. In practice some of these addresses are used for network housekeep-ing. For example the following addresses are used,

148.61.104.1 - this is the router/switch to other networks148.61.104.254 - this is the gateway to other networks

If a network address is not used, it can be used by a normal network device, such as a com-puter or printer. There are two ways to assign these statically or dynamically. In a static connection the address can only be used by one machine. In a dynamic con-nection the addresses are assigned and release semi-randomly to network clients as the connect and disconnect from the network. Static IP addresses are primarily designed for computers that are always on, and are acting as servers on the net-work. Dynamic IP addresses are primarily used for computers that are only clients on the network. Some examples of static IP addresses on the network are:

148.61.104.215 - claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu148.61.104.226 - excalibur.engineer.gvsu.edu148.61.104.??? - falcon.engineer.gvsu.eduetc..

Most computers on the network are named, such as ‘gvsu.edu’. When a user enters this name into the computer, it must be converted to a network number. This is done by a ‘domain name server’ (DNS). There are two DNS servers at GVSU (148.61.1.10 and 148.61.1.15). These servers keep all of the names for computers at GVSU, and also provide links to computers at other sites so that their names and numbers can

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also be searched.

Although the engineering student network is ‘148.61.104.ddd’, it is actually a collection of smaller networks (sub-nets). The smaller networks are connected together with network devices called switches/hubs/routers. These are basically small computers with multiple network connections (often 24). Each computer is connected to the hub. The hub then looks at each network packet coming from a computer. If it is going to another computer connected to the same hub, it will be sent there directly. Otherwise it is sent ‘up-stream’ to a router that will send it to another sub-net if it is available, or up upstream again. In our lab we will use a Linksys 10/100 Man-aged 24-Port GigaSwitch (EG24M).

The Switch in the lab is used to connect computers together, and connect to a network gateway. ....

The server for the lab is.....Network Components:Lab Server - ClaymoreDell Poweredge 1300 ServerIntel Pro/100 network card (internet side)3Com 590 network card (infranet side)Adaptec SCSI card 2940U2W (2 cards) for SCSI hard disksTape drive - Uninterruptable Power Supply - APC Smart-UPS 120V OL103

Firewall....

4.9.1 Prelab

1. Find and read the user manual for the Linksys 10/100 Managed 24-Port GigaSwitch (EG24M). http://www.linksys.com

2. At a windows computer look at the settings for the network. On windows 9x this is done with ’winipcfg’, on windows nt use the network settings. Look at the options available, copy out the settings to hand in. After that use the following instructions, and describe what each is doing.

nslookup claymore.engineer.gvsu.eduping claymore.engineer.gvsu.eduping 148.61.104.215tracert claymore.engineer.gvsu.edutracert gvsu.edutracert www.umich.eduroutenetstat

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netstat -a

3. Open a Dos window and type ‘telnet river.it.gvsu.edu 25’. this will connect you to the main stu-dent computer. But instead of the normal main door, you are talking to a program that delivers mail. Type the following to send an email message.

4. Go to the web site ’www.arin.net’ and look up some machine names there under the ’whois’ link. Determine who owns the student network, i.e., 148.61.104.

5. While looking at a home page in Netscape select ‘View - Page Source’. You will see a window that includes the actual HTML file - This file was interpreted by Netscape to make the page you saw previously. Look through the file to see if you can find any text that was on the original page.

6. In Netscape ask for the location ‘ftp://sunsite.unc.edu’ This will connect you via ftp the same way as with the windows and the dos software.

7. In netscape type in ‘mailto:[email protected]’ (Note: If the mail server infor-mation and a user account is not setup an error window will appear.). After you are done try ‘news:gvsu’.

8. Using Netscape try to access the IP number of the machine beside you. You will get a message that says the connection was refused. This is because the machine is a client. You have already been using servers to get web pages.

9. When we ask for a computer by name, your computer must find the number. It does this using a DNS (Domain Name Server). On campus we have two ‘148.61.1.10’ and ‘148.61.1.15’. In a Linux machine type in the following commands and determine what they have done. You can get access to a linux machine from a windows machine by typing ’telnet claymore.engi-

ehlo northpole.commail from: santarcpt to: jackhdataSubject: Bogus mailthis is mail that is not really from santa.

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neer.gvsu.edu’.

4.9.2 Laboratory

1. Connect to the Linksys switch with a serial port connection. Although we could, we will not do this to increase the security of the switch. A serial connection requires physical access, which makes it much more difficult for an anonymous security intrusion.

2. Configure your computer to be a static client on the lab TCP/IP network.

3. Write two C++ program using the provided library functions. One program should listen on network socket 1900. When a connection is made it should open the connection, and echo all input that is receive. A second program will allow a user to connect to a remote network pro-gram and send and receive strings.

nslookupserver 148.61.1.10set type=anyls -d engineer.gvsu.edu > temp.txtexitmore temp.txt

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5. DATABASES

Databases are used to store various types of information in a manufacturing enterprise. For

example, consider an inventory tracking system. A simple database might contain a simple list of

purchased parts. Each part is a line in a database table, as shown in figure X.1. If a new inventory

item is added, a new row is added to the table. If parts are added or removed to the inventory, the

quantity value for one of the rows is changed. The total inventory cost can be calculated by multi-

plying the quantity and part costs together, and summing these for all rows. The tables are often

designed to suit the way a particular business runs.

Figure X.1 - A Simple Inventory Table

A more complex database will be made up of many tables that relate items together. For

example a more complex database might have separate tables for customer data, supplier data,

purchased inventory, work in process, finished inventory, etc. The purchased inventory table

might refer to a supplier number that identifies a supplier in the supplier table. The formal name

for a database that uses related tables of information is ’relational’.

Part Quantity Cost LocationNumber

1/2" Hex Nut 35 $0.023 Bin 5-42003450

1/2" Hex Bolt 2467 $0.035 Bin 5-63003573

5/8" Washer 395 $0.009 Bin 7-32002365

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In modern applications a database (server) will run on one computer, but be shared by many

other computers (clients) that access it through networks. Client programs might be highly vari-

able. For example a worker on the shop floor may only be able to view order information. A shop

floor supervisor might be able to change order status, personnel tables. A salesperson might be

able to enter new orders, and check on order status. It is also possible to access the database

directly and make special inquiries using a special command language called Structured Query

Language (SQL).

In summary, database allow information to be;

- stored and managed in a central location- shared with many other computers- structured and accessed quickly- searched for patterns and matches

5.1 SQL AND RELATIONAL DATABASES

Structured Query Language (SQL) was developed to provide a common interface language

for accessing relational databases. The key concept behind relational databases is that all informa-

tion is stored in tables. The example in Figure X.2 illustrates a customer order tracking system

that uses three tables. Consider the first table called ’Orders’, it contains four rows, each with an

order number. The first three rows are for the same order, and order number. In this case all three

entries are also for the same customer, but it involves three different parts. The entries in the

’customer_id’ and ’part_id’ columns can be used to lookup more information from the two other

tables.

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Figure X.2 - An Order Tracking Database

The tables in Figure X.2 can be created using the SQL commands in Figure X.3. One com-

mand is needed for each table. Each command starts with ’CREATE TABLE’ followed by the

name of the table. After this the columns of the table are defined. In the case of the ’Orders’ table

there are four columns. Each column is given a unique name, and a data type is defined. Once

these commands have been used the tables will exist, but be empty with no data in them.

order_number

00103001030010300134

customer_id

002002002001

part_id

0001000000020002

quantity

11150

customer_id

000001002

name

ACME Dastardly GadgetsWidgets Inc.I.M. Reech and Co.

Orders

Customers

part_id

000000010002

description

cylindervalvehose

Parts location

bin 5-4bin 2-3bin 8-2

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Figure X.3 - The SQL Commands to Create the Tables in Figure X.2

Figure X.4 shows SQL commands to enter data into the tables. In all cases these statements

begin with ’INSERT INTO’, followed by the table name. After that the data fields to fill are

named, followed by the actual values to insert. The column names are provided so that the values

can be supplied in a different order, or omitted altogether. In this example all of the values are pro-

vided for all ’INSERT INTO’ statement, but this is not necessary.

CREATE TABLE Orders (order_number INTEGER, customer_id INTEGER, part_id INTEGER,quantity INTEGER

)CREATE TABLE Customers (

customer_id INTEGER, name CHAR(50)

)CREATE TABLE Parts (

part_id INTEGER, description CHAR(20), location CHAR(25)

)

The queries can also be combined onto a single line.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS (customer_id INTEGER, name CHAR(50))

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Figure X.4 - Entering Data Into The Tables

Once data has been entered into the database it can be recalled using a simple ’SELECT’

statement. In the first example the ’*’ indicates to select all data values ’FROM’ the ’Customers’

table. The second example shows only listing the ’name’ values from the ’Customers’ table.

Finally the third example shows the listing of ’order_numbers’ from the ’Orders’ table where the

’quantity’ of parts is greater than 10.

INSERT INTO Orders (order_number, customer_id, part_id, quantity)VALUES (00103, 002, 0001, 1)




INSERT INTO Customers (customer_id, name) VALUES (000, ’ACME Dastardly Gadgets’)INSERT INTO Customers (customer_id, name) VALUES (001, ’Widgets Inc.’)INSERT INTO Customers (customer_id, name) VALUES (002, ’I.M. Reech and Co.’)INSERT INTO Parts (part_id, description, location) VALUES (0000, ’cylinder’, ’bin 5-4’)INSERT INTO Parts (part_id, description, location) VALUES (0001, ’valve’, ’bin 2-3’)INSERT INTO Parts (part_id, description, location) VALUES (0002, ’hose’, ’bin 8-2’)

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Figure X.5 - Simple Database Query Examples

It is possible to make database queries where the results are merged from many different

tables. The example in Figure X.6 shows a query that is to list values for ’order_number’, ’name’,

’description’ and ’location’. These are to be merged from three tables ’Orders’, or ’O’, Custom-

ers, or ’C’, and ’Parts’, or ’P’. Finally, the conditions for a match follow the ’WHERE’ statement.

The conditions are the ’customer_id’ field in the ’Customer’ and ’Order’ tables must match., and

the ’part_id’ field must match in the ’Order’ and ’Part’ tables.

SELECT * FROM Customers

Customerscustomer_idname000 ACME Dastardly Gadgets001 Widgets Inc.002 I.M. Reech and Co.

SELECT name FROM Customers

CustomersnameACME Dastardly GadgetsWidgets Inc.I.M. Reech and Co.

SELECT order_number FROM Orders WHERE quantity > 10

Orders order_number00134

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Figure X.6 - A More Advanced Query

The SQL queries are easily used when interacting with a command interface. Although, it is

more common for these commands to be used from within computer programs that call the data-

base to make automatic queries.

5.2 DATABASE ISSUES

• Databases handle problems of,

- data locking (only allow one user to modify at once)- data sharing (other users can view)- searching- etc

• Database design

- first order normal, etc.- flexibility- verification

5.3 LABORATORY - SQL FOR DATABASE INTEGRATION

Select order_number, name, description, location FROM Orders O, Customers C, Parts P WHERE O.customer_id = C.customer_id, O.part_id = P.part_id

Ordersorder_numbername descriptionlocation00103 I.M. Reech and Co.valvebin 2-300103 I.M. Reech and Co.cylinderbin 5-400103 I.M. Reech and Co.hosebin 8-200134 Widgets Inc.hose bin 8-2

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Purpose: To learn the basic command language, SQL, that is used to interact with relational data-

bases.

Overview: Databases store information in tables. The users can use or manipulate this data to suit

other purposes. The fundamental language for interacting with the databases is SQL. This lab will offer a simple introduction, and then go on to interface with the database using C programs in the following lab.

Pre-Lab:Read the SQL and database material.

In-Lab:First Time Installation:

1. Check to see if the database is installed. One way to do this is to look for the database server using ’which postmaster’. If it is not installed it can be installed from the Redhat distribution CD, or by downloading it from www.postgr-esql.org.

2. Log in as root with ’su - root’ and edit the file ’/var/lib/pgsql/.bashrc’ to include the following lines. (Note: the .bashrc file may not exist, but it will be created by the editor.)

PGLIB=/usr/lib/pgsqlPGDATA=/usr/lib/pgsql/dataexport PGLIB PGDATA

3. Change the ownership of the postgres directory to the user postgres with the command ’chown postgres /usr/lib/pgsql’.

4. Log in as the user ’postgres’ - An account called ’postgres’ is normally defined in most modern Linux distributions, but the account password is disabled. To log in the first time you must be logged in as root, then log in as postgres with ’su - postgres’. At this point you can change the password so you can log in directly as postgres in the future with ’passwd postgres’. Verify that you are logged in as postgres before continuing with ’whoami’.

5. Set up the databases with the command ’initdb’. This will set up all of the needed files and directories.

6. At this point the database should be ready for use, but the database server is not running. It can be started with ’postmaster &’.

7. Use ‘createuser <YOUR_LOGIN_NAME_GOES_HERE>’ to add yourself as a valid database user. Answer ‘y’es when asked if you are allowed to create data-bases. And answer ‘y’es when asked if you can create new users. These choices will allow you full control over the database. Note: ‘destroyuser <YOUR_NAME>’ can be used if you need to remove a user.

8. Log out from the postgres account with ’exit’.Before Use:

1. Start the database when logged in as root with ’postmaster &’. This should start the database server. You can check to see if it is accepting connections with the

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command ’netstat -a | grep postmaster’. If the postmaster program is listed the database is ready for use.

2. The database can also be set up to run automatically each time the computer is rebooted by adding it to the ’system V’ initialization list. But, this step is not necessary unless setting up a permanent database.

Creating and Using a New Database1. Create a new database with ‘createdb test’. 2. Connect to the database with ‘psql test’. This is a simple program that allows

interaction with the database using typed commands. Type ‘\h’ to see a list of commands.

3. Create a new database table using the SQL command below. This program requires that you end each line with a ‘\g’.

CREATE TABLE grades (name CHAR(10), grade CHAR(3), year INT)\g6. Display the table (it is empty) with the command below. Note: upper and lower

case values are used to make the SQL commands stand out.SELECT * FROM grade

7.Add data with the commands below. After adding each datapoint, print out the table values. (Note: using the up and down cursor keys will allow you to recall previously entered commands.)

INSERT INTO grades (name, grade, year) VALUES (‘egr 101’, ‘D’, 1997)INSERT INTO grades (name, year, grade) VALUES (‘egr 101’, 1998,

‘B+’)INSERT INTO grades (name, grade, year) VALUES (‘egr 103’, ‘A’, 1999)INSERT INTO grades (name, grade, year) VALUES (‘egr 209’, ‘B+’,

1999)INSERT INTO grades (name, year) VALUES (‘egr 226’, 1999)INSERT INTO grades (year) VALUES (2000)

8. Follow the tutorials in the ‘/usr/share/doc/postgres*’ directory.9. Develop a database (of your own design) that will keep customer information,

and inventory levels.

Submit (individually):1. A completed customer information database.

5.4 LABORATORY - USING C FOR DATABASE CALLS

Purpose: To access a database using a simple C program.

Overview: The program listing in Figure X.8 can be used to access the Postgres database. It uses a

database access library called ’libpq’. This library of functions allows SQL data-base queries. The results of the query can then be easily retrieved.

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In this example the program begins with an attempt to connect to the database using the function ’PQconnectdb’, and the status of the connection is then checked using ’PQstatus’. An SQL query is passed to the database using the ’PQexec’ command, and the results are returned into the ’PGresult’ structured called ’res’ in this exam-ple. The results can be checked using ’PQresultStatus’, and retrieved using the ’PQgetvalue’ function. The ’PQntuples’ function returns the number of matching results.

After each query the results structure should be released using ’PQclear’, and when all database access is complete the connection to the database should be terminated with ’PQfinish’.

#include <stdio.h>#include <stdlib.h>#include <pgsql/libpq-fe.h>

int main()char grade[3];char query_string[256];PGconn *conn;PGresult *res;int i;

conn = PQconnectdb("dbname=test");if(PQstatus(conn) != CONNECTION_BAD)

printf("Enter a grade: ");scanf("%2s", grade);sprintf(query_string, "SELECT name FROM grades WHERE grade = ’%s’", grade);res = PQexec(conn, query_string);if(PQresultStatus(res) == PGRES_TUPLES_OK)

int i;for(i = 0; i < PQntuples(res); i++) printf("name = %s \n", PQgetvalue(res, i, 0));

else printf("The query failed \n");

PQclear(res);PQfinish(conn);

else printf("Could not open the database \n");

return 0;

Figure X.8 - C Program for Database Access (dbtest.c)

all: dbtestCC = gccCFLAGS = -WallLIBS = -lpqdbtest: dbtest.c

$(CC) $(CFLAGS) dbtest.c -o dbtest $(LIBS)

Figure X.9 - Makefile for Database Program

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Pre-Lab:1. Examine the database program in the Overview section.

In-Lab:1. Enter the program and makefile given in the Overview section. Use ’make’ to compile

the program, and run it to verify that it does access the database.2. Write a program that allows jobs to be entered into the customer information database

created in the previous laboratory.

Submit (individually):1. The C program to access the customer information database.

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6. COMMUNICATIONS

When multiple computers are used in a manufacturing facility they need to communicate.

One means of achieving this is to use a network to connect many peers. Another approach is to

use dedicated communication lines to directly connect two peers. The two main methods for com-

munication are serial and parallel. In serial communications the data is broken down as single bits

that are sent one at a time. In parallel communications multiple bits are sent at the same time.

6.1 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS

Serial communications send a single bit at a time between computers. This only requires a

single communication channel, as opposed to 8 channels to send a byte. With only one channel

the costs are lower, but the communication rates are slower. The communication channels are

often wire based, but they may also be optical and radio. Figure 22.2 shows some of the standard

electrical connections. RS-232c is the most common standard that is based on a voltage level

change. At the sending computer an input will either be true or false. The ’line driver’ will convert

a false value ’in’ to a ’Txd’ voltage between +3V to +15V, true will be between -3V to -15V. A

cable connects the ’Txd’ and ’com’ on the sending computer to the ’Rxd’ and ’com’ inputs on the

receiving computer. The receiver converts the positive and negative voltages back to logic voltage

levels in the receiving computer. The cable length is limited to 50 feet to reduce the effects of

electrical noise. When RS-232 is used on the factory floor, care is required to reduce the effects of

electrical noise - careful grounding and shielded cables are often used.

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Figure 22.2 - Serial Data Standards

The RS-422a cable uses a 20 mA current loop instead of voltage levels. This makes the sys-

tems more immune to electrical noise, so the cable can be up to 3000 feet long. The RS-423a stan-

dard uses a differential voltage level across two lines, also making the system more immune to

electrical noise, thus allowing longer cables. To provide serial communication in two directions

these circuits must be connected in both directions.

To transmit data, the sequence of bits follows a pattern, like that shown in Figure 22.3. The

RS-232c

RS-422a

RS-423a

50 ft

3000 ft

3000 ft

Txd Rxd

com

In

Out

InOut

In

Out

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transmission starts at the left hand side. Each bit will be true or false for a fixed period of time,

determined by the transmission speed.

A typical data byte looks like the one below. The voltage/current on the line is made true or

false. The width of the bits determines the possible bits per second (bps). The value shown before

is used to transmit a single byte. Between bytes, and when the line is idle, the ’Txd’ is kept true,

this helps the receiver detect when a sender is present. A single start bit is sent by making the

’Txd’ false. In this example the next eight bits are the transmitted data, a byte with the value 17.

The data is followed by a parity bit that can be used to check the byte. In this example there are

two data bits set, and even parity is being used, so the parity bit is set. The parity bit is followed

by two stop bits to help separate this byte from the next one.

Figure 22.3 - A Serial Data Byte

Some of the byte settings are optional, such as the number of data bits (7 or 8), the parity bit

(none, even or odd) and the number of stop bits (1 or 2). The sending and receiving computers

must know what these settings are to properly receive and decode the data. Most computers send

true

false

before start data parity stop idle

before - this is a period where no bit is being sent and the line is true.start - a single bit to help get the systems synchronized.data - this could be 7 or 8 bits, but is almost always 8 now. The value shown here is a

byte with the binary value 00010010 (the least significant bit is sent first).parity - this lets us check to see if the byte was sent properly. The most common

choices here are no parity bit, an even parity bit, or an odd parity bit. In this case there are two bits set in the data byte. If we are using even parity the bit would be true. If we are using odd parity the bit would be false.

stop - the stop bits allow a pause at the end of the data. One or two stop bits can be used.

idle - a period of time where the line is true before the next byte.

Descriptions:

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the data asynchronously, meaning that the data could be sent at any time, without warning. This

makes the bit settings more important.

Another method used to detect data errors is half-duplex and full-duplex transmission. In

half-duplex transmission the data is only sent in one direction. But, in full-duplex transmission a

copy of any byte received is sent back to the sender to verify that it was sent and received cor-

rectly. (Note: if you type and nothing shows up on a screen, or characters show up twice you may

have to change the half/full duplex setting.)

The transmission speed is the maximum number of bits that can be sent per second. The units

for this is ’baud’. The baud rate includes the start, parity and stop bits. For example a 9600 baud

transmission of the data in Figure 22.3 would transfer up to bytes each

second. Lower baud rates are 120, 300, 1.2K, 2.4K and 9.6K. Higher speeds are 19.2K, 28.8K and

33.3K. (Note: When this is set improperly you will get many transmission errors, or ’garbage’ on

your screen.)

Serial lines have become one of the most common methods for transmitting data to instru-

ments: most personal computers have two serial ports. The previous discussion of serial commu-

nications techniques also applies to devices such as modems.

6.1.1 RS-232

The RS-232c standard is based on a low/false voltage between +3 to +15V, and an high/true

voltage between -3 to -15V (+/-12V is commonly used). Figure 22.4 shows some of the common

connection schemes. In all methods the ’txd’ and ’rxd’ lines are crossed so that the sending ’txd’

outputs are into the listening ’rxd’ inputs when communicating between computers. When com-

municating with a communication device (modem), these lines are not crossed. In the ’modem’

connection the ’dsr’ and ’dtr’ lines are used to control the flow of data. In the ’computer’ the ’cts’

96001 8 1 2+ + +( )

------------------------------------ 800=

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and ’rts’ lines are connected. These lines are all used for handshaking, to control the flow of data

from sender to receiver. The ’null-modem’ configuration simplifies the handshaking between

computers. The three wire configuration is a crude way to connect to devices, and data can be lost.

Figure 22.4 - Common RS-232 Connection Schemes

Common connectors for serial communications are shown in Figure 22.5. These connectors

are either male (with pins) or female (with holes), and often use the assigned pins shown. The

DB-9 connector is more common now, but the DB-25 connector is still in use. In any connection

the ’RXD’ and ’TXD’ pins must be used to transmit and receive data. The ’COM’ must be con-

nected to give a common voltage reference. All of the remaining pins are used for ’handshaking’.

Computer Modem

comtxdrxddsrdtr

comtxdrxddsrdtr

ComputerA

ComputerB

comtxdrxdctsrts

comtxdrxdctsrts

ComputerA

ComputerB

comtxdrxdctsrts

comtxdrxdctsrts

Modem

Computer

Three wire

ComputerA

ComputerB

comtxdrxd

ctsrts

comtxdrxd

ctsrts

dsrdtr

dsrdtr

Null-Modem

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Figure 22.5 - Typical RS-232 Pin Assignments and Names

The ’handshaking’ lines are to be used to detect the status of the sender and receiver, and to

regulate the flow of data. It would be unusual for most of these pins to be connected in any one

application. The most common pins are provided on the DB-9 connector, and are also described

below.

TXD/RXD - (transmit data, receive data) - data linesDCD - (data carrier detect) - this indicates when a remote device is presentRI - (ring indicator) - this is used by modems to indicate when a connection is about to be

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9

DB-25 DB-9

Commonly used pins1 - GND (chassis ground)2 - TXD (transmit data)3 - RXD (receive data)4 - RTS (request to send)5 - CTS (clear to send)6 - DSR (data set ready)7 - COM (common)8 - DCD (Data Carrier Detect)20 - DTR (data terminal ready)

Other pins9 - Positive Voltage10 - Negative Voltage11 - not used12 - Secondary Received Line Signal Detector13 - Secondary Clear to Send14 - Secondary Transmitted Data15 - Transmission Signal Element Timing (DCE)16 - Secondary Received Data17 - Receiver Signal Element Timing (DCE)18 - not used19 - Secondary Request to Send21 - Signal Quality Detector22 - Ring Indicator (RI)23 - Data Signal Rate Selector (DTE/DCE)24 - Transmit Signal Element Timing (DTE)25 - Busy

1 - DCD2 - RXD3 - TXD4 - DTR5 - COM6 - DSR7 - RTS8 - CTS9 - RI

Note: these connec-tors often have very small num-bers printed on them to help you identify the pins.

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made.CTS/RTS - (clear to send, ready to send) DSR/DTR - (data set ready, data terminal ready) these handshaking lines indicate when

the remote machine is ready to receive data.COM - a common ground to provide a common reference voltage for the TXD and RXD.

When a computer is ready to receive data it will set the "CTS" bit, the remote machine will

notice this on the ’RTS’ pin. The ’DSR’ pin is similar in that it indicates the modem is ready to

transmit data. ’XON’ and ’XOFF’ characters are used for a software only flow control scheme.

6.2 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS UNDER LINUX

In Linux serial communications is similar to normal file access. The file names used to access

these ports are in the ’dev’ directory. The ’com1’ port is called ’ttyS0’, and the ’com2’ port is

called ’ttyS1’.

#ifndef __SERIAL#define __SERIAL#define ERROR -1#define NO_ERROR 0class serial_io

protected:public:

int fd; /* File Descriptor Global Variable */serial_io(char*);~serial_io();

int decode_param(char*);int writer(char*);int reader(char*, int);

;#endif

Figure X.10 - The Header File (serial_io.h)

#include <stdio.h>

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#include <stdlib.h>#include <string.h> #include <unistd.h> #include <fcntl.h> #include <errno.h> #include <termios.h> #include <ctype.h>

#include "serial_io.h"

char *param_file_name;int param_baud;int param_parity;// not implemented yetint param_size;int param_flow; // not implemented yet

serial_io::serial_io(char *args)struct termios

options;int error;int i;

param_file_name = NULL;param_baud = B9600;// set defaultsparam_size = CS8;char temp[200];int len, last, cnt;

error = NO_ERROR;strcpy(temp, args);len = strlen(args);last = 0;cnt = 0;for(i = 0; (i < len) && (error == NO_ERROR); i++)

if(temp[i] == ’,’)temp[i] = 0;error = decode_param(&(temp[last]));cnt++;last = i + 1;

else if(i == (len-1))error = decode_param(&(temp[last]));cnt++;

if((error == NO_ERROR) && (param_file_name != NULL))if((fd = open(param_file_name /*args[0] port "/dev/ttyS0"*/, O_RDWR | O_NOCTTY

| O_NDELAY)) < 0)printf("Unable to open serial port\n");fd = -1;

else fcntl(fd, F_SETFL, FNDELAY); /* Configure port reading */tcgetattr(fd, &options); /* Get the current options for the port */

cfsetispeed(&options, param_baud); /* Set the baud */cfsetospeed(&options, param_baud);

options.c_cflag |= (CLOCAL | CREAD);// enable receiver and set local mode

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options.c_cflag &= ~PARENB;// Mask the character size to 8 bits, no parityoptions.c_cflag &= ~CSTOPB;

options.c_cflag &= ~CSIZE;// set data sizeoptions.c_cflag |= param_size;// set number of data bits

// options.c_cflag &= ~CRTSCTS;// Disable hardware flow control

// options.c_lflag &= ~(ICANON | ECHO | ISIG);// process as raw inputoptions.c_oflag |= OPOST;

// Update settingstcsetattr(fd, TCSANOW, &options);

else

fd = -1;

serial_io::~serial_io(void)

close(fd);fd = -1;if(param_file_name != NULL) delete param_file_name;

int serial_io::decode_param(char*parameter)int error;int temp;

error = NO_ERROR;if(parameter[0] == ’F’)

if(param_file_name != NULL) delete param_file_name;param_file_name = new char[strlen(parameter)];strcpy(param_file_name, &(parameter[1]));

else if(parameter[0] == ’B’)temp = atoi(&(parameter[1]));if(temp == 9600) param_baud = B9600;if(temp == 2400) param_baud = B2400;if(temp == 1200) param_baud = B1200;

else if(parameter[0] == ’D’)temp = atoi(&(parameter[1]));if(temp == 8) param_size = CS8;if(temp == 7) param_size = CS7;

else printf("Did not recognize serial argument type - ignoring\n");

return error;

int serial_io::reader(char *text, int max)int char_read,

error,i, j;

error = ERROR;if(fd >= 0)

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char_read = read(fd, text, max-1);if (char_read > 0)

text[char_read] = 0;error = NO_ERROR;for(i = 0; i < char_read;)

if((text[i] == 10 /*CR*/) || (text[i] == ’\n’))for(j = i+1; j <= char_read; j++)

text[j-1] = text[j];char_read--;

else if(text[i] == ’\t’)text[i] = ’ ’;i++;

else i++;

else text[0] = 0;

else

printf("Serial port is not initialized\n");

return error;

int serial_io::writer(char *text)

int error,length = 0,count = 0;

error = NO_ERROR;if(fd >= 0)

length = strlen(text);for(count = 0; count < length; count++)

write(fd, &(text[count]), 1);

else printf("Serial port not initialized\n");error = ERROR;

return error;

Figure X.11 - Serial Communication Drivers (serial_io.c)

#include "serial_io.h"

main()serial_io *serial;char in[100];char sent[107];int flag = 0;char out[100];

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serial = new serial_io("B9600,F/dev/ttyS0");while(flag == 0)

if(serial->reader(in, 100) != ERROR)if(strlen(in) > 0)

printf("Got String: %s", in);sprintf(out, "ECHO: %s\n", in);printf("Sending String: %s", out);serial->writer(out);

delete serial;

Figure X.12 - A Serial Communication Program (serial.c)

These programs can be compiled with the makefile in Figure X.13.

all: serialCC=g++CFLAGS=serial: serial.c serial_io.o

$(CC) $(CFLAGS) serial.c -o serial serial_io.oserial_io.o: serial_io.c serial_io.h

$(CC) $(CFLAGS) -c serial_io.c

Figure X.13 - A Makefile

6.3 PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS

Parallel data transmission will transmit multiple bits at the same time over multiple wires.

This does allow faster data transmission rates, but the connectors and cables become much larger,

more expensive and less flexible. These interfaces still use handshaking to control data flow.

These interfaces are common for computer printer cables and short interface cables, but they

are uncommon on PLCs. A list of common interfaces follows.

Centronics printer interface - These are the common printer interface used on most per-sonal computers. It was made popular by the now defunct Centronics printer com-pany.

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GPIB/IEEE-488 - (General Purpose Instruments Bus) This bus was developed by Hewlett Packard Inc. for connecting instruments. It is still available as an option on many new instruments.

6.4 LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING AND PROGRAMMING

Purpose: To achieve a basic understanding of the serial communication hardware and software.

Overview: Please review the chapter

Pre-Lab:1. Enter the C++ code found in the chapter.

In-Lab:1. Set up two computers beside each other, at least one should be a Linux computer.2. Select the right connectors for the serial ports (9 or 25 pin, and male or female) on the

computers and build a null modem RS-232 cable to connect the two computers. 3. Start a serial communication program on both of the computers, and establish commu-

nications - this will require you to change communication settings. 3a. (Linux) You may use ’minicom’, you will have to be logged in as root, or change the

settings for the serial port with ’chmod 666 /dev/ttyS0’ or ’chmod 666 /dev/ttyS1’.3b. (Windows) Use the hyperterm program ’hypertrm.exe’. When prompted for connec-

tion information select ’cancel’.4. Enter and run the C++ program to echo serial data.5. Modify the number guess game developed in a previous lab to operate over the serial

port.

Submit (individually):1. The source code listings for the game running on the serial port.

6.5 LABORATORY - STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER

Purpose: To use a serial interface to communicate with a stepper motor controller.

Overview:

page 131

A stepper motor is unlike other motors. When a voltage is applied the motor does not turn continuously, it only moves a small increment. There are normally a set of four or more inputs. When these are turned on-off in a set pattern the motor shaft will rotate forward or backwards. A typical stepper motor might have 200 steps per revolution, or steps of 1.8 degrees. These motors often require somewhat sophisti-cated controllers. One type of controller is called an indexer. It can be given com-mands to move the motor, and then it takes care of pulsing the motor outputs to drive the motion.

The stepper motor controllers to be used in this laboratory are integrated into the turnta-bles in the material handling system. The controller is integrated into the turntable stations so that it can rotate the turntable up to 360 degrees with a stepped motor, eject a cart using two outputs to solenoid valves, and detect a cart present with a diffuse photoelectric sensor. The controller has an RS-422 port that can be used to communicate, and load programs. This will be connected to an RS-232C port using a special interface cable that converts the current loop to voltage values. The communication settings for the turntables are 9600 baud, 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bits, no flow control.

The programming commands for the controller are summarized below.

Figure X.14 - Stepper Motor Control Board Commands (DCB-241)

When writing programs command lines can be up to 15 characters long, including spaces. Spaces are used to separate commands and arguments. Characters used in pro-grams can be either upper or lower case. A sample program is given below.

<ESC> abort@ soft stop<CTL>C reset+ move in positive direction- move in negative direction[ read nonvolatile memory] read hardware limits\ write to nonvolatile memory^ read moving statusA port read/writeB jog speedC restoreD divide step ratesE enable auto power offF find home

G go from addressI initial velocityK ramp slopeL loop on portM move at constant speedO set originP program modeQ query programR index to target positionS store parametersT set trip pointV slew velocityW waitX examine parametersZ display position

DCB-241 Commands

page 132

Pre-Lab:1. Go to the web site www.stepcontrol.com and look at the product documents for the

DCB-241 stepper driver.

In-Lab:1. Use a terminal program to communicate with the stepper motor controller. You will

need a special communication cable, and the boxes can be opened with a flat bladed screwdriver. Plug the communication cable into the lower connector. (Note: if the unit already has power don’t touch the exposed 120Vac power on the power supply.) Connect an air supply and power to the unit. (Note: don’t forget to turn on the power on the front of the cabinet.)

2. Use the following commands (in sequence) to verify that the turntable is operating properly, and to explore basic commands. (Note: comments are provided for understanding, but should not be entered into the controller.)<CTRL>C -- this should reset the unit<SPACE> -- this should print out the line ’V2.03’, if not there are problems<ENTER> -- this should print ’#’Z -- read the current positionO -- set the current position as the originZ -- print the current positionR1000 -- this should rotate the turntableZ -- should now be 1000R-1000 -- this should rotate the turntable the other wayZ -- should be zero againA8 - kicks the cart one way (notice the lights on the solenoids)A16 - kicks the cart the other wayA0 - turns off all solenoids] -- this will check the input ports, bits 7 and 8 are for the cart present detectors

3. Enter the following program so that the turntable operates automatically. The list below also includes the commands to download and enter the program. Again comments should not be entered, and line numbers are automatically generated. When the program has been entered it can be run with the command ’G0’.P0 -- put the controller in programming mode and start the program at location ’0’0 O0 -- set the current position to the origin with a value of 04 R10000 -- more the controller 10000 steps in the positive direction8 W0 -- wait until ’0’ ms after the motion is complete11 R-10000 -- move 10000 steps in the opposite direction15 W100 -- wait until ’100’ ms after the motion is complete18 J 4 3 -- jump to address ’4’ four (3+1) times, a basic for loop (you may need to

change ’4’ if your line numbers don’t match)22 A8 -- eject the cart24 W1000 - wait for 1 second27 A0 - shut off the solenoid valve29 P0 -- the end of the program

4. Write a C++ program to communicate with the stepper motor controller over RS-232. It

page 133

should allow the user to enter a motor position from the keyboard, and the control-ler should automatically move.

Submit (individually):1. The source code listings for the motor control program.

page 134

7. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLCs)

• CONTROL - Using artificial means to manipulate the world with a particular goal.

• System types,

• Continuous - The values to be controlled change smoothly.e.g. the speed of a car as the gas pedal is pushed

• Logical - The values to be controlled are easily described as on-off.e.g. The car motor is on-off (like basic pneumatics). Note: All systems are continuous but they can be treated as logical for

simplicity.

• Logical control types,

• Conditional - A control decision is made by looking at current conditions only.e.g. A car engine may turn on only when the key is in the ignition and

the transmission is in park.• Sequential - The controller must keep track of things that change and/or

know the time and/or how long since something happened.e.g. A car with a diesel engine must wait 30 seconds after the glow

plug has been active before the engine may start.Note: We can often turn a sequential problem into a conditional by

adding more sensors.

page 135

Examples:

continuous:

logical:

conditional:

sequential:

mixed (continuous and logical) systems:

• A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an input/output processing computer.

CONTROL

CONTINUOUS LOGICAL

LINEAR NON_LINEAR CONDITIONAL SEQUENTIAL

e.g. PIDe.g. MRAC

e.g. FUZZY LOGICBOOLEAN

TEMPORAL

e.g. TIMERS

e.g. COUNTERS

EVENT BASED

EXPERT SYSTEMS

page 136

• Advantages of PLCs are:

- cost effective for complex systems- flexible (easy to add new timers/counters, etc)- computational abilities- trouble shooting aids- reliable- easy to add new components

• Ladder logic was originally introduced to mimic relay logic.

7.1 BASIC LADDER LOGIC

• The PLC can be programmed like other computers using specialized “languages.”

- Ladder Logic - a programming technique using a ladder-like structure. It was originally adopted because of its similarity to relay logic diagrams to ease its acceptance in manufacturing facilities. The ladder approach is somewhat limited by the lack of loops, etc. (although this is chang-ing).

page 137

- Mnemonic - instructions and opcodes, similar to assembly language. It is more involved to program, but also more flexible than ladder logic. This will be used with the hand held programmers.

HOT NEUTRALINPUTS

OUTPUTS

POWER NEEDS TO FLOW THROUGHTHE INPUTS TO THE OUTPUTS

page 138

• There are other methods that are not as common,

- sequential function charts/petri nets- state space diagrams- etc.

7.2 WHAT DOES LADDER LOGIC DO?

e.g. for an Omron PLC

00000000010000200003000040000500006

LDIANDLDANDORBOUTEND

ABCD

E

A B

C D

E

END

the mnemonic code is equivalent tothe ladder logic below

page 139

7.2.1 Connecting A PLC To A Process

• The PLC continuously scans the inputs and changes the outputs.

• The process can be anything - a large press, a car, a security door, a blast furnace, etc.

• As inputs change (e.g. a start button), the outputs will be changed. This will cause the pro-

cess to change and new inputs to the PLC will be received.

7.2.2 PLC Operation

• Remember: The PLC is a computer. Computers have basic components, as shown below:

PROCESS

Feedback fromsensors/switches

PLC

Connections toActuators

read inputs

PLC program changes outputsby examining inputs Set new outputs

process changes and PLC pauseswhile it checks its own operation

THECONTROLLOOP

page 140

• In fact the computer above looks more like the one below:

• Notice that in this computer, outputs aren’t connected to the CPU directly.

• A PLC will scan a copy of all inputs into memory. After this, the ladder logic program is run

once and it creates a temporary table of all outputs in memory. This table is then written to the

KeyboardInput

80586CPUSerial

MouseInput

32MB MemoryStorage

SVGA ScreenOutput

133/200 MHzLight output

2.1GB DiskStorage

Keyboard

Memory Chips Disk

monitor

inputs input memory computer

storage

output memory outputs

Screen memorychips

Serial Input Chip

Input Chip

CPU ‘586

digital output chip

Disk Controller

LED display

Mouse

Flow of Information

page 141

outputs after the ladder logic program is done. This continues indefinitely while the PLC is run-

ning.

• PLC operation can be shown with a time-line -

SELF TEST - Checks to see if all cards error free, resets watch-dog timer, etc. (A watchdog timer will cause an error, and shut down the PLC if not reset within a short period of time - this would indicate that the lad-der logic is not being scanned normally).

INPUT SCAN - Reads input values from the chips in the input cards and cop-ies their values to memory. This makes the PLC operation faster and avoids cases where an input changes from the start to the end of the program (e.g., an emergency stop). There are special PLC functions that read the inputs directly and avoid the input tables.

LOGIC SOLVE/SCAN - Based on the input table in memory, the program is executed one step at a time, and outputs are updated. This is the focus of the later sections.

OUTPUT SCAN - The output table is copied from memory to the output chips. These chips then drive the output devices.

7.3 LADDER LOGIC

• Ladder logic has been developed to mimic relay logic - to make the computer more accept-

able to companies and employees.

• Original efforts resisted the use of computers because they required new skills and

approaches, but the use of ladder logic allowed a much smaller paradigm shift.

Selftest

inputscan

logicsolve

outputscan

Selftest

inputscan

logicsolve

outputscan

Selftest

inputscan

logicsolve

0

PLC turns onranges from 1 to 100 ms time

page 142

• Original relay ladder logic diagrams show how to hook-up inputs to run outputs.

Relay - An input coil uses a voltage/current to create a magnetic field. As the coil becomes magnetic it pulls a metal switch (or reed) towards it and makes an electrical contact. The contact that closes when the coil is energized is normally open. There is a contact that the reed touches without the coil energized is called the normally closed contact. Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often high current) power source while keeping them isolated.

Schematic - The drawing below shows the relay above in a symbolic form.

normallyopen

normallyclosed

input coil

OR

page 143

A Circuit - A mix of inputs and outputs allows logical selection of a device.

• We can then imaging this in context of a PLC. (this idea was suggested by Walt Siedelman

of Ackerman Electric)

115VACwall plug

relay logic

input(normally closed) input

(normally open)

output(normally open)

ladder logic

page 144

7.3.1 Relay Terminology

• Contactor - special relays for switching of large loads.

ladder

powersupply

+24V

com.

inputs

outputs

push buttons

logic

PLC

AC power

115Vac

neut.

page 145

• Motor Starter - Basically a contactor in series with an overload relay to cut off when too

much current is drawn.

• Rated Voltage - Suggested operation voltage. Lower levels can result in failure to operate:

voltages above shorten life.

• Rated Current - The maximum current before contact damage occurs (welding or melting).

• DC relays require special arc suppression. AC relays have a zero crossing to reduce relay

arc problems.

• AC relays require a shading pole to maintain contact. If a DC relay is used with AC power

on the coil, it clicks on-and-off at the frequency of the AC (also known as chattering).

page 146

7.3.2 Ladder Logic Inputs

• Contact coils are used to connect the PLC power lines to drive the outputs.

• The inputs can come from electrical inputs or memory locations.

• Note: if we are using normally closed contacts in our ladder logic, this is independent of

what the actual device is. The choice between normally open or closed is based on what is logi-

cally needed, and not the physical device.

• For the Micrologix PLCs the inputs are labelled ‘I:0.0/x’ where x is the input number 0 to 9.

Normally open, an active input will close the contactand allow power to flow.

Normally closed, power flows when the input is not active.

page 147

7.3.3 Ladder Logic Outputs

• The outputs allow switches to close that supply or cut-off power to control devices.

• Ladder logic indicates what to do with the output, regardless of what is hooked up -- The

programmer and electrician that connect the PLC are responsible for that.

• Outputs can go to electrical outputs, or to memory.

• Output symbols -

• We can relate these to actual outputs using numbers (look for these on the front of the PLC).

• For the Micrologix PLCs the outputs are labelled ‘O:0.0/x’ where x is the output number 0

to 5.

7.4 LADDER DIAGRAMS

• These diagrams are read from left to right, top to bottom.

• For the ladder logic below the sequence of operations would be B1, B2 on the top first, then

When power is applied (on) the output is activated

When power is not applied (off) the output is activated

page 148

the bottom. This would be followed by T1, then F1.

• Power flow can be used to consider how ladder diagrams work. Power must be able to flow

from the left to the right.

7.4.1 Ladder Logic Design

eg. Burglar Alarm

1. If alarm is on, check sensors.

2. If window/door sensor is broken (turns off), sound alarm and turn on lights.

3. If motion sensor goes on (detects thief), sound alarm and turn on lights.

A = Alarm and lights switch (1 = on)

W = Window/Door sensor (1 = OK)

M = Motion Sensor (0 = OK)

S = Alarm Active switch (1 = on)

B1 B2

B1 B2

T1F1

page 149

We can do this with ladder logic

M S

W S

A

We can also draw an electronic circuit for this -

W

S

M

W (S*W)

(S*M)

(S*W)+(S*M)

A

We can also simplify both the circuit and the ladder -

W

S

M

W (M+W)

= (S*W)+(S*M)

A

M S

W

A

S * (M+W)

page 150

7.4.2 A More Complicated Example of Design

D

F

B

EC

A

D C

E

A

C

F C

B

The gates can be purchased forabout $0.25 each in bulk.

Inputs and outputs aretypically 5V.

An inexpensive PLC is worthat least a few hundred dollars.

Consider the cost trade-off!Why are gates not used more often?

D

F

B

E

C

A

D C

E

A

F

B Simplified

page 151

7.5 TIMERS/COUNTERS/LATCHES

• There are some devices and concepts that are temporal/sequential (time based) or sequen-

tial. This means that they keep track of events over time, as opposed to conditional logic that

decides based on instantaneous conditions.

• Controls that have states or time dependence will require temporal controls (also known as

sequential).

• Some devices that are temporal are:

Flip-Flops - These can be latched on or off.Latches - Will stay on until reset (Similar to flip-flops)Counters - Keeps a count of eventsTimers - Allows inputs and outputs to be delayed or prolonged be a known

amount

e.g. A light activating push button

+V

push button

light

Push Button

simple light

toggled light

(Conditional Control)

(Temporal Control)

On/Off

time

buttonpushedhere

buttonreleasedhere

Note: As we follow this graph from left to right we are going through time.

When the line moves up (on) or down (off) we can see how inputs and outputs

page 152

7.6 LATCHES

• We can show how these latches respond with a simple diagram.

• As an example consider the ladder logic:

- Will stay on when set, until unlatched.

A

D

A C

B

D

L

U

A

B

C

D

page 153

• In most PLCs, latches will keep their last state even when the PLC is turned off and back on.

(Note: In some other PLCs latches are only used for keeping the state of the PLC when it was

turned off, they don’t ‘stick’ on or off)

7.7 TIMERS

• We use timers to do some or all of the following:

A

B

A

A

B

X

Y

Y

Z

Z

L

U

A

B

X

Y

Z

Note: this effects of this rung areoverwritten by the rung below.

page 154

- Delay turning on- Delay turning off- Accumulate time passed (retentive)

e.g. An On Timer (TON)

ATON

Timer T4:0Time Base 1.0Preset 4Accum. 0

A

T4:0 DN

(DN)

(EN)

T4:0 Accum.0

34

0 3 6 9 14 17 19

T4:0 EN

2

13

page 155

e.g. A Retentive On Timer (RTO)

ARTO


A

T4:0 DN

(DN)

(EN)

T4:0 Accum.0

34

0 3 6 9 14 17 19

T4:0 EN

10

page 156

e.g. An Off Timer (TOF)

ATOF


A

T4:0 DN

(DN)

(EN)

T4:0 Accum.0

33.5

0 3 6 10 16 18 20

T4:0 EN

9.5

page 157

• When using timers (especially retentive) we must reset values when done. The (RES)

instruction does this.

7.8 COUNTERS

• Count up/count down counters will track input events.

e.g. A Retentive Off Timer (RTF)

ARTF


A

T4:0 DN

(DN)

(EN)

T4:0 Accum.

0 3 6 10 16 18 20

T4:0 EN

page 158

• Count down counters are similar.

• Consider the example below,

• An allen Bradley PLC-5 counter is shown below

CTU

a count up counter

A counter C5:0Preset 4Accum. 2

(EN)

(DN)

1. Each time A turns on (then off), the accumulated value increases(here from 2to3, then 3to4, and so on)

2. When the accumulated value reaches the preset value, the ‘DN’flag is set.

3. We can set the accumulated value to zero with.

C5:0

DN

C5:0

RES

page 159

7.9 DESIGN AND SAFETY

I:0.0/0

I:0.0/1

RESC5:0I:0.0/2

O:0.0/0C5:0/DN

I:0.0/0

I:0.0/1

I:0.0/2

C5:0/DN

O:0.0/0

CTU

counter C5:0Preset 4Accum. 2

(EN)

(DN)

CTD

counter C5:0Preset 4Accum. 2

(EN)

(DN)

page 160

7.9.1 FLOW CHARTS

• Good when the PLC only does one thing at a time in a predictable sequence.

• The real advantage is in modeling the process in an orderly manner.

7.10 SAFETY

START

Reset all values off

start button pushed?

Open inlet valveClose outlet valve

Is tank full?

stop button pushed?

Open outlet valveClose inlet valve

no

no

yes

yes

no

yes

page 161

7.10.1 Grounding

• The case of an object should be tied to ground to give current a path to follow in the case of

a fault that energizes the case. (Note: fuses or breakers will cut off the power, but the fault will be

on for long enough to be fatal.)

• Step potential is another problem. Electron waves from a fault travel out in a radial direction

through the ground. If a worker has two feet on the ground at different radial distances, there will

be a potential difference between the feet that will cause a current to flow through the legs. If

there is a fault, don’t run/walk away/towards.

• Always ground systems first before applying power. (The first time a system is activated it

will have a higher chance of failure.)

• Safe current levels are listed below [ref hydro handbooks], but be aware that in certain cir-

cumstances very low currents can kill. When in doubt, take no chances.

Current can flow two ways, but most will follow the path of leastresistance. Good grounding will keep the worker relatively safein the case of faults.

e.g., wire break offand touches case

page 162

7.10.2 Programming/Wiring

• Fail-safe wiring should be used so that if wires are cut or connections fail, the equipment

should turn off. For example, if a normally closed stop button is used and the connector is broken

off, it will cause the machine to stop, as if the stop button has been pressed and broken the con-

nection.

• Programs should be designed so that they check for problems and shut down in safe ways.

Some PLC’s also have power interruption sensors; use these whenever danger is present.

• Proper programming techniques will help detect possible problems on paper instead of in

operation.

7.10.3 PLC Safety Rules

• Use a fail-safe design.

• Make the program inaccessible to unauthorized persons.

• Use predictable, non-configurable programs.

• Use redundancy in hardware.

current in body (mA)0-11-510-2020-5050-100100-300300+

effectnegligibleuncomfortablepossibility for harmmuscles contractpain, fainting, physical injuriesheart fibrillatesburns, breathing stops, etc.

page 163

• Directly connect emergency stops to the PLC, or the main power supply.

• Check for system OK at start-up.

• Provide training for new users and engineers to reduce careless and uninformed mistakes.

• Use PLC built in functions for error and failure detection.

7.10.4 Troubleshooting

1. Look at the process and see if it is in a normal state. i.e. no jammed actuators, broken parts,

etc. If there are visible problems, fix them and restart the process.

2. Look at the PLC to see which error lights are on. Each PLC vendor will provide documents

that indicate which problems correspond to the error lights. Common error lights are given below.

If any off the warning lights are on, look for electrical supply problems to the PLC.

HALT - something has stopped the CPURUN - the PLC thinks it is OK (and probably is)ERROR - a physical problem has occurred with the PLC

3. Check indicator lights on I/O cards to see if they match the system. i.e., look at sensors that

are on/off, and actuators on/off, check to see that the lights on the PLC I/O cards agree. If any of

the light disagree with the physical reality, then interface electronics/mechanics need inspection.

4. Turn the PLC off and on again. If this fixes the problem it could be a programming mis-

take, or a grounding problem. Programming mistakes often happen the same way each time.

Grounding problems are often random, and have no pattern.

5. Consult the manuals or use software if available. If no obvious problems exist, the problem

is not simple and requires a technically skilled approach.

6. If all else fails call the vendor (or the contractor) for help.

page 164

7.11 DESIGN CASES

7.11.1 DEADMAN SWITCH

A motor will be controlled by two switches. The Go switch will start the motor and the Stop

switch will stop it. If the Stop switch was used to stop the motor, the Go switch must be thrown

twice to start the motor. When the motor is active a light should be turned on. The Stop switch

will be wired as normally closed.

Go CTUPreset 2Accum. 1

C5:0

Motor StopC5:0

MotorLight

RES

Motor

C5:0/DN StopMotor

Consider:

- what will happen if stop is pushed and the motor is not running?

page 165

7.11.2 CONVEYOR

A conveyor is run by switching on or off a motor. We are positioning parts on the conveyor

with an optical detector. When the optical sensor goes on, we want to wait 1.5 seconds, and then

stop the conveyor. After a delay of 2 seconds the conveyor will start again. We need to use a start

and stop button - a light should be on when the system is active.

7.11.3 ACCEPT/REJECT SORTING

Light

Light

Go Stop

Part Detect TONTime base: 0.01Preset 150

T4:0

T4:0/DN TONTime base: 1.0Preset 2

T4:1

T4:0/DN LightMotor

T4:1/DNT4:0 RES

T4:1/DNT4:1 RES

- what is assumed about part arrival and departure?

page 166

For the conveyor in the last case we will add a sorting system. Gages have been attached that

indicate good or bad. If the part is good, it continues on. If the part is bad, we do not want to delay

for 2 seconds, but instead actuate a pneumatic cylinder.

7.11.4 SHEAR PRESS

The basic requirements are,

Light

Light

Go Stop

Part Detect TONTime base: 0.01Preset 150

T4:0


T4:1

T4:1/EN LightMotor

T4:1/DNT4:0 RES

T4:1/DNT4:1 RES

Part Good


T4:2Part Good

T4:2/ENCylinder

T4:2/DNT4:2 RES

T4:2/DN

page 167

1. A toggle start switch (TS1) and a limit switch on a safety gate (LS1) must both be on before a solenoid (SOL1) can be energized to extend a stamping cylinder to the top of a part.

2. While the stamping solenoid is energized, it must remain energized until a limit switch (LS2) is activated. This second limit switch indicates the end of a stroke. At this point the solenoid should be de-energized, thus retracting the cylinder.

3. When the cylinder is fully retracted a limit switch (LS3) is activated. The cycle may not begin again until this limit switch is active.

4. A cycle counter should also be included to allow counts of parts produced. When this value exceeds 5000 the machine should shut down and a light lit up.

5. A safety check should be included. If the cylinder solenoid has been on for more than 5 seconds, it suggests that the cylinder is jammed or the machine has a fault. If this is the case, the machine should be shut down and a maintenance light turned on.

page 168

7.12 ADDRESSING

• To use advanced data functions in a PLC, we must first understand the structure of the data

SOL1

T4:0/DN

LS2

SOL1 CTUPreset 5000Accum. 0

C5:0

SOL1 RTOTime base: 1.0Preset 5

T4:0

T4:0/DNLIGHT

RESETT4:0 RES

SOL1TS1 LS1 LS3 C5:0/DNL

U

- what do we need to do when the machine is reset?

C5:0/DN

L

page 169

in the PLC memory.

• There are two types of memory used in a PLC-5.

Program Files - these are a collection of 1000 slots to store up to 1000 pro-grams. The main program will be stored in program file 2. SFC pro-grams must be in file 1, and file 0 is used for program and password information. All other program files from 3 to 999 can be used for ‘subroutines’.

Data Files - This is where the variable data is stored that the PLC programs operate on. This is quite complicated, so a detailed explanation fol-lows.

7.12.1 Data Files

• In brief PLC memory works like the memories in a pocket calculator. The values below are

for a PLC-5, although most Allen-Bradley PLCs have a similar structure.

page 170

• These memory locations are typically word oriented (16 bits, or 2 bytes). This includes the

bit memory. But the T4, C5, R6 data files are all three words long.

• All values are stored and used as integers (except when specified, eg. floating point). When

integers are stored in binary format 2’s complements are used to allow negative numbers. BCD

values are also used.

• There are a number of ways the PLC memory can be addressed,

bit - individual bits in memory can be accessed - this is like addressing a sin-gle output as a data bit

word/integer - 16 bits can be manipulated as a group

For Allen-Bradley PLC-5

O:000I:S2:B3:T4:C5:R6:N7:

outputsinputsprocessor statusbits in wordstimerscounterscontrol wordsinteger numbers

Rack

I/O slot number in rack

Interface to

Fixed types of

outside world

Data files

F8: floating point numbers

Other files 9-999 can be created and and used.The user defined data files can have differentdata types.

I:000/02 - the third input bit from input card I:000B3:3 - a bit in memory

page 171

data value - an actual data value can be provided

file level - an array of data values can be manipulated and operated on as a group

indirect - another memory location can be used in the description of a loca-tion.

expression - a text string that describes a complex operation

• For the user assigned data files from 9 to 999 different data types can be assigned. These

can be one of the data types already discussed, or another data type.

A - ASCIIB - bitBT - block transferC - counterD - BCDF - floating pointMG - messageN - integer (signed, unsigned, 2s compliment, BCD)PD - PID controllerR - controlSC - SFC status

N7:8 - an integer from memoryI:000 - an integer with all input values from an input card

8 - an integer8.5 - a floating point number

#F8:5 - indicates a group of values starting at F8:5#N7:0 - indicates a group of values starting at I7:0

I:000/[N7:2] -If the integer memory N7:2 location contains 5 this will become I:000/

I:[N7:1]/03 -If the integer memory location contains 2 this will become I:002/03

#I:[N7:1] -If the integer memory location contains 2 the file will start at I:002

“sin(F8:3) + 1.3” - a simple calculation

page 172

ST - ASCII stringT - timer

7.12.1.1 - Inputs and Outputs

• Recall that the inputs and outputs use octal for specific bits. This means that the sequence of

output bits is 00, 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, 07, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17

7.12.1.2 - User Numerical Memory

• Bit data file B3 is well suited to use of single bits. the data is stored as words and this allows

two different ways to access the same bit.

B3:0/0 = B3/0B3:0/10 = B3/10B3:1/0 = B3/16B3:1/5 = B3/21B3:2/0 = B3/32etc...

• The integer file N7 stores words in 2’s complement form. This allows values from -32768 to

32767. These values can be addressed as whole words, and individual bits can also be changed.

• The floating point file F8 will store floating point numbers that can only be used by floating

point functions. The structure of these numbers does not allow bit access.

7.12.1.3 - Timer Counter Memory

• Timer T4 values are addressed using the number of the timers, and an associated data type.

For example the accumulator value of timer 3 is T4:3.ACC or T4:3/ACC.

EN - timer enabled bit

page 173

TT - timer timing bitDN - timer done bitPRE - preset wordACC - accumulated time word

• Counter C5 values are addressed using the number of the counters, and an associated data

type. For example the accumulator value of counter 3 is C5:3.ACC or C5:3/ACC.

CU - count up bitCD - count down bitDN - counter done bitOV - overflow bitUN - underflow bitPRE - preset wordACC - accumulated count word

7.12.1.4 - PLC Status Bits (for PLC-5s)

• Some of the more commonly useful status bits in data file S2 are given below. Full listings

are given in the manuals.

S2:0/0 carry in math operationS2:0/1 overflow in math operationS2:0/2 zero in math operationS2:0/3 sign in math operationS2:1/14 first scan of program fileS2:8 the scan time (ms)S2:18 yearS2:19 monthS2:20 dayS2:21 hourS2:22 minuteS2:23 secondS2:28 watchdog setpointS2:29 fault routine file umberS2:30 STI (selectable timed interrupt) setpointS2:31 STI file number

page 174

S2:46-S2:54,S2:55-S2:56 PII (Programmable Input Interrupt) settingsS2:55 STI last scan time (ms)S2:77 communication scan time (ms)

7.12.1.5 - User Function Memory

• Control file R6 is used by various functions to track progress. Values that are available are,

listed below. The use of these bits is specific to the function using the control location.

EN - enable bitEU - enable unloadDN - done bitEM - empty bitER - error bitUL - unload bitIN - inhibit bitFD - found bitLEN - length wordPOS - position word

7.13 INSTRUCTION TYPES

• There are basic categories of instructions,

Basic (discussed before)- relay instructions- timer instructions- counter instructions

Program Control- branching/looping- immediate inputs/outputs- fault/interrupt detection

Basic Data Handling- moves

page 175

- computation instructions- boolean instructions- conversion

Logical- comparisons

Advanced Data Handling- file instructions- shift registers/stacks

Complex- PID- communications- high speed counters- ASCII string functions

• The reader should be aware that some functions are positive edge triggered (i.e. they only

work the scan is active). while most are active any time the input is active. Some examples of

edge triggered and non-edge triggered functions are listed below,

Edge TriggeredCTU, CTD

Non-edge triggeredTON, TRO, TOF, ADD, MUL, etc.

7.13.1 Program Control Structures

• These change the flow of execution of the ladder logic.

7.13.2 Branching and Looping

• These functions allow control found in languages like Fortran

IF-THEN is like MCR (Master Control Reset)GOTO is like JMP (Jump)

page 176

SUBROUTINES is like Program Files

• MCR blocks have been used earlier, but they are worth mentioning again.

• Block of ladder logic can be bypassed using a jump statment.

• Subroutines allow reusable programs to be written and called as needed. They are different

from jump statements because they are not part of the main program (they are other program

files), and arguments can be passed and returned.

MCR

A

MCR

MCR

If A is true then the MCR will cause the ladder in betweento be executed. If A is false it is skipped.

JMP

A

LBL 01

JMP 01

If A and B are true, the program will jump to LBL:01to be executed. If A or B is false it is skipped.

B

page 177

• For next loops can also be done to repeat blocks of ladder logic inside a single scan. Care

must be used for this instruction so that the ladder logic does not get caught in an infinite, or long

loop - if this happens the PLC will experience a fault and halt.

SUBROUTINES/PROGRAM FILESA JSR (Jump subroutine)

B

program file 2

program file 3

Program File 3Input par N7:0Input par 123Return par N7:1

SBR (subroutine arguments)Input par N10:0

A separate ladder logic program is stored in program file 3. This fea-ture allows the user to create their own ‘functions’. In this case if A is true, then the program below will be executed and then when done the ladder scan will continue after the subroutine instruction. The number of data values passed and returned is variable.

If B is true the subroutine will return and the values listed will be returned to the return par. For this example the value that is in N10:1 will eventually end up in N7:1

RETReturn par N10:1

page 178

• Ladder logic programs always have an end statement, but it is often taken for granted and

ignored. Most modern software automatically inserts this. Some PLCs will experience faults if

this is not present.

FORlabel number 0index N7:0initial value 0terminal value 9step size 1

ADDSource A 1Source B N7:1Dest N7:1

NXTlabel number 0

A

Note: if A is true then the loop will repeat 10 times, and the value of N7:1 will be incresed by 10. If A is not true, then the ADD function will only be executed once and N7:1 will increase in value by 1.

A

END

When the end (or End Of File) is encountered the PLC will stop scanning theladder, and start updating the outputs. This will not be true if it is a subroutine

B C

or a step in an SFC.

page 179

• There is also a temporary end (TND) that for a single ladder scan will skip the remaining

portion of a program.

• A one shot contact can be used to turn on a ladder run for a single scan. When the run has a

positive rising edge the oneshot will turn on the run for a single scan. Bit ‘B3:0’ is used here to

track to rung status.

7.13.2.1 - Immediate I/O Instructions

A

ONS

B3:0

B

A

B

page 180

• This approach avoids problems caused by logic setting and resetting outputs before done.

• If we have a problem we may want to update an output immediately, and not wait for the

PLC to complete its scan of the ladder logic. To do this we use immediate inputs and outputs.

• The normal operation of the PLC is

fast [input scan]

slow [ladder logic is checked]

fast [outputs updated]

Input values read

outputs are updated inmemory only as ladderlogic scanned

Output values arechanged to matchvalues in memory

page 181

7.13.2.2 - Fault Detection and Interrupts

• The PLC can be set up to run programs automatically. This is normally done for a few rea-

sons,

- to deal with errors that occur (eg. divide by zero)- to run a program at a regular timed interval (eg. SPC calculations)- to respond when a long instruction is complete (eg. analog input)- when a certain input changed (eg. panic button)

• Two types of errors will occur - terminal (critical) and warnings (non-critical). A critical

failure will normally stop the PLC.

• In some applications faults and failures must be dealt with in logic if possible, if not the sys-

tem must be shut down.

e.g. Check for nuclear reactor overheat

I:001/03 overheat sensorO:010/01 reactor shutdown

I:001

IIN

IOT

O:010

These added statements can allow the ladder logic to examine a criticalinput, and adjust a critical output many times during the execution ofladder logic that might take too long for safety.

I:001/03O:010/01

page 182

• There are some memory locations that store indications of warning and fatal errors that have

occurred. The routine in program file [S:29] needs to be able to detect and clear the fault.

S:29 - program file number to run when a fault occurs

• To set a timed interrupt we will set values in the status memory as indicated below. The pro-

gram in file [S:31] will be run every [S:30]ms.

S:30 - timed delay between program execution - an integer number of msS:31 - the program number to be run

• To cause an interrupt when a bit changes the following bits can be set.

S:46 - the program file to run when the input bit changesS:47 - the rack and group number (eg. if in the main rack it is 000)S:48 - mask for the input address (eg. 0000000000000100 watches 02)S:49 - for positive edge triggered =1 for negative edge triggered = 0S:50 - the number of counts before the interrupt occurs 1 = always up to

32767

7.13.3 Basic Data Handling

• Some handy functions found in PLC-5’s (similar functions are available in other PLC’s)

7.13.3.1 - Move Functions

• There are two types of move functions,

MOV(value,destination) - moves a value to a memory locationMVM(value,mask,destination) - moves a value to a memory location, but

with a mask to select specific bits.

• The following function moves data values between memory locations. The following exam-

ple moves a floating point number from floating point memory 7 to 23

page 183

• The following example moves a floating point number from floating point memory F8:7 to

integer memory N7:23

• The following example puts an integer value 123 in integer memory N7:23

• A more complex example of the move functions follows,

MOV

Source F8:07Destination F8:23

MOV

Source F8:07Destination N7:23

MOV

Source 123Destination N7:23

page 184

7.14 MATH FUNCTIONS

• These functions use values in memory, and store the results back in memory (Note: these

functions do not use variables like normal programming languages.)

• Math functions are quite similar. The following example adds the integer and floating point

number and puts the results in ‘F8:36’.

MOVsource 130dest N7:0

MOVsource N7:1dest N7:2

MVMsource N7:3mask N7:4dest N7:5

000000000000000011011011010101110000000000000000110110001011101110101010101010100000000000000000

N7:0N7:1N7:2N7:3N7:4N7:5

before (binary)

000000001000001011011011010101111101101101010111110110001011101110101010101010101000100010101010

N7:0N7:1N7:2N7:3N7:4N7:5

after (binary)

page 185

• Basic PLC-5 math functions include,

ADD(value,value,destination) - add two valuesSUB(value,value,destination) - subtractMUL(value,value,destination) - multiplyDIV(value,value,destination) - divideNEG(value,destination) - reverse sign from positive/negativeCLR(value) - clear the memory location


ADD

source A N7:04source B F8:35destination F8:36

page 186

• As an exercise, try the calculation below with ladder logic,

ADDsource A N7:0source B N7:1dest. N7:2

ADDsource A 1source B N7:3dest. N7:3

SUBsource A N7:1source B N7:2dest. N7:4

MULTsource A N7:0source B N7:1dest. N7:5

DIVsource A N7:1source B N7:0dest. N7:6

NEGsource A N7:4dest. N7:7

CLRdest. N7:8

DIVsource A F8:1source B F8:0dest. F8:2

DIVsource A N7:1source B N7:0dest. F8:3

N7:0N7:1N7:2N7:3N7:4N7:5N7:6N7:7N7:8

F8:0F8:1F8:2F8:3

1025000000100

10.025.000

1025351-102502100

10.025.02.52.0

addr. before after

Note: integer values are limited to ranges between -32768 and 32767, and there are no fractions.

page 187

• Some intermediate math functions include,

CPT(destination,expression) - does a calculationACS(value,destination) - inverse cosineCOS(value,destination) - cosineASN(value,destination) - inverse sineSIN(value,destination) - sineATN(value,destination) - inverse tangentTAN(value,destination) - tangentXPY(value,value,destination) - X to the power of YLN(value,destination) - natural logLOG(value,destination) - base 10 logSQR(value,destination) - square root

• Examples of some of these functions are given below.

N7:2 = -(5 - N7:0 / N7:1)

page 188

A Bln eC

D( )acos+=given

assignA = F8:0B = F8:1C = F8:2D = F8:3

LNSourceA F8:1Dest. F8:4

XPYSourceA 2.718SourceB F8:2Dest F8:5

ACSSourceA F8:3Dest. F8:6

MULSourceA F8:5SourceB F8:6Dest F8:7

ADDSourceA F8:4SourceB F8:7Dest F8:7

SQRSourceA F8:7Dest. F8:0

page 189

• For practice implement the following function,

• Some functions are well suited to statistics.

AVE(start value,destination,control,length) - average of valuesSTD(start value,destination,control,length) - standard deviation of valuesSRT(start value,control,length) - sort a list of values

• Examples of these functions are given below.

It can also be done with a compute expression

CPTDest. F8:0ExpressionSQR(LN(F8:1)+XPY(2.718,F8:2)*ACS(F8:3))

x y y y( )log+y 1+

------------------------

atan=

page 190

• There are also functions for basic data conversion.

TOD(value,destination) - convert from BCD to binaryFRD(value,destination) - convert from binary to BCDDEG(value,destination) - convert from radians to degreesRAD(value,destination) - convert from degrees to radians

• Examples of these functions are given below.

AVEFile #F8:0Dest F8:4Control R6:1length 4position 0

STDFile #F8:0Dest F8:5Control R6:2length 4position 0

SRTFile #F8:0Control R6:3length 4position 0

Addr.

F8:0F8:1F8:2F8:3F8:4F8:5

before

312400

after

12342.51.29

page 191

7.15 LOGICAL FUNCTIONS

7.15.1 Comparison of Values

FRDSource A D9:0Dest. N7:0

TODSource A N7:1Dest. D9:1

DEGSource A F8:0Dest. F8:2

RADSource A F8:1Dest. F8:3

Addr.

N7:0N7:1F8:0F8:1F8:2F8:3D9:0D9:1

before

000000000000000000000010001001003.14145000000 0000 0000 00000001 0111 1001 0011

after

000001110000000100000010001001003.141451800.7850000 0101 0100 10000001 0111 1001 0011

page 192

• These functions act like input contacts. The equivalent to these functions are if-then state-

ments in traditional programming languages.

• Basic comparison functions in a PLC-5 include,

CMP(expression) - compares two values for equalityEQU(value,value) - equalNEQ(value,value) - not equalLES(value,value) - less thanLEQ(value,value) - less than or equalGRT(value,value) - greater thanGEQ(value,value) - greater than or equal

• The comparison function below compares values at locations A and B. If they are not equal,

the output is true. The use of the other comparison functions is identical.

• More advanced comparison functions in a PLC-5 include,

MEQ(value,mask,threshold) - compare for equality using a maskLIM(low limit,value,high limit) - check for a value between limits

• Examples of these functions are shown below.

NEQA N7:03B N7:02

O:012

04

CMPexpressionN7:03 <> N7:02

O:012

04OR

page 193

7.16 BINARY FUNCTIONS

• These functions allow Boolean operations on numbers and values in the PLC memory.

• Binary functions are also available for,

LIMlow limit N7:0test value N7:1high limit N7:2

N7:4/0


N7:4/1


N7:4/2

MEQsource N7:0mask N7:1compare N7:2

N7:4/3

Addr.

N7:0N7:1N7:2N7:3N7:4

after (decimal)

151115

after (binary)

00000000000000010000000000000101000000000000101100000000000011110000000000001101

page 194

AND(value,value,destination) - Binary and functionOR(value,value,destination) - Binary or functionNOT(value,value,destination) - Binary not functionXOR(value,value,destination) - Binary exclusive or function

• Examples of the functions are,

7.17 ADVANCED DATA HANDLING

ANDsource A N7:0source B N7:1dest. N7:2

ORsource A N7:0source B N7:1dest. N7:3

XORsource A N7:0source B N7:1dest. N7:4

NOTsource A N7:0dest. N7:5

N7:0N7:1N7:2N7:3N7:4N7:5

001101011101101110100100111010101010010011001010101101011111101110010001001100011100101000100100

addr. data (binary)

after

page 195

7.17.1 Multiple Data Value Functions

• We can also deal with large ‘chunks’ of memory at once. These will not be covered, but are

available in texts. Some functions include,

- move/copy memory blocks- add/subtract/multiply/divide/and/or/eor/not/etc blocks of memory

• These functions are similar to single value functions, but they also include some matrix

operations. For a PLC-5 a matrix, or block of memory is also known as an array.

• The basic functions are,

FAL(control,length,mode,destination,expression) - will perform basic math operations to multiple values.

FSC(control,length,mode,expression) - will do a comparison to multiple val-ues

COP(start value,destination,length) - copies a block of valuesFLL(value,destination,length) - copies a single value to a block of memory

• These functions are done on a PLC-5 using file commands. Typical operations include

file to file - copy an array of memory from one location to another.element to file - one value is copied to a block of memoryfile to element - can convert between data typesfile add - add arraysfile subtract - subtract arraysfile multiply - multiply arraysfile divide - divide an array by a valueconvert to/from BCDAND/OR/XOR/NOT - perform binary functions.

• Examples of these functions are shown below.

page 196

• a useful function not implemented on PLC-5 processors is a memory exchange.

7.17.2 Block Transfer Functions

• Certain PLC cards only have a single address (eg. O:001 or I:001) but multiple data values

need to be read or written to it. To do this the block transfer functions are used.

• These will be used in the labs for analog input/output cards.

FALControl R6:0length 5position 0Mode allDestination #N7:5Expression #N7:0 + 5

FALControl R6:0length 5position 0Mode incrementalDestination #N7:5Expression N7:0 + 5

file to file

element to filefile to element

FALControl R6:0length 5position 0Mode incrementalDestination N7:5Expression #N7:0 + 5

file to element

page 197

• These functions will take more than a single scan, and so once activated they will require a

delay until they finish.

• To use the write functions we set up a block of memory, the function shows this starting at

N9:0, and it is 10 words long (this is determined by the special purpose card). The block transfer

function also needs a control block of memory, this is BT10:1

• To read values we use a similar method. In the example below 9 values will be read from

the card and be placed in memory locations from N9:4 to N9:11.

Block Transfer WriteModule Type Example Output CardRack 00Group 3Module 0Control Block BT10:1Data File N9:0Length 10Continuous No

BT10:1/EN Advance

BTRRack: 00Group: 0Module: 0BT Array: BT10:0Data File: N9:4Length: 9Continuous: no

BT10:0/15 read

page 198

7.18 COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

7.18.1 Shift Registers

• The values can be shifted left or right with the following functions.

BSL - shifts left from the LSB to the MSB. The LSB must be suppliedBSR - similar to the BSL, except the bit is input to the MSB and shifted to the

LSB

• These use bit memory blocks of variable length.

• An example of a shift register is given below. In this case it is taking the value of bit B3:1/0

and putting it in the control word bit R6:2/UL. It then shifts the bits once to the right, B3:1/0 =

B3:1/1 then B3:1/1 = B3:1/2 then B3:1/2 = B3:1/3 then B3:1/3 = B3:1/4. Then the input bit is put

into the most significant bit B3:1/4 = I:000/00.

• There are other types of shift registers not implemented in PLC-5s.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BSRFile B3:1Control R6:2Bit address I:000/00Length 5

B3:1 MSB15

LSB00

5

bits shift right

I:000/00 R6:2/UL

page 199

7.18.2 Stacks

• We can also use stack type commands. These allow values to be stored in a ‘pile’. This

allows us to write programs that will accumulate values that can be used later, or in sequence.

• The basic concept of a FIFO stack is that the first element in is the first element out.

• The PLC-5 commands are FFL to load the stack, and FFU to unload it.

• The example below shows two instructions to load and unload the stack. The first time FFL

is activated it will grab all of the bits from the input card I:001 and store them on the stack, at

N7:0. The next value would be at N7:1, and so on until the stack length is met. When FFU is used

the value at N7:0 will be moved to set all of the bits on the output card O:003 and the values on

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

carry

carryArithmetic Shift Right (ASR)

Arithmetic Shift Left (ASL)

Rotate Left (ROL)

Rotate Right (ROR)

carry

carry

msb lsb

page 200

the stack will be shifted up so that the value previously in N7:1 is now in N7:0, etc. (note: the

source and destination do not need to be inputs and outputs)

• A Last-In-First-Out stack can also be used with the LFL/LFU functions.

7.18.3 Sequencers

• Basically, sequencers are a method for using predetermined patterns to drive a process

• These were originally based on motor driven rotating cams that made and broke switches.

When a number of these cams were put together, they would be equivalent to a binary number,

and could control multiple system variables.

FFLsource I:001FIFO N7:0Control R6:0length 5position 0

FFUFIFO N7:0destination O:003Control R6:0length 5position 0

A

B

page 201

• A sequencer can keep a set of values in memory and move these to memory locations (such

as an output card) when directed.

• These are well suited to state diagrams/processes with a single flow of execution (like traf-

fic lights)

• The commands are,

SQO(start,mask,source,destination,control,length) - sequencer output from table to memory address

SQI(start,mask,source,control,length) - sequencer input from memory address to table

SQL(start,source,control,length) - sequencer load to set up the sequencer parameters

• An example of a sequencer is given below for traffic light control. The light patterns are

stored in memory (entered manually by the programmer). These are then moved out to the output

card as the function is activated. The mask (003F = 0000000000111111) is used so that only the 6

LSB are changed.

As it rotates it makes contact withnone, one, or two terminals, asdetermined by the depressions andrises in the rotating cam.

page 202

7.19 ASCII FUNCTIONS

• ASCII functions can be used to interpret and manipulate strings in PLCs.

• These functions include,

ABL(channel, control, )- reports the number of ASCII characters including line endings

ACB(channel, control, ) - reports the numbers of ASCII characters in bufferACI(string, dest) - convert ASCII string to integerACN(string, string,dest) - concatenate stringsAEX(string, start, length, dest) - this will cut a segment of a string out of a

larger stringAIC(integer, string) - convert an integer to a stringAHL(channel, mask, mask, control) - does data handshakingARD(channel, dest, control, length) - will get characters from the ASCII

SQOFile B3:0Mask 003FDestination O:000Control R6:0Length 4Position 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

B3:0

B3:3

NS

- redN

S - yellowN

S - greenE

W - red

EW

- yellowE

W - green

page 203

bufferARL(channel, dest, control, length) - will get characters from an ASCII

bufferASC(string, start, string, result) - this will look for one string inside anotherAWT(channel, string, control, length) - will write characters to an ASCII out-

put

• An example of this function is given below,

• Try the problem below,

7.20 DESIGN TECHNIQUES

7.20.1 State Diagrams

• We can implement state diagrams seen in earlier sections using many of the advanced func-

Add the following numbers and store the results in ST10:2

ST10:0 “100”

ST10:1 “10”

ST10:2

page 204

tion discussed in this section.

• Most PLCs allow multiple programs that may be used as subroutines. We could implement

a block logic method using subroutine programs.

• Consider the state diagram below and implement it in ladder logic. You should anticipate

what will happen if both A and C are pushed at the same time.

first scan

STA

STB

STC

A

B

C

D

page 205

first scan

L

U

U

STA

STB

STC

STAJSRprogram 3

STBJSRprogram 4

STCJSRprogram 5

PROGRAM 2

page 206

7.21 DESIGN CASES

U

L STB

MCR

STCD

PROGRAM 5

U

L STC

STBC

U

L STA

STB

CA

PROGRAM 4

PROGRAM 3

U

L STB

STAB

page 207

7.21.1 If-Then

• If-then can be implemented different ways, as a simple jump, or as a subroutine call.

7.21.2 For-Next

• For-next can be implemented as shown below, but recall that PLC programs do not execute

one line at a time.

JMPLBL 01

LBL

01

A

IF (A) THEN GOTO (01)

JSRFILE 3

A

IF (A) THEN ......

page 208

• A For/Next function is also available in the PLC.

• A do-while can be done as a simple variation of this.

7.21.3 Conveyor

• Consider a conveyor where parts enter on one end. they will be checked to be in a left or

right orientation with a vision system. If neither left nor right is found, he part will be placed in a

reject bin. The conveyor layout is shown below.

LIMN7:0min 1max 10

MCR

for i = 1 to 10

ADDsource A: N7:0source B: 1Dest.: N7:0

next i

MCR

page 209

7.22 IMPLEMENTATION

7.23 PLC WIRING• Many configurations and packages are available. But essential components are:

power supply - Provides voltage/current to drive the electronics (often 5V, +/- 12V, +/- 24V)

CPU - Where ladder logic is stored and processed; the main control is exe-cuted here.

I/O (Input/Output) - A number of input/output terminals to connect to the actual system

Indicator lights - Indicate mode/power and status. These are essential when diagnosing problems.

• Common Configurations:

Rack/Chassis - A rack or number of racks are used to put PLC cards into. These are easy to change, and expand.

Shoebox - A compact, all-in-one unit (about the size of a shoebox) that has limited expansion capabilities. Lower cost and compactness make these ideal for small applications.

• Criteria for evaluation:

visionleft right reject

part movement

conveyor location sensor

along conveyor

page 210

Rack, shoebox or micro# of inputs/outputs (digital)Memory - often 1K and up. Need is dictated by size of ladder logic program.

A ladder element will take only a few bytes and will be specified in manufacturers documentation.

# of I/O modules - When doing some exotic applications, a large number of special add-on cards may be required.

Scan Time - The time to execute ladder logic elements. Big programs or faster processes will require shorter scan times. The shorter the scan time, the higher the cost. Typical values for this are 1 microsecond per simple ladder instruction.

Communications - Serial and networked connections allow the PLC to be programmed and talk to other PLCs. The needs are determined by the application.

7.23.1 SWITCHED INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

The Obvious:

A PLC is just a computer. We must get information in so that it may make decisions and have outputs so that it can make things happen.

Inputs:

Switches - Contact, deadman, etc. all allow a voltage to be applied or removed from an input.

Relays - Used to isolate high voltages from the PLC inputs, these act as switches.

Encoder - Can keep track of positions.etc.

page 211

7.23.1.1 - Input Modules

• Input modules typically accept various inputs depending upon specified values.

• Typical input voltages are:

12-24 VDC100-120 VAC200-240 VAC12-24 VAC/DC24 VAC

• DC voltages are usually lower and, therefore, safer (i.e., 12-24V)

e.g.

24 V ACPowerSupply

normally open push-button

Normally opentemperature switch

PLC Input Card24V AC

it is in rack 0I/O Group 3

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

I:0.3

01

I:0.3

03

Push Button

Temperature Sensor

GND

(See appendix intextbook for moresymbols)

page 212

• DC inputs are very fast. AC inputs require a longer time (e.g., a 60Hz wave would require

1/60sec for reasonable recognition).

• DC voltages are flexible being able to connect to greater varieties of electrical systems.

• DC input cards typically have more inputs.

• AC signals are more immune to noise than DC, so they are suited to long distances and

noisy (magnetic) environments.

• AC signals are very common in many existing automation devices.

7.23.1.2 - Actuators

• Inductive loads - Inductance is caused by a coil building up a magnetic field. When a volt-

age is removed from the coil, the field starts to collapse. As it does this, the magnetic field is

changed back to current/voltage. If this change is too sudden, a large voltage spike is created. One

way to overcome this is by adding a surge suppressor. One type of design was suggested by Steel

McCreery of Omron Canada Ltd.

page 213

7.23.1.3 - Output Modules

• Typical Outputs

Motors - Motors often have their own controllers, or relays because of the high current they require.

Lights - Lights can often be powered directly from PLC output boards,etc.

• WARNING - ALWAYS CHECK RATED VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS FOR PLC’s

AND NEVER EXCEED!

output

common

inductive loadVDC+/VAC

VDC-/COM.

Power supplyControl Relay (PLC)

output

common

inductive loadVAC

COM.

Power supplyRelay or Triac

L

C R Vs

Compensatingfor AC loads+

-

R = Vs(.5 to 1) ohmsC = (.5 to 1)/Adc (microfarads)Vcapacitor = 2(Vswitching) + (200 to 300) VAdc is the rated amperage of the loadVs is the voltage of the load/power supplyVswitching may be up to 10 time Vs

Uncompensated

output

common

inductive load+

-

Power supplyRelay or Transistor

Compensatingfor DC loads

page 214

24 V DCOutput Card

in rack 01I/O group 2

COM

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

24 V lamp

Relay

+24 V DCPower

120 V AC

Power

Motor

Supply

Supply

O:1.2

03

O:1.2

07

Motor

Lamp

COM.

GND

page 215

• Typical outputs operate in one of two ways:

Dry contacts - A separate relay is dedicated to each output. This allows mixed voltages (AC or DC and voltage levels up to the maximum) as well as isolated outputs to protect other outputs and the PLC. Response times are often greater than 10ms. This method is the least sensitive to

120 V AC/DCOutput Card

in rack 01I/O group 2

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

24 V lamp

Relay

24 V DCPower

120 V ACPower

Motor

Supply

Supply

O:0.2

03

O:0.2

07

Motor

Lamp

e.g. output example with dry (relay) contacts

page 216

voltage variations and spikes.Switched outputs - A voltage is supplied to the PLC card and the card

switches it to different outputs using solid state circuitry (transistors, triacs, etc.) Triacs are well suited to AC devices requiring less than an amp. They are sensitive to power spikes and might inadvertently turn on when there are transient voltage spikes. A resistor may need to be put in parallel with a load to ensure enough current is drawn to turn on the triac. The resistor size can be determined by

Transistor outputs use NPN or PNP transistors up to 1A typically. Their response time is well under 1ms.

7.24 THE PLC ENVIRONMENT

7.24.1 Electrical Wiring Diagrams

• PLC’s are generally used to control the supply of power to a system. As a result, a brief

examination of electrical supply wiring diagrams is worthwhile.

• Generally electrical diagrams contain very basic circuit elements, such as relays, transform-

ers, motors, fuses, lights, etc.

• Within these systems there is often a mix of AC and DC power. 3 phase AC power is what

is delivered universally by electric utilities, so the wiring diagrams focus on AC circuits.

PLC

TRIAC

powersupply

Vac

neut.

controlled Von

R

load

I = leakage current (mA)PLC output card

R < Von/I

page 217

• A relay diagram for a simple motor with a seal in circuit might look like the one shown

below,:

• The circuit designed for the motor controller must be laid out so that it may be installed in

L1

L2

L3

terminals power interrupter motor starter

M

M

M

3 phase

AC

motor

start

stop

M

M

step down transformer

page 218

an insulated cabinet. In the figure below, each box could be a purchased module(s).

• After the Layout for the cabinet is determined, the wire paths must be determined. The fig-

ure below lays out the wire paths and modules to be used.

Terminal Block

Overload

Contactors

Start

Stop

Transformer

Main Breaker

A physical layout for the control cabinet

page 219

7.24.2 Wiring

• Discrete inputs - If a group of input voltages are the same, they can be grouped together. An

L1

L2

L3

start

3 phase

AC

motor

stop

3 phase AC

page 220

example of this is shown below:

• If the input voltages are different and/or come from different sources, the user might use

isolated inputs.

• Analog Inputs - The continuous nature of these inputs makes them very sensitive to noise.

More is discussed in the next section, and an example is given below:

24VDC

+

-

I0

I1

I2

I3

COM.

PLC Input

24VAC

COM

24VDC+

-

12VDC+

I0

N0

I1

N1

I2

N2

-

PLC Input Card

page 221

7.24.3 Shielding and Grounding

• In any sort of control system, wire still carries most inputs/outputs/communications

• We transmit signals along wires by pushing/pulling electrons in one end of the metal wires.

Based upon the push/pull that shows up at the other end, we determine the input/output/communi-

cations. *** The key idea is that a signal propagates along the wire.

• There are two problems that occur in these systems.

1. Different power sources in the same system can cause different power sup-ply voltages at opposite ends of a wire. As a result, a current will flow and an unwanted voltage appears. This can destroy components and create false signal levels.

2. Magnetic fields crossing the long conductors or in conductor loops can induce currents, destroy equipment, give false readings, or add unwanted noise to analog data signals.

• General design points

- Choose a good shielding cabinet- Avoid “noisy” equipment when possible

Analog voltage source

+

-

IN1

REF1

SHLD

Analog InputA shield is a metal sheath thatsurrounds the wires

page 222

- Separate voltage levels, and AC/DC wires from each other when possible.

• typical sources of grounding problems are:

- Electrostatic- Magnetic- Electromagnetic- Resistance coupled circuits- Ground loops

• Shielded wire is one good approach to reducing electrostatic/magnetic interference. The

conductors are housed in a conducting jacket or the circuitry in housed in a conducting metal cab-

inet.

• Resistance coupled devices can have interference through a common power source, such as

power spikes or brownouts caused by other devices in a factory.

• Ground loops are caused when too many separate connections to ground are made creating

loops of wire that become excellent receivers for magnetic interference that induces differences in

voltage between grounds on different machines. The common solution is to use a common ground

bar.

page 223

7.24.4 PLC Environment

• Care must be taken to avoid certain environmental factors.

Dirt - dust and grime can enter the PLC through air ventilation ducts. As dirt clogs internal circuitry and external circuitry, it can effect operation. A storage cabinet such as Nema 4 or 12 can help protect the PLC.

Humidity - Humidity is not a problem with the modern plastic construction materials. But if the humidity condenses, the water can cause corro-sion, conduct current, etc. Condensation should be avoided at all costs.

Temperature - The semiconductor chips in the PLC have operating ranges where they are operational. As the temperature is moved out of this range, they will not operate properly and the PLC will shut down. Ambient heat generated in the PLC will help keep the PLC operational at lower temperatures (generally to 0°C). The upper range for the devices is about 60°C, which is generally sufficient for sealed cabinets, but warm temperatures, or other heat sources (e.g. direct irradiation from the sun) can raise the temperature above acceptable limits. In

device A

device B

power

+V -V

supply

gnd

ground loop #1

ground loop #2

device A

device B

power

+V -V

supply

gnd

Preferred

page 224

extreme conditions, heating or cooling units may be required. (This includes “cold-starts” for PLCs before their semiconductors heat up).

Shock and Vibration - The nature of most industrial equipment is to apply energy to exact changes. As this energy is applied, there are shocks and vibrations induced. Both will travel through solid materials with ease. While PLCs are designed to withstand a great deal of shock and vibra-tion, special elastomer/sprung or other mounting equipment may be required. Also note that careful consideration of vibration is also required when wiring.

- Interference - Discussed in shielding and grounding.- Power - Power will fluctuate in the factory as large equipment is turned on

and off. To avoid this various options are available. Use an isolation transformer. A UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply) is also becoming an inexpensive option and are widely available for personal computers.

7.24.5 SPECIAL I/O MODULES

• Counters

• each card will have 1 to 16 counters generally.• typical sample speeds 200KHz• often allow count up/down• the counter can be set to zero, or up/down, or gating can occur with an

external input.

• High Speed Counter - When pulses are too fast to be counted during normal PLC ladder

scans, a special counter can be used that will keep track of the pulses.

• Position controller - A card that will drive a motor (servo motor or stepper motor), and use

feedback of the motor position to increase accuracy (feedback is optional with stepper motors).

• PID modules - For continuous systems, for example motor speed.• There are 2 types of PID modules. In the first, the CPU does the cal-

culation; in the second, a second controller card does the calculation.

page 225

- When the CPU does the calculation, the PID loop is slower.- When a specialized card controls the PID loop, it is faster, but it costs

more.• Typical applications - positioning workpieces.

• Thermocouple - Thermocouples can be used to measure temperature, but these low voltage

devices require sensitive electronics to get accurate temperature readings.

• Analog Input/Output - These cards measure voltages in various ranges and allow monitor-

ing of continuous processes. These cards can also output analog voltages to help control external

processes, etc.

• Programmers - There are a few basic types of programmers in use. These tend to fall into 3

categories:

1. Hand held units (or integrated) - They allow programming of PLC using a calculator type interface. And is often done using mnemonics.

2. Specialized programming units - Effectively these are portable computers that allows graphical editing of the ladder logic, and fast uploading/downloading/monitoring of the PLC.

3. PLC Software for Personal Computers - They are similar to the specialized programming units, but the software runs on a multi-use, user supplied computer. This approach is typically preferred over 2.

• Man Machine Interface (MMI) - The user can use,

• touch screens• screen and buttons• LCD/LED and buttons• keypad to talk to PLC

• PLC CPU’s - A wide variety of CPU’s are available and can often be used interchangeably

in the rack systems. The basic formula is price/performance. The table below compares a few

CPU units in various criteria.

page 226

• Specialty cards for IBM PC interface.

- Siemens/Allen-Bradley/Etc have cards that fit into IBM computers and will communicate with PLC’s. Most modern PLCs will connect directly to

FEATURE

RAM (KB)

I/O - Digitalon boardmaximum

I/O - Analogon boardmaximum

Package

Communication

Power SupplyMaximum CardsMaximum Racks

Maximum DropsDistance

Scan times (us)per basic instruc.overhead

CountersTimersFlags

FunctionsPID

Siemens

4

16208

016

mini-module24 VDC6 with addonN/A

Allen-Bradley

4

32960

00

micro24DC/115AC

1<1000

3232

yes

Siemens

96

01024

064

card24 VDC

2.5m or 3km

0.82000

1281282048

option

networklineother

Sinec-L1 DH-485 Sinec-L1, prop.printer, ASCIIASCII

Legend:prop. - proprietary technology used by a single vendoroption - the vendor will offer the feature at an additional cost

(CPU 944)

PLCS5-90U MicroLogix S5-115U

Allen-Bradley

64

0960

0120

card24DC/115AC30up to 3064

.75<1000

no limitno limit

yes

DH+,devicenetRS-232

SLC 5/04AEG

8

0256

5

option

Modbus/Modubs+

PC-A984-145

page 227

a PC using ethernet or serial (RS-232) cables.

• IBM PC computer cards - an IBM compatible computer card that plugs into a PLC bus and

allows use of common software

• For example, the Siemens CP580 Simatic AT- 1 com port (RS-232C)- 1 serial port (?)- 1 RS-422 serial port- RGB monitor driver (VGA)- keyboard- 3.5” disk- TTY interface- 9 pin RS-232C mouse

• Diagnostic Modules

- Plug in and all they do is watch for trouble.

• ID Tags - Special “tags” can be attached to products and, as they pass within range of

pickup sensors, they transmit (via radio) an ID number or a packet of data. This data can then be

used, updated and rewritten to the tags by the PLC

• e.g., Omron V600/V620 ID system• a basic method for transmission of a text based message• tags on parts carry message• transceivers that receive and transmit changes

• Voice Recognition/Speech - In some cases verbal I/O can be useful. Speech recognition

methods are still very limited, the user must control their speech. Background noise causes prob-

lems.


1. A switch will turn a counter on when engaged. This counter can be reset by a second

switch. The value in the counter should be multiplied by 5, and then displayed as a binary output

page 228

using (201-208)

2. Develop Ladder Logic for a car door/seat belt safety system. When the car door is open, or

the seatbelt is not done up, the ignition power must not be applied. In addition the key must be

able to switch ignition power.

1. List of Inputs

2. Draw Ladder

3. TRUE / FALSE -- PLC outputs can be set with Bytes instead of bits.

(ans. true)

4. Create a ladder logic program that will start when input ‘A’ is turned on and calculate the

series below. The value of ‘n’ will start at 1 and with each scan of the ladder logic ‘n’ will increase

until n=100. While the sequence is being incremented, any change in ‘A’ will be ignored.

x 2 n 1–( )= A = I:000/00n = N7:0x = N7:1

page 229

5. A thumbwheel input card acquires a four digit BCD count. A sensor detects parts dropping

down a chute. When the count matches the BCD value the chute is closed, and a light is turned on

until a reset button is pushed. A start button must be pushed to start the part feeding. Develop the

ladder logic for this controller. Use a structured design technique such as a state diagram.

MOVSource A 1Dest. N7:0

A B3:0

A

B3:0

B3:0

CPTDest. N7:1Expression

B3:0

2 * (N7:0 - 1)

ADDSource A 1Source B N7:0

B3:0

Dest. N7:0

LEQSource A N7:0Source B 100

ans.

INPUT

I:000 - BCD input cardI:001/00 - part detectI:001/01 - start buttonI:001/02 - reset button

OUTPUT

O:002/00 - chute openO:002/01 - light

page 230

first scan

count

reset

waitingpartscounting

binfull

start

(chute open)

exceeded

(light on)

S1 S2

S3

ans.

page 231

L

U

U

first scanS1

S2

S3

S2chute

S3light

L

U

startS2

S1

FRDSource A I:000Dest. C5:0/ACC

MCRS1

MCR

page 232

6. Design and write ladder logic for a simple traffic light controller that has a single fixed

sequence of 16 seconds for both green lights and 4 second for both yellow lights. Use either stacks

or sequencers.

part detectCTDcounter C5:0preset 0

L

U

C5:0/DNS3

S2

MCRS2

MCR

L

U

resetS1

S3

MCRS3

MCR

page 233

7. A PLC is to be used to control a carillon (a bell tower). Each bell corresponds to a musical

note and each has a pneumatic actuator that will ring it. The table below defines the tune to be

programmed. Write a program that will run the tune once each time a start button is pushed. A

stop button will stop the song.

ans. (the sequencer is best suited to this problem) OUTPUTSO:000/00 NSG - north south greenO:000/01 NSY - north south yellowO:000/02 NSR - north south redO:000/03 EWG - east west greenO:000/04 EWY - east west yellowO:000/05 EWR - east west red

TONT4:0preset 4.0 sec

SQOFile #N7:0mask 003F

T4:0/DN

T4:0/DN

Dest. O:000Control R6:0Length 10

Addr.

N7:0N7:1N7:2N7:3N7:4N7:5N7:6N7:7N7:8N7:9

Contents (in binary)

0000000000100001000000000010000100000000001000010000000000100001000000000010001000000000000011000000000000001100000000000000110000000000000011000000000000010100

O:000/00O:000/01O:000/02O:000/03O:000/04O:000/05O:000/06O:000/07

01100000

00001000

00001000

00100000

00010000

00000010

00000110

10000000

00000001

00100000

00110000

00000000

00010010

01000000

00100000

00010000

10000000

O:000/00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

time sequence in seconds

page 234

8. The following program uses indirect addressing. Indicate what the new values in memory

will be when button A is pushed after the first and second instructions.

9. Divide the string in ST10:0 by the string in ST10:1 and store the results in ST10:2. Check for a divide by zero error.

ADDSource A 1Source B N7:0Dest. N7:[N7:1]

N7:0N7:1N7:2

1addr before after 1st

2

ADDSource A N7:[N7:0]Source B N7:[N7:1]Dest. N7:[N7:0]

A

A

3

after 2nd

ST10:0 “100”ST10:1 “10”ST10:2

page 235

10. Write a number guessing program that will allow a user to enter a number on a terminal that transmits it to a PLC where it is compared to a value in ’N7:0’. If the guess is above "Hi" will be returned. If below "Lo" will be returned. When it matches "ON" will be returned.

AICSource ST10:0Dest N7:0


ans)

NEQSource A 0Source B N7:1

DIVSource A N7:0Source B N7:1

IACSource N7:2Dest ST10:2

Dest N7:2

page 236

11. Write a program that will convert a numerical value stored in ‘F8:0’ and write it out the

RS-232 output on a PLC-5 processor.

ARLChannel 0Dest ST9:0Control R6:0Length 3

(ans.


AWTChannel 0Source ST9:1

LESSource A N7:1Source B N7:0

Control R6:1Length 2


EQSource A N7:1Source B N7:0



GRTSource A N7:1Source B N7:0


ST9:1="Lo"ST9:2="ON"ST9:3="Hi"

R6:0/DN

ACBChannel 0Control R6:4

R6:4/EN

EQUSourceA R6:4.POSSource B 2

page 237

7.26 REFERENCES

Bryan, L.A., Bryan, E.A., Programmable Controllers, Industrial Text Company, 19??.

Cox, R., Technician’s Guide to Programmable Controllers, Delmar Publishing, 19??.

Filer and Linonen, Programmable Controllers and Designing Sequential Logic, Dryden &

Saunders/HBJ, 19??.

Petruzella, F., Programmable Logic Controllers, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 19??.

Sobh, M., Owen, J.C., Valvanis, K.P., Gracanin, S., “A Subject-Indexed Bibliography of Dis-

crete Event Dynamic Systems”, IEEE Robotics and Applications Magazine, June 1994, pp. 14-

20.

MOVSource F8:0Dest N7:0

AICSource N7:0Dest ST9:0

AWTASCII WRITEChannelSourceControl

0ST9:0

String LengthCharacters Sent

R6:05

R6:0/EN

page 238

Sugiyama, H., Umehara, Y., Smith, E., “A Sequential Function Chart (SFC) Language for

Batch Control”, ISA Transactions, Vol. 29, No. 2, 1990, pp. 63-69.

Swainston, F., A Systems Approach to Programmable Controllers, Delmar Publishing, 19??.

Teng, S.H., Black, J. T., “Cellular Manufacturing Systems Modelling: The Petri Net

Approach”, Journal of Manufacturing Systems, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1988, pp. 45-54.

Warnock, I., Programmable Controllers: Operation and Application, Prentice Hall, 19??.

Wright, C.P., Applied Measurement Engineering, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1995.

7.27 LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING TO A PLC

Purpose:

To write C++ and ladder logic program to communicate over RS-232.

Overview:

only transmit a fixed number of charactersline endings importantwhen plc receives the following charaters it should,A - turn on an outputB - turn off an outputC - return ’0’ if output is off, or ’1’ if output is on

Pre-Lab:

1. If necessary review PLC basics and the PLC-5 tutorial.2. Write a ladder logic program to receive ASCII commands as described in the Overview,

and perform the desired action.3. Write a C++ program to communicate with the ladder logic program using a user menu.

page 239

In-Lab:

1. Enter the ladder logic program and test it with a terminal program.2. Enter the C++ program and test it with a terminal emulator.3. Test the two programs together.

Submit (individually):

1.Program listings.

page 240

8. PLCS AND NETWORKING

Figure 22.1 - A Communication Example

8.1 OPEN NETWORK TYPES

8.1.1 Devicenet

Devicenet has become one of the most widely supported control networks. It is an open stan-

dard, so components from a variety of manufacturers can be used together in the same control sys-

tem. It is supported and promoted by the Open Devicenet Vendors Association (ODVA) (see http:/

/www.odva.org). This group includes members from all of the major controls manufacturers.

This network has been designed to be noise resistant and robust. One major change for the

control engineer is that the PLC chassis can be eliminated and the network can be connected

directly to the sensors and actuators. This will reduce the total amount of wiring by moving I/O

points closer to the application point. This can also simplify the connection of complex devices,

PLC

Process

Computer Devicenet

Actuators

Process

ProcessSensors

ProcessActuators

ProcessSensors

RS-232

Normal I/O on PLC

page 241

such as HMIs. Two way communications inputs and outputs allow diagnosis of network problems

from the main controller.

Devicenet covers all seven layers of the OSI standard. The protocol has a limited number of

network address, with very small data packets. But this also helps limit network traffic and ensure

responsiveness. The length of the network cables will limit the maximum speed of the network.

The basic features of are listed below.

• A single bus cable that delivers data and power.• Up to 64 nodes on the network.• Data packet size of 0-8 bytes.• Lengths of 500m/250m/100m for speeds of 125kbps/250kbps/500kbps respectively.• Devices can be added/removed while power is on.• Based on the CANbus (Controller Area Network) protocol for OSI levels 1 and 2.• Addressing includes peer-to-peer, multicast, master/slave, polling or change of state.

An example of a Devicenet network is shown in Figure 22.16. The dark black lines are the

network cable. Terminators are required at the ends of the network cable to reduce electrical

noise. In this case the PC would probably be running some sort of software based PLC program.

The computer would have a card that can communicate with Devicenet devices. The ’FlexIO

rack’ is a miniature rack that can hold various types of input and output modules. Power taps (or

tees) split the signal to small side branches. In this case one of the taps connects a power supply,

to provide the 24Vdc supply to the network. Another two taps are used to connect a ’smart sensor’

and another ’FlexIO rack’. The ’Smart sensor’ uses power from the network, and contains enough

logic so that it is one node on the network. The network uses ’thin trunk line’ and ’thick trunk

line’ which may limit network performance.

page 242

Figure 22.16 - A Devicenet Network

The network cable is important for delivering power and data. Figure 22.17 shows a basic

cable with two wires for data and two wires for the power. The cable is also shielded to reduce the

effects of electrical noise. The two basic types are thick and thin trunk line. The cables may come

with a variety of connections to devices.

• bare wires• unsealed screw connector• sealed mini connector• sealed micro connector• vampire taps

Figure 22.17 - Shielded Network Cable

Smart FlexIOrack

power

FlexIOrack PC

term

inat

or

term

inat

or

sensor supply

tap power tap

tapdropline

dropline

thick trunk linethintrunkline

thintrunkline

power (24Vdc)

data

drain/shield

Thick trunk - carries up to 8A for power up to 500mThin trunk - up to 3A for power up to 100m

page 243

Some of the design issues for this network include;

• Power supplies are directly connected to the network power lines.• Length to speed is 156m/78m/39m to 125Kbps/250Kbps/500Kbps respectively.• A single drop is limited to 6m.• Each node on the network will have its own address between 0 and 63.

If a PLC-5 was to be connected to Devicenet a scanner card would need to be placed in the

rack. The ladder logic in Figure 22.18 would communicate with the sensors through a scanner

card in slot 3. The read and write blocks would read and write the Devicenet input values to inte-

ger memory from ’N7:40’ to ’N7:59’. The outputs would be copied from the integer memory

between ’N7:20’ to ’N7:39’. The ladder logic to process inputs and outputs would need to exam-

ine and set bits in integer memory.

page 244

Figure 22.18 - Communicating with Devicenet Inputs and Outputs

On an Allen Bradley Softlogix PLC the I/O will be copied into blocks of integer memory.

These blocks are selected by the user in setup software. The ladder logic would then using integer

memory for inputs and outputs, as shown in Figure 22.19. Here the inputs are copied into N9 inte-

ger memory, and the outputs are set by copying the N10 block of memory back to the outputs.

MSG

Send/Rec Message

Read/WriteData TableSizeLocal/RemoteRemote StationLink IDRemote Link typeLocal Node Addr.Processor TypeDest. Addr.

WriteN7:2020Remote??????N/A????????

Control Block MG9:0

(EN)

(DN)

(ER)


ReadN7:4020Remote??????N/A????????

MG9:0/EN

Note: Get exact settings for these parametersXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

MSG

Send/Rec MessageControl Block MG9:1

(EN)

(DN)

(ER)

MG9:1/EN

MG9:0 MG9:1

page 245

Figure 22.19 - Devicenet Inputs and Outputs in Software Based PLCs

8.1.2 CANbus

The CANbus (Controller Area Network bus) standard is part of the Devicenet standard. Inte-

grated circuits are now sold by many of the major vendors (Motorola, Intel, etc.) that support

some, or all, of the standard on a single chip. This section will discuss many of the technical

details of the standard.

CANbus covers the first two layers of the OSI model. The network has a bus topology and

uses bit wise resolution for collisions on the network (i.e., the lower the network identifier, the

higher the priority for sending). A data frame is shown in Figure 22.20. The frame is like a long

serial byte, like that seen in Figure 22.3. The frame begins with a start bit. This is then followed

with a message identifier. For Devicenet this is a 5 bit address code (for up to 64 nodes) and a 6

bit command code. The ’ready to receive it’ bit will be set by the receiving machine. (Note: both

the sender and listener share the same wire.) If the receiving machine does not set this bit the

remainder of the message is aborted, and the message is resent later. While sending the first few

bits, the sender monitors the bits to ensure that the bits send are heard the same way. If the bits do

not agree, then another node on the network has tried to write a message at the same time - there

was a collision. The two devices then wait a period of time, based on their identifier and then start

to resend. The second node will then detect the message, and wait until it is done. The next 6 bits

indicate the number of bytes to be sent, from 0 to 8. This is followed by two sets of bits for CRC

(Cyclic Redundancy Check) error checking, this is a checksum of earlier bits. The next bit ’ACK

slot’ is set by the receiving node if the data was received correctly. If there was a CRC error this

bit would not be set, and the message would be resent. The remaining bits end the transmission.

N9:0N10:23

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The ’end of frame’ bits are equivalent to stop bits. There must be a delay of at least 3 bits before

the next message begins.

Figure 22.20 - A CANbus Data Frame

Because of the bitwise arbitration, the address with the lowest identifier will get the highest

priority, and be able to send messages faster when there is a conflict. As a result the controller is

normally put at address ’0’. And, lower priority devices are put near the end of the address range.

8.1.3 Controlnet

Controlnet is complimentary to Devicenet. It is also supported by a consortium of companies,

(http://www.controlnet.org) and it conducts some projects in cooperation with the Devicenet

>= 3 bits

7 bits

1 bit

1 bit

1 bit

15 bits

0-8 bytes

6 bits

1 bit

11 bits

1 bit

delay before next frame

end of frame

ACK delimiter

ACK slot - other listeners turn this on to indicate frame received

CRC delimiter

CRC sequence

data - the information to be passed

control field - contains number of data bytes

ready to receive it

identifier

start of frame

arbitration field

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group. The standard is designed for communication between controllers, and permits more com-

plex messages than Devicenet. It is not suitable for communication with individual sensors and

actuators, or with devices off the factory floor.

Controlnet is more complicated method than Devicenet. Some of the key features of this net-

work include,

• Multiple controllers and I/O on one network• Deterministic• Data rates up to 5Mbps• Multiple topologies (bus, star, tree)• Multiple media (coax, fiber, etc.)• Up to 99 nodes with addresses, up to 48 without a repeater• Data packets up to 510 bytes• Unlimited I/O points• Maximum length examples

1000m with coax at 5Mbps - 2 nodes250m with coax at 5Mbps - 48 nodes5000m with coax at 5Mbps with repeaters3000m with fiber at 5Mbps30Km with fiber at 5Mbps and repeaters

• 5 repeaters in series, 48 segments in parallel• Devices powered individually (no network power)• Devices can be removed while network is active

This control network is unique because it supports a real-time messaging scheme called Con-

current Time Domain Multiple Access (CTDMA). The network has a scheduled (high priority)

and unscheduled (low priority) update. When collisions are detected, the system will wait a time

of at least 2ms, for unscheduled messages. But, scheduled messages will be passed sooner, during

a special time window.

8.1.4 Profibus

Another control network that is popular in europe, but also available world wide. It is also

promoted by a consortium of companies (http://www.profibus.com). General features include;

• A token passing between up to three masters

page 248

• Maximum of 126 nodes• Straight bus topology• Length from 9600m/9.6Kbps with 7 repeaters to 500m/12Mbps with 4 repeaters• With fiber optic cable lengths can be over 80Km• 2 data lines and shield• Power needed at each station• Uses RS-485, ethernet, fiber optics, etc.• 2048 bits of I/O per network frame

8.2 PROPRIETARY NETWORKS

8.2.0.1 - Data Highway

Allen-Bradley has developed the Data Highway II (DH+) network for passing data and pro-

grams between PLCs and to computers. This bus network allows up to 64 PLCs to be connected

with a single twisted pair in a shielded cable. Token passing is used to control traffic on the net-

work. Computers can also be connected to the DH+ network, with a network card to download

programs and monitor the PLC. The network will support data rates of 57.6Kbps and 230 Kbps

The DH+ basic data frame is shown in Figure 22.22. The frame is byte oriented. The first

byte is the ’DLE’ or delimiter byte, which is always $10. When this byte is received the PLC will

interpret the next byte as a command. The ’SOH’ identifies the message as a DH+ message. The

next byte indicates the destination station - each node one the network must have a unique num-

ber. This is followed by the ’DLE’ and ’STX’ bytes that identify the start of the data. The data fol-

lows, and its’ length is determined by the command type - this will be discussed later. This is then

followed by a ’DLE’ and ’ETX’ pair that mark the end of the message. The last byte transmitted is

a checksum to determine the correctness of the message.

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Figure 22.22 - The Basic DH+ Data Frame

The general structure for the data is shown in Figure 22.23. This packet will change for dif-

ferent commands. The first two bytes indicate the destination, ’DST’, and source, ’SRC’, for the

message. The next byte is the command, ’CMD’, which will determine the action to be taken.

Sometimes, the function, ’FNC’, will be needed to modify the command. The transaction, ’TNS’,

field is a unique message identifier. The two address, ’ADDR’, bytes identify a target memory

location. The ’DATA’ fields contain the information to be passed. Finally, the ’SIZE’ of the data

field is transmitted.

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

block check - a 2s compliment checksum of the DATA and STN values

ETX = 03H

DLE = 10H

data

STX = 02H

DLE = 10H

STN - the destination number

SOH = 01H

DLE = 10H

start fields

termination fields

header fields

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Figure 22.23 - Data Filed Values

Examples of commands are shown in Figure 22.24. These focus on moving memory and sta-

tus information between the PLC, and remote programming software, and other PLCs. More

details can be found in the Allen-Bradley DH+ manuals.

1 byte

variable

2 byte

1 byte

2 byte

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

SIZE - size of a data field

DATA - a variable length set of data

ADDR - a memory location

FNC may be required with some CMD values

TNS - transaction field (a unique message ID)

STS - message send/receive status

CMD - network command - sometime FNC is required

SRC - the node that sent the message

DST - destination node for the message

optional

optional

optional

optional

page 251

Figure 22.24 - DH+ Commands for a PLC-5 (all numbers are hexadecimal)

The ladder logic in Figure 22.25 can be used to copy data from the memory of one PLC to

another. Unlike other networking schemes, there are no ’login’ procedures. In this example the

first MSG instruction will write the message from the local memory ’N7:20’ - ’N7:39’ to the

CMD

000102050606060606060606080F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F0F

FNC

0001020304050607

00010211171826293A4150525355575E6768A2AA

Description

Protected writeUnprotected readProtected bit writeUnprotected bit writeEchoRead diagnostic countersSet variablesDiagnostic statusSet timeoutSet NAKsSet ENQsRead diagnostic countersUnprotected writeWord range writeWord range readBit writeGet edit resourceRead bytes physicalWrite bits physicalRead-modify-writeRead section sizeSet CPU modeDisable forcesDownload all requestDownload completedUpload all requestUpload completedInitialize memoryModify PLC-2 compatibility filetyped writetyped readProtected logical read - 3 address fieldsProtected logical write - 3 addr. fields

page 252

remote PLC-5 (node 2) into its memory from ’N7:40’ to ’N7:59’. The second ’MSG’ instruction

will copy the memory from the remote PLC-5 memory ’N7:40’ to ’N7:59’ to the remote PLC-5

memory ’N7:20’ to ’N7:39’. This transfer will require many scans of ladder logic, so the ’EN’

bits will prevent a read or write instruction from restarting until the previous ’MSG’ instruction is

complete.

Figure 22.25 - Ladder Logic for Reading and Writing to PLC Memory

The DH+ data packets can be transmitted over other data links, including ethernet and RS-

232.


1. Explain why networks are important in manufacturing controls.

MSG

Send/Rec Message


WriteN7:2020LocalN/AN/AN/A2PLC-5N7:40

Control Block MG9:0

(EN)

(DN)

(ER)


ReadN7:4020LocalN/AN/AN/A2PLC-5N7:20

MG9:0/EN

MSG


(EN)

(DN)

(ER)

MG9:1/EN

MG9:0 MG9:1

page 253

ans. These networks allow us to pass data between devices so that individually controlled systems can be integrated into a more complex manufacturing facility. An example might be a serial connection to a PLC so that SPC data can be collected as product is made, or recipes down-loaded as they are needed.

2. We will use a PLC to control a cereal box filling machine. For single runs the quantities of cereal types are controlled using timers. There are 6 different timers that control flow, and these result in different ratios of product. The values for the timer presets will be downloaded from another PLC using the DH+ network. Write the ladder logic for the PLC.

page 254

ans.

MSGMG9:0

Read MessageRemote station #1Remote Addr. N7:0Length 6Destination N7:0

MG9:0/EN

FALDEST. #T4:0.PRE

MG9:0/DN

EXPR. #N7:0

start stop

on

on

box present onTONT4:0

TONT4:1

TONT4:2

TONT4:3

TONT4:4

TONT4:5

T4:0/TTfill hearts

T4:1/TTfill moons

ETC...

on

on

page 255

3. a) We are developing ladder logic for an oven to be used in a baking facility. A PLC is control-ling the temperature of an oven using an analog voltage output. The oven must be started with a push button and can be stopped at any time with a stop push button. A recipe is used to control the times at each temperature (this is written into the PLC memory by another PLC). When idle, the output voltage should be 0V, and during heating the output voltages, in sequence, are 5V, 7.5V, 9V. The timer preset values, in sequence, are in N7:0, N7:1, N7:2. When the oven is on, a value of 1 should be stored in N7:3, and when the oven is off, a value of 0 should be stored in N7:3. Draw a state diagram and write the ladder logic for this station.

b) We are using a PLC as a master controller in a baking facility. It will update recipes in remote PLCs using DH+. The master station is #1, the remote stations are #2 and #3. When an operator pushes one of three buttons, it will change the recipes in two remote PLCs if both of the remote PLCs are idle. While the remote PLCs are running they will change words in their internal memories (N7:3=0 means idle and N7:3=1 means active). The new recipe values will be writ-ten to the remote PLCs using DH+. The table below shows the values for each PLC. Write the ladder logic for the master controller.

button A

1369045

7634598734576487

button B

17

72

button C

14

56

PLC #2

PLC #3

23575

74534

234123445667

645234565688

page 256

(ans. a) stopstart

on N7:3/0

on N7:3/0

Block Transfer WriteModule Type Generic Block TransferRack 000Group 3Module 0Control Block BT10:0Data File N9:0Length 13Continuous No

BT10:0/EN

MOVSource 2095Dest N9:0

T4:0/TT

TONTimer T4:0Delay 0s

MOVSource N7:0Dest T4:0.PRE



T4:2/DN

on


T4:0/DN


T4:1/DN


T4:1/TT


T4:2/TT


on

page 257

(ans. b) MSG

Send/Rec Message

Read/WriteData TableSizeLocal/RemoteRemoteLink IDRemote LinkLocal NodeProcessorDest. Addr.


Control Block MG9:0

(EN)

(DN)

(ER)

MG9:0/EN

MSG


(EN)

(DN)

(ER)

MG9:1/EN

MG9:0

MSG


(EN)

(DN)

(ER)

MG9:2/EN



MG9:2Read/WriteData TableSizeLocal/RemoteRemoteLink IDRemote LinkLocal NodeProcessorDest. Addr.


MG9:0

MSG


(EN)

(DN)

(ER)

MG9:3/EN



MG9:3

A COPN7:0/0 N7:0/1Source N7:10Dest N7:40Length 9

N7:10N7:20N7:30

131714

690235745

457534

767256

345234645

9871223

34534456

764456568

87678

000

B COPN7:0/0 N7:0/1Source N7:20Dest N7:40Length 9

C COPN7:0/0 N7:0/1Source N7:30Dest N7:40Length 9

page 258

4. A controls network is to be 1500m long. Suggest three different types of networks that would meet the specifications.

(ans. Controlnet, Profibus, Ethernet with multiple subnets)

5 How many data bytes (maximum) could be transferred in one second with DH+?

(ans. the maximum transfer rate is 230 Kbps, with 11 bits per byte (1start+8data+2+stop) for 20909 bytes per second. Each memory write packet contains 17 overhead bytes, and as many as 2000 data bytes. Therefore as many as 20909*2000/(2000+17) = 20732 bytes could be trans-mitted per second. Note that this is ideal, the actual maximum rates would be actually be a frac-tion of this value.)

8.4 LABORATORY - DEVICENET

Purpose: To be introduced to a software based PLC, interfacing with devices using devicenet and

practical sensors.

Overview: In previous coursework you have used PLC-5 processors. The software based PLC is very

similar. The most noticeable difference is that Inputs and Outputs will appear in integer memory instead of the normal I:1 and O:0 blocks of memory.

The program to be developed for this laboratory should......

Pre-Lab:1. Develop the ladder logic for the system described in the Overview.

In-Lab:1. Follow the Softplc and Devicenet tutorial.2. Implement a control system to .....

Submit (individually):1. Program listings and prelab design work.

8.5 TUTORIAL - SOFTPLC AND DEVICENET

Objective: By the end of this tutorial you should be able to do the major steps required to connect a devicenet network and program a SoftPLC to control it. It will end with the connection and

page 259

programming of a Panelview 550 display.

1. Gather the components below. These will be used to build the Devicenet for the rest of the tuto-rial. When finding components the labels on the back are a good source of information. The information on the front of the devices is not normally useful.

- A PC with a PCIDS devicenet scanner card and software installed- Devicenet Flex I/O rack on a din rail including,

24VDC adapter 1794-ADNRelay output 1794-DWB24Vdc source input 1794-IV1624Vdc sink input 1794-IB16

- a Sola 24Vdc power supply with a power cable attached- a Sola 24Vdc power supply with a power tap (1485T-P2T5-T5) attached- a devicenet capable photoswitch (42GNP-9000-QD)- 2 normal photoswitches (42GRP-9000-QD)- 4 Devicenet cable mini connector to wires (1485R-P3M5-C)- a light stack with red/amber/green- a central terminal Devicebox (1485P-P4T5-T5)- 3 network taps- a stop pushbutton- 2 terminator resistors- thick wire trunk line- wires for connection- Panelview 550 touch screen display

2. Wire up the network below (note: we will add more of the components later).

page 260

3. Start the “RS Networx for Devicenet” software. When it starts it might show a diagram of pre-viously programmed devices on the network. We need to get a current list of devices on the network. To do this pick “Selection” “Online”. This will scan the devices on the network and get their current configurations. After this the diagram on the screen will be current.

4. Next, we want to map the data from each of the Devicenet nodes to a location in the SoftPLC memory. Double click on the PCIDS card on the screen. Click on the “scanlist” tab (you may have to upload parameters). Make sure that all of the devices appear on the scanlist. Use the “Input” and “Output” tabs to map these devices to specific input and output memory. Notice

PC

PCIDSCARD

1485R-P3R5-C

terminator

photosensor

tee

tee

tee

terminator 1485R-P3R5-C

24V solapowersupply

24Vdc solapowersupply

flex I/O rack

thickline

thickline

page 261

that this is organized in words (16bits). You will want to make a note of these values, because you will use these when programming the PLC. When done select “Apply” and then “OK”. Exit the program and save the changes. At this point a file has been set up that tells the Soft-PLC what devices are on the Devicenet, and what to do with them.

5. Move the pointer to the bottom right of the screen. You will see a black dot near the time. Click twice on this (Note: when the SoftPLC is running this will be green). A screen entitled “Soft-logix 5 Status Monitor” will popup. Click on “Config” and then “Start SoftLogix 5”. The Soft-PLC should now be running. Click “OK” to dismiss the screens.

6. Start the “RS-Logix SL5 English” software (Note the ‘SL’). Start a “New Project”, the pro-gramming window should appear. You should now be ready to tell the SoftPLC that you will be using devicenet. Double click on “Processor Status” and on the pop-up window scroll across and select the “Dnet” tab. For the output file enter “9”, for the input file enter “10”, for the diagnostic file enter “11”. Dismiss the window and look at the memory locations under data files, there should now be I/O words there under N9, N10, N11. The input and output memory set in the RSNetworx program will be put in this memory.

7. Write a simple ladder logic program to read to smart optical sensor and output a value to the relay card. If you need help finding which inputs are which, try running a simple or empty pro-gram, and watching the memory.

8. Connect the other photooptical sensors and the light stack to the Flex I/O rack and write a more sophistocated program.

9. Connect the PanelView display, and reconfigure the devicenet network. Use the Panel Builder software to create a visual interface, and then download it to the touchscreen. Write ladder logic that uses it for input and output.

page 262

9. INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Robots are devices that are programmed to move parts, or to do work with a tool. For exam-

ple, robots are often used to stack boxes on a pallet, or to weld steel plates together. This chapter

will introduce the basic concepts behind robotics, and introduce a commercial robot. Following

chapters will introduce more robots, and discuss applications.

9.1.1 Basic Terms

There is a set of basic terminology and concepts common to all robots. These terms follow

with brief explanations of each.

Links and Joints - Links are the solid structural members of a robot, and joints are the movable couplings between them.

Degree of Freedom (dof) - Each joint on the robot introduces a degree of freedom. Each dof can be a slider, rotary, or other type of actuator. Robots typically have 5 or 6 degrees of freedom. 3 of the degrees of freedom allow positioning in 3D space, while the other 2or 3 are used for orientation of the end effector. 6 degrees of free-dom are enough to allow the robot to reach all positions and orientations in 3D space. 5 dof requires a restriction to 2D space, or else it limits orientations. 5 dof robots are commonly used for handling tools such as arc welders.

Orientation Axes - Basically, if the tool is held at a fixed position, the orientation deter-mines which direction it can be pointed in. Roll, pitch and yaw are the common orientation axes used. Looking at the figure below it will be obvious that the tool can be positioned at any orientation in space. (imagine sitting in a plane. If the plane rolls you will turn upside down. The pitch changes for takeoff and landing and when flying in a crosswind the plane will yaw.)

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Figure 7.1 - Orientations

Position Axes - The tool, regardless of orientation, can be moved to a number of positions in space. Various robot geometries are suited to different work geometries. (more later)

Tool Centre Point (TCP) - The tool centre point is located either on the robot, or the tool. Typically the TCP is used when referring to the robots position, as well as the focal point of the tool. (e.g. the TCP could be at the tip of a welding torch) The TCP can be specified in cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, etc. coordinates depending on the robot. As tools are changed we will often reprogram the robot for the TCP.

Figure 7.2 - The Tool Center Point (TCP)

Work envelope/Workspace - The robot tends to have a fixed, and limited geometry. The work envelope is the boundary of positions in space that the robot can reach. For a cartesian robot (like an overhead crane) the workspace might be a square, for more sophisticated robots the workspace might be a shape that looks like a ‘clump of intersecting bubbles’.

topfront

right

yaw

yaw

pitchpitch

roll

roll

forward

TCP(Tool Center Point)

page 264

Speed - refers either to the maximum velocity that is achievable by the TCP, or by individ-ual joints. This number is not accurate in most robots, and will vary over the work-space as the geometry of the robot changes (and hence the dynamic effects). The number will often reflect the maximum safest speed possible. Some robots allow the maximum rated speed (100%) to be passed, but it should be done with great care.

Payload - The payload indicates the maximum mass the robot can lift before either failure of the robots, or dramatic loss of accuracy. It is possible to exceed the maximum payload, and still have the robot operate, but this is not advised. When the robot is accelerating fast, the payload should be less than the maximum mass. This is affected by the ability to firmly grip the part, as well as the robot structure, and the actuators. The end of arm tooling should be considered part of the payload.

Repeatability - The robot mechanism will have some natural variance in it. This means that when the robot is repeatedly instructed to return to the same point, it will not always stop at the same position. Repeatability is considered to be +/-3 times the

Workspace

page 265

standard deviation of the position, or where 99.5% of all repeatability measure-ments fall. This figure will vary over the workspace, especially near the bound-aries of the workspace, but manufacturers will give a single value in specifications.

Accuracy - This is determined by the resolution of the workspace. If the robot is com-manded to travel to a point in space, it will often be off by some amount, the max-imum distance should be considered the accuracy. This is an effect of a control system that is not necessarily continuous.

Settling Time - During a movement, the robot moves fast, but as the robot approaches the final position is slows down, and slowly approaches. The settling time is the time required for the robot to be within a given distance from the final position.

Control Resolution - This is the smallest change that can be measured by the feedback sensors, or caused by the actuators, whichever is larger. If a rotary joint has an encoder that measures every 0.01 degree of rotation, and a direct drive servo motor is used to drive the joint, with a resolution of 0.5 degrees, then the control resolu-tion is about 0.5 degrees (the worst case can be 0.5+0.01).

Coordinates - The robot can move, therefore it is necessary to define positions. Note that coordinates are a combination of both the position of the origin and orientation of the axes.

Figure 7.3 - World Coordinates - To Locate the TCP

P x y z, ,( )=

x

y

z

x

y

z

World Coordinates - this is the position of the tool measured relative to the base, the orientation of the tool is assumed to be the same as the base.

page 266

Figure 7.4 - Tool Coordinates - Describing Positions Relative to the Tool

Figure 7.5 - Joint Coordinates - the Positions of the Actuators

9.1.2 Positioning Concepts

9.1.2.1 - Accuracy and Repeatability

• The accuracy and repeatability are functions of,

- resolution- the use of digital systems, and other factors mean that only a limited number of positions are available. Thus user input coordinates are often adjusted to the nearest discrete position.

- kinematic modeling error - the kinematic model of the robot does not exactly match the

P x y z, ,( )=

x

y

z

x

y

z

Tool Coordinates - here the tool orientation is considered, and the coordinates are measured against a frame attached to the tool

Joint Coordinates - the position of each joint (all angles here) are used to describe the position of the robot.

θ1

θ2

θ3

page 267

robot. As a result the calculations of required joint angles contain a small error.- calibration errors - The position determined during calibration may be off slightly, result-

ing in an error in calculated position.- random errors - problems arise as the robot operates. For example, friction, structural

bending, thermal expansion, backlash/slip in transmissions, etc. can cause varia-tions in position.

• Accuracy,

• “How close does the robot get to the desired point”• This measures the distance between the specified position, and the actual position of the

robot end effector.• Accuracy is more important when performing off-line programming, because absolute

coordinates are used.

• Repeatability

• “How close will the robot be to the same position as the same move made before”• A measure of the error or variability when repeatedly reaching for a single position.• This is the result of random errors only• repeatability is often smaller than accuracy.

• Resolution is based on a limited number of points that the robot can be commanded to reach

for, these are shown here as black dots. These points are typically separated by a millimeter or

less, depending on the type of robot. This is further complicated by the fact that the user might ask

for a position such as 456.4mm, and the system can only move to the nearest millimeter, 456mm,

this is the accuracy error of 0.4mm.

R

page 268

• In a perfect mechanical situation the accuracy and control resolution would be determined

as below,

• Kinematic and calibration errors basically shift the points in the workspace resulting in an

error ‘e’. Typically vendor specifications assume that calibration and modeling errors are zero.

One axis ona surface

accuracy

control resolution

specified locations

The manipulator may stop ata number of discrete positions

In an ideal situation the manipulator would stop at the specified locations. Here the accuracy would be half of the control resolution. The control resolution would be the smallest divisions that the workspace could be divided into (often by the resolution of digital components.

accuracy

page 269

• Random errors will prevent the robot from returning to the exact same location each time,

and this can be shown with a probability distribution about each point.

error ‘e’

Shouldbe here

repeatability = 6s = ±3s

accuracy ‘a/2’

User requestedposition ‘U’

System specifiedposition ‘S’

If the distribution is normal, the limits for repeatability are typically chosen as ±3 stan-dard deviations ‘s’.

acontrol resolution

2------------------------------------------= emax a modeling error 3s+ +=

page 270

• The fundamental calculations are,

9.1.2.2 - Control Resolution

We can look at distributions for each specified position for the robot end effector in rela-tionship to other point distributions. This will give us overall accuracy, and spatial res-olution.

worst case spatial resolution

worst case for a point

controlled points ‘S’

requested point ‘U’

repeatability = ±r = 3s

U

A

S σ

accuracy S U–( ) e+=

a

page 271

• Spatial resolution is the smallest increment of movement into which the robot can divide its

work volume. Spatial resolution depends on two factors: the systems control resolution and the

robots mechanical inaccuracies. It is easiest to conceptualize these factors in terms of a robot with

1 degree of freedom.

• Control resolution - is determined by the robot’s position control system and its feedback

measurement system. It is the controllers ability to divide the total range of movement for the par-

ticular joint into individual increments that can be addressed in the controller. The increments are

sometimes referred to as “addressable parts”. The ability to divide the joint range into increments

depends on the bit storage capacity in the control memory. The number of separate, identifiable

increments (addressable points) for a particular axis is,

• example - A robot with 8 bit control resolution can divide a motion range into 256 discrete

positions. The control resolution is about (range of motion)/256. The increments are almost

always uniform and equal.

• If mechanical inaccuracies are negligible, Accuracy = Control Resolution/2

9.1.2.3 - Payload

• The payload is always specified as a maximum value, this can be before failure, or more

commonly, before serious performance loss.

• Static considerations,

- gravity effects cause downward deflection of the arm and support systems- drive gears and belts often have noticeable amounts of slack (backlash) that cause posi-

tioning errors- joint play (windup) - when long rotary members are used in a drive system and twist

under load

# of increments 2n

= where n is the number of control bits

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- thermal effects - temperature changes lead to dimensional changes in the manipulator

• Dynamic considerations,

- acceleration effects - inertial forces can lead to deflection in structural members. These are normally only problems when a robot is moving very fast, or when a continu-ous path following is essential. (But, of course, during the design of a robot these factors must be carefully examined)

• e.g.

Consider a steel cantilever beam of length L, width B and height H, fixed at one end andwith a force P, applied at the free end due to the gravitational force on the load.

LP

B

H

δ PL3

3EI---------= E Youngs modulus 30

6×10 (psi)= =

I BH3

12---------- for rectangular beam=

**Note: this deflection does not include the massof the beam, as might be important in manycases.

τ

δ deflection of beamtip caused by point load=

page 273

1a. Gravity Effects (payload)

Say, P 100(lbs)=

L 60(in)=

B 4 (in)=

H 6 (in)=

δpayload∴ 0.0033 (in)=

If accuracy = 0.01 then the gravity effects are lessIf accuracy = 0.001 then the gravity effects are too large

Aside: Note that the length has a length cubed effect on the tip deflection,so if a second similar link was added to the robot, the deflection wouldincrease 8 times, a third link would increase deflection by 81 times.

1b. Gravity effects (robot link mass)

δ ωL4

8EI----------= ω weight

length---------------- 0.91 lb

in-----

= =

δlink mass∴ 0.00066 (in)=

δtotal 0.0033 0.00066+ 0.00396= =

Aside: If the deflection were too large, then we could use lighter linkmaterials, or larger annular (round tubular) members. Annularmembers allow actuators, and instrumentation inside.

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2. Drive Gear and Belt Drive Playassume we are using gears, or timing belts, that do not mesh perfectly

The gears do not mesh perfectly, and the resulting spaceis ‘D’

The input drive has to move a distance ‘D’ before the output engages, and motionbegins (this is often after a direction change). This error is multiplied by thegear ratio between input gears and the final position of the robot arm. Similarerrors occur for chains, belts, and other types of errors.

Aside: Some errors can be taken out of the system by using veryprecise gearing, or anti-backlash gearing that uses springs tohold the input gear against the drive gear. It is also possibleto compensate for this in software.

With good gearing, Backlash can be held to less than 0.010 (in), but specialdesign is required when accuracies of 0.001 (in) are desired.

3. Joint Flexibility - ( the angular twist of the joints, rotary drives, shafts, under the load)

θ 32LT

πD4G

---------------= θ twist of the cantilevered link in radians=

L distance of the applied moment from the fixed end=

T the applied moment=

G the polar moment of inertia=

D the effective diameter of application of the moment=

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δthermal α∆TL=

4. Thermal effects

α coefficient of linear thermal expansion=

If for the previous values we consider,

α 6.56–×10 in

inF---------

for steel( )=

∆T T1(working temp.) T0(calib. temp.)– 80F 60F– 20F= = =

δthermal 0.0078 (in)=

Major errors in accuracy can result from thermal expansion/contraction

5. Acceleration Effects

Fpayload Mpayloadrpayloadω2

=

And, if the centre of rotation moves, we must also consider coriolis forces,these could potentially result in a ‘whip’ effect. This does occur in multi-link robots.

Fpayload Mpayloadrpayloadω'= Flink Mlinkrcentroidω'(approximate)=

The robot arm also experiences radial forces due to centripetal forces. Theselead to elongation of the arm, but are often negligible.

The robot arm, and payload are exposed to forces generated by accelera-tion.This applies mainly to the payload mass, but also to the link mass. These forces cause bending moments that must be added to the masses con-sidered before.

δFpayloadL

3

3EI------------------------=

6. Combine cartesian components of deflection into one vector

δaccuracy δxi∑( )2 δyi∑( )2 δzi∑( )2+ +=

*** Remember to compare to control resolution

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9.2 ROBOT TYPES

9.2.1 Basic Robotic Systems

• The basic components of a robot are,

Structure - the mechanical structure (links, base, etc). This requires a great deal of mass to provide enough structural rigidity to ensure minimum accuracy under varied pay-loads.

Actuators - The motors, cylinders, etc. that drive the robot joints. This might also include mechanisms for a transmission, locking, etc.

Control Computer - This computer interfaces with the user, and in turn controls the robot joints.

End of Arm Tooling (EOAT) - The tooling is provided be the user, and is designed for spe-cific tasks.

Teach pendant - One popular method for programming the robot. This is a small hand held device that can direct motion of the robot, record points in motion sequences, and begin replay of sequences. More advance pendants include more functionality.

Teach pendantand/ordumb terminal

controlcomputer

memory(batteryor eeprom)

End of ArmTooling(EOAT)

Mechanicalarm

Actuatorpower supply(hydraulic, etc)

Sensors

Controlcomputer

PLC/NCmachine

RS-232

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9.2.2 Types of Robots

• Robots come in a wide variety of shapes, and configurations.

• The major classes of robots include,

arms - fixed in place, but can reach and manipulate parts and toolsmobile - these robots are free to move

9.2.2.1 - Robotic Arms

• Typical joint types are,

Revolute - rotary joints often driven by electric motors and chain/belt/gear transmissions, or by hydraulic cylinders and levers.

Prismatic - slider joints in which the link is supported on a linear slider bearing, and lin-early actuated by ball screws and motors or cylinders.

• Basic configurations are,

Cartesian/Rectilinear/Gantry - Positioning is done in the workspace with prismatic joints. This configuration is well used when a large workspace must be covered, or when consistent accuracy is expected from the robot.

Cylindrical - The robot has a revolute motion about a base, a prismatic joint for height, and a prismatic joint for radius. This robot is well suited to round workspaces.

Spherical - Two revolute joints and one prismatic joint allow the robot to point in many directions, and then reach out some radial distance.

Articulated/Jointed Spherical/Revolute - The robot uses 3 revolute joints to position the robot. Generally the work volume is spherical. This robot most resembles the human arm, with a waist, shoulder, elbow, wrist.

Scara (Selective Compliance Arm for Robotic Assembly) - This robot conforms to cylin-drical coordinates, but the radius and rotation is obtained by a two planar links with revolute joints.

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CARTESIAN/RECTILINEAR/GANTRY

SPHERICAL

page 279

CYLINDRICAL

ARTICULATED/REVOLUTE/JOINTED SPHERICAL

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9.2.2.2 - Autonomous/Mobile Robots

• The robots discussed up to this point have concerned ‘arms’ that are fixed to the floor.

Another important class of robots are autonomous, and free to move about the workspace.

• Typical applications are,

- nuclear accident cleanup- planetary exploration- Automatic Guided Vehicles in factories- mail delivery

9.2.2.2.1 - Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs)

• These are typically wheeled robots that carry payloads through a factory.

• They navigate using,

- wires embedded in floors

SCARA

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- light sources or reflectors- colored tapes on the floor

9.3 MECHANISMS

• The mechanical structure of the robot has a major influence over performance. Typically

closed kinematic chains give higher strengths, but lower speeds and flexibility.

• The linkage shown below uses two cylinders (hydraulic or pneumatic) to give radial posi-

tioning

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9.4 ACTUATORS

• There are a large number of power sources that may be used for robots.

• Typical actuators include,

This robot has a closed linkage,

and any movements of the bottom cyl-

inder will swing the top arm. The top

arm also has a linear slider that moves

in and out. This arrangement reduces

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• Pneumatics- simple, low maintenance- light, least expensive- low payload- easy to find fault- hard to do continuous control

• Hydraulic- large payload- high power/weight ratio- leakage- noisy

• Electrical- feedback compatible- computer compatible- EOAT compatible- quiet, clean- low power/weight ratio

• Actuators lead to various payload capabilities as shown in the following list.

9.5 A COMMERCIAL ROBOT

Robot

Asea IRB/6IBM 7535Cincinatti T3/726DevilbissYaskawa L/10Unimation 550/60HitachiUnimation 5000VSI Charley #6GMF M/1ACincinatti T3/776Cincinatti T3/586

Power

ElectricElectricD.C. MotorHydraulicElectricElectricElectricD.C. MotorElectricElectricD.C. MotorHydraulic

Payload (k.g.)

666.46.8101010143046.768100

Max. Vel. (m/s)

0.751.451.01.831.11.00.990.531.80.990.6350.89

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• Some specifications for commercial robots are given below

9.5.1 Mitsubishi RV-M1 Manipulator

• In general

Degrees of freedom 5Maximum payload 1kg (2.2 lb)Repeatability (based on constant temp., load, speed) +/- 0.3mmWeight 19kg (42 lb)Operating Temperature 5C to 40CHumidity (based on constant temp. load, speed) 10% to 85%Power Requirements 120/220/230/240 VACOther 50-70 psig air

• waist

motion revoluteRange 300 degreesResolution ?? deg.Speed

max. speed 120 deg/secmax. torque ?? in.lbs

• shoulder



• elbow



page 285

• wrist pitch

motion revoluteRange +/-90 degreesResolution ?? deg.Speed


• wrist roll

motion revoluteRange +/-180 degreesResolution ?? deg.Speed


• The workspace is pictured below,

782mm

57mm

482mm

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9.5.2 Movemaster Programs

• All comments follow a semi-colon at any position on a line

• Statements are ended with a colon, and as long as colons are used, more than one statement

can be used on a line.

• Line numbering is required.

• Dimensions are given in millimeters in the programs.

• A sample program is given below with comments for explanation,

9.5.2.0.1 - Language Examples

• The example below shows how points are defined and used. Please be aware that point loca-

tion values are not normally defined in a program. Normally they are programmed by hand, and

then when the program is run, it refers to them by number (from 1 to 629)

10 NT20 SP 7 ; set speed30 MO 10, C ;move to position 10 with the hand closed40 MO 9, O ;move to position 9 with the hand opened50 TI 40 ;stop for 4 seconds60 GT 30 ;goto line 30

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• The example below shows how we can define and use pallets. The definition of a pallet cov-

ers a number of lines to define the pallet size and then the location. We must also define points to

indicate where the pallet lies in space. For the example below these points would have to be posi-

tion numbers 20 (pallet origin), 21 (origin to end of first column), 22 (origin to end of first row),

23 (origin to diagonal corner of pallet). Note: if using pallet #3 these counters would be 30-33,

and point 3 would move.

10 NT ; move to the nest or neutral position, this is almost straight up20 OG ; move to the reference or zero position30 TL 20 ; this will set the tool length as 20mm for all cartesian position calculations40 PD 3, 0, 350, 250, -10, -20 ; define position #3 with joint angles50 MO 3 ; move the robot to position #360 DW 20,20,0; a cartesian move 20 mm in the x and 20 mm in the y directions70 HE 4; stores the current location as position #480 IP; moves the tool to position #5 ; assume that positions 5-10 are already defined90 MC 6,10 ; continuous motion through positions 6, 7, 8, 9 and then stop at point 10100 DP; the robot moves to position #9 and stops110 PD 11, 0, 0, 10, 0, 0 ; define a vector (point #11) with only a z component120 MA 9, 11, O ; move away from point #9 a distance of vector #11 with gripper open130 MJ 10, 10, 0, 0, 0 ; move the joints (shoulder and elbow) 10 degrees140 MP 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 ; move to cartesian position (10,20,30) with roll=40,pitch=50150 SP 3 ; set the speed low to increase accuracy160 MS 8, 5 ; straight line motion to point #8 as approximated with 5 knot points170 MT 8, -40 ; causes the tool to move 40mm straight back from point #8

20 PA 2, 3, 4 ; pallet #2 is defined as having 3 columns and 4 rows30 SC 21, 1 ; set counter #21 for columns to 1 - each pallet # has dedicated counters40 SC 22, 2 ; set counter #22 for rows to 2 - each pallet # has dedicated counters50 PT 2 ; calculates the point for pallet #2 to move to - this will become point #260 MO 2 ; move to the new position just calculated70 SC 22,3 ; move the counter to the next row80 PT 2 ; calculate a new pallet position90 MO 2 ; move to the new pallet position

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• The example below shows some of the position commands. These positions are normally

defined outside the program by moving the robot to desired locations. These positions are not

always absolute, and in some cases will act as displacement vectors.

• The example below shows some of the counter and branching functions. These tend to use a

status register approach - for example, a value to be compared will be loaded on one line, the next

line will compare it and a branch instruction will occur on the specified condition. For-next loops

have been constructed as part of this example.

10 PC 1; the clears the position #1 value20 PD 2, 0, 300, 250, 50, -30 ; define position 2 with cartesian x,y,z and pitch,roll30 HE 3 ; defines the current robot position as position #340 PX 1,2 ; the values of positions #1 and #2 have been swapped50 PD 4, 0, 20, 0, 0, 0 ; define a new position60 SF 1, 4 ; this will add #4 to #1 and store it in #1 becoming (0, 320, 250, 50, -30)

page 289

• The example below shows how to use various gripper and I/O functions. There are eight

input bits and 8 output bits available.

10 SC 1, 2 ; set counter 1 to a value of 220 CP 1 ; load counter #1 into the comparison register30 EQ 10, 100 ; if the value loaded in the last line is 10, jump to line 10040 IC 1 ; increment the value of counter #150 GT 20 ; goto line 20 to continue the loop100 DC 1 ; decrement the value of counter #1110 CP 1 ; load counter #1 into the comparison register120 LT 1, 100 ; if the value loaded in the last line is larger than 1, jump to

line 100150 GS 200 ; goto the subroutine at line 200160 ED ; end the program200 RC 10 ; a for-next loop command210 RC 5 ; a nested loop220 NX ; this loop will cycle through the loop declared on line 210230 NX ; this loop will cycle through the loop declared on line 200240 RT ; return from the subroutine

10 GC ; close the gripper20 GO ; open the gripper30 GP 5, 2, 3 ; this defines the gripping force as 5 (N?) and the holding

force as 2, there will be 3/10 of a second delay while the gripper settles40 GC ; close the gripper using the gripper force50 OB -7 ; turn off the 7th output bit60 TB +6, 50 ; if the 6th input bit is on go to line 5070

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9.5.3 Command Summary

• A summary of the motion commands is given below,

• A summary of the program control commands is given below,

DP (decrement position)DW (draw)HE (here)HO (Home)IP (increment position)MA (move approach)MC (move continuous)MJ (move joint)MOMPMSMTNTOGPAPCPDPLPTPXSFSPTITL

move to the previous numbered position

Moves the tool from point to pointAssigns the current position to a position numberSets the cartesian reference coordinatesMove to the next numbered positionMove from the current position to a new oneExecute a continuous motionmove a joint by a specified anglemove the tool to a specified locationMove the hand to a positionMove in a straight linemoves tool a specified distancereturn to the global originmove to the cartesian reference coordinatesDefine a palletClear position variables in memoryDefine a position in memoryCopies a position variable to anotherCalculates a new pallet positionExchange two position variable valuesShift the position variable through spaceSet the robot speedPause for a set amount of timeDefine the length of the tool

page 291

• A summary of the IO commands is given below,


1. a) What are some basic functions expected on a robot teach pendantb) Describe how a computer can help avoid debug robot programs without a robot being used

CP (compare counter)DC (decrement counter)ED (End)EQ (If equal)GS (Gosub)GT (Goto)IC (increment counter)LG (If larger)NE (If not equal)NX (Next)RC (Repeat cycle)RT (Return)SC (Set counter)SM (If smaller)

compare a counter to a valuedecrement a counter value

End the programJump if conditions equalGo to a subroutineGo to line numberIncrease a counter value by oneBranches if largerbranch if not equalNext step in an ‘RC’ loopRepeat a loop the specified number of timesReturn from a ‘GS’Set a counter valueBranch if the value is smaller

GC (Gripper close)GF (Gripper flag)GO (gripper open)GP (gripper pressure)ID (Input detect)IN (Input)OB (Output bit)OD (Output direct)OT (Output)TB (Test bit)

Close the gripperCheck the gripper statusOpen the gripperSet the maximum pressure while gripper is closingdetect the state of an inputinputs parallel data using handshakingSet an output bitOutput data to portsOutput parallel data using handshaking

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2. Write a short program to direct a Mitsubishi RV-M1 robot to pick up and put down a block. Assume the points have already been programmed with the teach pendants.

3. What is the workspace for each of the robots below, and can the robots reach all positions and orientations in the workspace?

4. Why are 5 axis enough for some robotic applications (eg. welding) and all NC milling opera-tions?

5. You have been asked to write a program for a Mitsubishi RV-M1 robot. The program is to pick up a part at point T1, move to point T2, and then load the part into a pallet. The robot should then return to point A to pick up then next part. This should continue until the pallet is full.

T1 = (300, 300, 20)T2 = (-300, 300, 0)Pallet has 6 rows and 7 columnsPallet origin T3 = (300, 0, 0)Pallet end of row T4 = (350, 0, 0)Pallet end of column T5 = (300, 60, 0)

x

y

x

y

x

y

x

y

x

y

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6. Given the scenario below, find the minimum angular resolution of the rotating sensor.

- the robot has +/- 0.5” accuracy- the pallet can slide +/- 0.1” on the belt

ans. 10 PD 1, 300, 300, 20, 0, 020 PD 2, -300, 300, 0, 0, 030 PD 30, 300, 0, 0, 0, 040 PD 32, 350, 0, 0, 0, 050 PD 31, 300, 60, 0, 0, 060 PA 3, 7, 670 GO80 SC 31, 090 RC 7100 SC 32, 0110 RC 6120 PT 3130 MO 1140 CG150 MO 2160 MO 3170 OG180 IC 32190 NX200 IC 31210 NX

page 294

- the driving motor is continuous, and can be run to any angle- the rotating sensor is an incremental encoder, every rotation of some small angle it issues

a pulse. But, because of the construction of the device, it has a minimum resolution for angular measurements

- the robot must be able to touch the part to pick it up- the tool on the end of the robot is a 1” magnet, and it must be able to touch the part com-

pletely to pick it up.- pulley size is 10” dia.

7. Consider a double jointed manipulator as shown below. It is subjected to a loading at the tip of 8 lbs, and works in a heated environment (i.e. T0(room temp.) = 60°F and T1 (working temp.) = 80°F.

a) Determine the elongation of the manipulator.b) Determine the total linear deflection of the manipulator.c) Determine the total final accuracy of the manipulator of the tip of the manipulator.

8. For the robot pictured below, assume the that a maximum payload of 10kg is specified. The joints are controlled by stepper motors with 200 steps per revolution. Each of the joints slides, and the gearing is such that 1 revolution of the stepper motor will result in 1” of travel. What is the accuracy of the robot?

belt travels4.8”

5”

50” 10”cross section is 1” wide by 2” highsolid square aluminum stock

page 295

9. Consider a double jointed manipulator as shown below. It is subjected to a loading at the tip of 8 lbs, and works in a heated environment (i.e. T0(room temp.) = 60°F and T1 (working temp.) = 80°F.

a) Determine the elongation of the manipulator.b) Determine the total linear deflection of the manipulator.c) Determine the total final accuracy of the manipulator of the tip of the manipulator.

maximum 15”

maximum 10” Assume the joints are solid, andto robot links are made from 1”solid aluminum stock.

50” 10”cross section is 1” wide by 2” highsolid square aluminum stock

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9.7 LABORATORY - MITSUBISHI RV-M1 ROBOT

Purpose: Introduction to robots and programming methods.

Overview: This laboratory will involve a basic tutorial on the use of the robot, including safety. The

students will have prepared a program for the robot, and tested it ahead of class time using the simulator. During the laboratory the robot will be programmed and tested using the prepared programs. A simple accuracy and repeatability test will be conducted.

Pre-Lab (individual):1. Use Netscape Communicator to access the robots in the laboratory, explore the site.2. Review the notes on the Mitsubishi RV-M1. After this use the on-line robot to write a

simple test program.3. Write a program to pick up a pop can at one point, and drop it off at a pallet. The pro-

gram should repeat six times in a row.

In-Lab:1. Follow the robot tutorial, and then examine the robot manual.2. Set up the pop can feeders and fixtures.3. Enter your prelab program and modify it as required.4. If not already done, connect the sensors on the feeders and fixture to the robot control-

ler.5. Add commands to the program that will examine inputs and take appropriate actions.6. Put the robot in an extended position (tool far away from the base). Set up a dial gauge

indicator so that it touches a solid point on the tool. Set the gauge so that it reads zero. Move the robot away and back to the same position, and read the value from the dial gauge indicator. Repeat this process to get 10 readings.

7. Position the robot so that the tool is in the middle of the workspace. Take similar mea-surements to those in step 3.

Submit (individually):1. A copy of your prelab program.2. A copy of the programs written during the laboratory.3. Statistical estimates of repeatability for both positions.

9.8 TUTORIAL - MITSUBISHI RV-M1

page 297

1. Turn on the robot power. The switch is located on the back of the unit.2. Find the teach pendant (Note: It looks somewhat like a calculator). Turn the switch at the top

left to ’on’. This will allow the teach pendant to control the robot.3. Home the robot by pressing <NST><ENT>. The robot will move each joint to one end of it’s

range. This is an important step whenever a robot is turned on to find the end of the range of motion.

4. The robot can be moved to new positions using the buttons on the right hand side of the teach pendant. Use the following buttons to move the arm. Notice that the buttons move one joint at a time.

<B+><B-> - moves the base right/left<S+><S-> - moves the shoulder up/down<E+><E-> - moves the elbow up/down<P+><P-> - pitches the gripper up/down<R+><R-> - rolls the gripper<O><C> - opens/closes gripper

5. The robot tool (at the end of the arm) can be moved in cartesian coordinates by pressing <XYZ><ENT> and then using the buttons indicated below.

<X+><X-> - move right/left<Y+><Y-> - move forward/back<Z+><Z-> - move up/down

6. The robot tool can be moved relative to the tool’s current orientation by pressing <TOOL><ENT>. The buttons below will move the robot to preserve the tool orientation.

<Z+><Z-> - advance/retract the tool<P+><P-> - pitch the tool up/down

7. Pressing <PTP><ENT> returns the robot to joint motion mode. While programming robot points an operator will often switch between different robot programming modes.

8. Pressing <ORG><ENT> will move the robot to the origin position where all of the joint angles are equal to zero.

9. At this point we are ready to record positions. This is done by moving the robot to a position and then storing that position in a position memory location. These locations start at zero and go up to 100 (?). Move the robot to three different positions and then record the points using the keystrokes below. (Note: To clear positions you can use <PC><#><ENT> where ’#’ is the posi-tion number.)

<PS><1><ENT> - this will record position 1<PS><2><ENT> - this will record position 2<PS><3><ENT> - this will record position 3

10. The robot can be moved to points using the keystrokes below. If the last point entered above was ’3’, then it will be the current focus. The commands <INC> and <DEC> will increment and decrement to other positions.

<DEC><ENT> - decrement to position 2<DEC><ENT> - decrement to position 1<DEC><ENT> - try to decrement to position 0 - this will cause an error<INC><ENT> - increment to position 2<INC><ENT> - increment to position 3<MOV><1><ENT> - move to position 1<MOV><2><ENT> - move to position 2

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<MOV><3><ENT> - move to position 311. Connect the RS-232 port of the robot controller to a PC with a serial cable.12. Run a terminal emulator on the PC and give it the following settings

9600 baud8 data bitsno parity1 stop bithardware flow controlecho typed characters locally

13. Turn the teach pendant off. This will allow you to control the robot from the remote terminal.14. Type in ’NT’ to home the robot. All commands should be typed in UPPER CASE. If an error

occurs a tone will be heard. To clear the error press the ’reset’ button on the front of the robot.15. Type the following commands and observe their effect.

MO 1MO 2MO 3GOGC

16. Type the following program in a text editor. Cut and paste it into the terminal window when done. This program could be run with ’GT 10’, ’RN 10’ or ’RN’.

10 MO 120 MO 230 MO 340 GT 10

17. Try other program in this chapter.

page 299

10. OTHER INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

This chapter discussed other industrial robots.

10.1 SEIKO RT 3000 MANIPULATOR

• In general

Degrees of freedom 4Maximum payload 5kg (11 lb)Repeatability (based on constant temp., load, speed) +/-0.025mm (+/- 0.001 in.)Weight 108kg (237 lb)Operating Temperature 0C to 40C (32F to 104F)Humidity (based on constant temp. load, speed) 20% to 90%Power Requirements 200-240 VACOther 50-70 psig air

• A-axis

motion revoluteRange +/-145 degreesResolution 0.005 deg.Speed

max. speed 150 deg/secmax. torque 383. in.lbs

• Z-axis

motion linearRange 4.72 in (120mm)Resolution 0.0005 in (0.012mm)Speed

max. speed 14 in/sec (360 mm/sec)max. force 23.3-35.2 lbs (10.6-16.0 kg)

• R-axis

motion linearRange 11.8 in (300mm)Resolution 0.001 in (0.025mm)Speed

max. speed 29.5 in/sec (750 mm/sec)

page 300

max. force 40 lbs

• T-axis

motion revoluteRange 290 degreesResolution 0.003 deg.Speed

max. speed 90 deg/secmax. torque 358. in.lbs

• The workspace is pictured below,

10.1.1 DARL Programs

• All DARL comments follow ’ at any position on a line.

• Statements are ended with a colon, and as long as colons are used, more than one statement

can be used on a line.

• Line numbering is required for DARL programs.

A-axis (290 deg)

R-axis (300mm)

Z-axis (120mm)

page 301

• Dimensions are given in millimeters in the programs.

• Commas and spaces are treated as equivalent.


10.1.1.1 - Language Examples

• First, points can be defined in programs, they can also be defined by moving the robot to the

location and storing the value. This allows the robot to accurately find points without measuring.

It also means that points location values don’t need to appear in programs, they are stored in

memory.

• A example that uses for-next, if-then, goto and gosub-return commands is shown below.

These commands are very standard in their use.

10 SPEED 250 ‘set the speed of the robot20 T1 = 0. -350. -50. 0. ‘ first point30 T2 = 0. -50. -350. 0. ‘second point40 T3 = 30. -50. -350. 30. ‘third point50 MOVE T1:MOVE T2:MOVE T3 ‘move the gripper to different points in space60 OUTPUT +OG0 200 ‘open gripper70 MOVE T1 + T2 ‘add two positions and move there70 OUTPUT +OG1 200 ‘close gripper80 STOP

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• A example that uses motion is shown below. The ‘move’ command causes a motion to

another point by only turning the needed joints. ‘moves’ causes a more complex motion resulting

in a straight line tool motion between points. ‘movec’ allows a circular interpolation dictated by

three points (the start, and the two given). The shave command forces the robot to fully complete

a motion and stop before going to the next point. The sync command will move the robot, but

keep the gripper in the original position relative to the real world.

10 FOR A = 2 TO 10 ‘ start a loop that will count from 2 to 1040 IF A = 4 THEN GOTO 100 ‘when a has a value of 4 jump to line 10050 IF A = 6 THEN GOSUB 200 ‘ when a has a value of 6 go to subroutine60 NEXT A ‘ go back to line 10 and increase the value of a until it reaches 1070 END ‘end the program100 MOVE T1 ‘ go to point 1110 NEXT A ‘ go back to line 10200 MOVE T2 ‘ go to point 2210 RETURN ‘ go back to where we left line 50

10 T1 = 30. 10. 10. 40.20 T2 = 15. 5. 5. 10.30 T3 = 0. 0. 0. 0.40 MOVE T1 ‘ move to a start point50 SHAVE ‘ allow motions to “only get close” before moving to the next point60 MOVE T2: MOVE T3 ’ slows down at t2 before going to t370 NOSHAVE ‘ make motion stop fully before going to the next point80 MOVE T1 ‘ return to the start90 MOVE T2: MOVE T3’ stops at t2 before going to t3100 MOVE T1 ‘ return to the start110 MOVES T2: MOVES T3 ’ moves in a straight line from t1 to t2 and from t2 to t3120 MOVE T1 ‘ back to the start again130 MOVEC T2 T3 ‘ follows a smooth path, not slowing down at t2140 MOVE T1 ‘ back to the start again150 SYNC ‘ make gripper stay stationary relative to ground160 MOVEC T2 T3 ‘ the arm moves, but the gripper stays at 0170 NOSYNC ‘ make gripper follow robot

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• A example that defines tool location offsets is shown below. This is particularly useful for a

robot that has more than one tool attached. The normal tool location is on the end of the arm. With

multiple tools attached we will have multiple tool center points. We can have a tool definition for

each one of these. Note that the x-axis is the normal forward for the tool. The tool axis can only be

changed in the x-y plane (or the plane perpendicular to the gripper rotation).

• A example that uses pallet commands is shown below. Basically a pallet allows us to create

an array of points (it does the calculations). We can then give a location on a pallet and move to

that point. The basic pallet definition requires that we indicate the number of rows and columns.

We also need to define the physical locations of the rows and columns. We do this by giving an

origin point, and then defining where the first row and column end. To use the pallet location we

can simply refer to the pallet location index.

30 A = 0.1 ’ the tool center point x offset from the gripper40 B = 0.2 ’ the tool center point y offset from the gripper50 C = 0.3 ’ the tool center point z offset from the gripper60 D = 1 ’ define an offset for an axis70 E = 0 ’ define a zero offset for an axis80 DEF TL2 D E A B C ’ tool 2 at (0.1, 0.2, 0.3) with the x-axis pointing forward (1,0)90 DEF TL3 E D C B A ’ tool 3 at (0.3, 0.2, 0.1) with the x-axis pointing to the left (0,1)100 TOOL 1 ’ indicate that you are using tool 1110 MOVE T1 ’ move to position 1 with the tool pointing in the normal direction111 remark note that the robot gripper will be positioned (-0.1, -0.2, -0.3) from normal120 TOOL 2 ’ choose the tool on the gripper pointing to the left130 MOVE T1 ’ this will move the robot to (-0.3, -0.2, -0.1)140 remark the robot will also move so that the tool is pointing to the left.

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• A example that defines and uses new frames is shown below. We define a new frame of ref-

erence by using points. The first point becomes the new origin. The second point determines

where the new x-axis points. The z-axis remains vertical, and the y-axis is shifted appropriately.

• A example that uses simple inputs and outputs is shown below. Note that there are two con-

nectors for I/O. The main or ‘E’xternal connector is on the main controller box. The other I/O

110 R = 3 ’ define the number of rows on the pallet120 C = 4 ’ define the number of columns130 DEF PA2 (R,C) T1 T2 T3 ’ pallet with first row from t1 to t2, the first column from

t1 to t3140 FOR I = 0 TO R-1 ’ loop for the rows150 FOR J = 0 TO C-1 ’ loop for the columns160 MOVE T4’ move the pickup point170 OUTPUT +OG3 ’ close the gripper180 MOVE PA2(J,I) ’ move to the location on the pallet190 OUTPUT -OG3 ’ open the gripper200 NEXT J: NEXT I ’ continue the loop to the next parts

20 T1 = 2. 1. 0. 0. ’ define a point30 T2 = 1. 1. 0. 0.40 T3 = 2. 2. 0. 0.50 DEF FR1 T2 T1 ’ defines frame with origin at (1,1,0), but x-y axis in original

direction60 DEF FR3 T1 T2 ’ defines origin at T1 and x-axis pointing T2-T1=(-1,0,0) 70 DEF FR2 T2 T3 ’ defines origin at T2 and x-axis pointing T3-T2 = (.71,.71,0)80 MOVE T2 ’ THIS WILL MOVE TO (1 1 0 0)90 FRAME 1 ’ USE REFERENCE FRAME #1100 MOVE T2 ’ THIS WILL MOVE TO FR1+T2 = (2, 2, 0, 0)110 FRAME 2 ’ USE REFERENCE FRAME #2120 MOVE T2 ’ THIS WILL MOVE TO FR2+T2 = ( 1, 0, 0, 0)130 FRAME 3 ’ USE REFERENCE FRAME #3140 MOVE T2 ’ THIS WILL MOVE TO FR3+T2 = (1.71, 1.71, 0, 0)150 FRAME 0’ GO BACK TO THE MAIN COORDINATES80 MOVE T2 ’ THIS WILL MOVE TO (1 1 0 0)

page 305

lines are on the ‘G’ripper. We can check the states of inputs and set the states of outputs. The ‘+’

sign indicates inputs/outputs high (5v) and the ‘-’ sign indicates low (0V). The ranges for input

points are ie0-ie15, ig0-ig7, and for output points oe0-15, og0-7. The search command allows us

to move the robot until an input is activated. This is useful when attempting to find a part by

touching it.

10.1.1.2 - Commands Summary

• A summary of the commands is given below,

100 WAIT +IE3 ’ wait for external input #3 to turn on110 WAIT -IG4 ’ wait for gripper input #4 to turn off120 IF IE5 AND NOT IE6 THEN 110 ’ check to see if external input5 is on and 6 is off130 OUTPUT +OG4 ’ turn on output #4 on the gripper140 OUTPUT -OE4 ’ turn on output #4 on the external connector (not the gripper)150 SEARCH +IG7 T1 THEN 200 ELSE 300 ’ move towards t1 until gripper input 7 goes on

CLEAR <variable> This will clear a variable or point value. If none is specified then all the variable memory is cleared.

DEF FR <1-9> Tn Tn This command will allow the workspace axes to be redefined.

DEF PA <0-9> (etc. For defining pallets

DEF TL <1-9> X1 Y1 X2 Y2 Z1

Defined tool offsets

page 306

DELAY <1-32767> Will delay for the specified time in milliseconds

END Specifies the end of a program.

FOR TO / NEXT Allows the standard BASIC for next loop.

FRAME Specifies a current frame of reference.

GOSUB / RETURN Functions for creating subroutines.

GOTO An unconditional jump to another line number.

HERE <Tn> Will define the current position to the location variable.

HOME Move the robot to an initial position

INPUT Fill a variable with an input from the keyboard

IF/THEN/ELSE Standard flow control commands

page 307

JOGRT Sets the robot to move in cylindrical mode

JOGSP <1-100> Sets the jogging speed

JOGXY Sets the robot to move in cartesian coordinates relative to the current frame.

MOVE <Tn> Move to a specified position.

MOVEC <Tn> <Tn> [C]MOVEC <Tn> <rad> [L,C]

Move the robot in a circular continuous path

MOVES <Tn> Move the robot with straight line motion

NOSHAVE Sets the robot to stop fully at the end of each

OD = n Sets one of the four binary output bits (0-15)

OUTPUT <+/-> <OE,OGn> [10-32767]

Opens and closes gripper or externally connected devices.

PRINT Output a structured string to the output unit or

SHAVE Allow the robot to start the next motion before the previous one is complete.

page 308

10.2 IBM 7535 MANIPULATOR

• In general

Degrees of freedom 4Maximum payload 6kg (13.2 lb)Repeatability (based on constant temp., load, speed) +/-0.05mm (+/- 0.002 in.)Weight 99kg (218 lb)Operating Temperature 10C to 40.6C (50F to 106F)Humidity (based on constant temp. load, speed) 8% to 80%

• Theta 1 axis

motion revoluteRange 0 to 200 degrees +/- 1deg.Resolution 0.00459 deg.Low speed (note: this is set by a switch)

max. speed 700 mm/sec (28 in./sec)

SPEED Sets the speed of the manipulator

STOP Terminate the execution of the program.

TOOL n Set motions to be relative to a tool.

WAIT <+/-> <IE,IG> <0-15> Wait for a certain input condition.

OUTPUT <+/-> <OE,OGn> [10-32767]

Opens and closes gripper or externally connected devices.

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max. load 6 kg(13.2 lb)Medium speed

max. speed 1100 mm/sec (43 in./sec)max. load 6 kg(13.2 lb)

High speedmax. speed 1450 mm/sec (57 in./sec)max. load 1 kg(2.2 lb)

• Theta 2 axis

motion revoluteRange 0 to 160 degrees +/- 1deg.Resolution 0.009 deg.Low speed (note: this is set by a switch)

max. speed 525 mm/sec (21 in./sec)max. load 6 kg(13.2 lb)

Medium speedmax. speed 825 mm/sec (32 in./sec)max. load 6 kg(13.2 lb)

High speedmax. speed 1000 mm/sec (39 in./sec)max. load 1 kg(2.2 lb)

• Roll axis

motion revoluteRange +/- 180 degrees +/- 1.5 deg.Holding Torque 35 kg-cm (30.4 in.-lb.)Maximum load centered on Z-Axis 6 kg (13.2 lb)Maximum speed 3.7 rad/sec (210 deg./sec. +/-5%)Rotating Torque 14 kg-cm (12.2 in-lb)Max. load inertia 0.1 kg-m**2 (0.074 slug-ft**2)

(Note: effects of off centre loads not considered, and lower maximum)

Resolution 0.36 deg.

• Z-Axis

motion prismaticRange 75 mm (2.95 in.)Maximum Payload 6.0 kg (13.2 lb)Resolution Not Applicable

• Compressed Air

Maximum Pressure 6 kg/cm**2 (85 psig)

page 310

Conditioning Must be moisture free, as through amoisture separator, and filtered withregulator.

• The workspace is shown below,

650 0 0, ,( )

0 650 0, ,( )

650– 0 0, ,( )

x

y

z

page 311

7535/7540 LINEAR Rate Values Available

Programmed Rate

123456789102030500

Arm speed at tool tipmm/sec. (in./sec)

60 (2.4)100 (3.9)140 (5.5)180 (7.1)225 (8.9)265 (10.4)305 (12.0)345 (13.6)385 (15.2)430 (16.9)430 (16.9)430 (16.9)430 (16.9)Exit linear speed and motion

Straight line errormm (in.)

3.0 (0.12)3.7 (0.15)4.4 (0.17)5.3 (0.21)6.2 (0.24)6.9 (0.27)7.6 (0.30)8.4 (0.33)9.3 (0.37)10.0 (0.39)11.5 (0.45)11.5 (0.45)11.5 (0.45)

7535 Program Speed Values for PAYLOAD Command

Program speed values

123456789100

Speed of theta1at the tool tipmm/sec (in./sec)

300 (11.8)500 (19.7)700 (27.6)750 (29.5)900 (35.4)1000 (39.3)1100 (43.3)1200 (47.2)1300 (51.2)1450 (57.1)Default to speed switches

Speed of theta2at the tool tipmm/sec (in./sec)

225 (8.9)375 (14.8)525 (20.7)575 (22.6)675 (26.6)750 (29.5)825 (32.4)900 (35.4)950 (37.4)1000 (39.3)

Maximumpayload for speedkg (lb)

6 (13.2)6 (13.2)6 (13.2)6 (13.2)6 (13.2)6 (13.2)6 (13.2)3.5 (7.7)2 (4.4)1 (2.2)

NOTE: Speeds in the table are for planning purposes only and are typical minimumvalues. Speed values only consider a single joint moving. Speed at the endof the arm is greater when multiple joints are used on a single move.

page 312

10.2.1 AML Programs

• All AML comments start with two dashes ‘--’ at any position on a line

• Statements are ended with a semi-colon, and as long as semi-colons are used, more than one

statement can be used on a line.

• Line numbering is done by the AML Editor

• the free form variables/identifiers must: start with a letter; be up to 72 characters in length;

use letters numbers and underscores, except in the last position.

• Statements have the general form,


IDENTIFIER:KEYWORD;- IDENTIFIER is a unique name that the user has selected- the colon separates the two elements- KEYWORD indicates the significance of the IDENTIFIER to

the system- the semi-colon indicates the end of the statement

page 313

• A summary of the commands is given below,

NEWPROG:SUBR: --A subroutine called NEWPROG to pick up a partRELEASE; -- open the gripper before dropping to prevent collisionDELAY(20); -- wait 2 seconds to ensure the gripper is openDOWN; -- drop down to the work surfaceDELAY(10); -- wait 1 second just to be sure everything has settled downGRASP; -- close the gripperDELAY(10); -- wait 1 second to allow everything to settle downUP; -- go up so that we can move over other objectsPMOVE(PT(300,300,0)); -- move to 300,300 in robot coordinatesEND; -- return to the calling routine

BRANCH(label);(flow command)

This will force a branch to the statement having the label.

BREAKPOINT;(flow command)

When this command is executed, it will examine the “stop and Mem” key on the robot. If either is pressed, the program execution will stop.

DECR(name);(logic command)

Decrement ‘name’ by one.

DELAY(seconds);(flow command)

This commands will wait for the number of tenths of seconds given, this can be used when motions must finish before continuing. If the value is 10, then the delay will be 1 second.

page 314

DOWN(value);(motion command)

Instructs the robot to drop the gripper (z-axis). The program delays until the gripper has dropped. If the axis has not reached it’s limit within the given time, then an error message will be generated. The timeout can be altered (from 1.5 seconds) by supplying a ‘value’ argument in tenths of a second. A value of zero means wait forever

DPMOVE(x,y,z,r);DPMOVE(x,y,r);(motion command)

A relative cartesian motion is made in the direction specified. if the z-axis has a height control, the z can be included.

GETC(counter_name);(communication command)

The program is halted briefly while the host computer is polled the a new counter value.

GETPART(name);(pallet command)

Move to the current part on the pallet.

GRASP;(motion command)

The EOAT gripper will be closed when this command is issued.

INCR(name);(logic command)

Variable ‘name’ is incremented by one.

LINEAR(quality);(setting command)

When the robot moves it can follow a number of paths, but this command will set all motions to follow a straight path. As the ‘value’ goes from 50 to 1 the path quality improves. If the ‘value’ is zero, the linear mode is turned off.

page 315

NEXTPART(name);(pallet command)

move the pallet reference ahead by one.

PAYLOAD(value);(setting command)

As the mass carried changes, so do the maximum speeds. This command will allow modification of the motion speeds. As ‘value’ changes from 10 to 1 the load increases, and the robot will go slower. A ‘value’ of zero will turn the function off.

PMOVE(PT(x,y,r);PMOVE(PT(x,y,z,r));PMOVE(name);(motion command)

The PMOVE portion of this nested command will cause a movement to a point. The PT statement indicated the position of a point. A point ‘name’ could also be used. Here x and y are the cartesian coordinates on the work plane, and r is the roll of the gripper (±180°). Home, with the arm stretched to the far left is (650,0,0)

PREVPART(name);(pallet command)

reduce the current pallet part count by one.

RELEASE;(motion command)

This command is the opposite of GRASP, and will release the gripper.

SETC(name, value);(logic command)

Set the counter name to a value.

SETPART(name, value);(pallet command)

set the pallet name to the given value.

page 316

• A summary of some of the keywords is,

TESTC(name, value, label);TESTI(DIpoint,value,label);TESTP(name,value,label);(logic command)

TESTC does a conditional branch statement that compares name to value. TESTI does the same for a DI point, and a value. TESTP compares a pallet name and value. All statements branch to label if the comparison is equal.

UP(value);(motion command)

This commands is the reverse of DOWN, as it raises the z-axis.

WAITI(DIpoint,value,time);(logic command)

Pause while waiting for the DI point to reach value. Time specifies a maximum value before an error message should be generated.

WRITEO(DO point, value);(logic command)

Set DO point to the given value.

ZMOVE(position); Move the z-axis to a given position, if variable positioning is available.

ZONE(factor);(setting command)

The accuracy of a point to point move is set using this command. As the value ‘factor’ changes from 15 to 1 the motion times increase, but the final position is more accurate. If ‘factor’ has a value of zero, the function is turned off.

END; causes a return from a subroutine.

name:NEW PT(x,y,r);name:NEW PT(x,y,z,r);

Defines a point name with the values x,y,r and z if the robot supports it.

page 317

10.3 ASEA IRB-1000

• In general

maximum payload (for a 200mm tool offset) 6 kgMaximum moment of inertia 2.5 Nm (dynamic)Maximum static moment 12 Nm (static)weight 125 kgaccuracy at wrist +/- 0.20mm

• Axis 1

name:NEW ‘string’; A string is assigned to variable name.

name:NEW n; Create a variable name, and assign a numeric value to

ident:SUBR;ident:SUBR(parameter);

A subroutine called ident is created. A parameter list can be associated by adding it to the definition.

name:STATICCOUNTER;

a counter variable called name is created.

name:STATICPALLET(ll,lr,ur,ppr,parts

);

a pallet definition name can be defined. The pallet is assumed to be rectangular with the three corners given, ll, lr and ur (lower left, lower right, and upper right respectively). the parts per row (ppr), and total number of parts are also given.

label:statement; A label can be arbitrarily inserted before any command to set a branch point.

page 318

joint type revoluterange 340 deg.speed 95 deg/secactuator servo

• Axis 2

joint type revoluterange +/-40 deg.speed 0.75 m/secactuator servo

• Axis 3

joint type revoluterange +/-25 deg. to -40 deg.speed 1.1 m/sactuator servo

• Axis 4

joint type revoluterange +/- 90 deg.speed 115 deg/sec.actuator servo

• Axis 5

joint type revoluterange +/- 180 deg.speed 195 deg/secactuator servo

• Gripper

Pneumatic 2 solenoid valves are located in theupper arm, and can be operated bythe programs.

electrical There is a four pole electrical outletin the upper arm for use with moreadvanced grippers having searchfunctions.

page 319

10.4 UNIMATION PUMA (360, 550, 560 SERIES)

• In general,

- an articulated arm with 3 dof for positioning, and 3 dof for orientation- left/right arm configurations are possible- uses DC servo motors for drive- uses 110-130 VAC, 50-60Hz, 1.5KW- weight 120 lb- repeatability 0.004in- RS-232C port for dumb terminal- 32 parallel I/O lines- memory 16K- programming language is VAL

• joint 1 (Waist)

joint type revoluterange 315°max slew rate 1.9 rad/sec.resolution .0001 rad/bitmaximum static torque 9.9Nm

• joint 2 (Shoulder)


• joint 3 (Elbow)


• joint 4 (Wrist Rotation)

joint type revoluterange 575°max slew rate 8.7 rad/sec.resolution .000181 rad/bit

page 320

maximum static torque 1.5Nm

• joint 5 (Wrist Bend)


• joint 6 (Flange Rotation)



2. Write a short program to direct a robot to pick up and put down a block. Assume the points

have already been programmed with the teach pendants.

a) Write program for the IBM 7535.b) Write program for the Seiko RT-3000.

page 321

10. You have been asked to write a program for a Seiko RT-3000. The program is to pick up

a part at point T1, move to point T2, and then load the part into a pallet. The robot should then

return to point A to pick up then next part. This should continue until the pallet is full.

T1 = (300, 300, 20)

T2 = (-300, 300, 0)

Pallet has 6 rows and 7 columns

Pallet origin T3 = (300, 0, 0)

Pallet end of row T4 = (350, 0, 0)

Pallet end of column T5 = (300, 60, 0)

NEWPROG:BLOCK;RELEASE; -- open the gripperDELAY(5); -- delay 1/2 second to allow the gripper to openPMOVE(OVER); -- move to the point over the pickup point called ‘OVER’DOWN; -- move the arm downDELAY(2); -- wait for the motion to complete and settleGRASP; -- close the gripperDELAY(2); -- wait for the gripper to closeUP; -- raise the blockDELAY(20); -- wait for a couple of secondsDOWN; -- drop the block back to the surface of the tableOPEN; -- open the gripperUP; move the arm away from the blockEND; - terminate the program

ans. a)

page 322

11. An IBM 7535 industrial robot is to be used to unload small 1 lb. cardboard boxes (5” by

4” by 1”) from a conveyor, and stack them in a large cardboard box (20” by 8” and 2” deep). After

the large box is loaded, it will be removed automatically and replaced with an empty one. The

conveyor will be controlled by a robot output, and it will be stopped when an optical sensor

detects a small box. When the box is full the conveyor will be stopped and a light turned on until

an unload button is pushed. The entire system uses a start and stop button combination. The stop

button is not an e-stop, but it will stop the cycle after the small box is placed in the large box.

a) Layout the position of the conveyor, sensor, large box and robot so that all positions can be reached. Indicate critical points of objects.

b) Design a robot gripper to pick up the boxes.c) Develop a flow chart for the robot operations.d) Write an AML program for the flowchart.

ans.10 T1 = 300. 300. 20. 0.20 T2 = -300. 300. 0. 0.30 T3 = 300. 0. 0. 0.40 T4 = 350. 0. 0. 0.50 T5 = 300. 60. 0. 0.60 R = 670 C = 780 OUTPUT +OG390 DEF PA2(R, C) T3 T4 T5100 FOR I = 0 TO R-1110 FOR J = 0 TO C-1120 MOVE T1130 OUTPUT -OG3 200140 MOVE T2150 MOVE PA2(J, I)160 OUTPUT +OG3 200170 NEXT J180 NEXT I190 STOP

page 323

First, we need to convert the given dimensions to mm.small boxes = 127x101.6x25.4mmlarge boxes = 508x203.2x76.2mm

Next, we need to overlay these on the robot workspace. In this case there is abun-dant space and can be done by inspection.

650 0 0, ,( )

0 650 0, ,( )

650– 0 0, ,( )

x

y

z

A

B C

D

A = (0, 650-101.6/2, 0) = (0, 599.2, 0)B = (-400, -1.5*127, 0) = (-400, -190.5, 0)C = (-400 + 101.6, -1.5*127, 0) = (-298.4, -190.5, 0)D = (-400, 1.5*127, 0) = (-400, 190.5, 0)

ans. a)

photosensor127/2mm

page 324

For this application, vacuum grippers should work effectively because the mass is light, and the boxes should have clean cardboard faces. Because the application has been designed to lift the boxes in the centers, we should be able to use a single suction cup, but a large factor of safety will be used to compensate (>= 3). We will assume that we are using a venturi valve to generate the suction, so a pressure differential of 3psi is rea-sonable.

W( )FS PAmin=

1lb3 3 lb

in2

-------Amin=

Amin 1in2

=

Amin πdmin

2----------

2≤

ans. b)

1in2 π

dmin

2----------

2≤

dmin 1.13in=

Based on this calculation I would select a suction cup that is 1.25” or 1.5” dia.

page 325

12. Repeat the previous problem for the Seiko RT-3000 robot.

ans. c)Start

startbutton pushed?

pick up small box

index pallet

move above box

turn off conveyor

is box full?

turn on light

reset button?

reset pallet values

stop pushed?

yes

no

yes

no

yes

no

yes

no

page 326

First, we need to convert the given dimensions to mm.small boxes = 127x101.6x25.4mmlarge boxes = 508x203.2x76.2mm

Next, we need to overlay these on the robot workspace. In this case there is abun-dant space and can be done by inspection.

500– 0 0, ,( )

0 500 0, ,( )

x

yA

B C

D

A = (0, 500-101.6/2, 0) = (0, 449.2, 0)B = (-350, -1.5*127, 0) = (-350, -190.5, 0)C = (-350 + 101.6, -1.5*127, 0) = (-248.4, -190.5, 0)D = (-350, 1.5*127, 0) = (-350, 190.5, 0)

ans. a)

photosensor

127/2mm

page 327

For this application, vacuum grippers should work effectively because the mass is light, and the boxes should have clean cardboard faces. Because the application has been designed to lift the boxes in the centers, we should be able to use a single suction cup, but a large factor of safety will be used to compensate (>= 3). We will assume that we are using a venturi valve to generate the suction, so a pressure differential of 3psi is rea-sonable.

W( )FS PAmin=

1lb3 3 lb

in2

-------Amin=

Amin 1in2

=

Amin πdmin

2----------

2≤

ans. b)

1in2 π

dmin

2----------

2≤

dmin 1.13in=

Based on this calculation I would select a suction cup that is 1.25” or 1.5” dia.

page 328

ans. c)Start

startbutton pushed?

pick up small box

index pallet

move above box

turn off conveyor

is box full?

turn on light

reset button?

reset pallet values

stop pushed?

yes

no

yes

no

yes

no

yes

no

page 329

14. The IBM 7535 robot arm moves its TCP to point (-450, 250)mm at speeds programmed

by ‘payload(5)’ and decelerates from the resultant speed to zero in 0.5 seconds. The tool has a

ans.10 R = 3: C = 4: H = 0 ‘ define rows and column variables20 SPEED 100 ‘ set the robot speed30 T1 = 0. 449.2 0. 0. ‘ set point A40 T2 = -350. 449.2 -190.5 0. ‘ set point B50 T3 = -248.4 449.2 -190.5 0. ‘ set point C60 T4 = -350. 449.2 190.5 0. ‘ set point D70 T5 = 0. 0. -50. 0. ‘ a displacement to the conveyor height80 T6 = 0. 0. -100.4 0. ‘ a displacement to the bottom layer of the large box90 T7 = 0. 0. -75. 0. ‘ a displacement to the top layer of the large box100 DEF PA2(4,2) T1 T2 T3 ‘ define pallet110 WAIT +IE1 ‘ wait for external input #1 to go on, this is the start button120 FOR H = 0 TO 1 ‘ set box layers130 FOR I = 0 TO R-1 ‘ loop for rows140 FOR J = 0 TO C-1 ‘ loop for columns150 OUTPUT +OE1 ‘ turn on external output #1, this is the conveyor160 MOVE T1 ‘ move to the conveyor pickup point170 WAIT +IE2 ‘ wait for the input from the optical sensor to go on180 OUTPUT -OE1 ‘ turn off the conveyor190 MOVE T1 + T5 ‘ move to pick up box200 OUTPUT +OG1 ‘ turn on suction cup on gripper210 MOVE T1 ‘ pick up the box220 MOVE PA2(I, J) ‘ move to the pallet position in the large box230 IF H = 1 THEN GOTO 260 ‘ jump if on the top layer240 MOVE PA2(I, J) + T6 ‘ move to the bottom layer of the box250 GOTO 270260 MOVE PA2(I, J) + T7 ‘ move to the bottom layer of the box270 OUTPUT -OG1 ‘ turn off the suction cup280 MOVE PA2(I, J) ‘ move out of box290 IF NOT IE3 THEN GOTO 310300 WAIT +IE1 ‘ wait for the start button310 NEXT J: NEXT I: NEXT H ‘ end of the loops320 OUTPUT +OE2 ‘ turn on box full light330 WAIT +IE4 ‘ wait for the reset button340 GOTO 110 ‘ go back to start anew

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mass of 1.5 kg with its center of gravity at 3cm from the TCP and transfers a mass of 4kg with its

C.G. at 5cm from the TCP.

a) determine the inertia torque about the theta1 axis showing all correct unitsb) compare the value in a) with a maximum inertia torque estimated from decelerating a

6kg mass from 1100mm/s to zero in 0.5 sec.c) Estimate the combined error at the CG of the load due to theta1 and theta 2 resolution

10.6 LABORATORY - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT

Purpose: Introduction to the Seiko RT-3000 robot and programming methods.

Overview: This laboratory will involve a basic tutorial on the use of the robot, including safety. The

students will have prepared a program for the robot ahead of class. During the lab-oratory the robot will be programmed and tested using the prepared programs. A simple accuracy and repeatability test will be conducted.

Pre-Lab:1. Use Netscape Communicator to access the robots in the laboratory, explore the site.2. Review the note section on the Seiko RT-3000. After this use the on-line robot to write

a simple test program.3. Write a program to pick up pop cans at one point, and put them down at another point.

This program should repeat five times in a row. Test the program on the robot.

In-Lab:

1. Examine the robot and all associated cables, including the pneumatics. Make sure the settings match the manual specifications.

2. Examine the buttons on the front and connectors on the back of the controller box. Match these up to the input/output points. Determine if these are TTL, sourcing, or some other type.

3. Turn on the robot and use the teach pendant, with the commands below, to control the robot.

4. Turn the robot controller off, connect it to a computer, and then turn it back on. Turn the servo power on and then type in the command home. The robot will move and find its reference position. You may then type in commands at the prompt.

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5. Program some points using the ‘here’ command. (refer to manual).

6. Enter the simple program below to move between the programmed points. Add in com-mands that will open and close the gripper.

7. Add lines the the program that will turn on/off outputs and examine inputs. Use the appropriate electrical equipment to test the new parts of the program.

8. Enter and test your prelab program with no parts present. Set up the parts and run the program again. Cooperate with the other group and add a part present sensor to the part pickup point, connect it to the robot, and add a line to the program to wait for the part.

9. Move to the other robot and complete the other part of the first step.10. For the robot you are currently using, put the robot in an extended position (tool far

away from the base). Set up a dial gauge indicator so that it touches a solid point on the tool. Set the gauge so that it reads zero. Move the robot away and back to the same position, and read the value from the dial gauge indicator. Repeat this process to get 10 readings.

11. Position the robot so that the tool is in the middle of the workspace. Take similar mea-surements to those in step 3.

Submit (individually):1. A copy of your prelab program.2. A copy of the final program with the part detector sensor.3. Statistical estimates of repeatability for both positions.

10.7 TUTORIAL - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT

1. Look at the robot and controller. Indentify the controller, teach pendant (programming termi-nal) and robot.

2. Turn on the robot power and look at the programming terminal. There should be a message that says " ". If there are any error messages inform the instructor.

3. Turn on the servo motor power by pressing the ’Servo ON’ button on the front of the controller. After this the robot can be moved to the home position with the ’HOME’ command. After the robot goes through the startup procedure it will be ready for use.

4. The robor joints can be moved with the arrows on the right side of the keyboard. Move each joint and observe the range of motion.

5.

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10.8 LABORATORY - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT

Purpose: Introduction to robots and programming methods.

Overview:

Pre-Lab:

In-Lab:

Submit:

10.9 TUTORIAL - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT

1. Look at the robot and controller. Indentify the controller, teach pendant (programming termi-nal) and robot.

2.

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11. ROBOT APPLICATIONS

The nice definition of a robot by the Robot Institute of America is “A robot is a reprogram-

mable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices

through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks”. The not-so-nice

definition is "Robots are one armed, blind, stupid, deaf, mute, and cannot feel and understand

what they are doing".

11.0.1 Overview

• Unlike many machines, robots are easy to imagine performing tasks, because of their simi-

larity to the human form. This has caused many companies to adopt robots without properly

assessing what their strengths and weaknesses are.

• The early days of experimentation lead to many failed applications, as well as some notable

successes.

• A useful dichotomy is,

Point-to-Point - A robot that typically only has 2 (or very few) possible positions. These are good for pick and place type operations, and they are often constructed with pneumatic cylinders.

Manipulation - A robot that assembles, or moves parts requires good end of path motion, but does not require as much accuracy in the middle of the path. A higher speed between path endpoints is often desired.

Path Tracking - When arc welding, gluing, etc. the robot must follow a path with high accuracy, and constant speed. This often results in slower motion, and more sophisticated control software.

Operating - The robot will be expected to apply forces to perform work at the end of the tool, such as doing press fits. While the demands for these robots is essentially the same, they must be capable of handling the higher forces required when in work-ing contact with the work.

Telerobotics - Acts as a remote extension of human control, often for safety or miniatur-ization purposes. In these cases the robots often mimic the human form, and pro-vide some forms of physical feedback.

Services - mail delivery, vacuuming, etc.

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Biomedical - prosthetic and orthotic devices.

• The number of degrees of freedom of the robot should be matched to the tasks.

• Note: 5 d.o.f. robots will allow the tool to reach all points in space if the tool has an axis of

symmetry. For example, a welding torch flame has a symmetrical axis.

• Some commercial applications that have been done with robots are,

- die casting - used for unloading parts from dies, quenching parts, and trimming them with a trim press. The robot may also be used to put inserts into the die.

- spot welding - spot welding electrodes are clamped in place, and the weld is made. The robot allows many welds to be done.

- arc welding- continuous path robots are used to slowly track a path with a continuous rate, and with control of welding parameters.

- investment casting - robots can be used in the pick and place operations involved in mak-ing the molds.

- forging- a robot can be used to precisely position the work under the impact hammer, freeing a worker from the handling hot heavy work pieces.

- press work- the robot handles loading parts into the press, and removing the resulting work pieces.

- spray painting- a very popular application in which the robot sweeps the paint head across the surface to deposit a spray. This process has been coupled with electro-statics to improve efficiency and distribution.

- plastic molding - they can be used for loading the hoppers, and unloading the parts. This is most effective when the parts are hard to handle.

- foundry process- robots can be used for ladling materials, and preparation of molds.- machine tools- robots can be used for loading and unloading machine tools, and material

transfer systems.- heat treatment process - parts can be loaded into the ovens, unloaded from the ovens,

quenched and dried by robots.- metal deburring - continuous path robots can be used to track rough edges with a compli-

ant tool design. - palletizing process - parts can be placed in boxes, or on skids in preparation for shipping.

Most robots have program commands to support this.- brick manufacture - a robot can be used for loading and unloading a kiln, and stacking

bricks for shipping.- glass manufacture - a robot can handle the breakable glass with a wide EOAT that pre-

vents sagging, etc. The robot can also be used for grinding edges.

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11.0.2 Spray Painting and Finishing

• Air spraying - air under pressure causes the paint to atomize and be propelled to the article

to be painted

• Airless spraying - finishing materials, such as paint, are sprayed under considerable hydrau-

lic pressure through a fixed orifice, which causes the paint to be atomized directly without the

need for air.

• Electrostatic spraying - Atomized particles (paint or powder droplets) are electrostatically

charged. These are attracted to the object being sprayed by the applied electrostatic field. Consid-

erable material savings are achieved since very little of the sprayed material bypasses the object

and is lost. Objects being sprayed are kept at a ground potential to achieve a large electrostatic

field.

• Heating of materials - paint decreases in viscosity when heated and can be sprayed with

lower pressures. Less solvent is required and there is less overspray of paint. Heating may be used

with any of the preceding systems

• Air spraying and electrostatic spraying are the most common methods of application for

paints, enamels, powders, and sound absorbing coatings.

11.0.3 Welding

• These tasks are characterized by the need for,

- smooth motion- conformity to specified paths- consistent tool speed

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11.0.4 Assembly

• General concepts are,

• one or more robots• each robot may perform a variety of sub-assemblies• requires a conveyor and inspection station• A host computer must synchronize robot actions• A bad part rejection function should be available• An organized output should be used, e.g. pallets, or shipping crates.

• These tasks are common, but face stiff competition from fixed automation and manual

labor.

11.0.5 Belt Based Material Transfer

• When a robot is used in a workcell, the raw part is delivered in, worked on, and then moved

out. This can be done using moving belts, etc.

• Parts are placed directly on the belt, or placed on pallets first.

• Belts can travel in straight paths, or in curved paths if flexible belt link designs are used.

• If straight belts are used, transfer points can be used at the end to change part/pallet direc-

tion

• When pallets are used, there is a fixture on top designed to hold the part in an accurate posi-

tion so that robots and other equipment will be able to locate the part within some tolerance.

• Vision systems may be necessary if part orientation cannot be fixed.

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11.1 END OF ARM TOOLING (EOAT)

• The best known universal gripper - the human hand

• Useful classifications are,

- Grippers- multiple/single- internal/external

- Tools- compliant- contact- non-contact

• End of arm tooling is typically purchased separately, or custom built.

11.1.1 EOAT Design

• Typical factors to be considered are,

Workpiece to be handledpart dimensionsmasspre- and post- processing geometrygeometrical tolerancespotential for part damage

Actuatorsmechanicalvacuummagnetetc.

Power source of EOATelectricalpneumatichydraulicmechanical

Range of gripping forceobject massfriction or nested gripcoefficient of friction between gripper and partmaximum accelerations during motion

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Positioninggripper lengthrobot accuracy and repeatabilitypart tolerances

Maintenancenumber of cycles requireduse of separate wear componentsdesign for maintainability

Environmenttemperaturehumiditydirt, corrosives, etc.

Temperature protectionheat shieldslonger fingersseparate cooling systemheat resistant materials

Materialsstrong, rigid, durablefatigue strengthcost and ease of fabricationcoefficient of frictionsuitable for environment

Other pointsinterchangeable fingersdesign standardsuse of mounting plate on robotgripper flexible enough to accommodate product design change

• The typical design criteria are,

- low weight to allow larger payload, increase accelerations, decrease cycle time- minimum dimensions set by size of workpiece, and work area clearances- widest range of parts accommodated using inserts, and adjustable motions- rigidity to maintain robot accuracy and reduce vibrations- maximum force applied for safety, and to prevent damage to the work- power source should be readily available from the robot, or nearby- maintenance should be easy and fast- safety dictates that the work shouldn’t drop when the power fails

• Other advanced design points,

- ensure that part centroid is centered close to the robot to reduce inertial effects. Worst case make sure that it is between the points of contact.

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- holding pressures/forces/etc are hard to control, try to hold parts with features or shapes

- compliance can help guide work into out-of-alignment conditions.- sensors in the EOAT can check for parts not in the gripper, etc.- the gripper should tolerate variance in work position with part alignment features- gripper changers can be used to make a robot multifunctional- multiple EOAT heads allow one robot to perform many different tasks without an EOAT

change.- *** Don’t try to mimic human behavior.- design for quick removal or interchange of tooling by requiring a small number of tools

(wrenches, screwdrivers, etc).- provide dowels, slots, and other features to lead to fast alignment when changing grip-

pers.- use the same fasteners when possible.- eliminate sharp corners/edges to reduce wear on hoses, wires, etc.- allow enough slack and flexibility in cables for full range of motion.- use lightweight materials, and drill out frames when possible.- use hard coatings, or hardened inserts to protect soft gripper materials.- examine alternatives when designing EOAT.

Part

Gripper

Better - less chance of slippage

robot arm

Gripper

Partrobot arm

part will be more stable, and well located

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- the EOAT should be recognized as a potential bottleneck, and given extra design effort.- use shear pins, and other devices to protect the more expensive components.- consider dirt, and use sealed bearings where possible.- move as much weight away from the tip of the gripper towards the robot.

11.1.2 Gripper Mechanisms

• A gripper is specifically EOAT that uses a mechanical mechanism and actuator to grasp a

part with gripping surfaces (aka fingers)

• Quite often gripper mechanisms can be purchases, and customized fingers attached.

• Fingers are designed to,

1. Physically mate with the part for a good grip2. Apply enough force to the part to prevent slipping

• Movements of the fingers

- pivoting (often uses pivotal linkages)- linear or translational movement (often uses linear bearings and actuators)

• Typical mechanisms

- linkage actuation- gear and rack- cam

µnfFg wgS=µ coeff. of friction between part and gripper=

nf number of contacting fingers=

Fg gripper force=w weight of part=

g gravity=

S factor of safety=(for basic applications 2 to 3 should be the

absolute minimum, but high speed applicationswill require more force to resist inertial forces)

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- screw- rope and pulley- miscellaneous - eg. bladder, diaphragm

Two Finger Gripper - as the pneu-matic cylinder is actuated, the fingers move together and apart.

Parallel finger actuator - as the cylinder is actuated, the fin-gers move together and apart in parallel.

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11.1.2.1 - Vacuum grippers

• Suction cups can be used to grip large flat surfaces. The cups are,

- typically made of soft rubber or plastic- typically round, or oval shapes

• A piston operated vacuum pump (can give a high vacuum), or a venturi valve (simpler) can

Two Fingered Pneumatic Actuated - as the cylinder is actuated, it translates to the fingers opening or clos-ing. The extra links help increase holding force.

Two Finger Internal Gripper - as the cylinder is actuated, the fingers move outward.

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be used to generate the vacuum.

• The surfaces should be large, smooth, clean.

• The force of a suction cup depends on the effective area of the vacuum and the difference in

the vacuum, and air pressures.

• e.g.

F PA= F maximum gripping force=

P difference between vacuum and air pressure=

A total effective area of the vacuum=

We have a suction cup gripper with two 5”diameter cups that is to be usedto lift 1/4” steel plates cut to 2’ by 3’. How much vacuum pressure mustbe applied to just hold the plates? Suggest a realistic value.

w 0.28 lb

in3

------- 1

4--- in( ) 24 in( ) 36 in( )×× 60.48 lb( )= =

A 2 π 52---

22 19.63 in

2( )[ ] 39.26 in2( )= = =

PwA---- 60.48 lb( )

39.26 in2( )

-------------------------- 1.54 psi( )= = =Minimum to hold plate

Assume low moving speed for robot, use factor of safety = 2.0

PS 2.0 P× 3.08 psi( )= =

Note: this is much less than atmospheric pressure (15 psi), there-fore it is realistic.

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• Advantages,

- requires only one surface of a part to grasp- a uniform pressure can be distributed over some area, instead of concentrated on a point- the gripper is light weight- many different types of materials can be used

• Disadvantages,

- the maximum force is limited by the size of the suction cups- positioning may be somewhat inaccurate- time may be needed for the vacuum in the cup to build up

11.1.3 Magnetic Grippers

• Can be used with ferrous materials

• Electromagnets,

- easy to control, requires a power supply, and a controller- polarity can be reversed on the magnet when it is put down to reverse residual magne-

tism

• Permanent magnets,

- external power is not required- a mechanism is required to separate parts from the magnet when releasing- good for environments that are sensitive to sparks

• Advantages,

- variation in part size can be tolerated- ability to handle metal parts with holes- pickup times fast- requires only one surface for gripping- can pick up the top sheet from a stack

• Disadvantages,

- residual magnetism that remains in the workpiece- possible side slippage

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11.1.3.1 - Adhesive Grippers

• Can handle fabrics and other lightweight materials

• These grippers are basically a sticky surface on the end of the robot

• As the adhesive gripper is repeatedly used, it loses stickiness, but a tape roll can be used to

refresh the sticky surface.

11.1.4 Expanding Grippers

• Some parts have hollow cavities that can be used to advantage when grasping.

• A bladder can be inserted into a part, and then inflated. This forms a friction seal between

the two, and allows manipulation. When done the pressure is released, and the part freed.

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• Expanding grippers can also be used when gripping externally.

11.1.5 Other Types Of Grippers

• Most grippers for manipulation are sold with mounts so that fingers may be removed, and

replaced.

bladders inflate inwards

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• Gripper fingers can be designed to reduce problems when grasping.

11.2 ADVANCED TOPICS

11.2.1 Simulation/Off-line Programming

• How a robot interacts with the environment makes it difficult to program off-line. To do this

successfully, a complete simulation of the robot workspace is required.

• One excellent example of a simulation package is CIMStation by Silma. It allows full con-

struction of the robots workspace, and subsequent testing.

Self Aligning Finger Pads - small rock-ing pads are placed on the end fingers, these are also covered with a high friction material, such as rubber. These allow some locational inaccu-racy when grasping parts.

Multiple Part Gripper - the gripper has a number of holes cut for dif-ferent parts. In this case the grip-per can hold three different radii, and the rubber lining will help hole the part.

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• Examples of simulated operation in CIMStation are,

- painting- NC code verification- tool and fixture simulation- Design For Manufacturing- process planning- composite tape layup- composite filament layup- spot welding- arc welding- material/work manipulation- collision detection- deburring- inspection- kinematic and dynamic simulation- controller simulation

• The simulators available for the robots in the lab allow off-line programming and simula-

tions.

11.3 INTERFACING

- TTL IO

- sourcing/sinking

- serial communications


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7. Suggest a type of robot suitable for the following tasks. Briefly explain your suggestion.

a) placing pallets on rack shelving

ans. cartesian - well suited to cartesian layout of shelves.

b) electronics assembly

ans. scara - will work on a flat table well.

c) loading and unloading parts from an NC mill

ans. articulated - can easily move around obstructions.

8. Suggest a type of robot suitable for the following tasks. Briefly explain your suggestion.

a) a gas pump robot for placing the gas nozzle into the fuel tank.

b) for drilling holes in a printed circuit board.

c) to vacuum a hotel.

3. We plan to use a pneumatic gripper to pick up a 4 by 8 sheet of glass weighing 40 lbs. Sug-

gest a gripper layout and dimensions of the cups. State any assumptions.

4. A vacuum pump to be used in a robot vacuum gripper application is capable of drawing a

ans.

FS L( ) Nπr2P=

For stability we want to set up an array of cups. A set of 3 or 4 would be reason-able to help support the sheet. - I will pick 4. Now, the diameter of the cup should be determined. We will assume that the vacuum pressure will be 5 psi below atmosphere, and we will use a factor of safety of 2.

2 40lb( ) 4πr25psi=

4π--- r

2= r 1.128in>

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negative pressure of 4.0 psi compared to atmospheric. The gripper is to be used for lifting stain-

less steel plates, each plate having dimensions of 15” by 35”, and weighing 52 lbs. Determine the

diameter of the suction cups to be used for the gripper if it is decided to use two cups for greater

stability. A factor of safety of 1.5 should be used in the computations.

5. Consider the following gripper design problems.

a) We plan to use a friction gripper to pick up a 50 lb iron plate. Suggest a gripper design and

specify the force required.

b) Design an end effector, and describe the path planning approach for a robot unloading sat-

ellites from the space shuttle.

11.5 LABORATORY - ROBOT INTERFACING

Purpose: Basic robot interfacing

Overview:

Pre-Lab (individual): 1. Develop a program that will put down and pick up balls at two different point for both

robots.2. Test both programs on-line.3. Plan for a mode of robot operation either one robot can deposit a ball in a center pickup

point, or at their own private pickup points. (Only a single ball will be used) Each robot will have a button connected to it. If the robot button and the other robot has the button, the robot will request the ball from other robot (using an I/O line). A list of the inputs and outputs is given below. Develop a simple diagram showing outputs and inputs to connect two robots and sensors. Develop a state diagram for the operation of both robots. Rewrite the robot programs from step 1 so that they will use the inputs.

input #1 ball in my private pointinput #2 other robot wants ballinput #3 ball request buttonoutput #1 request ball from other robot

In-Lab (groups of 4):

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1. The instructor will discuss interfacing issues.2. Each group should do each of the three parts below in turn.

1a. Test programs on the RV-M1, and add grippers/fixtures as required1b. Test programs on the RT-3000, and add grippers/fixtures as required1c. Connect and test the wiring for each of the robots and the interface

2. Integrate all of the equipment for the final task.

Submit:1. Individually developed programs for the robots.2. Group programs for the robots and PLC.

11.6 LABORATORY - ROBOT WORKCELL INTEGRATION

Purpose: Interfacing robots to workcells using PLCs.

Overview:

Pre-Lab (individual): 1. Develop a program that will draw a square on both robots, and test them on-line.2. Develop a program that will draw a circle on both robots, and test them on-line.3. Develop ladder logic for a micrologix that will watch for inputs from both robots. The

two inputs will indicate when either of the robot is using the drawing paper. The PLC will also have outputs connected to both robots. Each robot will have two inputs. One input will cause a circle to be drawn, the other will cause the square to be drawn. The PLC will use inputs from push-button switches to indicate when a circle or square is to be drawn. The ladder logic should share the work between the robots.

4. Combine and modify the robot programs so that they will interface to the PLC program.

In-Lab (groups of 3):1. Each group should do one of the tasks below,

1a. Enter and test the program on the RT-3000 robot. Use a voltage source to test the program.

1b. Enter and test the program on the RV-M1 robot. Use a voltage source to test the program.

1c. Enter and test the program on the micrologix.2. Rotate between the stations until you have done all three modules.3. Connect the PLC and two robots electrically, and enter and test the programs.

Submit:1. Individually developed programs for the robots and PLC.2. Group programs for the robots and PLC.

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12. SPATIAL KINEMATICS

• Basically mechanisms that are 3D (not planar).

12.1 BASICS

• When we deal with geometries in two dimensions we have three position variables (dof) for

each rigid body (two for position, one for orientation).

• When a problem is expanded to three dimensions we then have six position variables (dof)

for a rigid body (three for position, and three for orientation).

• These added degrees of freedom expand the complexity of the problem solutions. There are

a few potential approaches,

- look for regularities that simplify the problem (scalar)- vector based approaches (positions)- matrix based approaches (positions and orientations)

• Consider the example of the spherical joint - all of the axes of rotation coincide.

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12.1.1 Degrees of Freedom

• The scalar and vector approaches are easily extended to 3D problems. One significant dif-

ference is that the polar notations are no longer available for use.

• We can determine the number of degrees of freedom using a simple relationship that is an

extension of the Kutzbach criteria,

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• Consider the number of degrees of freedom in the linkage below,

12.2 HOMOGENEOUS MATRICES

• This method still uses geometry to determine the position of the robot, but it is put into an

ordered method using matrices.

m 6 n 1–( ) 5j1– 4j2– 3j3– 2j4– j5–=

where,

m mobility of the mechanism (d.o.f.)=

n number of links=

j1 j2 …, , the number of joints with 1, 2, ... dof respectively=

x

y

z

AB

C

D

E

10”

6”40”

3”

page 355

• Consider the planar robot below,

• The basic approach to this method is,

1. On the base, each joint, and the tool of the robot, attach a reference frame (most often x-y-z). Note that the last point is labels ‘T’ for tool. This will be a convention that I will generally follow.

2. Determine a transformation matrix to map between each frame. It is important to do this

(xb, yb)

(xT, yT)

1m

1m

0.2m

TCP

θ1

θ2

(x1,y1)

x

y

z

x

y

z x

y

z

x

y

z

θ1

θ2

F0

F1

F2

FT

T0 1,T1 2,

T2 T,

page 356

by assuming the joints are in their 0 joint positions. Put the joint positions in as variables.

T0 1, = T1 2, = T2 T, =

trans ∆x ∆y ∆z, ,( )

1 0 0 ∆x

0 1 0 ∆y

0 0 1 ∆z

0 0 0 1

=

rot y θ,( )

θcos 0 θsin– 0

0 1 0 0

θsin 0 θcos 0

0 0 0 1

=

rot x θ,( )

1 0 0 0

0 θcos θsin 0

0 θsin– θcos 0

0 0 0 1

=

rot z θ,( )

θcos θsin 0 0

θsin– θcos 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

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3. Multiply the frames to get a complete transformation matrix.

ASIDE: The structure of these matrices describe the position (P) and orientation

of the x (N), y (O), z (A), axes.

NX OX AX PX

NY OY AY PY

NZ OZ AZ PZ

0 0 0 1x (N)

y (O)

z (A)

P

T0 1,

θ1cos θ1sin 0 0

θ1sin– θ1cos 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

rot z θ1,( )trans 1 0 0, ,( )= =

T1 2,

θ2cos θ2sin 0 0


0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

rot z θ2,( )trans 1 0 0, ,( )= =

T2 T,

1 0 0 0.2

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

trans 0.2 0 0, ,( )= =

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• The position and orientation can be read directly from the homogenous transformation

matrix as indicated above.

T0 T, T0 1, T1 2, T2 T,=

T0 T,

θ1cos θ1sin 0 0


0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

θ2cos θ2sin 0 0


0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0.2

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T0 T,

θ1cos θ1sin 0 0


0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

θ2cos θ2sin 0 0


0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1.2

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T0 T,

θ1cos θ1sin 0 0


0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

θ2cos θ2sin 0 1.2 θ2cos

θ2sin– θ2cos 0 1.2– θ2sin

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T0 T,

θ1cos θ1sin 0 0


0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

θ2cos θ2sin 0 1.2 θ2cos 1+

θ2sin– θ2cos 0 1.2– θ2sin

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T0 T,

θ1 θ2+( )cos θ1 θ2+( )sin 0 θ1cos 1.2 θ1 θ2+( )cos+

θ1 θ2+( )sin– θ1 θ2+( )cos 0 θ1sin 1.2 θ1 θ2+( )sin+

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

PositionOrientation

complete the multiplicationand simplify to get......

page 359

• To reverse the transform, we only need to invert the transform matrix - this is a direct result

of the loop equation.

12.2.1 Denavit-Hartenberg Transformation (D-H)

• Designed as more specialized transforms for robots (based on homogenous transforms)

• Zi-1 axis along motion of ith joint

• Xi axis normal to Zi-1 axis, and points away from it.

• Basic transform is,

1. rotate about Zi-1 by thetai (joint angle)2. translate along Zi-1 by di (link offset)3. translate along Xi by ai (link length)4. rotate about Xi by alphai (link twist)

T∴ T 0, T0 T,( ) 1–=

T0 1, T1 2, T2 T, TT 0, I=

where,

I = Identity matrix

T0 T,∴ TT 0, I=

We can manipulate the equation,

page 360

• We can see how the D-H representation is applied using the two link manipulator from

before

Ti 1– i, rot zi 1– θi,( )trans 0 0 di, ,( )trans ai 0 0, ,( )rot xi α i,( )=

Ti 1– i,

θicos α icos θisin α i θisinsin ai θicos

θisin α icos θicos α i θicossin– ai θisin

0 α isin α icos di

0 0 0 1

=

zi

zi 1+

xi 1+yi 1+

xi

yi

ai 1+

di 1+

θi 1+

zi α i 1+

xi

RobotBase

page 361

12.2.2 Orientation

• The Euler angles are a very common way to represent orientation in 3-space.

T0 1,

θ1cos θ1sin– 0 θ1cos

θ1sin θ1cos 0 θ1sin

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

θi θ1=

di 0=

ai 1=

α i 0=

T1 2,



0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

θi θ2=

di 0=

ai 1=

α i 0=

T2 T,

1 0 0 0.2

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

θi 0=

di 0=

ai 0.2=

α i 0=

T0 T, T0 1, T1 2, T2 T,=

T0 T,



0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1



0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0.2

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T0 T,



0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

page 362

• The main problem in representing orientation is that the angles of rotation must be applied

one at a time, and by changing the sequence we will change the final orientation. In other words

the three angles will not give a unique solution unless applied in the same sequence every time.

• By fixing a set of angles by convention we can then use the three angles by themselves to

define an orientation.

• The convention described here is the Euler angles.

• The sequence of orientation is,

• Therefore to reorient a point in space we can apply the following matrix, to the position vec-

tors, or axes vectors, (there will be more on these matrices shortly)

In order,

rot θ( ) rot φ( ) rot ψ( ), ,

where,

θ rotation about z axis=

φ rotation about new x axis=

ψ rotation about new z axis=

Rx'

Ry'

Rz'

ψcos ψsin 0

ψsin– ψcos 0

0 0 1

1 0 0

0 φcos φsin

0 φsin– φcos

θcos θsin 0

θsin– θcos 0

0 0 1

Rx

Ry

Rz

=

Rx'

Ry'

Rz'

θ ψcoscos θ φ ψsincossin–( ) θsin ψcos θcos φ ψsincos+( ) φ ψsinsin( )θ ψsincos– θ φ ψcoscossin–( ) θsin ψsin– θcos φ ψcoscos+( ) φ ψcossin( )

θ φsinsin( ) θ φsincos–( ) φcos( )

Rx

Ry

Rz

=

page 363

• We can find these angles given a set of axis before and after.

12.2.3 Inverse Kinematics

• Basically we can find the joint angles for the robot based on the position of the end effector.

• This is not a simple problem, and there are few reliable methods. This is partly caused by

the non-unique nature of the problem. At best there are typically multiple, if not infinite numbers

of equivalent solutions. The 2 dof robot seen before has two possible solutions.

• We can do simple inverse kinematics with trigonometry.

• If we have more complicated problems, we may try to solve the problem by examining the

transform matrix,

x0

1

0

0

= x1

0.71

0.71

0

= y0 = y1 =

page 364

12.2.4 The Jacobian

T0 T,



0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

xT θ1cos 1.2 θ1 θ2+( )cos+=

yT θ1sin 1.2 θ1 θ2+( )sin+=

xT θ1cos–

1.2-------------------------∴ θ 1 θ2+( )cos=

yT θ1sin–

1.2------------------------∴ θ 1 θ2+( )sin=

Combine the two to eliminate the compound angles,

1 θ1 θ2+( )cos( )2 θ1 θ2+( )sin( )2+=

Separate positions and simplify,

1∴xT θ1cos–

1.2-------------------------

2 yT θ1sin–

1.2------------------------

2+=

1.44∴ xT2

2xT θ1cos– θ1cos( )2yT

22yT θ1sin– θ1sin( )2

+ + +=

0.44 xT2

– xT2

–( )∴ 2xT θ1cos– 2yT θ1sin–=

0.44 xT2

– xT2

–

2–---------------------------------

∴ xT θ1cos yT θ1sin+( )=

ETC.....

page 365

• A matrix of partial derivatives that relate the velocity of the joints, to the velocity of the

tool.

• The inverse Jacobian is used for motion control

• Find the Jacobian and inverse Jacobian for the 2 dof robot.

ddt-----x

T

ddt-----y

T

ddt-----z

T

∂xT

∂θ1--------

∂xT

∂θ2--------

∂xT

∂θ3--------

∂yT

∂θ1--------

∂yT

∂θ2--------

∂yT

∂θ3--------

∂zT

∂θ1--------

∂zT

∂θ2--------

∂zT

∂θ3--------

ddt-----θ

1

ddt-----θ

2

ddt-----θ

3

J

ddt-----θ

1

ddt-----θ

2

ddt-----θ

3

= =

J1–

x·T

y·T

z·T

θ· 1

θ· 2

θ· 3

=

x

y

z

x

y

z x

y

z

x

y

z

θ1

θ2

F0

F1

F2

FT

T0 1,T1 2,

T2 T,

page 366

12.3 SPATIAL DYNAMICS

• The basic principles of planar dynamics are expanded up for 3D spatial problems. The

added dimension adds some complexity that should be addressed.

12.3.1 Moments of Inertia About Arbitrary Axes

• Moments of Inertia are normally found for a single axis of rotation. When the object is

T0 T,



0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

Find the Jacobian matrix for the matrix given below. This will give a

matrix that relates tool velocity to joint velocities.The joint angles are 30° and

20° for joints 1 and 2, find the joint velocities if the tool velocity is 0.05 m/s

page 367

rotating about another axis, we must recalculate the moments of inertia.

• If we take the moments of inertia for the original axes, and project these values onto new

vectors, we can get new values,

We start by defining the vector equivalencies for rotated axes,

R' R iRx jRy kRz+ + i'R'x j'R'y k'R'k+ += = =

We can project this vector to the other set of axes,

R'x i'( ) iRx jRy kRk+ +( )• Rx θi'icos Ry θi'jcos Rz θi'kcos+ += =

R'y j'( ) iRx jRy kRk+ +( )• Rx θj'icos Ry θj'jcos Rz θj'kcos+ += =

R'z k'( ) iRx jRy kRk+ +( )• Rx θk'icos Ry θk'jcos Rz θk'kcos+ += =

Next we integrate for moment of inertia for the shifted x axis,

Ix'x' i' R'x×( ) i' R'x×( )• md∫=

∴ Rx θi'icos Ry θi'jcos Rz θi'kcos+ +( )2md∫=

∴ Rx θi'icos( )2Ry θi'jcos( )2

Rz θi'kcos( )22 Rx θi'iRy θi'jcoscos( )+ + + +∫=

2 Rx θi'i Rz θi'kcos( )cos( ) 2 Ry θi'j Rz θi'kcos( )cos( )dm+

Ix'x'∴ Ixx θi'icos( )2Iyy θi'jcos( )2

Izz θi'kcos( )22Ixy θi'i θi'jcoscos( )+ + + +=

2Ixz θi'i θi'kcoscos( ) 2Iyz θi'j θi'kcoscos( )+

Next we integrate for the product of inertia for the shifted x and y axis,

Ix'y' i' R'x×( ) i' R'y×( )• md∫=

Similarly for the shifted y and z axes,

Iy'y'∴ Ixx θj'icos( )2Iyy θj'jcos( )2

Izz θj'kcos( )22Ixy θj'i θj'jcoscos( )+ + + +=

2Ixz θj'i θj'kcoscos( ) 2Iyz θj'j θj'kcoscos( )+

Iz'z'∴ Ixx θk'icos( )2Iyy θk'jcos( )2

Izz θk'kcos( )22Ixy θk'i θk'jcoscos( )+ + + +=

2Ixz θk'i θk'kcoscos( ) 2Iyz θk'j θk'kcoscos( )+

page 368

This will lead to,

Ix'y' Ixx θi'i θj'icoscos–( ) Iyy θi'j θj'jcoscos( ) Izz θi'k θj'kcoscos–( )+ + +=

Ixy θi'i θj'jcoscos θi'j θj'icoscos+( ) Iyz θi'j θj'kcoscos θi'k θj'jcoscos+( )+ +

Ixz θi'k θj'icoscos θi'i θj'kcoscos+( )

Ix'y' Ixx θk'i θi'icoscos–( ) Iyy θk'j θi'jcoscos( ) Izz θk'k θi'kcoscos–( )+ + +=

Ixy θk'i θi'jcoscos θk'j θi'icoscos+( ) Iyz θk'j θi'kcoscos θk'k θi'jcoscos+( )+ +

Ixz θk'k θi'icoscos θk'i θi'kcoscos+( )

Iy'z' Ixx θj'i θk'icoscos–( ) Iyy θj'j θk'jcoscos( ) Izz θj'k θk'kcoscos–( )+ + +=

Ixy θj'i θk'jcoscos θj'j θk'icoscos+( ) Iyz θj'j θk'kcoscos θj'k θk'jcoscos+( )+ +

Ixz θj'k θk'icoscos θj'i θk'kcoscos+( )

Rx'' Rx' dx'+= Ry'' Ry' dy'+= Rz'' Rz' dz'+=

We can define the new coordinate system in terms of translated axes,

This can be integrated for the shifted x axis,

Ix''x'' Ry''2

Rz''2

+( ) md∫ Ry' dy'+( )2Rz' dz'+( )2

+( ) md∫= =

∴ Ry'2

2Ry'dy' dy'2

Rz'2

2Rz'dz' dz'2

+ + + + +( ) md∫=

∴ Ry'2

Rz'2

+( ) md∫ 2Ry'dy'( ) md∫ 2Rz'dz'( ) md∫ dy'2

dz'2

+( ) md∫+ + +=

∴ Iy'z' 2mRMy'dy' 2mRMz'

dz' dy'2

dz'2

+( )m+ + +=

page 369

12.3.2 Euler’s Equations of Motion

• We can use Euler’s equations of motion to determine moments produced by angular veloci-

ties and accelerations.

• These can be used to examine rotating three dimensional masses. Consider the following,

This eventually leads to,

Ix''x'' Ix'x' 2mRMy'dy' 2mRMz'

dz' m dy'( )2m dz'( )2

+ + + +=

Iy''y'' Iy'y' 2mRMx'dx' 2mRMz'

dz' m dx'( )2m dz'( )2

+ + + +=

Iz''z'' Iz'z' 2mRMx'dx' 2mRMy'

dy' m dx'( )2m dy'( )2

+ + + +=

Ix''y'' Ix'y' 2mRMx'dy' 2mRMy'

dx' mdx'dy'+ + +=

Iy''z'' Iy'z' 2mRMy'dz' 2mRMz'

dy' mdy'dz'+ + +=

Ix''z'' Ix'z' 2mRMx'dz' 2mRMz'

dx' mdx'dz'+ + +=

MMijy∑ IMyy

αy IMxxIMzz

–( )ωxωz–=

MMijx∑ IMxx

αx IMyyIMzz

–( )ωyωz–=

MMijz∑ IMzz

α z IMxxIMyy

–( )ωxωy–=

page 370

12.3.3 Impulses and Momentum

• Momentum is a convenient alternative to energy in analysis of systems.

12.3.3.1 - Linear Momentum

• momentum is defined as,

The disk and shaft shown are rotated at

2000 rpm, and there is an angular acceleration

of 20 rev/(sec.sec.). The steel part is held in a

cantilevered bearing that can be approximated

with the forces shown.

2” 6”

8”

1”

8”

1”

F

F

page 371

• If no external forces are applied, momentum remains constant (is conserved). In this case L

is a constant.

• An impulse is a force applied that will change momentum.

12.3.3.2 - Angular Momentum

• Angular momentum is for rotating objects. The rotation about some center tends to make

these equations a bit more complicated than linear momentum.

• We can start to find this as a velocity times a distance of rotation, and this will lead to the

eventual relationships,

• These equations show the angular momentum H, along with other familiar terms.

F t( ) td

t1

t2

∫ mA t( ) td

t1

t2

∫ mV t2( ) mV t1( )– L t( )= = =

MomentumImpulse

MMx∑ IMxxαx IMxy

αy– IMxzα z– ωyHz ωzHy–+=

MMy∑ I– Myxαx IMyy

αy IMyzα z– ωzHx ωxHz–+ +=

MMz∑ I– Mxzxαx IMzy

αy– IMzzαz ωxHy ωyHx–+ +=

page 372

12.4 DYNAMICS FOR KINEMATICS CHAINS

• There are a variety of common methods,

- Euler-Lagrange - energy based- Newton-Euler - D’Alembert’s equations

12.4.1 Euler-Lagrange

• This method uses a Lagrangian energy operator to calculate torques

• For a typical link,

Li θi ωi,( ) Ki Pi–= L θ ω,( ) K∑ i P∑ i–=

where,L = lagrangianK = kinetic energy of link ‘i’P = potential energy of link ‘i’

ddt-----

ωi∂∂ Li θi∂

∂ Li– Qi=

Q = forces and torques

page 373

• If we have used matrices to formulate the problem, we use the Jacobian to find velocities.


Ki

miVCiT

VCi

2----------------------- ωi

TIiωi+=

where,m = mass of link iV = velocity of center of mass of link iomega = angular velocity of link iI = mass moment of inertia of link i

Pi migTRCi=

where,g = gravity vectorR = displacement from base of robot to center of mass of link

VCi

ωi

J θ( )ω=

page 374

(xb, yb)

(xT, yT)

1m

1m

0.2m

TCP

θ1

θ2

Mlinks 5kg=

Mtool 0.5kg=

Ilinks 10=

Itool 1=

page 375

12.4.2 Newton-Euler

• We can sum forces and moments, and then solve the equations in a given sequence.

• These equations can be written in vector form,

• To do these calculations start at the base, and calculate the kinematics up to the end of the

manipulator (joint positions, velocities and accelerations). Then work back from the end and find

forces and moments.

12.5 REFERENCES

Erdman, A.G. and Sandor, G.N., Mechanism Design Analysis and Synthesis, Vol. 1, 3rd Edi-

Fi∑ miAi– 0=

Mi∑ Ii α i ωi2

+( )– 0=

fi 1– fi– mig miAi–+ 0=

where,

f = forces between link i and i+1A = acceleration of center of mass of link i

ni 1– ni– ri Ci, fi× ri 1– Ci, fi 1–×– Iiα i– ωi Ii ωi×( )×–+ 0=

where,

f = forces between link i and i+1A = acceleration of center of mass of link i

page 376

tion, Prentice Hall, 1997.

Fu, Gonzalez, and Lee,

Shigley, J.E., Uicker, J.J., “Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Second Edition, McGraw-

Hill, 1995.


1. For the Stanford arm below,

a) list the D-H parameters (Hint: extra “dummy” joints may be required)b) Find the forward kinematics using homogenous matrices.c) Find the Jacobian matrix for the arm.d) If the arm is at θ1 = 45 degrees, θ2 = 45 degrees, r = 0.5m, find the speed of the TCP if

the joint velocities are θ’1 = 1 degree/sec, θ’2 = 10 degrees/sec, and r’ = 0.01 m/sec.

r

x

y

z

θ2

θ1

d1

(0,0,0)

TCP

TOP VIEW

FRONT VIEW

page 377

3. Robotics and Automated Manipulators (RAM) has consulted you about a new robotic

manipulator. This work will include kinematic analysis, gears, and the tool. The robot is pictured

below. The robot is shown on the next page in the undeformed position. The tool is a gripper (fin-

ger) type mechanism.

The robot is drawn below in the undeformed position. The three positioning joints are shown,

and a frame at the base and tool are also shown.

Tool

page 378

The tool is a basic gripper mechanism, and is shown as a planar mechanism below. As the

cylinder moves to the left the fingers close.

a) The first thing you do is determine what sequence of rotations and translations are needed

to find the tool position relative to the base position.

x0

y0

z0

x0

y0z0

xT

yT

zT

xT

yT

zT

r

θ2

θ1

c b

a

d

e

g

f

Finger

Pneumaticcylinder

page 379

b) As normal, you decide to relate a cartesian (x-y) velocity of the gripper to joint velocities.

Set up the calculation steps needed to do this based on the results in question #1.

c) To drive the revolute joints RAM has already selected two similar motors that have a max-

imum velocity. You decide to use the equations in question #2, with maximum specified tool

velocities to find maximum joint velocities. Assume that helical gears are to be used to drive the

revolute joints, specify the basic dimensions (such as base circle dia.). List the steps to develop

the geometry of the gears, including equations.

d) The gripper fingers may close quickly, and as a result a dynamic analysis is deemed neces-

sary. List the steps required to do an analysis (including equations) to find the dynamic forces on

the fingers.

e) The idea of using a cam as an alternate mechanism is being considered. Develop a design

that is equivalent to the previous design. Sketch the mechanism and a detailed displacement graph

of the cam.

f) The sliding joint ‘r’ has not been designed yet. RAM wants to drive the linear motion,

without using a cylinder. Suggest a reasonable design, and sketch.

4. For an articulated robot, find the forward, and inverse kinematics using geometry, homog-

enous matrices, and Denavit-Hartenberg transformations.

5. Assign Denavit-Hartenberg link parameters to an articulated robot.

page 380

6. For the Stanford arm below,

a) list the D-H parameters (Hint: extra “dummy” joints may be required)b) Find the forward kinematics using homogenous matrices.c) Find the Jacobian matrix for the arm.d) If the arm is at θ1 = 45 degrees, θ2 = 45 degrees, r = 0.5m, find the speed of the TCP if

the joint velocities are θ’1 = 1 degree/sec, θ’2 = 10 degrees/sec, and r’ = 0.01 m/sec.

7. Consider the forward kinematic transformation of the two link manipulator below. Given

the position of the joints, and the lengths of the links, determine the location of the tool centre

point using a) basic geometry, b) homogenous transforms, and c) Denavit-Hartenberg transforma-

tions.

r

x

y

z

θ2

θ1

d1

(0,0,0)

TCP

TOP VIEW

FRONT VIEW

page 381

a) For the robot described in question 1 determine the inverse kinematics for the robot. (i.e.,

given the position of the tool, determine the joint angles of the robot.) Keep in mind that in this

case the solution will have two different cases. Determine two different sets of joint angles

required to position the TCP at x=5”, y=6”.

b) For the inverse kinematics of question #2, what conditions would indicate the robot posi-

tion is unreachable? Are there any other cases that are indeterminate?

8 Find the dynamic forces in the system below,

L1 = 12”

L2 = 10”

theta1 = 30 deg.

theta2 = 45 deg.

Pw(x, y)

x

y

page 382

9. Examine the robot figure below and,

a) assign frames to the appropriate joints.

x

y

z

AB

C

D

E

10”

AB rotates 20rad/s c.c.w. in the xy plane, there are ball joints at B and C, and the collar at D slides along the prismatic shaft. What are the positions, velocities and accelerations of the links?

6”40”

3”

page 383

x

y

z

x

y

z

θ1

L1

l2

l3

L4

page 384

b) list the transformations for the forward kinematics.

c) expand the transformations to matrices (do not multiply).

x

y

z

x

y

zANS.

x

y

z

x

y

z

x

y

z

F0

F1

F2

F3

FT

ans.

T1 2, trans l2 0 0, ,( )rot z 90°,( )=

T0 1, trans 0 L1 0, ,( )=

T2 3, trans l3 0 0, ,( )rot z 90°– θ1+,( )=

T3 T, trans L4 0 0, ,( )rot z 90°,( )rot x 90°,( )=

page 385

10. Given the transformation matrix below for a polar robot,

a) find the Jacobian matrix.

ans.

T1 2,

1 0 0 l2

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

90°cos 90°sin 0 0

90°sin– 90°cos 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T0 1,

1 0 0 0

0 1 0 L1

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T2 3,

1 0 0 l3

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

90°– θ1+( )cos 90°– θ1+( )sin 0 0

90°– θ1+( )sin– 90°– θ1+( )cos 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

T3 T,

1 0 0 L4

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

90°cos 90°sin 0 0

90°sin– 90°cos 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0

0 90°cos 90°sin 0

0 90°sin– 90°cos 0

0 0 0 1

=

T0 T,

θ( )cos θ( )sin 0 r θ( )cos

θ( )sin– θ( )cos 0 r θ( )sin

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

page 386

b) Given the joint positions, find the forward and inverse Jacobian matrices.

c) If we are at the position below, and want to move the tool at the given speed, what joint

velocities are required?

11. Examine the robot figure below and,

a) assign frames to the appropriate joints.

ans.ddt-----x

ddt-----y

r∂∂x

θ∂∂x

r∂∂y

θ∂∂y

ddt-----r

ddt-----θ

θ( )cos r– θ( )sin

θ( )sin r θ( )cos

ddt-----r

ddt-----θ

= =

θ 30°= r 3in=

ans.

J1– 0.866 0.5

0.167– 0.289=

J 30°( )cos 3– 30°( )sin

30°( )sin 3 30°( )cos

0.866 1.5–

0.5 2.598= =

ddt-----x 1in

s-----–= d

dt-----y 2in

s-----=

ans.ddt-----r

ddt-----θ

0.866 0.50.167– 0.289

1–2

0.1340.745

= =

page 387

b) list the transformations for the forward kinematics.

c) expand the transformations to matrices (do not multiply).

12. Given the transformation matrix below for a polar robot,

a) find the Jacobian matrix.

b) Given the joint positions, find the forward and inverse Jacobian matrices.

c) If we are at the position below, and want to move the tool at the given speed, what joint

velocities are required?

x0

y0

z0

x0

y0z0

yT

xT

zT

yT

xT

zT

r

θ2

θ1

c b

a

T0 T,



0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

=

θ1 30°= θ1 40°=

page 388

13. Find the forward kinematics for the robots below using homogeneous and Denavit-

Hartenberg matrices.

14. Use the equations below to find the inverse Jacobian. Use the inverse Jacobian to find the

joint velocities required at t=0.5s.

ddt-----x 1in

s-----–= d

dt-----y 2in

s-----=

x

y

x

y

x

y

x

y

x

y

x 4 θ1( )cos 6 θ1 θ2+( ) in.cos+=

y 4 θ1( )sin 6 θ1 θ2+( ) in.sin+=

page 389

ANS.

P 0.5( ) 3

52t

3– 3t

2+( ) 5

2+ 5.5

6= =

First, find tool and joint positions,

r 5.52

62

+= α 65.5-------

atan=

r2

42

62

2 4( ) 6( ) 180 θ· 2–( )cos–+= θ∴ ·2 180

r2

42

62

+( )–2 4( ) 6( )–

--------------------------------- acos–=

θ1 α–( )sin

6----------------------------

180 θ2–( )sin

r---------------------------------= θ∴ ·

16 180 θ2–( )sin

r------------------------------------

asin α+=

Next, the Jacobian,

J4 θ1( )sin– 6 θ1 θ2+( )sin– 6 θ1 θ2+( )sin–

4 θ1( )cos 6 θ1 θ2+( )cos+ 6 θ1 θ2+( )cos=

Substitute and solve

ddt-----

θ1

θ2

J1– 7.5

3=

page 390

13. MOTION CONTROL

13.1 KINEMATICS

• A robot must be able to map between things that it can control, such as joint angles, to the

position of the tool in space.

• Describing the position of the robot in terms of joint positions/angles is Joint Space.

• Real space is often described with a number of coordinate systems,

- cartesian- polar- spherical

• Positions can also be specified with respect to the robot base (Robot Coordinates), or glo-

bally (World Coordinates).

13.1.1 Basic Terms

• Robot base coordinates don’t move and are often used to specify robot tool position and ori-

entation. (centre of the robots world)

base coordinates

link/joint coordinates

tool coordinates

page 391

• Link/Joint Coordinates - specify where joints, endpoints or centers are located.

• Tool coordinates - determine where the tool is and what orientation it is in.

• World Coordinates - relates various robots to other robots and devices.

• Coordinate transformation - Can map from one set of coordinates to another. Most common

method is matrix based. One special case of this is the Denavit-Hartenrberg transformation.

13.1.2 Kinematics

• Forward kinematics involves finding the endpoint of the robot (xT, yT) given the joint coor-

dinates (theta1, theta2)

• There a number of simple methods for finding these transformations,

(xb, yb)

(xT, yT)

theta1

theta2

1m

1m

0.2m

TCP

(x1,y1)Note: When defining angles is is more

convenient to indicate the positive direc-

tion and origin (as shown with the solid

line for ‘theta 2’). With more classical

sketching we would use the dashed line,

page 392

- basic geometry- transformation matrices- Denavit-Hartenberg transformations

13.1.2.1 - Geometry Methods for Forward Kinematics

• For simple manipulators (especially planar ones) this method is often very fast and efficient.

• The method uses basic trigonometry, and geometry relationships.

• To find the location of the robot above, we can see by inspection,

page 393

• The problem with geometrical methods are that they become difficult to manage when more

complex robots are considered. This problem is overcome with systematic methods.

13.1.2.2 - Geometry Methods for Inverse Kinematics

• To find the location of the robot above, we can see by inspection,

xT xb l1 θ1cos l2 0.2+( ) θ1 θ2+( )cos+ +=

yT yb l1 θ1sin l2 0.2+( ) θ1 θ2+( )sin+ +=

often set to zero

θ1 θ2 …, ,( ) xT yT zT θTxθTy

θTz, , , , ,( )→

The general form of the operation is as below,

Also note that the orientation of the tool is included, as well as position, therefore forthe example,

θTx0=

θTy0=

θTzθ1 θ2+=


θTz, , , , ,( )←

ASIDE: later we will see that the opposite operationmaps from tool coordinates, and is called theinverse kinematics.

page 394

• Mathematically this calculation is difficult, and there are often multiple solutions.

13.1.3 Modeling the Robot

• If modeling only one link in motion, the model of the robot can treat all the links as a single

moving rigid body,


θTz, , , , ,( )←

Inverse kinematics maps from the tool coordinates to the joint coordinates.

page 395

• If multiple joints move at the same time, the model becomes non-linear, in this case there

are two approaches taken,

1. Develop a full non-linear controller (can be very complicated).2. Develop linear approximations of the model/control system in the middle of the normal

workspace.

13.2 PATH PLANNING

• Basic - “While moving the robot arm from point A to B, or along a continuous path, the

choices are infinite, with significant differences between methods used.”

13.2.1 Slew Motion

• The simplest form of motion. As the robot moves from point A to point B, each axis of the

manipulator travels as quickly as possible from its initial position to its final position. All axis

begin moving at the same time, but each axis ends it motion in a length of time that is proportional

to the product of its distance moved and its top speed (allowing for acceleration and deceleration)

• Note: slew motion usually results in unnecessary wear on the joints and often leads to unan-

θ ω α, ,CG M J, ,

page 396

ticipated results in the path taken by the manipulator.

• Example - A three axis manipulator with revolute joints starts with joint angles (40, 80, -

40)degrees, and must move to (120, 0, 0)degrees. Assume that the joints have maximum absolute

accelerations/decelerations of (50, 100, 150) degrees/sec/sec, and the maximum velocities of (20,

40, 50) degrees/sec. Using slew motion, what is the travel time for each joint?

-90

90

180

time(sec)

Joint angle (degrees)

Joint velocity (degrees/sec)

θ2 θ1

θ3

αmaxωmax

tacc tmax tdec

page 397

13.2.1.1 - Joint Interpolated Motion

• Similar to slew motion, except all joints start, and stop at the same time. In the last example

for slew motion, all of the joints would have moved until all stopping simultaneously at 4.4 sec-

onds.

• This method only demands needed speeds to accomplish movements in least times.

13.2.1.2 - Straight-line motion

tacc tdec

ωmax

αmax------------ 20

50------ 40

100--------- 50

150---------, ,

0.4 0.4 0.333, ,( )sec.= = = =

θacc. θdec.

taccωmax.vel.

2---------------------------- 0.4 20( )

2------------------ 0.4 40( )

2------------------ 0.333 50( )

2------------------------, ,

4 8 8.33, ,( )deg.= = = =

The next step is to examine the moves specified,

θmove θend θstart– 120 40– 0 80– 0 40–( )–, ,( ) 80 80– 40, ,( )deg.= = =

Remove the angles covered during accel./deccel., and find the travel time at maximumvelocity.

tmax

θmove 2θacc–

ωmax----------------------------------- 80 2 4( )–

20----------------------- 80 2 8( )–

40----------------------- 40 2 8.333( )–

50---------------------------------, ,

= =

tmax 3.6 1.6 0.46668, ,( )sec.=

ttotal tacc tmax tdec+ + 4.4 2.4 1.13, ,( )s= =

The area under the velocity curve is the distance (angle in this case) travelled. First we can determine the distance covered during acceleration, and deceleration and the time during acceleration, and deceleration.

Note: below zero the speeds will never reach maximum velocity before starting to decelerate.

page 398

• In this method the tool of the robot travels in a straight line between the start and stop

points. This can be difficult, and lead to rather erratic motions when the boundaries of the work-

space are approached.

• NOTE: straight-line paths are the only paths that will try to move the tool straight through

space, all others will move the tool in a curved path.

• The basic method is,

1. Develop a set of points from the start and stop points that minimize acceleration.2. Do the inverse kinematics to find the joint angles of the robot at the specified points.


page 399

P0 5 5 5, ,( )in.= P1 5– 5– 5, ,( )=

ddt-----P0 0 0 0, ,( )= d

dt-----P1 0 0 0, ,( )=

Given,

s t( ) At3

Bt2

Ct D+ + += ddt-----s t( ) 3At

22Bt C+ +=

s 0( ) A 0( )3B 0( )2

C 0( ) D+ + + 0= =

s 2( ) A 2( )3B 2( )2

C 2( ) D+ + + 1= =

ddt-----s 0( ) 3A 0( ) 2B 0( ) C+ + 0= = C∴ 0=

8A 4B+∴ 1=

8A 432---–

A+ 1=

t0 0= t1 2=

P t( ) P0 P1 P0–( )s t( )+=

ddt-----s t0( ) 0= d

dt-----s t1( ) 0=s t0( ) 0= s t1( ) 1=

Model the path with a function that allows acceleration/deceleration, in this case

a third order polynomial will be used. The equation will be parameterized for sim-

plicity (i.e., s = [0,1], where s=0 is the path start, and s=1 is the path end).

Next, numerical values will be entered to find equation values

ddt-----s 2( ) 3A 2( ) 2B 2( ) C+ + 0= =

D∴ 0=

32---–

A∴ B=

A∴ 12---= B∴ 3

4---–=

This can now be put in the final form,

P t( ) P0 P1 P0–( ) t3

2---- 3

4---t

2–

+=

page 400

13.2.2 Computer Control of Robot Paths (Incremental Interpolation)

• Path Planning is a simple process where the path planning methods described before (such

as straight line motion) are used before the movement begins, and then a simple real-time lookup

table is used.

• The path planner puts all of the values in a trajectory table.

• The on-line path controller will look up values from the trajectory table at predetermined

time, and use these as setpoints for the controller.

• The effect of the two tier structure is that the robot is always shooting for the next closest

‘knot-point’ along the path.

page 401

• The above scheme leads to errors between the planned, and actual path, and lurches occur

when the new setpoints are updated for each servo motor.

Desiredconfiguration

CurrentConfiguration

Trajectorytable

Off-linepathplanning

KinematicTransforms

Set pointtable

InterruptClock

Set-pointtable

Choose newpoint fromtrajectory table

Return

θdesired

Time based interruptroutine

Servo motor routine runsfor each axis

Done before motion begins

Done during motion, and all other times

Computeerror

Output actuatorsignal

Read θdesired

page 402

• The quantization of the desired position requires a decision of what value to use, and this

value is fixed for a finite time.

• The result is that the path will tend to look somewhat bumpy,

speed

trajectory table

actual position

timetrajectory table time step

required

actual

position

time

page 403


1.

a) A stepping motor is to be used to actuate one joint of a robot arm in a light duty pick and

place application. The step angle of the motor is 10 degrees. For each pulse received from the

pulse train source the motor rotates through a distance of one step angle.

i) What is the resolution of the stepper motor?ii) Relate this value to the definitions of control resolution, spatial resolution, and accu-

racy, as discussed in class.b) Solve part a) under the condition that the three joints move at different rotational veloci-

ties. The first joint moves at 10 degrees/sec., the second joint moves at 25 degrees/sec, and the

third joint moves at 30°/sec.

2. A stepping motor is to be used to drive each of the three linear axes of a cartesian coordi-

nate robot. The motor output shaft will be connected to a screw thread with a screw pitch of

0.125”. It is desired that the control resolution of each of the axes be 0.025”

a) to achieve this control resolution how many step angles are required on the stepper motor?

start

knot 1knot 2

knot 3

knot 4

knot 5 end

The desired path tends to deviate from the points in the trajectorytable, and the tool tends to follow a path likethat pictured below. Moreover this schemewill lead to uneven acceleration overthe path segments

Path segments

In this case anextra step isadded tocompensate forthe position errors

**Note: this occurs with straight-line motion also

page 404

b) What is the corresponding step angle?c) Determine the pulse rate that will be required to drive a given joint at a velocity of 3.0”/

sec.

3. For the stepper motor of question 6, a pulse train is to be generated by the robot controller.

a) How many pulses are required to rotate the motor through three complete revolutions?b) If it is desired to rotate the motor at a speed of 25 rev/min, what pulse rate must be gen-

erated by the robot controller?

4. A stepping motor is to be used to actuate one joint of a robot arm in a light duty pick and

place application. The step angle of the motor is 10 degrees. For each pulse received from the

pulse train source the motor rotates through a distance of one step angle.

a) What is the resolution of the stepper motor?b) Relate this value to the definitions of control resolution, spatial resolution, and accu-

racy, as discussed in class.

5. Find the forward kinematics for the robots below using geometry methods.

6. Consider the forward kinematic transformation of the two link manipulator below.

x

y

x

y

x

y

x

y

x

y

page 405

a) Given the position of the joints, and the lengths of the links, determine the location of the tool centre point using basic geometry.

b) Determine the inverse kinematics for the robot. (i.e., given the position of the tool, determine the joint angles of the robot.) Keep in mind that in this case the solution will have two different cases.

c) Determine two different sets of joint angles required to position the TCP at x=5”, y=6”.d) What mathematical conditions would indicate the robot position is unreachable? Are

there any other cases that are indeterminate?

7. Find a smooth path for a robot joint that will turn from θ= 75° to θ = -35° in 10 seconds.

Do this by developing an equation then calculating points every 1.0 seconds along the path for a

total motion time of 10 seconds.

L1 = 12”

L2 = 10”

theta1 = 30 deg.

theta2 = 45 deg.

Pw(x, y)

x

y

page 406

8. A jointed arm robot has three rotary joints, and is required to move all three axes so that the

first joint is rotated through 50 degrees; the second joint is rotated through 90 degrees, and the

third joint is rotated through 25 degrees. Maximum speed of any of these rotational joints is 10

degrees/sec. Ignore effects of acceleration and deceleration and,

a) determine the time required to move each joint if slew motion (joint motion is indepen-dent of all other joints) is used.

θ t( ) At3

Bt2

Ct D+ + +=

ddt-----θ t( ) 3At

22Bt C+ +=

ans.θ 0( ) 75=

ddt-----θ 0( ) 0=

θ 10( ) 35–=

ddt-----θ 10( ) 0=

75 A 0( )3B 0( )2

C 0( ) D+ + +=

0 3A 0( )22B 0( ) C+ +=

35– A 10( )3B 10( )2

C 10( ) D+ + +=

0 3A 10( )22B 10( ) C+ +=

Solving

For A, B, C, D we get

θ t( ) 0.22( )t33.3–( )t2

75( )+ +=

t (sec)

012345678910

theta(t)

7571.9263.5651.2436.28203.72-11.24-23.56-31.92-35

page 407

b) determine the time required to move the arm to a desired position and the rotational velocity of each joint, if joint interpolated motion (all joints start and stop simulta-neously) is used.

c) Solve question 4 under the condition that the three joints move at different rotational velocities. The first joint moves at 10 degrees/sec., the second joint moves at 25 degrees/sec, and the third joint moves at 30°/sec.

9. Consider the following motion planning problem.

a) A jointed arm robot has three rotary joints, and is required to move all three axes so that the first joint is rotated through 50 degrees; the second joint is rotated through 90 degrees, and the third joint is rotated through 25 degrees. Maximum speed of any of these rotational joints is 10 degrees/sec. Ignore effects of acceleration and decel-eration and,

b) determine the time required to move each joint if slew motion (joint motion is indepen-dent of all other joints) is used.

c) determine the time required to move the arm to a desired position and the rotational velocity of each joint, if joint interpolated motion (all joints start and stop simulta-neously) is used.

10. We are designing motion algorithms for a 2 degree of freedom robot. To do this we are

developing sample calculations to explore the basic process.

a) We want to move the tool in a straight line through space from (3”, 5”) to (8”, 7”). Develop

equations that will give a motion that starts and stops smoothly. The motion should be complete in

1 second.

b) Find the velocity of the tool at t=0.5 seconds.

P t( ) 3

52t

3– 3t

2+( ) 5

2+=

ANS.

ddt-----P t( ) 7.5

3=

ANS.

page 408

c) Plot out the tool position, joint positions and velocities as functions of time.

11. Why do robots not follow exact mathematical paths?

12. We are designing motion algorithms for a 2 degree of freedom robot. To do this we are

developing sample calculations to explore the basic process. We want to move the tool in a

straight line through space from (8”, 7”) to (3”, 5”). Develop equations that will give a motion that

starts and stops smoothly. The motion should be complete in 2 seconds. Show all derivations.

13.

13.4 LABORATORY - AXIS AND MOTION CONTROL

Purpose: To .

Overview: .

Pre-Lab:To be determined.

In-Lab:1. To be determined.

Submit (individually):1. To be determined.

page 409

14. CNC MACHINES

• Computer Numerical Control machines use a computer to guide a process that might other-

wise be done manually.

14.1 MACHINE AXES

14.2 NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC)

• The use of numerical data to drive a machine for processes such as,

- milling- turning- drilling- grinding- shot peening- tube bending- flame cutting- automated knitting machines- automatic riveting- etc.

• Basic components of NC systems,

- program- controller unit- machine tool

• Most suited to,

- parts are processed frequently in small lot sizes- complex part geometry- close tolerances on workpart- many operations on part in processing- large amounts of metal to be removed- engineering design will possibly change- parts that are too expensive for mistakes

page 410

• The methods for developing NC programs include,

- manual part programming- computer-assisted part programming- computer generated programs

• The manual and computer aided methods use various NC programming languages,

- APT (Automatically Programmed Tools)- AUTOSPOT (Automatic System for Positioning Tools)- SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language Internally Translated)- COMPACT II- ADAPT (ADaptation of APT)- EXAPT (Extended Subset of APT)- UNIAPT

• These languages are used by a parts programmer to define the motion of the cutting tool.

• The languages may be preprocessed, and then used for a number of various control types,

such as,

- punched paper tape- Computer Numerical Control (CNC)- Direct Numerical Control (DNC)

• The automatic methods work with geometry created in a CAD program.

14.2.1 NC Tapes

• NC Programs are preprocessed on computers, and punched onto paper or mylar tapes.

• Simple NC machines can use a tape reader to direct the machine.

• Problems,

- required storage, transportation, and manual loading of NC tapes- has to reread the tape for each new part- tapes tend to wear, and become dirty, thus causing misreadings

page 411

- the readers are slow, and can cause ‘dwell marks’ on complex pieces- the mechanical parts in the readers reduced reliability- testing had to be done on the NC machine- no program editing abilities (increased lead time)

• The end of tapes was the result of two competing developments

- DNC used remote computers to replace tape readers, these were displaced in most cases by CNC

- CNC allowed the use of a local computer to overcome problems with tapes, and the problems with distant computers. While CNC was used to enhance tapes for a while, they eventually allowed the use of other storage media, and currently pro-gram transfer media are not required.

14.2.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

• A computer controller is used to drive an NC machine directly.

• Characteristics are,

- controls a single machine- located very close to machine tool- allows storage/retrieval/entry of NC programs without preprocessing of NC code

• Advantages of CNC,

- program is only entered into memory once, so it is more reliable- the programs can be tested and altered at the machine- increased flexibility and control options on the local computer- easy to integrate into FMS systems

• The Background,

- the problems with NC tapes were approached using DNC networks- the communication problems with DNC systems became obvious, and local computers

were added to act as tape readers which would read tapes once, and play them back to the NC machine indefinitely

- CNC controllers began using other storage media like magnetic tapes, and floppy disks- CNC now offers features like,

- local programming,- communication over interfaces,- hard disk storage,- program simulation

page 412

- etc.

• ASIDE: Direct Numerical Control is similar to CNC, except a remote computer is used to

control a number of machines. This gives the advantage of more computer power. This approach

is no longer popular, as the dropping cost of computers offsets any advantages.

• Some companies use proprietary NC Languages, such as the example of DYNA Mill NC

code shown later

• These machines are often programmed by downloading NC code from a computer, or man-

ually programming the controller computer.

• Future trends involve,

- adaptive feed rates to increase speeds as the metal removal rate varies- tool wear detection-

14.2.3 Direct/Distributed Numerical Control (DNC)

• Uses a few methods,

- the oldest methods used modems, and a mainframe which emulated a tape reader, to con-trol the NC machine (no storage)

- a more recent advance used a local computer which acts as a storage buffer. Programs are downloaded from the main DNC computer, and then the local controller feeds instructions to the hardwired NC machine, as if they have been read from tape.

- the newer methods use a central computer which communicates with local CNC comput-ers (also called Direct Numerical Control)

• DNC controllers came before CNC machines, but as computer technology improved it

became practical to place a computer beside the NC machine, and DNC changed in form.

• Characteristics of modern DNC systems are,

- uses a server (with large storage capacity) to store a large number of part programs

page 413

- the server will download part programs on demand to local machines- may have abilities to,

- display and edit part programs- transmit operator instructions and other data needed at the machines- collect and process machine status information for management purposes

• Advantages are,

- eliminates the need for NC tapes (the advantages are obvious)- design changes are immediate- NC programs may be edited quickly- can be used to support an FMS system- increase efficiency of individual machine tools- more shop up-time than with stand alone machines- simplifies implementation of group technology, computer aided process planning, and

other CIM concepts- reduces peripheral costs with NC tapes

• A Brief History,

• Mid 60’s- concept proved by Cincinnati Milacron and G.E.- telephone links used to send instructions from large computers to hard wired NC

machines. Basically replaced a tape reader.• 1970

- several commercial DNC systems announced.• Mid 70’s

- Aerospace companies used DNC because of the large number of distributed machines in their facilities.

• Initial resistance to DNC technology was (previously) based on,

- high cost of computer hardware- the number of machines which could be controlled by one computer was limited- computer software was limited for maintenance, scheduling, control, and data collection- a backup computer was usually required- was hard to justify on the basis of downloading parts programs

• when downloading programs there are two popular opinions,

- a program should only be downloaded in part, this accommodates easy engineering changes in a real-time environment.

- many programs should be downloaded to the local controller to provide protection against system failure, and eliminating the cost of real-time response in the DNC central computer.

page 414

14.3 EXAMPLES OF EQUIPMENT

• The number of NC machines available commercially will be well into the thousands.

14.3.1 EMCO PC Turn 50

• This is a small desktop lathe capable of turning parts in metal.

• The basic physical specifications are,

• The basic sequence of operations for this machine are,

1. Unpack components.2. Connect devices to power, air supply, and attach interface cables.

Cutting Volume

Max. Holding Vol-

ume

Max. Tool Size

Chuck

Spindle

Resolution

Feed

Feed Force

Power

radial travel 48mm rad.

axial travel 228mm

radial 30-65mm

axial 300mm

12mm by 12mm

max 80mm dia.

130-3000 rpm

0.001mm

0-750 mm/min

<=600N below 500mm/min

100/110/230VAC, 0-6KVA

840 by 695 by 345 mm

page 415

3. Install RS-485 card in PC.4. Install software.5. Test basic system (Done initial setup here).6. Start and initialize lathe and PC with software.7. Setup tools for new job. Find zero positions/offsets, and enter values for turret.8. Load NC code.9. Simulate program.10. Load stock and close automatic chuck.11. Close door.12. Run program on Lathe.13. Open door and open chuck.14. If cutting a similar part go to step 8, if doing a new setup go to step 7.

14.3.2 Light Machines Corp. proLIGHT Mill

• This is a small desktop lathe capable of turning parts in metal.

• The basic physical specifications are,

page 416

• The basic sequence of operations for this machine are,

1. Unpack components.2. Connect devices to power, air supply, and attach interface cables.3. Install software.4. Test basic system (Done initial setup here).5. Start and initialize mill and PC with software.6. Setup tool for new job. Find zero position/offset.7. Load NC code.8. Simulate program.9. Run program on Mill.10. If cutting a similar part go to step 7, if doing a new setup go to step 6.

Cutting Volume

Max. Holding Volume

Max. Tool SizeSpindleResolutionFeedFeed ForcePowerDimensionsWeightControllerControl InterfaceProgrammingSpindle

200-5000 rpm

50ipm x,y and 40ipm z

IBM compatible computerIBM compatible computerG-Codes and Dos software1 H.P.

page 417


1.

14.5 TUTORIAL - EMCO MAIER PCTURN 50 LATHE (OLD)

• The lathe is shipped with software that is meant to emulate shop floor interfaces. We don’t have the standard keyboard, so we need to use special key stroke sequences on the PC keyboard.

• Procedure:1. Connect the air supply to the lathe and make sure that the regulator on the lathe is

between 25 and 75 psi - 50 psi is good. Ensure that the lath is connected to the PC with the DNC cable. The computer card must also have a terminator on the second connector - this is an empty connector. Turn on the lathe, and the PC.

2. Once the PC is booted, run the emco control software. The screen may come up with warnings. If these warnings don’t disappear when you hit ‘ESC’ call the instructor.

3. First we must zero the lathe. To do this first hit ‘F1’ and then ‘F7?-ZRN’. A small label ‘ZRN’ should appear near the bottom of the screen. Press ‘4’ on the number pad of the keyboard - the lathe should move in the ‘x’ direction. Next, press ‘8’ on the keyboard, the lathe should move in the ‘z’ direction. After all motion has stopped the lathe is calibrated, and it will be put in jog mode.

4. You can move the lathe with the keys on the number pad as well as perform other func-tion.4 - move carriage left6 - move carriage right2 - cross slide out8 - move cross slide in<SFT>7 - turn spindle on<SFT>6 - turn spindle off<SFT>2 - turn on/off chip blower<SFT>1 - turn tool turret+/- - increase/decrease feed

5. You can now put the mill in MDI mode by pressing ‘F1’ then ‘F6?-MDI’. Push the door open and hold it for a second, it will then stay open. Clear the error on the screen with ‘ESC’ and press <SFT>~ the chuck should open and close. Mount a work piece and then close the door.

page 418

6. Put the computer in program mode ----------------

14.6 TUTORIAL - PC TURN 50 LATHE DOCUMENTATION: (By Jonathan DeBoer)

• SETUP:

The lathe is controlled by a computer through an RS485 port. RS485 is a serial data bus that can be chained from one device to another and must be terminated.

The controlling computer must be running Windows 3.1 or 3.11 and must have the RS485 card installed. Windows 95 will not get along with the interface card, and the soft-ware refuses to use an RS232 port with an RS485 adapter. The machine should have as few peripherals as possible; if one device happens to use any of the IRQs/DMAs/IO ports as the RS485 card, there will be problems. So remove sound cards, extra interface cards, etc. The RS485 card has two DB9F connectors on the back, plug the cable from the lathe in one and a terminator in the other.

Install WinNC (the control software) under Windows 3.1. There are two disks; the installer and a machine data disk.

The lathe needs to be plugged in to the computer, to a power outlet (of course), and to an air supply at 50-75 psi (less than 50 and there isn't enough pressure to open the door). A pressure gauge is on the left side of the machine, all plugs/etc are on the right.

• POWER ON/OFF:To Turn On:

Turn on the computer and machine. To turn on the machine, turn the key on the right side. On the computer, launch Windows if neccisary. Once windows is running, launch WinNC. Make sure NumLock is on before launching WinNC. WinNC will then establish communication with the machine.

To Turn Off:To just shut off the lathe but not the computer, just turn the key on the lathe. An

error will come up in WinNC indicating it lost RS485 communication. Not to worry; when the lathe is turned back on later, hit ESC and the error will go away. To turn off both, exit WinNC by hitting Alt-F4 and then exit Windows. Then Simply switch off both the machine and the computer.

• OPERATION:Some notes:

The EMCO software is distinguished by having the most counter-intuitive, unnatu-ral, information-withholding, and ornery interface known to man. Most techni-cal references available are in German.

The software periodically pops up error messages for minor and major errors.

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Errors can be dismissed by pressing ESC. If they don't go away, there is a prob-lem that needs to be looked into.

At the bottom of the screen is a menu of options you can select with the F3-F7 keys. This is called the "softkey list" by the Emco documentation, and will henceforth be referred to as the "menu".

A note on coordinates:The X axis is into/out of the material. X = 0 should be the center of rotation. As

long as X is a positive value, moving along X in the positive is moving the tool out of the material and away from center. Moving along X in the negative is moving into the material and toward center.

The Z axis is along the length of the part (along the axis of rotation). Moving along Z in the negative direction is moving toward the spindle head (to the left, facing the machine). Moving along Z in the positive direction is moving away from the spindle head (to the right, facing the machine).

Modes:The software is ruled by modes. What mode the software is in determines what it

can do and what it displays. If something doesn't work or doesn't look right, check what mode the software is in. Remember operational modes are set independently of display modes. The operational mode can be EDIT but pro-grams cannot be edited until the view mode is set to PRGRM, and vice versa.

Hit F1 to get a menu of operational modes:ZRN mode is used for zeroing the tool position. This should be done the

first thing after the machine is turned on.JOG is used for manual control of the lathe.MDI is used for changing tools, opening chuck, etc. (actually, you can do

all this with JOG)EDIT is used for editing, loading, and exporting programs.AUTO is used for running programs.

Hit F12 to get display modes:Note: when you switch view modes, the menu changes.The default is ALARM mode, which displays operator messages and

alarms. Hit F3 to display alarms, F5 to display operator messages.POS mode displays positions. Hit F3 to display the current absolute posi-

tion, F4 for the current relative position, and F5 for a variety of details.PRGRM mode displays the program. Hit F3 to display the program code,

hit F4 for a list of all the programs available. If the operational mode is EDIT, you can also edit the code when you hit F3

OFFSET is used for displaying and changing offset values. Hit F3 for wear adjustment and F4 for geometry. These are both parameters for tools. Data for up to 16 tools can be stored at once. Hit F5 for work shift. This is how the working reference point is set. See below.

PARAM is used for changing setup parameters and viewing system infor-mation. Hit F3 for setup see below for details. Hit F4 for diagnostics on the RJ485 port and the software version.

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GRAPH is used to simulate output with a graphThe fact that all these modes must share the menu can cause confusion.

Remember that if you should be seeing a menu and you aren't, the menu you are looking for may be "behind" the one you are seeing. For exam-ple, when you switch to a display mode, you should see the menu for that display mode. If you hit F1, that menu is "covered up" by the menu to select an operational mode. Once you select something from that menu, you will see the view mode's menu again.

Keyboard control:Note on keyboard control: Many of the keys outlined in the manual are for Ger-

man keyboards only and are mapped differently on US keyboards. Use this as reference, NOT the manual:

Alt-F4 - ExitESC - Dismiss error messageF1 - mode menuF3 thru F7 - select item from current menuF11 - scroll through menus when they are too wide to fit on the screen (like

the MORE key on a Ti-85 calculator)F12 - function key menuCtrl-\ - open/close chuck (must not be in EDIT mode, door must be open)Ctrl-] - open/close door (spindle must be off)Ctrl-1 - change tool (must not be in EDIT or ZRN mode, door must be

closed)Ctrl-2 - Turn on/off blowerCtrl-6 - Turn off spindle (JOG mode)Ctrl-7 - Turn on spindle (JOG mode, door must be shut) arrows - move cursor in the editor

on the numeric keypad:4 - move -Z in JOG mode, or zero Z axis in ZRF mode6 - move +Z in JOG mode, or zero Z axis in ZRF mode2 - move -X in JOG mode, or zero X axis in ZRF mode8 - move +X in JOG mode, or zero X axis in ZRF mode5 - zero both axis in ZRF mode

Parameter setup:There are several screens of setup parameters, you can scroll through the pages

with the up and down arrow keys and set these parameters:On the first page:

INCH =: Sets the unit system. Hit 0 for metric (mm), hit 1 for English (inches)

I/O =: Sets the device for I/O (exporting programs, etc). Hit 1 or 2 for COM port 1 or 2. Hit A for the a: drive (root directory). Hit B for B drive (root directory). Hit C for the hard drive, the c:\WinNC\fan0.t\prg directory, or whatever is specified as the path.

On the third page:

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Baudrate, data bits, stop bits, etc. can be set up for the COM portsOn the sixth page:

GEAR =: Sets the gear for the spindle. See the manual.PATH =: Sets the working path, the default is c:\WinNC\fan0.t\prg. It

would be wise not to change this.

• REFERENCE POINTS:

Setting the working reference point (that is, setting 0,0):The working reference point is the point that your programs will consider to be 0,0

and should be placed at the center of the point where the part enters the jaws of the chuck. The working reference point is defined in terms of the machine refer-ence point. The machine reference point is the center of the face of the spindle head. This is the center of the point where the chuck is fastened to the spindle head, NOT the face of the chuck.

The X zero reference is already at the center of rotation. Don't change it.To set the Z zero reference, do this:

Hit F12 and select POS view mode.Hit F3 in the POS view mode to select absolute view.Hit F1 and select JOG mode

Now, move the tool holder so that it's left edge is at the point which should be 0 in the Z direction. If you want zero to be the first point of the material that is out of the jaws of the chuck, VERY CAREFULLY move the tool holder (NOT the tool)so that it is just touching the jaws of the chuck. The manual suggests using a piece of paper. Place a sheet of paper between the tool holder and the jaws of the chuck. When the sheet of paper is pinched between the two and can't move, stop moving the tool holder.

Look at the value for Z on the screen, it would be wise to write it down on a sheet of scrap paper.

Hit F12 and select OFFSET mode.Hit F5 for work shift.Type the negative of the value for Z you wrote down as a Z code. That is, type "Z"

followed by "-" followed by the value you wrote down.Your zero reference has been set. however, you still need to calibrate the tools.

Tool offset setup:Tools must be matched with tool properties in programs. You can have as many as

16 sets of tool properties, and the PC Turn 50 has three tool holders. Thus, a command in a program to change tools should be of the form "T0316" where T is the command to change tools, the first two numbers are the tool to switch to, and the second two numbers are the tool offset description to use.

To get the Z offset:Hit F1 and select JOG mode.Having gotten the Z zero reference, rotate the tool into position and then

move the tool to the zero position just as the tool holder was moved to the zero position when setting the zero reference.

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Hit F12 and select OFFSET mode.Hit F4 for Geometry settings.Properties for up to 16 tools can be stored at once, and are listed on this

screen. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the tool description number 1-16 that the X offset is to be stored in.

Hit Z and then hit enter. The Z offset will be saved in that tool description number.

To get the X offset:Hit F1 and select JOG mode.Measure the radius of any round part and place it in the chuck.CAREFULLY move the tool so the tip is just touching the surface of the

material.Hit F12 and select POS mode.Hit F3 for absolute position display. Observe the value for X. Subtract the

value of the radius of the sample part and write this value down.Hit F12 and select OFFSET mode.Hit F4 for Geometry settings.Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to the tool description number 1-16

that the X offset is to be stored in.Type "X" followed by the value you wrote down, then hit Enter. The X off-

set will be saved in that tool description.

• PROGRAMMING:Multiple programs (up to 9499) can be stored on the hard drive of the computer itself and

be used by WinNC. They are treated as subprograms, and addressed with O codes. So a program name is O0001 or O4365, etc.

Creating/opening/exporting programs:Hit F1 and select EDIT mode from the menuHit F12 and select PRGRM modeType Oxxxx where xxxx is a number between 1 and 9499 and is the number of the

program. Then:To create a program, hit Enter. If the number specified already exists, nothing will

happen.To open an existing program, hit down arrow. If the number specified does not

exist, nothing will happen.To delete a program, hit Delete. If the number specified does not exist, nothing

will happen.To export a program, hit F9. If the number specified does not exist, nothing will

happen. The program will be exported to the device specified by the I/O param-eter under the settings menu (see above). If the export device is a disk, the file name will be oprgxxxx where xxxx is the program number

Running a program:Hit F1 and select AUTO mode.Hit F12 and select PRGRM mode.Open the program: type Oxxxx where xxxx is the program number and hit down

arrow.

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Hit 0 on the numeric keypad (this is RESET)Hit Enter on the numeric keypad. (this is RUN)

Loading a program:The interface for this is unusable and completely undocumented. Do this instead:Exit WinNC by hitting Alt-F4.Open the Windows File Manager, and copy the G-code file from your disk to the

c:\WinNC\fan0.t\prg directory.rename the file o1, o2, o4567, or whatever you want the new program number to

be.Now when you get back into WinNC, the file will be there as if you had created a

program by that number right in WinNC.Notes on the editor:

The editor is a basic text editor with some restrictions to make sure you enter valid codes.

Type a "word" (that is, a code: N00, G01, X5.395, etc.) and hit enter. Hit enter twice to start a new line. You can use the cursor to move about and insert text. It's a bit hard to control, but fairly intuitive.

Notes on G-codes for the PC Turn 50:The PC Turn 50 takes a fairly standard set of G codes, which is the only thing cov-

ered well in the manual. Note that WinNC and the PC Turn 50 use command definition set C in the manual. There are several things worth noting.

O codes are not allowed, as they are used for identifying programs. There are only two axis, X and Z, so all the 3d aspect of G codes do not apply.Keep in mind most tools are designed to cut only in one direction in the Z axis.There are some G codes relatively unique to the PC Turn 50. G20, G21, G24, and

G33 are new cycles for turning and threading for example.

• STEP BY STEP TUTORIAL:assumes you have written a G-code file.1. Switch on the lathe with the key.2. Switch on the computer, launch Windows File Manager.3. Copy the G-code file from your disk to the c:\WinNC\fan0.t\prg directory and rename it

o---- where ---- is a number that isn't already being used.4. Exit the File Manager, launch WinNC.6. Close the door if necessary with Ctrl-]5. Hit F1 to bring up the operating mode menu, and hit F7 for ZRN mode.6. On the numeric keypad, hit 5 to move the tool to the machine's reference point. The

machine should then go to JOG mode.7. Set zero references and tool offsets if they haven't been set already. See above for

details.8. Open the door with Ctrl-], then open the chuck with Ctrl-\.9. Place a part to turn in the chuck's jaws and close the chuck with Ctrl-\. Close the door.8. Hit F1 to bring up the operating mode menu, and hit F4 for EDIT mode.7. Hit F12 to bring up the view mode menu, and hit F4 for PRGRM mode.8. Type what you renamed your file to, ("O0042" for example) and hit the down arrow

key. Your program should be displayed on screen.

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9. Hit F1 and hit F3 for AUTO mode.10. Hit 0 on the numeric keypad to reset, and then hit Enter on the numeric keypad to run

the file.11. Once the program is done, hit F1 and hit F5 for MDI mode.12. Open the door, then open the chuck and remove the finished part.13. Close the door, exit WinNC with Alt-F4, exit Windows, and turn off the computer and

lathe.

14.6.1 LABORATORY - CNC MACHINING

Purpose: The students will be introduced to the basics of CNC equipment.

Overview: A simple tutorial will be used to introduce the students to the CNC equipment in the labo-

ratory. The students will develop a simple G-code program to cut their initials on the mill and a candle stick on the lathe. Both programs can be simulated off-line, and then tested in the laboratory. You will also be introduced to automatic part pro-gramming software.

Pre-Lab: 1. Review the course material on CNC machines, and specifics for the PC-turn 50, and

Pro-light machines.2. Use netscape to explore the NC machines in the laboratory.3. Develop by hand a program to cut your initials using the Pro-light NC mill. The initials

will be cut on a 2” square piece of aluminum. Correct speeds and feed should have also been determined.

4. Develop by hand a program to cut a candlestick in brass with a 1” dia on the PC-turn 50 lathe. Correct speeds and feed should have also been determined.

5. Simulate both programs before arriving at the laboratory.

In-Lab:1. In the lab you will be shown how to set up the NC lathe and mill, fixture parts, and set

the origin.2. You will then individually enter and manufacture your parts.3. Learn how to use MasterCAM, SmartCAM, or ProEngineer to produce NC code. Tuto-

rial manuals will be provided in the lab.

Submit:1. Part programs for both parts.2. Digital photographs of both parts.3. A simple part program generated on the software of your choice.

page 425

page 426

15. CNC PROGRAMMING

• We need to be able to direct the position of the cutting tool. As the tool moves we will cut

metal (or perform other processes).

• Obviously if we plan to indicate positions we will need to coordinate systems.

• The coordinates are almost exclusively cartesian and the origin is on the workpiece.

• For a lathe, the infeed/radial axis is the x-axis, the carriage/length axis is the z-axis. There is

no need for a y-axis because the tool moves in a plane through the rotational center of the work.

Coordinates on the work piece shown below are relative to the work.

• For a tool with a vertical spindle the x-axis is the cross feed, the y-axis is the in-feed, and

the z-axis is parallel to the tool axis (perpendicular to the table). Coordinates on the work piece

shown below relative to the work.

Head Tail Stock

x

zWARNING: Be cautious,

the x axis is intuitively the

radius of the workpiece. But,

many systems use the dimen-

sion as a diameter. Make sure

y

page 427

• For a tool with a horizontal spindle the x-axis is across the table, the y-axis is down, and the

z-axis is out. Coordinates on the work piece shown below relative to the work.

• Some common programming languages include, (note: standards are indicated with an *)

ADAPT - (ADaptation of APT) A subset of APT*APT - (Automatically Programmed Tool) A geometry based language that is compiled

into an executable program.AUTOSPOT - A 2D language developed by IBM. Later combined with ADAPT.COMPACT/COMPACTII - A higher level language designed for geometrical definitions

of parts, but it doesn’t require compilation.EXAPT - A european flavor of APT*G-Codes (EIA RS-274 G&M codes)MAPT - (Microcomputer APT) - Yet another version of APTUNIAPT - APT controller for smaller computer systemsOther Proprietary languages

y

x

z

z

y

x

page 428

• These languages have many similarities, but the syntax varies.

15.1 G-CODES

• This language was originally designed to be read from paper tapes. As a result it is quite

simple.

• The language directs tool motion with simple commands

• Note, I show programs with spaces to improve readability, but these are not necessary.

• A basic list of ‘G’ operation codes is given below. These direct motion of the tool.

G00 - Rapid move (not cutting)G01 - Linear moveG02 - Clockwise circular motionG03 - Counterclockwise circular motionG04 - DwellG05 - Pause (for operator intervention)G08 - AccelerationG09 - DecelerationG17 - x-y plane for circular interpolationG18 - z-x plane for circular interpolationG19 - y-z plane for circular interpolationG20 - turning cycle or inch data specificationG21 - thread cutting cycle or metric data specificationG24 - face turning cycleG25 - wait for input #1 to go low (Prolight Mill)G26 - wait for input #1 to go high (Prolight Mill)G28 - return to reference pointG29 - return from reference pointG31 - Stop on input (INROB1 is high) (Prolight Mill)G33-35 - thread cutting functions (Emco Lathe)G35 - wait for input #2 to go low (Prolight Mill)G36 - wait for input #2 to go high (Prolight Mill)G40 - cutter compensation cancelG41 - cutter compensation to the leftG42 - cutter compensation to the right

page 429

G43 - tool length compensation, positiveG44 - tool length compensation, negativeG50 - Preset positionG70 - set inch based units or finishing cycleG71 - set metric units or stock removalG72 - indicate finishing cycle (EMCO Lathe)G72 - 3D circular interpolation clockwise (Prolight Mill)G73 - turning cycle contour (EMCO Lathe)G73 - 3D circular interpolation counter clockwise (Prolight Mill)G74 - facing cycle contour (Emco Lathe)G74.1 - disable 360 deg arcs (Prolight Mill)G75 - pattern repeating (Emco Lathe)G75.1 - enable 360 degree arcs (Prolight Mill)G76 - deep hole drilling, cut cycle in z-axisG77 - cut-in cycle in x-axisG78 - multiple threading cycleG80 - fixed cycle cancelG81-89 - fixed cycles specified by machine tool manufacturersG81 - drilling cycle (Prolight Mill)G82 - straight drilling cycle with dwell (Prolight Mill)G83 - drilling cycle (EMCO Lathe)G83 - peck drilling cycle (Prolight Mill)G84 - taping cycle (EMCO Lathe)G85 - reaming cycle (EMCO Lathe)G85 - boring cycle (Prolight mill)G86 - boring with spindle off and dwell cycle (Prolight Mill)G89 - boring cycle with dwell (Prolight Mill)G90 - absolute dimension programG91 - incremental dimensionsG92 - Spindle speed limitG93 - Coordinate system settingG94 - Feed rate in ipm (EMCO Lathe)G95 - Feed rate in ipr (EMCO Lathe)G96 - Surface cutting speed (EMCO Lathe)G97 - Rotational speed rpm (EMCO Lathe)G98 - withdraw the tool to the starting point or feed per minuteG99 - withdraw the tool to a safe plane or feed per revolutionG101 - Spline interpolation (Prolight Mill)

• M-Codes control machine functions and these include,

M00 - program stopM01 - optional stop using stop buttonM02 - end of programM03 - spindle on CWM04 - spindle on CCW

page 430

M05 - spindle offM06 - tool changeM07 - flood with coolantM08 - mist with coolantM08 - turn on accessory #1 (120VAC outlet) (Prolight Mill)M09 - coolant offM09 - turn off accessory #1 (120VAC outlet) (Prolight Mill)M10 - turn on accessory #2 (120VAC outlet) (Prolight Mill)M11 - turn off accessory #2 (120VAC outlet) (Prolight Mill) or tool changeM17 - subroutine endM20 - tailstock back (EMCO Lathe)M20 - Chain to next program (Prolight Mill)M21 - tailstock forward (EMCO Lathe)M22 - Write current position to data file (Prolight Mill)M25 - open chuck (EMCO Lathe)M25 - set output #1 off (Prolight Mill)M26 - close chuck (EMCO Lathe)M26 - set output #1 on (Prolight Mill)M30 - end of tape (rewind)M35 - set output #2 off (Prolight Mill)M36 - set output #2 on (Prolight Mill)M38 - put stepper motors on low power standby (Prolight Mill)M47 - restart a program continuously, or a fixed number of times (Prolight Mill)M71 - puff blowing on (EMCO Lathe)M72 - puff blowing off (EMCO Lathe)M96 - compensate for rounded external curvesM97 - compensate for sharp external curvesM98 - subprogram callM99 - return from subprogram, jump instructionM101 - move x-axis home (Prolight Mill)M102 - move y-axis home (Prolight Mill)M103 - move z-axis home (Prolight Mill)

• Other codes and keywords include,

Annn - an orientation, or second x-axis spline control pointBnnn - an orientation, or second y-axis spline control pointCnnn - an orientation, or second z-axis spline control point, or chamferFnnn - a feed value (in ipm or m/s, not ipr), or thread pitchInnn - x-axis center for circular interpolation, or first x-axis spline control pointJnnn - y-axis center for circular interpolation, or first y-axis spline control pointKnnn - z-axis center for circular interpolation, or first z-axis spline control pointLnnn - arc angle, loop counter and program cycle counterNnnn - a sequence/line numberOnnn - subprogram block numberPnnn - subprogram reference number

page 431

Rnnn - a clearance plane for tool movement, or arc radius, or taper valueQnnn - peck depth for pecking cycleSnnn - cutting speed (rpm), spindle speedTnnn - a tool numberUnnn - relative motion in xVnnn - relative motion in yWnnn - relative motion in zXnnn - an x-axis valueYnnn - a y-axis valueZnnn - a z-axis value; - starts a comment (proLight Mill), or end of block (EMCO Lathe)

• The typical sequence of one of these programs is,

1. Introductory functions such as units, absolute coords. vs. relative coords., etc.2. Define coordinates.3. Feeds, speeds, etc.4. Coolants, doors, etc.5. Cutting tool movements and tool changes6. Shutdown

• A program is given for the sample part below. Complete the last few lines.

page 432

Notes:

1. Drawing not to scale

2. NC origin set to bot-

tom left of both views

3. the available tools are,

#1 5/8” dia. drill

#2 1/2” dia. mill

x

y

z

x

3”

1”1”1”7”

.5”

2 holes 5/8”dia.

2”

.5”

1”

2”

2”

1”

1”

all rounds 1/4” rad.

3”

1.5”

1.5”

N10 G70 G90 T01 M06

N20 G00 X1.000 Y2.000 Z2.200

N30 F12.0 S480 M03

N40 G81 Z-0.100 R2.200

N50 G81 Y4.000 Z-0.100 R2.200

N60 M05 T02 M06 F50 S2400 M03

N70 G00 X3.500 Y-0.600 Z2.200

N80 G00 Z1.000

N90 G01 Y7.200

N100 G00 X4.000

; set to inches & absolute coords and tool #1

; move to above first hole

; set speeds and feeds

; drill first hole

; drill second hole

; change to milling cutter and set speeds and

feeds

; move toward long slot cut

; move to right depth

; cut slot length

Note: The program above will cut the 1” slot too narrow. How can we fix

page 433

• The following is an example of circular interpolation. This is valid for both milling and

turning. Note that here we move to the start point, the command indicates the direction (clockwise

or counterclockwise). The I, J values indicate the center of rotation, and the X, Y values indicate

the point to stop at. We can also cut circular paths on other planes by resetting the cutting planes

(G17, G18, G19).

• When cutting, it is useful to change our point of reference. When doing mathematics we

tend to dimension relative to a main origin (absolute). In fact a machine will need to have coordi-

nates specified with reference to a main origin. But when we examine parts we tend to refer to

local origins for features. (Consider how you dimension details on a drawing.) These relative

points refer to as local origins. We can also do moves as distances to the next point.

N10G01X6Y1; MOVE TO (6, 1)

N11G03X2Y5I2J1; CUT CIRCULAR PATH

(0, 0)

(6, 1)

(2,5)

(2, 1)

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• When using the prolight mill we can add program elements to request that an external

device (ie robot) load or unload parts. We will assume that the robot has been connected to the

robotic interface port available. This port has four inputs and two outputs. The example below

assumes that the input #1 indicates a part has been dropped off and the mill can start. Output #1

will be turned on to request that the robot pick up a part and load new stock.

• In previous examples we calculated the cutter offsets by hand. Modern NC machines keep a

record of the tool geometry. This can then be used to automatically calculate offsets (you don’t

need to put the tool size in the program).

• The best way to think of tool compensation is when cutting a profile, should we be to the

left or right of the line.

N0010G90 ; PUT IN ABSOLUTE MODE

N0011G01X1Y2 ; MOVE TO (1,2)

N0012G01X2Y2 ; MOVE TO (2,2)

N0013G91 ; PUT IN INCREMENTAL

MODE

N0014G01X1 ; MOVE TO (3,2) (0, 0)(1, 2)

(2, 2)

(3, 2)

(3, 3)

N20M26 ; SEND OUTPUT TO REQUEST ROBOT LOAD A PART

N21G26 ; WAIT UNTIL THE INPUT FROM THE ROBOT INDICATES PART HERE

N22M25 ; TURN OFF REQUEST TO ROBOT

N23G00.... ; START CUTTING THE PART

........

N89G00..... ; END PART CUTTING

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• In the previous example we notice how the shape is distorted by how the cutter navigates

the corners. There are additional commands to help with these problems.

• Typical commanded cycles include,

G42

G00 X1.000 Y1.000

G01 Y2.000

G01 X2.000

G01 Y1.000

G41

G00 X1.000 Y1.000

G01 Y2.000

G01 X2.000

G01 Y1.000

M97 - compensate for corners largerthan step (requires more time)

G41

G01 X4.000

G01 X1 Y1 M97

M96 - compensate for corners

G41

G01 X4.000

G01 X1 Y1 M96

page 436

- rectangular pocket milling- circular pocket milling- slot or elongated hole milling- peck drilling- tapping

• For practice, develop the part program for the component shown below

15.2 APT

• This language allows tools to be programmed using geometrical shapes. This puts less bur-

den on the programmer to do calculations in their heads.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12

34

5

y

x

P4

L3

P2

L1 P3

P1

C1

L2

page 437

• APT programs must be converted into low level programs, such as G-codes.

• An example of an APT program is given below.

• Some samples of the geometrical and motion commands follow. These are not complete,

but are a reasonable subset.

P0=POINT/0,-1.0,0P1=POINT/6.0,1.125,0P2=POINT/0,0,0P3=POINT/6.0,0,0P4=POINT/1.75,4.5,0L1=LINE/P2,P3C1=CIRCLE/CENTER,P1,RADIUS,1.125L2=LINE/P4,LEFT,TANTO,C1L3=LINE/P2,P4PL1=PLANE/P2,P3,P4FROM/P0GO/TO,L1,TO,PL1,PAST,L3GORGT/L1,TANTO,C1GOFWD/C1,PAST,L2GOFWDL2,PAST,L3GOLFT/L3,PAST,L1GOTO/P0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12

34

5

y

x

P4

L3

P2

L1 P3

P1

C1

L2

page 438

• GEOMETRY: The simplest geometrical construction in APT is a point

p=POINT/x,y,z - a cartesian pointp=POINT/l1,l2 - intersection of two linesp=POINT/c - the center of a circlep=POINT/YLARGE,INTOF,l,c - the largest y intersection of a line and a circle*Note: we can use YSMALL,XLARGE,XSMALL in place of YLARGE

• GEOMETRY: Lines are one of the next simplest definitions,

l=LINE/x1,y1,z1,x2,y2,z2 - endpoint cartesian componentsl=LINE/p1,p2 - endpointsl=LINE/p,PARLEL,l - a line through a point and parallel to another linel=LINE/p,PERPTO,l - a line through a point and perpendicular to a linel=LINE/p,LEFT,TANTO,c - a line from a point, to a left tangency point on a circlel=LINE/p,RIGHT,TANTO,c - a line from a point, to a right tangency point on a circlel=LINE/LEFT,TANTO,c1,LEFT,TANTO,c2 - defined by tangents to two circlesl=LINE/LEFT,TANTO,c1,RIGHT,TANTO,c2 - defined by tangents to two circlesl=LINE/RIGHT,TANTO,c1,LEFT,TANTO,c2 - defined by tangents to two circlesl=LINE/RIGHT,TANTO,c1,RIGHT,TANTO,c2 - defined by tangents to two circles

• GEOMETRY: Circles are very useful for constructing geometries

c=CIRCLE/x,y,z,r - a center and radiusc=CIRCLE/CENTER,p,RADIUS,r - a center point and a radiusc=CIRCLE/CENTER,p,TANTO,l - a center and a tangency to an outside linec=CIRCLE/p1,p2,p3 - defined by three points on the circumferencec=CIRCLE/YLARGE,l1,YLARGE,l2,RADIUS,r - tangency to two lines and radius*Note: we can use YSMALL,XLARGE,XSMALL in place of YLARGE

• GEOMETRY: More complex geometric constructions are possible

PLANE/ - defines a planeQUADRIC/a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j - define a polynomial using valuesGCONIC/a,b,c,d,e,f - define a conic by equation coefficientsLCONIC/p1,p2,... - defines a conic by lofting (splining) pointsRLDSRF/ - a ruled surface made of two splinesPOLCON/ - define a surface using cross sectionsPATERN/ - will repeat a motion in a linear or circular array

• Once we have constructed points, lines and circles we can then proceed to direct the tool to

follow the path.

• MOTION: We can use the basic commands to follow the specified geometry

page 439

FROM/p - specify a start pointFROM/x,y,z - specify a start pointGOTO/p - move to a final pointGOTO/x,y,z - move to a final pointGOTO/TO,p - move until the tool touches a pointGOTO/TO,l - move until the tool touches a lineGOTO/TO,c - move until the tool touches a circleGOLFT/l1,TO,l2 - go on the left of l1 until the tool touches l2GORGT/l1,TO,l2 - go on the right of l1 until the tool touches l2GOBACK/l1,TO,l2 - reverses direction along l1 to l2GOBACK/l1,TO,c1 - reverses direction along l1 to c1GOUP/l1,TO,l2 - goes up along l1 to l2GODOWN/1l,TO,l2 - goes down along l1 to l2GODLTA/x,y,z - does a relative moveNote: TO can be replaced with PAST, ON to change whether the tool goes past the struc-

ture, or the center stops on the structure.

• MOTION: The following commands will create complex motion of the tool

POCKET/ - will cut a pocketPSIS/ - will call for the part surface

• As would be expected, we need to be able to issue commands to control the machine.

• CONTROL: The following instructions will control the machine outside the expected cut-

ting tool motion.

CUTTER/n1,n2 - defines diameter n1 and radius n2 of cutterMACHIN/n,m - uses a post processor for machine ‘n’, and version ‘m’COOL/ANT/n - either MIST, FLOOD or OFFTURRET/n - sets tool turret to new positionTOLER/n - sets a tolerance band for cuttingFEDRAT/n - sets a feedrate nSPINDL/n,CW - specifies n rpm and direction of spindle

• We can also include some program elements that are only used for programming

• PROGRAM: The following statements are programming support instructions

REMARK - starts a comment line that is not interpreted$$ - also allows comments, but after other statementsNOPOST - turns off the post processor that would generate cutter pathsCLPRNT - prints a sequential history of the cutter center location

page 440

SQRTF(n) - calculates the floating point square rootFINI - stop programPARTNO/n - allows the user to specify the part nameLOOPST and LOOPND - loop instructionsRESERV/n,m - defines an array of size ‘n’ by ‘m’JUMPTO/n - jump to line number

• Note: variables can also be defined and basic mathematical operations can be performed.

• Note: macro functions are also available.

15.3 PROPRIETARY NC CODES

page 441

• NC code Example (for the Dyna Milling Machine)

15.4 GRAPHICAL PART PROGRAMMING

• Basically,

000 START INS 01001 TD = 0.125002 FRXY = 10003 FRZ = 4004 SETUP > zcxyu005 GOY -.625006 GOZ -.125007 GRa -180008 ZERO AT009 X .634010 Y .5011 GOr .125012 a 90013 GRa -30014 > REF COODS015 ZERO AT016 X 1.50017 Y 0018 GOr .125019 a 60020 GRa -60021 > REF COODS022 ZERO AT023 X 1.5024 Y -0.3025 GOr .125026 a 0027 GRa -90028 GRX -1.3029 END

2.00”

0.50”

0.50”

30°

0.20”R

Start Program in inches

Set Tool Diameter

Set Feed Rates

Set Absolute Zero Position

Move to Start Position

X

Y

Z

End Program

A

B

A

B

C

D

C

D

E

F

EF

page 442

1. Part geometry is entered in 2D or 3D.2. Tool geometry and machine tool type are entered.3. Speeds and feeds are entered or calculated based on tool and work material.4. Inside/outside of geometry, and initial stock sizes are selected.5. Cutter paths are generated.6. Cutter paths are converted to a machine specific language (eg, G-codes).

• These programs are usually built into better CAD systems or are available as stand alone

software

• Some machine tools have these programmers built into the controller.

15.5 NC CUTTER PATHS

• When we have simple features, paths are easy to generate. These features include,

- steps- pockets- holes- etc.

• Typically paths for these will repeat as shown below,

page 443

• For complex surfaces we want to contour appropriately. These surfaces will almost always

be represented with spline patches.

• Recall that a spline patch can be represented parametrically

page 444

• A simple algorithm to cut the surface is shown below.

15.6 NC CONTROLLERS

• NC control programs are essentially quite simple. The source code for a basic controller is

given below.

(u=0,v=0)

(u=0,v=1)

(u=1,v=0)

(u=1,v=1)

p u v,( )xp

yp

zp

=

dirn_flag = 1; a direction flagn=10 ; number of passes to cut the surfacestep=1.0/n ; step sizes for u and v directionsstart=step/2 ; the start offset in the u and v directions[xp,yp,zp] = p(start,start) ; calculate the start positionprint(“G00 X”,xp,” Y”,yp,” Z”,zp+0.2) ; move the tool to above the start positionfor i=0 to (n-1) ; will increment in the u direction

for j=0 to (n-1) ; will increment in the v direction; calculate next point

if dirn_flag=-1 then [xp,yp,zp]=p(start+i*step,start+j*step)if dirn_flag=1 then [xp,yp,zp]=p(start+i*step,start+(n-j)*step)print(“G01 X”,xp,” Y”,yp,” Z”,zp) ; instruction to cut to next point

next j ; make next step in v direction until donedirn_flag = -dirn_flag ; reverse direction to cut in opposite direction

next i ; move to next cut line in the u directionprint(“G00 Z”,zp+0.2) ; move the tool to above the end position

page 445

********** Add in C-code for AMP project


1. Examine the part below. It is set up so that the origin is at the bottom left. The cutting tool

has a diameter of 1/2”, and the material is 1/8” thick.

a) Write the equations needed to find the tangency point on the top left of the piece.

b) Develop an NC program to mill the part. The program should be complete and include all

instructions required. If necessary, assume a location for the tangency point.

R2.000”

2.500”

2.000”

2.000”5.500”

T

xT 5.5–( )2yT 4.5–( )2

+ 22

=

LAT xT2

yT2

+ 22

5.52

4.52

+( )2

+= =

ans.

page 446

2. Examine the part below. It is set up so that the origin is at the bottom left corner. The cut-

ting tool has a diameter of 1/2”, and the material is 1/8” thick. Develop an NC program to mill the

part. The program should be complete and include all instructions required.

3.

15.8 LABORATORY - CNC INTEGRATION

Purpose:

N10 G70 G90 T01 M06

N20 F20 S2000 M03

N30 G00 X-0.0 Y-0.25

N40 G01 Z-0.25

N50 G01 X5.75

N60 G01 Y1.75

N70 G01 X7.75

N80 G01 Y4.5

ans.

R2.000”

2.500”

2.000”

2.000”5.500”

T

page 447

Integration of CNC equipment.

Overview: Students will develop programs to load and unload the NC machines with robots, and then

produce parts.

Pre-Lab: 1. Use your NC programming software to generate an NC program to cut the top 1/2” of a

3” radius ball on the mill. Test the program on-line.2. Use the NC generation software to cut a 1/4” deep, 2”long oval into the surface of a 1”

brass bar. Test the program on-line.3. Simulate both programs before arriving at the laboratory. 4. Develop a robot program to load/unload the NC mill with the RV-M1. Test the program

on-line5. Develop a program for the RT-3000 to load/unload the lathe. Test the program on-line.

In-Lab:1. In the lab test the programs on the different devices in groups of 32. One group of (6?) should connect the RV-M1 to the Mill, and the other group should

connect the RT-3000 to the lathe.3. The groups that did the connection should split into smaller groups and modify the pro-

grams on the robots and NC machines.

Submit:1. Your individual NC and robot programs.2. The final group NC and robot programs.

page 448

16. DATA AQUISITION

16.1 INTRODUCTION

An analog value is continuous, not discrete, as shown in figure 17.1. In the previous chapters,

techniques were discussed for designing logical control systems that had inputs and outputs that

could only be on or off. These systems are less common than the logical control systems, but they

are very important. In this chapter we will examine analog inputs and outputs so that we may

design continuous control systems in a later chapter.

Figure 17.1 - Logical and Continuous Values

Typical analog inputs and outputs for PLCs are listed below. Actuators and sensors that can

be used with analog inputs and outputs will be discussed in later chapters.

Inputs:• oven temperature• fluid pressure• fluid flow rate

Outputs:• fluid valve position• motor position• motor velocity

This chapter will focus on the general principles behind digital-to-analog (D/A) and analog-

to-digital (A/D) conversion. The chapter will show how to output and input analog values with a

PLC.

Voltage

t

continuous

logical

page 449

16.2 ANALOG INPUTS

To input an analog voltage (into a PLC or any other computer) the continuous voltage value

must be ’sampled’ and then converted to a numerical value by an A/D converter. Figure 17.2

shows a continuous voltage changing over time. There are three samples shown on the figure. The

process of sampling the data is not instantaneous, so each sample has a start and stop time. The

time required to acquire the sample is called the ’sampling time’. A/D converters can only acquire

a limited number of samples per second. The time between samples is called the sampling period

’T’, and the inverse of the sampling period is the sampling frequency (also called sampling rate).

The sampling time is often much smaller than the sampling period. The sampling frequency is

specified when buying hardware, but for a PLC a maximum sampling rate might be 20Hz.

Figure 17.2 - Sampling an Analog Voltage

A more realistic drawing of sampled data is shown in Figure 17.3. This data is noisier, and

even between the start and end of the data sample there is a significant change in the voltage

value. The data value sampled will be somewhere between the voltage at the start and end of the

sample. The maximum (Vmax) and minimum (Vmin) voltages are a function of the control hard-

voltage

time

Voltage is sampled during these time periods

T = (Sampling Frequency)-1 Sampling time

page 450

ware. These are often specified when purchasing hardware, but reasonable ranges are;

0V to 5V0V to 10V-5V to 5V-10V to 10V

The number of bits of the A/D converter is the number of bits in the result word. If the A/D con-

verter is ’8 bit’ then the result can read up to 256 different voltage levels. Most A/D converters

have 12 bits, 16 bit converters are used for precision measurements.

Figure 17.3 - Parameters for an A/D Conversion

The parameters defined in Figure 17.3 can be used to calculate values for A/D converters.

V t( )

t

τ

where,

V t( ) the actual voltage over time=

τ sample interval for A/D converter=

t time=

t1 t2

V t1( )

V t2( )

Vmax

Vmin

t1 t2, time at start,end of sample=

V t1( ) V t2( ), voltage at start, end of sample=

Vmin Vmax, input voltage range of A/D converter=

N number of bits in the A/D converter=

page 451

These equations are summarized in Figure 17.4. Equation 17.1 relates the number of bits of an A/

D converter to the resolution. Equation 17.2 gives the error that can be expected with an A/D con-

verter given the range between the minimum and maximum voltages, and the resolution (this is

commonly called the quantization error). Equation 17.3 relates the voltage range and resolution to

the voltage input to estimate the integer that the A/D converter will record. Finally, equation 17.4

allows a conversion between the integer value from the A/D converter, and a voltage in the com-

puter.

Figure 17.4 - A/D Converter Equations

Consider a simple example, a 10 bit A/D converter can read voltages between -10V and 10V.

This gives a resolution of 1024, where 0 is -10V and 1023 is +10V. Because there are only 1024

steps there is a maximum error of ±9.8mV. If a voltage of 4.564V is input into the PLC, the A/D

converter converts the voltage to an integer value of 746. When we convert this back to a voltage

the result is 4.570V. The resulting quantization error is 4.570V-4.564V=+0.006V. This error can

be reduced by selecting an A/D converter with more bits. Each bit halves the quantization error.

R 2N

=

where,

R resolution of A/D converter=

VI INTVin Vmin–

Vmax Vmin–-----------------------------

R=

VI the integer value representing the input voltage=

VC

VI

R-----

Vmax Vmin–( ) Vmin+=

VC the voltage calculated from the integer value=

VERROR

Vmax Vmin–

2R-----------------------------

=

VERROR the maximum quantization error=

(17.1)

(17.3)

(17.4)

(17.2)

page 452

Figure 17.5 - Sample Calculation of A/D Values

If the voltage being sampled is changing too fast we may get false readings, as shown in Fig-

ure 17.6. In the upper graph the waveform completes seven cycles, and 9 samples are taken. The

bottom graph plots out the values read. The sampling frequency was too low, so the signal read

appears to be different that it actually is, this is called aliasing.

N 10=

R 2N

1024= =

VI INTVin Vmin–

Vmax Vmin–-----------------------------

R 746= =

VC

VI

R-----

Vmax Vmin–( ) Vmin+ 4.570V= =

VERROR

Vmax Vmin–

2R-----------------------------

0.0098V= =

Vmax 10V=

Vmin 10V–=

Vin 4.564V=

Given,

Calculate,

page 453

Figure 17.6 - Low Sampling Frequencies Cause Aliasing

The Nyquist criterion specifies that sampling frequencies should be at least twice the fre-

quency of the signal being measured, otherwise aliasing will occur. The example in Figure 17.6

violated this principle, so the signal was aliased. If this happens in real applications the process

will appear to operate erratically. In practice the sample frequency should be 4 or more times

faster than the system frequency.

There are other practical details that should be considered when designing applications with

analog inputs;

• Noise - Since the sampling window for a signal is short, noise will have added effect on the signal read. For example, a momentary voltage spike might result in a higher than normal reading. Shielded data cables are commonly used to reduce the noise levels.

• Delay - When the sample is requested, a short period of time passes before the final sam-ple value is obtained.

• Multiplexing - Most analog input cards allow multiple inputs. These may share the A/D converter using a technique called multiplexing. If there are 4 channels using an A/

fAD 2fsignal> where,fAD sampling frequency=

fsignal maximum frequency of the input=

page 454

D converter with a maximum sampling rate of 100Hz, the maximum sampling rate per channel is 25Hz.

• Signal Conditioners - Signal conditioners are used to amplify, or filter signals coming from transducers, before they are read by the A/D converter.

• Resistance - A/D converters normally have high input impedance (resistance), so they affect circuits they are measuring.

• Single Ended Inputs - Voltage inputs to a PLC can use a single common for multiple inputs, these types of inputs are called ’single’ ended inputs. These tend to be more prone to noise.

• Double Ended Inputs - Each double ended input has its own common. This reduces prob-lems with electrical noise, but also tends to reduce the number of inputs by half.

page 455

Figure 17.7 - A Successive Approximation A/D Converter

16.3 ANALOG OUTPUTS

Analog outputs are much simpler than analog inputs. To set an analog output an integer is

converted to a voltage. This process is very fast, and does not experience the timing problems

D to Aconverter

successiveapproximationlogic

8

8

+-

clock

reset

data out

+Vref

-Vref

Vin

Ve

Vin above (+ve) or below (-ve) Ve

ASIDE: This device is an 8 bit A/D converter. The main concept behind this is the succes-sive approximation logic. Once the reset is toggled the converter will start by setting the most significant bit of the 8 bit number. This will be converted to a voltage ‘Ve’ that is a function of the ‘+/-Vref’ values. The value of ‘Ve’ is compared to ‘Vin’ and a sim-ple logic check determines which is larger. If the value of ‘Ve’ is larger the bit is turned off. The logic then repeats similar steps from the most to least significant bits. Once the last bit has been set on/off and checked the conversion will be complete, and a done bit can be set to indicate a valid conversion value.

done

Quite often an A/D converter will multiplex between various inputs. As it switches the voltage will be sampled by a ‘sample and hold circuit’. This will then be converted to a digital value. The sample and hold circuits can be used before the multiplexer to collect data values at the same instant in time.

page 456

with analog inputs. But, analog outputs are subject to quantization errors. Figure 17.11 gives a

summary of the important relationships. These relationships are almost identical to those of the A/

D converter.

Figure 17.11 - Analog Output Relationships

Assume we are using an 8 bit D/A converter that outputs values between 0V and 10V. We

have a resolution of 256, where 0 results in an output of 0V and 255 results in 10V. The quantiza-

tion error will be 20mV. If we want to output a voltage of 6.234V, we would specify an output

integer of 160, this would result in an output voltage of 6.250V. The quantization error would be

6.250V-6.234V=0.016V.

R 2N

=

where,

R resolution of A/D converter=

VI INTVdesired Vmin–

Vmax Vmin–-----------------------------------

R=

VI the integer value representing the desired voltage=

Voutput

VI

R-----

Vmax Vmin–( ) Vmin+=

Voutput the voltage output using the integer value=

VERROR

Vmax Vmin–

2R-----------------------------

=

VERROR the maximum quantization error=

(17.5)

(17.7)

(17.8)

(17.6)

page 457

The current output from a D/A converter is normally limited to a small value, typically less

than 20mA. This is enough for instrumentation, but for high current loads, such as motors, a cur-

rent amplifier is needed. This type of interface will be discussed later. If the current limit is

exceeded for 5V output, the voltage will decrease (so don’t exceed the rated voltage). If the cur-

rent limit is exceeded for long periods of time the D/A output may be damaged.

N 8=

R 2N

256= =

VI INTVin Vmin–

Vmax Vmin–-----------------------------

R 160= =

VC

VI

R-----


VERROR

Vmax Vmin–

2R-----------------------------

0.020V= =

Vmax 10V=

Vmin 0V=

Vdesired 6.234V=

Given,

Calculate,

page 458

Figure 17.12 - A Digital-To-Analog Converter

16.4 REAL-TIME PROCESSING

Any computer running a process should use a real-time operating system. The purpose of a

real-time operating system is primarily to ensure that a process runs within a specified time inter-

val, normally a small fraction of a system. This capability is often not a common part of most

Computer

bit 3

bit 2

bit 1

bit 0

MSB

LSB

-

+20KΩ

10KΩ

40KΩ

80KΩ

5KΩ

Vo

+

-

0

Vss

V +

V–

V + 0 V–= =

First we write the obvious,

Next, sum the currents into the inverting input as a function of the output voltage and theinput voltages from the computer,

Vb3

10KΩ---------------

Vb2

20KΩ---------------

Vb1

40KΩ---------------

Vb0

80KΩ---------------+ + +

Vo

5KΩ------------=

V∴ o 0.5Vb30.25Vb2

0.125Vb10.0625Vb0

+ + +=

Consider an example where the binary output is 1110, with 5V for on,

V∴ o 0.5 5V( ) 0.25 5V( ) 0.125 5V( ) 0.625 0V( )+ + + 4.375V= =

ASIDE:

page 459

operating systems, but it is relatively easy to add. When it is not a real-time process, it common

for another process to monopolize the processor and cause erratic delays. When this happens the

control program may not respond to a control event for a second or more. This would generally be

a bad thing in a time critical system.

- need to be able to specify how often a process runs.

- RTLinux

- system clock for slower processes.

16.5 DISCRETE IO

16.6 COUNTERS AND TIMERS

16.7 ACCESSING DAQ CARDS FROM LINUX

Listing 16.1 - DAS08 Driver Header File (das08_io.h)

#include "../include/global.h"

#ifndef _DAS08__#define _DAS08__

page 460

#define CARDBASE 0x300

#define ADCHIGH 0 // AD Data Registers#define ADCLOW 1

/* A/D Status and Control Register */#define ADCSTATUS2

/* Auxiliary port on analog bus */#define PORTAUX 2

/* Programmable Gain Register */#define GAIN 3

/* Counter Load & Read Registers */#define LOADREAD14#define LOADREAD25#define LOADREAD36

#define CCONFIGPORT7// Counter Control Register

/* D/A 0 Control Registers */#define DAC0LOW 8#define DAC0HIGH9

/* D/A 1 Control Registers */#define DAC1LOW 10#define DAC1HIGH11

/* 82C55 Digital I/O Registers */#define PORTA 12#define PORTB 13#define PORTC 14#define PORTCL 12345 /* real port is 0x30e bits 0-3 */#define PORTCH 6789 /* real port is 0x30e bits 4-7 */

/* 82C55 Control Register */#define DCONFIGPORT15

#define DIGITALOUT 1#define DIGITALIN 2#define HIGHONLASTCOUNT 0#define ONESHOT 1#define RATEGENERATOR2#define SQUAREWAVE3#define SOFTWARESTROBE4#define HARDWARESTROBE5

/* Range Codes */#define BIP10VOLTS0x08#define BIP5VOLTS0x00#define BIP2PT5VOLTS0x02#define BIP1PT25VOLTS0x04#define BIPPT625VOLTS0x06#define UNI10VOLTS0x01#define UNI5VOLTS0x03#define UNI2PT5VOLTS0x05#define UNI1PT25VOLTS0x07

class das08protected:public:

int base; // card setup information

page 461

int chan0;int chan1;

int portA; // port data directionsint portB;int portCL;int portCH;

int *data_portA;// hooks to global valuesint *data_portB;int *data_portCL;int *data_portCH;int *data_portXI;int *data_portXO;int *data_AI0;int *data_AI1;int *data_AI2;int *data_AI3;int *data_AI4;int *data_AI5;int *data_AI6;int *data_AI7;int *data_AO0;int *data_AO1;

das08();~das08();

int configure(char*);int connect();int scan();int disconnect();int DConfigPort(int, int);int DIn(int, int*);int DBitIn(int, int, int*);int DOut(int, int);int DBitOut(int, int, int);

int C8254Config(int, int);int CLoad(int, int);int CIn(int, int*);

int AIn(int, int*);int AOut(int, int);

;

#endif

Listing 16.2 - DAS08 Driver File (das08_io.cpp)

#include <errno.h>#include <signal.h>#include <stdio.h>#include <sys/types.h>#include <sys/socket.h>#include <sys/wait.h>#include <netinet/in.h>

page 462

#include <netdb.h>#include <sys/time.h>#include <fcntl.h>#include <stdlib.h>#include <unistd.h>#include <string.h>#include <unistd.h>#include <sys/io.h>

#include "das08_io.h"#include "../include/process.h"

int bits[]=0x01, 0x02, 0x04, 0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40, 0x80;

das08::das08()base = CARDBASE;// default cardbasechan0 = BIP10VOLTS;// default AD rangeschan1 = BIP10VOLTS;portA = DIGITALIN;portB = DIGITALIN;portCH = DIGITALIN;portCL = DIGITALIN;

das08::~das08()

int das08::configure(char *file_name)int error;FILE *fp_in;char params[200];

error = NO_ERROR;if((fp_in = fopen(file_name, "r")) != NULL)

fgets(params, 200, fp_in);while(feof(fp_in) == 0)

if((params[0] != ’#’) && (strlen(params) > 3))if(params[0] == ’B’)

base = atoi(&(params[1])); else if(strncmp("A0", params, 2) == 0)

if(strncmp("BIP10VOLTS", &(params[2]), 10) == 0) chan0 = BIP10VOLTS;

else if(strncmp("BIP5VOLTS", &(params[2]), 9) == 0) chan0 = BIP5VOLTS;

else if(strncmp("BIP2PT5VOLTS", &(params[2]), 12) == 0) chan0 = BIP2PT5VOLTS;


else if(strncmp("BIPPT625VOLTS", &(params[2]), 13) == 0) chan0 = BIPPT625VOLTS;

else if(strncmp("UNI10VOLTS", &(params[2]), 10) == 0) chan0 = UNI10VOLTS;


else if(strncmp("UNI2PT5VOLTS", &(params[2]), 12) == 0) chan0 = UNI2PT5VOLTS;


page 463

else error_log(MINOR, "Unrecognized DAS08

analog A0 output range");error = ERROR;

else if(strncmp("A1", params, 2) == 0)

if(strncmp("BIP10VOLTS", &(params[2]), 10) == 0) chan1 = BIP10VOLTS;

else if(strncmp("BIP5VOLTS", &(params[2]), 9) == 0) chan1 = BIP5VOLTS;



else if(strncmp("BIPPT625VOLTS", &(params[2]), 13) == 0) chan1 = BIPPT625VOLTS;





else error_log(MINOR, "Unrecognized DAS08

analog A1 output range");error = ERROR;

else if(strncmp("PAI", params, 3) == 0) portA =

DIGITALIN; else if(strncmp("PAO", params, 3) == 0) portA =

DIGITALOUT; else if(strncmp("PBI", params, 3) == 0) portB =

DIGITALIN; else if(strncmp("PBO", params, 3) == 0) portB =

DIGITALOUT; else if(strncmp("PCLI", params, 4) == 0) portCL =

DIGITALIN; else if(strncmp("PCLO", params, 4) == 0) portCL =

DIGITALOUT; else if(strncmp("PCHI", params, 4) == 0) portCH =

DIGITALIN; else if(strncmp("PCHO", params, 4) == 0) portCH =

DIGITALOUT; else

error_log(MINOR, "DAS08 argument not recognized");error = ERROR;

fgets(params, 200, fp_in);

fclose(fp_in);

return error;

int das08::connect()int error;

error = NO_ERROR;if(ioperm(base, 16, 1) == 0)

page 464

DConfigPort(PORTA, portA);DConfigPort(PORTB, portB);DConfigPort(PORTCL, portCL);DConfigPort(PORTCH, portCH);

else error = ERROR;error_log(MINOR, "Could not connect to DAS08 board - memory is probably in

use");

return error;

int das08::scan()int error;

error = NO_ERROR;// update digital portsif(portA == DIGITALIN)DIn(PORTA, data_portA); else DOut(PORTA, data_portA[0]);if(portB == DIGITALIN)DIn(PORTB, data_portB); else DOut(PORTB, data_portB[0]);if(portCL == DIGITALIN)DIn(PORTCL, data_portCL); else DOut(PORTCL, data_portCL[0]);if(portCH == DIGITALIN)DIn(PORTCH, data_portCH); else DOut(PORTCH, data_portCH[0]);DOut(PORTAUX, data_portXO[0]);DIn(PORTAUX, data_portXI);

// Update analog inputsAIn(0, data_AI0);AIn(1, data_AI1);AIn(2, data_AI2);AIn(3, data_AI3);AIn(4, data_AI4);AIn(5, data_AI5);AIn(6, data_AI6);AIn(7, data_AI7);// Update analog outputsAOut(0, data_AO0[0]);AOut(1, data_AO1[0]);

return error;

int das08::disconnect()int error;

error = NO_ERROR;if(ioperm(base, 16, 0) != 0)

error = ERROR;error_log(MINOR, "Could not release the DAS08 board - memory is probably in

use");

return error;

int das08::DConfigPort(int Port, int Direction)

page 465

// This command configures a port as an input or output.// The Direction field can be either DIGITALIN or DIGITALOUT// depending on whether the port is to be configured as an// input or output. Valid ports are PORTA, PORTB, PORTCL and// PORTCH. Direction bit can be either DIGITALIN or DIGITALOUT.int error,

mask, OldByte, NewByte;

//printf("Configuring port %d with direction %d \n", Port, Direction);error = NO_ERROR;OldByte = inb(DCONFIGPORT + base); /*read the current register*/if(Direction == DIGITALIN) /* determine mask for DIGITALIN */

if(Port == PORTA) mask = 0x10; else if(Port == PORTB) mask = 0x02; else if(Port == PORTC) mask = 0x09; else if(Port == PORTCL) mask = 0x01; Port = PORTC; else if(Port == PORTCH) mask = 0x08; Port = PORTC; else

error_log(MINOR, "Digital port must be PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, PORTCL or PORTCH");

error = ERROR;mask = 0;

NewByte = OldByte | mask; /* new data for register */

else if(Direction == DIGITALOUT) /* determine mask for DIGITALOUT */if(Port == PORTA) mask = 0xef; else if(Port == PORTB) mask = 0xfd; else if(Port == PORTC) mask = 0xf6; else if(Port == PORTCL) mask = 0xfe; Port = PORTC; else if(Port == PORTCH) mask = 0xf7; Port = PORTC; else

error_log(MINOR, "Digital port must be PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, PORTCL or PORTCH");

error = ERROR;NewByte = OldByte & mask; /* new value for register */

else error_log(MINOR, "Direction must be set to DIGITALIN or DIGITALOUT");error = ERROR;

if(error == NO_ERROR)//printf("port thingy %d %d \n", NewByte, DCONFIGPORT);

outb(NewByte, DCONFIGPORT + base); /* write config data to register */

return error; /* no errors detected */

int das08::DBitIn(int Port, int BitNum, int *BitData)// This function determines whether a bit within the// requested port is set. The value (1 or 0) is returned// in the variable pointer sent to the function. Port may// be PORTA, PORTB, PORTCL or PORTCH. BitNum must be in the// range 0-7.int error,

mask = 0, data;

error = NO_ERROR;if((Port == PORTCL) || (Port == PORTCH)) data = inb(PORTC + base); else data = inb(Port + base);//printf("GOT %d %d %d %d \n", Port, data, BitNum, BitData[0]);

page 466

if((Port == PORTA) || (Port == PORTB) || (Port == PORTC))if((BitNum >= 0) && (BitNum <= 7))

mask = bits[BitNum]; else

error_log(MINOR, "Bit numbers should be between 0 and 7");error = ERROR;

else if((Port == PORTCL) || (Port == PORTAUX))

if((BitNum >= 0) && (BitNum <= 3))mask = bits[BitNum];

else error_log(MINOR, "Bit numbers should be between 0 and 3");error = ERROR;

else if(Port == PORTCH)

if((BitNum >= 4) && (BitNum <= 7))mask = bits[BitNum];

else error_log(MINOR, "Bit numbers should be between 4 and 7");error = ERROR;

else if(Port == DCONFIGPORT)

mask = bits[BitNum]; else

error_log(MINOR, "Input port not recognized");error = ERROR;

if(error == NO_ERROR)BitData[0] = 0;if((mask & data) != 0) BitData[0] = 1;

return error;

int das08::DBitOut(int Port, int BitNum, int BitValue)// This function sets a bit of the requested port to either// a zero or a one. Port may be PORTA, PORTB, PORTCL or// PORTCH. BitNum must be in the range 0 - 7. BitValue// must be 1 or 0.int error,

mask, NewByte, OldByte;

error = NO_ERROR;if((Port == PORTCL) || (Port == PORTCH))

OldByte = inb(PORTC + base); else

OldByte = inb(Port + base);

if((Port == PORTAUX) && (BitValue == 1))mask = bits[BitNum+4];NewByte = OldByte | mask;//printf("ddo %x %x \n", mask, OldByte);

else if((Port == PORTAUX) && (BitValue == 0)) mask = bits[BitNum+4];NewByte = OldByte & ~mask;

else if(((Port==PORTA) || (Port==PORTB) || (Port == PORTC)) && (BitValue==1))mask = bits[BitNum];NewByte = OldByte | mask;

else if(((Port==PORTA) || (Port==PORTB) || (Port==PORTC)) && (BitValue == 0))mask = bits[BitNum];

page 467

NewByte = OldByte & ~mask; else if((Port == PORTCL) && (BitValue == 1))

mask = bits[BitNum];NewByte = OldByte | mask;

else if((Port == PORTCL) && (BitValue == 0))mask = bits[BitNum];NewByte = OldByte & ~mask;

else if((Port == PORTCH) && (BitValue == 1))mask = bits[BitNum];NewByte = OldByte | mask;

else if((Port == PORTCH) && (BitValue == 0))mask = bits[BitNum];NewByte = OldByte & ~mask;

else error = ERROR;

if((Port == PORTCL) || (Port == PORTCH))

Port = PORTC;//printf("OUT %d %d\n", NewByte, Port + base);

if(error == NO_ERROR) outb(NewByte, Port + base); return error;

int das08::DIn(int Port, int *Value)// This function reads the byte value of the specified port// and returns the result in the variable pointer sent to the// function. Valid ports are PORTA, PORTB, PORTCL and PORTCH.int error;

// int result;// int BitData;

int temp;

error = NO_ERROR;// if(Port == PORTA)// result = DBitIn(DCONFIGPORT, 4, &BitData);// else if(Port == PORTB)// result = DBitIn(DCONFIGPORT, 1, &BitData);// else if(Port == PORTC)// result = DBitIn(DCONFIGPORT, 0, &BitData)// + DBitIn(DCONFIGPORT, 3, &BitData);// else if(Port == PORTCL)// result = DBitIn(DCONFIGPORT, 0, &BitData);// else if(Port == PORTCH)// result = DBitIn(DCONFIGPORT, 3, &BitData);// else if(Port == PORTAUX)// else // error_log(MINOR, "ERROR: Port not recognized");// error = ERROR;//

////////////////printf("sss %d %d \n", Port, result);// if((error == NO_ERROR) && (BitData == 0))// error_log("ERROR: Port not configured for read");// error = ERROR;//

if(error == NO_ERROR)if(Port == PORTCL)

temp = inb(PORTC + base);/* read the port data */Value[0] = (temp & 0x0f);/* mask off the high bits */

else if(Port == PORTCH)

page 468

temp = inb(PORTC + base);/* read the port data */Value[0] = (temp & 0xf0);/* mask off the low bits */

else if(Port == PORTAUX)Value[0] = 0x7 & (int)((inb(Port + base) / 16));

else Value[0] = 0xff & inb(Port + base);/* read the port data */

return error;

int das08::DOut(int Port, int ByteValue)// This function writes the byte value to the specified port.// Valid ports are PORTA, PORTB, PORTCL and PORTCH.int error;

error = NO_ERROR;if(Port == PORTAUX)

ByteValue = (0x07 & inb(Port+base)) | (ByteValue * 16);if((ByteValue > 255) || (ByteValue < 0))

error = ERROR;//printf("Writing byte %d to port %d\n", ByteValue, Port);if(error == NO_ERROR)

if(Port == PORTCL)outb((ByteValue & 0x0f), PORTC + base);

else if(Port == PORTCH)outb((ByteValue & 0xf0), PORTC + base);

else outb(ByteValue, Port + base); /* write the port data */


int das08::C8254Config(int CounterNum, int Config)int error,

NewByte,// TempByte,

BCD, mask, counter;// int temp;

error = NO_ERROR;/* BCD = 0xfe - 16-bit binary count BCD = 0xf1 - 4 decade Binary Coded Decimal */BCD = 0xfe;switch (Config)

case HIGHONLASTCOUNT:mask = 0xf1; break;case ONESHOT: mask = 0xf3; break;case RATEGENERATOR:mask = 0xf5; break;case SQUAREWAVE: mask = 0xf7; break;case SOFTWARESTROBE:mask = 0xf9; break;case HARDWARESTROBE:mask = 0xfb; break;default: error = ERROR;; break;

switch (CounterNum)

page 469

case 1: counter = 0x3f; break;case 2: counter = 0x7f; break;case 3: counter = 0xbf; break;default: error = ERROR; break;

if(error == NO_ERROR)

NewByte = (BCD & mask) & counter;//printf("The value of TempByte & mask is --> %x.\n", NewByte);outb(NewByte, CCONFIGPORT + base);

return error;

int das08::CLoad(int CounterNum, int value)

char LoadValue[6];int error;int TempByte, TempByte1, Register, CounterMask;int WriteLowByteMask1 = 0x20;/* RL1 | */int WriteLowByteMask2 = 0xef;/* RL0 & */int WriteHighByteMask1 = 0xdf;/* RL1 & */int WriteHighByteMask2 = 0x10;/* RL0 | */char LowByte[5];char HighByte[5];long HighByteValue, LowByteValue;int test;

error = NO_ERROR;switch (CounterNum)

case 1: Register = LOADREAD1; CounterMask = 0x3f; break;case 2: Register = LOADREAD2; CounterMask = 0x7f; break;case 3: Register = LOADREAD3; CounterMask = 0xbf; break;default: error = ERROR; break;

HighByte[0] = LoadValue[0];HighByte[1] = LoadValue[1];HighByte[2] = LoadValue[2];HighByte[3] = LoadValue[3];

LowByte[0] = ’0’;LowByte[1] = ’x’;LowByte[2] = LoadValue[4];LowByte[3] = LoadValue[5];

if(error == NO_ERROR)HighByteValue = (int)strtol(HighByte, NULL, 0);LowByteValue = (int)strtol(LowByte, NULL, 0);TempByte = (CounterMask | WriteLowByteMask1) & WriteLowByteMask2;TempByte1 = TempByte & 0xf0;//printf("The value in config low is --> %x.\n", TempByte1);outb(TempByte1, CCONFIGPORT + base);outb(LowByteValue, Register + base);//printf("The register chosen is --> %x.\n", Register);test = inb(Register + base);//printf("The value read in counter low is --> %x.\n", test);TempByte = (0x30 & WriteHighByteMask1) | WriteHighByteMask2;//printf("The value in config high is --> %x.\n", TempByte);outb(TempByte, CCONFIGPORT + base);outb(HighByteValue, Register + base);outb(TempByte, CCONFIGPORT + base);test = inb(Register + base);

page 470

//printf("The value in counter high is --> %x.\n", test);

return error;

int das08::CIn(int CounterNum, int *CountValue)int error;int TempByte, Register;int ReadLowByteMask1 = 0x20;/* RL1 | */int ReadLowByteMask2 = 0xef;/* RL0 & */int ReadHighByteMask1 = 0xdf;/* RL1 & */int ReadHighByteMask2 = 0x10;/* RL0 | */int CountValue1, CountValue2;

error = NO_ERROR;switch (CounterNum)

case 1: Register = LOADREAD1; break;case 2: Register = LOADREAD2; break;case 3: Register = LOADREAD3; break;default: error = ERROR; break;

if(error == NO_ERROR)TempByte = (0x3f | ReadLowByteMask1) & ReadLowByteMask2;outb(TempByte, CCONFIGPORT + base);CountValue1 = inb(Register + base);//printf("The low value is --> %x.\n", CountValue1);TempByte = (0x3f & ReadHighByteMask1) | ReadHighByteMask2;outb(TempByte, CCONFIGPORT + base);CountValue2 = inb(Register + base);//printf("The high value is --> %x.\n", CountValue2);

return error;

int das08::AIn(int ADChannel, int *Value)// This function requires three arguments to perform the// analog to digital conversion. ADChannel must be in the// range 0-7 and Range must be a valid range code // i.e. BIP5VOLTS. The value of the conversion will be// returned to the address specificed through the pointer// variable. This value will be in the range 0-4095.int error;int value1, value2, value3, curr_status, new_status, ADbusy;int ADCmask1, ADCmask2;int ADValue_low, ADValue_low1, ADValue_low2, ADValue_high;int EOC = 1;

error = NO_ERROR;curr_status = inb(ADCSTATUS + base); /* current value in status */

switch(ADChannel)case 0:ADCmask1 = 0xf8;ADCmask2 = 0x00;break;case 1:ADCmask1 = 0xf9;ADCmask2 = 0x01;break;case 2:ADCmask1 = 0xfa;ADCmask2 = 0x02;break;case 3:ADCmask1 = 0xfb;ADCmask2 = 0x03;break;case 4:ADCmask1 = 0xfc;ADCmask2 = 0x04;break;case 5:ADCmask1 = 0xfd;ADCmask2 = 0x05;break;

page 471

case 6:ADCmask1 = 0xfe;ADCmask2 = 0x06;break;case 7:ADCmask1 = 0xff;ADCmask2 = 0x07;break;default:error = ERROR;; break; /* error */

if(error == NO_ERROR)outb(chan0, GAIN + base); /* set the gain/range value */new_status = (curr_status & ADCmask1) | ADCmask2;outb(new_status, ADCSTATUS + base); /* set the channel number */outb(0x00, ADCLOW + base); /* start a 12 bit A/D conversion */

while((error == NO_ERROR) && (EOC == 1)) /* check for end of conversion */ADbusy = inb(ADCSTATUS + base); /* read status register */if(ADbusy >= 128)

EOC = 1; /* A/D still converting */ else

EOC = 0; /* A/D done converting */

if(error == NO_ERROR)ADValue_low = inb(ADCLOW + base); /* get the lower eight bits */ADValue_high = inb(ADCHIGH + base); /* get the upper four bits */

switch(ADValue_high)case 0x00:value1 = 0;break;case 0x80:value1 = 1;break;case 0x40:value1 = 2;break;case 0xc0:value1 = 3;break;case 0x20:value1 = 4;break;case 0xa0:value1 = 5;break;case 0x60:value1 = 6;break;case 0xe0:value1 = 7;break;case 0x10:value1 = 8;break;case 0x90:value1 = 9;break;case 0x50:value1 = 10;break;case 0xd0:value1 = 11;break;case 0x30:value1 = 12;break;case 0xb0:value1 = 13;break;case 0x70:value1 = 14;break;case 0xf0:value1 = 15;break;default:error = ERROR;break;

ADValue_low1 = (ADValue_low & 0x0f); /* mask off bits 4-7 */switch(ADValue_low1)

case 0x00:value2 = 0;break;case 0x01:value2 = 16;break;case 0x02:value2 = 32;break;case 0x03:value2 = 48;break;case 0x04:value2 = 64;break;case 0x05:value2 = 80;break;case 0x06:value2 = 96;break;case 0x07:value2 = 112;break;case 0x08:value2 = 128;break;case 0x09:value2 = 144;break;case 0x0a:value2 = 160;break;case 0x0b:value2 = 176;break;case 0x0c:value2 = 192;break;case 0x0d:value2 = 208;break;case 0x0e:value2 = 224;break;case 0x0f:value2 = 240;break;default:error = ERROR;break;

page 472

ADValue_low2 = (ADValue_low & 0xf0); /* mask off bits 0-3 */switch(ADValue_low2)

case 0x00:value3 = 0;break;case 0x10:value3 = 256;break;case 0x20:value3 = 512;break;case 0x30:value3 = 768;break;case 0x40:value3 = 1024;break;case 0x50:value3 = 1280;break;case 0x60:value3 = 1536;break;case 0x70:value3 = 1792;break;case 0x80:value3 = 2048;break;case 0x90:value3 = 2304;break;case 0xa0:value3 = 2560;break;case 0xb0:value3 = 2816;break;case 0xc0:value3 = 3072;break;case 0xd0:value3 = 3328;break;case 0xe0:value3 = 3584;break;case 0xf0:value3 = 3840;break;default: error = ERROR; /* error - unknown conversion result */

*Value = value1+value2+value3; /* total value for conversion */


int das08::AOut(int DAChannel, int DAValue)// This function performs a digital to analog conversion// routine. The DAChannel must be either 0 or 1 and the// digital value must be in the range 0-4095.int error;int low, high, DACLOW, DACHIGH;

error = NO_ERROR;switch(DAChannel)

case 0:DACLOW = DAC0LOW;DACHIGH = DAC0HIGH;break;case 1:DACLOW = DAC1LOW;DACHIGH = DAC1HIGH;break;default:error = ERROR;break;

/* The following table converts the digital value into three hex values encompassing two 8-bit registers. The layout of the registers follow:

low - DA7 DA6 DA5 DA4 DA3 DA2 DA1 DA0high - x x x x DA11 DA10 DA9 DA8 */

if(DAValue <= 255)low = DAValue;high = 0x00;

else if((DAValue >= 256) && (DAValue <= 511))low = DAValue - 256;high = 0x01;

else if((DAValue >= 512) && (DAValue <= 767)) low = DAValue - 512;high = 0x02;


else if((DAValue >= 1024) && (DAValue <= 1279))

page 473

low = DAValue - 1024;high = 0x04;






else if((DAValue >= 2560) && (DAValue <= 2815))low = DAValue - 2560;high = 0x0a;

else if((DAValue >= 2816) && (DAValue <= 3071))low = DAValue - 2816;high = 0x0b;

else if((DAValue >= 3072) && (DAValue <= 3327))low = DAValue - 3072;high = 0x0c;

else if((DAValue >= 3328) && (DAValue <= 3583))low = DAValue - 3328;high = 0x0d;

else if((DAValue >= 3584) && (DAValue <= 3839))low = DAValue - 3584;high = 0x0e;

else if((DAValue >= 3840) && (DAValue <= 4095))low = DAValue - 3840;high = 0x0f;

elseerror = ERROR; /* error - D/A value must be 0-4095 */

if(error == NO_ERROR)

outb(low, DACLOW + base); /* write the low byte value */outb(high, DACHIGH + base); /* write the high byte value */


Listing 16.1 - DAS08 Driver Test File (testdaq.cpp)

#include <stdio.h>#include <stdlib.h>#include <string.h>

#include "das08_io.h"

int ChooseCounter();int ChooseConfig();int ChooseDir(int DirectNum);

page 474

#define QUERY 350#defineCHOOSE_PORT 351#defineCHOOSE_COUNTER352#define CHOOSE_CONFIG353#defineCHOOSE_DIRECTION 354

int query(int, char*, int);

int main()int choice;das08 *A;int value;

A = new das08();A->configure("das08.conf");A->connect();

doprintf("\n\n------------ DAS08 Test Harness Menu --------------\n");

printf("1. Digital Configure\n");printf("2. Digital Input Bit\n");printf("3. Digital Input Word\n");printf("4. Digital Output Bit\n");printf("5. Digital Output Word\n\n");printf("6. Counter Configure\n");printf("7. Counter Load Value\n");printf("8. Counter Input Value\n\n");printf("9. Analog Input Value\n");printf("10. Analog Output Value\n\n");printf("11. Quit\n\n");printf("Select: ");scanf("%d", &choice);if(choice == 1)

A->DConfigPort(query(CHOOSE_PORT, NULL, 0),query(CHOOSE_DIRECTION, NULL,

0)); else if(choice == 2)

A->DBitIn(query(CHOOSE_PORT, NULL, 0),query(QUERY, "Choose a bit (0-7): ", 0),

&value);printf("The Bit Value is [%d] \n", value);

else if(choice == 3)A->DIn( query(CHOOSE_PORT, NULL, 0), &value);printf("The Value is [%d] or [%d]hex\n", value, value);

else if(choice == 4)A->DBitOut(query(CHOOSE_PORT, NULL, 0),

query(QUERY, "Choose a bit (0-7): ", 0),query(QUERY, "Choose a value (0 or 1): ",

0)); else if(choice == 5)

A->DOut( query(CHOOSE_PORT, NULL, 0),query(QUERY, "Choose a value (-128 to

127): ", 0)); else if(choice == 6)

A->C8254Config(query(CHOOSE_COUNTER, NULL, 0),query(CHOOSE_CONFIG, NULL, 0));

else if(choice == 7)A->CLoad( query(CHOOSE_COUNTER, NULL, 0),

page 475

query(QUERY, "Enter a value in the form 0x____ : ", 0));

else if(choice == 8)A->CIn( query(CHOOSE_COUNTER, NULL, 0), &value);printf("The Counter value was [%d]\n", value);

else if(choice == 9)A->AIn( query(QUERY, "Enter Channel Number (0-7): ", 0),

&value);printf("The value is [%d]\n", value);

else if(choice == 10)A->AOut( query(QUERY, "Enter Channel Number (0-1): ", 0),

query(QUERY, "Enter Value (0- 4095): ", 0));

else if(choice == 11) else

printf("ERROR: Choice not recognized\n");

while(choice != 11);A->disconnect();delete A;

int query(int type, char *text, int def)char work[20];int value;

if(type == QUERY)printf("%s [%d]: ", text, def);scanf("%s", work);

printf("<%s>\n", work);if(strlen(work) == 0)

return def; else

return atoi(work);

else if(type == CHOOSE_PORT)printf("Which port (1=A, 2=B, 3=C, 4=CH, 5=CL, 6=AUX): ");

scanf("%d", &value);if(value == 1) return PORTA;if(value == 2) return PORTB;if(value == 3) return PORTC;if(value == 4) return PORTCL;if(value == 5) return PORTCH;if(value == 6) return PORTAUX;return ERROR;

else if(type == CHOOSE_COUNTER)printf("Which counter (1, 2, 3): ");

scanf("%d", &value);if((value >= 1) || (value <= 3)) return value;return ERROR;

else if(type == CHOOSE_CONFIG)printf("Which mode (1=HighOnLastCount, 2=OneShot, 3=RateGenerator,

4=SquareWave, 5=SoftwareStrobe, 6=HardwareStrobe): "); scanf("%d", &value);

if(value == 1) return HIGHONLASTCOUNT;if(value == 2) return ONESHOT;if(value == 3) return RATEGENERATOR;if(value == 4) return SQUAREWAVE;if(value == 5) return SOFTWARESTROBE;if(value == 6) return HARDWARESTROBE;return ERROR;

else if(type == CHOOSE_DIRECTION)printf("Which direction (1=In, 2=Out): ");

page 476

scanf("%d", &value);if(value == 1) return DIGITALIN;if(value == 2) return DIGITALOUT;return ERROR;

else return ERROR;

void error_log(int code, char *string)printf("ERROR %d: %s \n", code, string);

16.8 SUMMARY

• A/D conversion will convert a continuous value to an integer value.• D/A conversion is easier and faster and will convert a digital value to an analog value.• Resolution limits the accuracy of A/D and D/A converters.• Sampling too slowly will alias the real signal.• Analog inputs are sensitive to noise.• The analog I/O cards are configured with a few words of memory.• BTW and BTR functions are needed to communicate with the analog I/O cards.


1. You need to read an analog voltage that has a range of -10V to 10V to a precision of +/-0.05V. What resolution of A/D converter is needed?

2. We are given a 12 bit analog input with a range of -10V to 10V. If we put in 2.735V, what will the integer value be after the A/D conversion? What is the error? What voltage can we calcu-late?

R10V 10V–( )–

0.1V---------------------------------- 200= = 7 bits = 128

8 bits = 256

(ans.

The minimum number of bits is 8.

page 477

3. We need to select a digital to analog converter for an application. The output will vary from -5V to 10V DC, and we need to be able to specify the voltage to within 50mV. What resolution will be required? How many bits will this D/A converter need? What will the accuracy be?

4. Write a program that will input an analog voltage, do the calculation below, and output an ana-log voltage.

5. Develop a program to sample analog data values and calculate the average, standard deviation, and the control limits. The general steps are listed below.

1. Read sampled inputs.2. Randomly select values and calculate the average and store in memory. Calculate the

standard deviation of the stored values.3. Compare the inputs to the standard deviation. If it is larger than 3 deviations from the

mean, halt the process.4. If it is larger than 2 then increase a counter A, or if it is larger than 1 increase a second

counter B. If it is less than 1 reset the counters.5. If counter A is =3 or B is =5 then shut down.6. Goto 1.

(ans.N 12= R 4096= Vmin 10V–= Vmax 10V=

VI INTVin Vmin–

Vmax Vmin–-----------------------------

R 2608= =

VC

VI

R-----


Vin 2.735V=

(ans.A card with a voltage range from -10V to +10V will be selected to cover the

entire range.

R10V 10V–( )–

0.050V---------------------------------- 400= = minimum resolution

8 bits = 2569 bits = 51210 bits = 1024

The A/D converter needs a minimum of 9 bits, but this number of bits is not commonly available, but 10 bits is, so that will be selected.

VERROR

Vmax Vmin–

2R-----------------------------

10V 10V–( )–2 1024( )

---------------------------------- 0.00976V±= = =

Vout Vin( )ln=

page 478

16.10 LABORATORY - INTERFACING TO A DAQ CARD

Purpose: To use a data aquisition card to aquire data.

Overview: The daq card will be placed into a Linux computer and then controlled with the drive pro-

grams listed in this chapter.

Pre-Lab:1. Visit the computer boards web site (www.computerboards.com) and review the manual

for the DAS-08 ISA board.

In-Lab:1. Complete the tutorial for the DAS-08 DAQ card.2. Modify the tutorial program so that the analog input value from the board is read once a

second and written to a database.

Submit (individually):1. The program developed during the laboratory.

X Xj

j 1=

m

∑=UCL X 3σ

X+=

LCL X 3σX

–=

page 479

17. VISIONS SYSTEMS

• Vision systems are suited to applications where simpler sensors do not work.

17.1 OVERVIEW

• Typical components in a modern vision system.

page 480

17.2 APPLICATIONS

• An example of a common vision system application is given below. The basic operation

involves a belt that carries pop (soda) bottles along. As these bottles pass an optical sensor, it trig-

gers a vision system to do a comparison. The system compares the captured image to stored

images of acceptable bottles (with no foreign objects or cracks). If the bottle differs from the

acceptable images beyond an acceptable margin, then a piston is fired to eject the bottle. (Note:

Scene

Lighting

lens iris

CCD controlelectronics

Camera

Frame GrabberHardware(A/D converterand memory)

Image ProcessingSoftware (Filtering,Segmentation andRecognition)

Action or ReportingSoftware (Robot,Network, PLC, etc)

Computer

page 481

without a separate sensor, timing for the piston firing is required). Here a PLC is used as a com-

mon industrial solution controller. - All of this equipment is available off-the-shelf ($10K-$20K).

In this case the object lighting, backgrounds and contrast would be very important.

17.3 LIGHTING AND SCENE

• There are certain features that are considered important in images,

- boundary edges- surface texture/pattern- colors- etc

Stuff!

Stuff!

Stuff!

Stuff!

Stuff!

Vision Module

Programmable Logic Controller(aka PLC)

Camera

Pneumatic Piston

Pneumatic Solenoid

Light Source

Light LightEmitter Detector

Air SupplyAir Exhaust

page 482

• Boundary edges are used when trying to determine object identity/location/orientation. This

requires a high contrast between object and background so that the edges are obvious.

• Surface texture/pattern can be used to verify various features, for example - are numbered

buttons in a telephone keypad in the correct positions? Some visually significant features must be

present.

• Lighting,

- multiple light sources can reduce shadows (structured lighting).- back lighting with luminescent screens can provide good contrast.- lighting positions can reduce specular reflections (light diffusers help).- artificial light sources provide repeatability required by vision systems that is not possi-

ble without natural light sources.

17.4 CAMERAS

• Cameras use available light from a scene.

• The light passes through a lens that focuses the beams on a plane inside the camera. The

focal distance of the lens can be moved toward/away from the plane in the camera as the scene is

moved towards/away.

• An iris may also be used to mechanically reduce the amount of light when the intensity is

too high.

• The plane inside the camera that the light is focussed on can read the light a number of

ways, but basically the camera scans the plane in a raster pattern.

• An electron gun video camera is shown below. - The tube works like a standard CRT, the

electron beam is generated by heating a cathode to eject electrons, and applying a potential

between the anode and cathode to accelerate the electrons off of the cathode. The focussing/

deflecting coils can focus the beam using a similar potential change, or deflect the beam using a

page 483

differential potential. The significant effect occurs at the front of the tube. The beam is scanned

over the front. Where the beam is incident it will cause electrons to jump between the plates pro-

portional to the light intensity at that point. The scanning occurs in a raster pattern, scanning many

lines left to right, top to bottom. The pattern is repeated some number of times a second - the typ-

ical refresh rate is on the order of 30Hz

• Charge Coupled Device (CCD) - This is a newer solid state video capture technique. An

array of cells are laid out on a semiconductor chip. A grid like array of conductors and insulators

is used to move a collection of charge through the device. As the charge moves, it sweeps across

the picture. As photons strike the semiconductor they knock an electron out of orbit, creating a

negative and positive charge. The positive charges are then accumulated to determine light inten-

sity. The mechanism for a single scan line is seen below.

heated cathode

anode

electronaccelerator

focus anddeflection coils

scanning

photon

signal

electron beam

page 484

-V

Li-1

+V

Li

-V

Li+1

control electrodes

oxide insulator

p-type semiconductor

e-

e-e-

e-

e- e-

e-

e- e- e-

e- e-

e- e-

e-

e- p+

photon

The charge is trapped in this location by voltages on

the control electrodes. This location corresponds to a

pixel. An incident photon causes an electron to be liber-

ated.

-V

Li-1

0V

Li

-V

Li+2

e-

e-e-

e-

e-e-

e-

e-e-e-

e-e-

e-e-

e-

e-

+V

Li+1

The charges can be

moved to the next pixel

location by changing the

electrode voltages

page 485

• Color video cameras simply use colored filters to screen light before it strikes a pixel. For

an RGB scan, each color is scanned 3 times.

The description of moving the charge is for a single scan line, this can be expanded

to consider the entire CCD.

L11

L10

L9

L8

L7

L6

L5

L4

L3

L2

L1

L0

n-type barriers to control charge (on bottom)

charge moves this way

e-

e-e-

e-e-

page 486

17.5 FRAME GRABBER

• A simple frame grabber is pictured below,

• These items can be purchased for reasonable prices, and will become standard computer

components in the near future.

17.6 IMAGE PREPROCESSING

• Images are basically a set of pixels that are often less than a perfect image representation.

By preprocessing, some unwanted variations/noise can be reduced, and desired features

enhanced.

• Some sources of image variation/noise,

- electronic noise - this can be reduced by designing for a higher Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR).

- lighting variations cause inconsistent lighting across an image.- equipment defects - these cause artifacts that are always present, such as stripes, or pixels

stuck off or on.

signalsplitter

videosignal

pixelintensities

line start

picture start

fast A/D

addressgenerator

digital

RAMComputerbus

values

page 487

17.7 FILTERING

• Filtering techniques can be applied,

- thresholding- laplace filtering- fourier filters- convolution- histograms- neighborhood averaging

17.7.1 Thresholding

• Thresholding basically sets a transition value. If a pixel is above the threshold, it is switched

fully on, if it is below, it is turned fully off.

17.8 EDGE DETECTION

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 5

3 7 7 4

2 3 1 2

Original Image

1 7 7 7

7 7 7 7

7 7 7 7

7 7 1 7

e.g. Threshold = 2

1 1 1 1

7 7 7 7

1 7 7 1

1 1 1 1

e.g. Threshold = 5

It can be difficult to set a good

threshold value, and the results are prone

to noise/imperfections in the image.

an array of pixel brightness

page 488

• An image (already filtered) can be checked to find a sharp edge between the foreground and

background intensities.

• Let’s assume that the image below has been prefiltered into foreground (1) and background

(0). An edge detection step is then performed.

17.9 SEGMENTATION

• An image can be broken into regions that can then be used for later calculations. In effect

this method looks for different self contained regions, and uses region numbers instead of pixel

intensities.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A simple algorithm might create a new image (array) filled with zeros, then look at

the original image. If any pixel has a vertical or horizontal neighbor that is 0, then the

Actual Scene Thresholded Image Edge Detected Image

page 489

• A simple segmentation algorithm might be,

1. Threshold image to have values of 1 and 0.2. Create a segmented image and fill it with zeros (set segment number variable to one).3. Scanning the old image left to right, top to bottom.4. If a pixel value of 1 is found, and the pixel is 0 in the segmented image, do a flood fill

for the pixel onto the new image using segment number variable.5. Increment segment # and go back to step 3.6. Scan the segmented image left to right, top to bottom.7. If a pixel is found to be fully contained in any segment, flood fill it with a new segment

as in steps 4 and 5.

0 00 01 01 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

2 12 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

2 22 2

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 3

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 1

3 33 4

3 13 1

3 31 1

3 11 1

0 00 00 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 00 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

0 00 0

1 01 01 00 0

0 00 1

1 11 0

0 00 0

1 10 0

Actual Scene

Thresholded

Segmented

page 490

17.9.1 Segment Mass Properties

• When objects are rotated in the vision plane it may become difficult to use simple measures

to tell them apart. At this point global attributes, such as perimeter lengths, length/width ratios, or

areas can be used.

• The centroid of a mass can be determined with the expression for the x direction (y is iden-

tical)

• Area is simply the sum of all pixels in the segment,

• Perimeter is the number of pixels that can be counted around the outside of an object.

xMixi∑Mi∑

------------------ 1n--- xi

i 1=

n

∑= =

where,

x the x centroid from the left of the screen=

n the number of elements in the segment=

xi˜ the distance from the left of the screen to the pixel centre=

A pi∑=

A Area of image (in pixels)=

pi 1 if the pixel is in the segment=

where,

page 491

• Compactness can be a measure of mass distribution,

• Another measure of mass distribution is thickness,

17.10 RECOGNITION

17.10.1 Form Fitting

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 1

1 1

1 0

1 0

1 1

0 0

1 0

0 0

e.g. Area = 21Perimeter = 16x Centroid = 3.5y Centroid = 1.5

0 8

0

4

CP

2

A------=

where,C = compactnessP = perimeterA = area

Tmin

Dmin

A-----------=

where,T = thicknessDmin/Dmax = smallest/largest diametersA = Area

Tmax

Dmax

A------------=

page 492

• It can sometimes help to relate a shape to some other geometric primitive using compact-

ness, perimeter, area, etc.

- ellipse- square- circle- rectangle

17.10.2 Decision Trees

• In the event that a very limited number of parts is considered, a decision tree can be used.

The tree should start with the most significant features first, then eventually make decisions on the

least significant. Typical factors considered are,

- area- hole area- perimeter- maximum, minimum and average radius- compactness

• An example of a decision tree is given below. (Note: this can be easily implemented with if-

then rules or Boolean equations)

Part A

Part B

Part C

Part D

Part E

C<10

C>=10

Dmin<0.1

Dmin>=0.1

C>=20 A>=20

A<20

page 493

Bar Codes

• Bar codes are a common way to encode numbers, and sometimes letters.

• The code is sequential left to right, and is characterized by bars and spaces of varied widths.

The bar widths corresponds to a numerical digits. These are then encoded into ASCII characters.

• To remain noise resistant there are unused codes in the numerical sequence. If any value

scanned is one of the unused values the scan is determined to be invalid.

• There are different encoding schemes.

Code 39/Codabar - these use bars of two different widths for binary encodingCode 128 - these use different bar widths uses proportional widths to encode a range of

valuesUPC (Universal Product Code) - EAN (European Article Numbering) -

• The example below shows how a number is encoded with a bar code.

page 494


1. Consider a circle and an ellipse that might be viewed by a vision system. The circle has a

4” radius, whereas the ellipse has a minor and major radius of 2” and 4”. Compare the two defini-

tions using form factors (compactness and thickness) and show how they differ.

page 495

2. Describe image resolution in vision systems.

ans. Resolution of a video image describes the number of rows and columns of pixels in a

video image. A higher resolution means that there are more rows of pixels in the images, and

therefore we can distinguish smaller details.

3. An image has been captured from a video camera, and stored in the matrix below.

ans.

CP

2

A------ 12.5= =

circle

R 4=

A πR2

50.3= =

P π 2R( ) 25.1= =

CP

2

A------ 15.8= =

circle

R1 2=

A πR1R2 25.1= =

P 2πR1

2R2

2+

2------------------≈ 19.9=

R2 4=

Tmin Tmax

Dmin

A----------- 0.16= = =

Dmin 4= Dmax 8=Dmin 8= Dmax 8=

Tmin

Dmin

A----------- 0.16= =

Tmax

Dmax

A------------ 0.32= =

Compactness values differ

the min/max values are the same for the circle

page 496

a) Use a threshold of 100 to filter the image.

b) Perform an edge detection on the thresholded image.

64 87

36 57

54 64

76 24

12 35

84 26

22 36

63 74

84 187

54 78

201 234

197 198

195 222

34 75

198 25

218 74

25 9

37 25

84 202

57 98

194 213

93 95

192 79

91 89

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

1 1

1 1

1 1

0 0

1 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 0

0 0

ANS.

page 497

c) Segment the image into distinct regions.

d) Calculate the compactness and thickness for the region above the threshold.

e) Calculate form factors including perimeter, area, centroid, compactness and minimum and

maximum thickness.

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

1 1

1 1

1 1

0 0

1 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 0

0 0

ANS.

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

1 1

1 1

1 1

2 2

1 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 0

0 0

ANS.

C22( )2

13-------------=

ANS. T 313------OR 6

13------=

page 498

4. We have four part shapes (as listed below) that will be arriving on a conveyor. We want to

develop a decision tree for the vision system to tell them apart. We also need to find their cen-

troids relative to the top left of the image so that a robot may pick them up.

Isosceles triangle 6” per sideRectangle 2” by 8”Triangle with side lengths 8”, 5” and 4”Circle 5” Radius

ans.First, calculate the form factors

Form

isosceles tri-

angle

rectangle

Area

15.5

9

16

Perim

eter

18

20

Com-

pact

20.78

25

Tmin

0.333

3

0.125

circleA > 40

A < 40 Tmin < 0.18

Tmin > 0.18

rectangle

C > 28

C < 28

odd triangle

isosceles triangle

page 499

17.12 TUTORIAL - LABVIEW BASED IMAQ VISION

1. Locate the appropriate hardware and software for the laboratory. This includes a video camera with an appropriate lens attached. A BNC cable to connect to the computer. A computer with the National Instruments IMAQ PCI-1408 vision card and IMAQ software installed.

2. We will start by verifying that the vision system is working properly. To do this run the “IMAQ Configuration Utility”. You should see a screen that shows the computer and PCI-1408 card. Click on the ‘+’ to the left of the card and you should see four input channels appear. The first of these is ‘channel 0’, click on it. Next, select “Aquire”, “Grab”, a window should appear that shows a video feed. Adjust/focus the lens until a clear image appears. Note that the lens attached is a TV lens. For small distances (less than 2-3 feet) the lens will be very sensitive to focus, when a longer focus is used it will be much less sensitive. Explore the software settings for the camera. Feel free to change values, but record the original value so that it may be changed back. When you feel comfortable that the video images are being captured properly, continue to the next step.

3. Run Labview, and open a “New vi”. Construct the vi below to capture an image and display it on the screen.

(From left to right) First create a string, and enter ‘test’ or something else. Next create the ‘IMAQ’ icon using “IMAQ Vision”, “Management”, “IMAQ”. This will create a generic place to store images. At this point the image size, etc is not important. Now that we have a place to store the image, we can grab images from the camera with the ‘snap’ icon found at “Image Aquisition”, “Snap”. Finally we can display the images using the last icon found at “IMAQ

Panel Diagram

IMAQ snaptest

page 500

Vision”, “Display (basics)”, “IMAQ WindDraw”. Connect these together and run the vi. You should see an image from the camera. Notice that these icons are doing a lot that is not on the screen. The vision add-on to Labview does not fully follow the philosophy of graphical pro-gramming. Things like the display window are not shown in the panel where they should be. These ‘cheats’ are necessary because of the huge amount of data required for vision tasks. Take some time to explore the other vision tools, and try modifying the vision program.

4. Close the vi and do not save changes to any other vi (this could save some settings per-manantly). Next, use “Open vi” and open “examples”, “vision”, “barcodedemo.vi”. Run the vi. An image of a barcode should appear. Use the mouse to put a rectangle over the bar code. Then accept the Region of Interest “ROI”. After this the program will use images saved on disk to test the routine. The codes should match the displayed images. Stop the vi and look at the dia-gram to see the general operation - it is set up to use a sequence. Notice that the first frame in the sequence pulls an image from a file, and displays it on the screen. The next couple of frames deal with getting the region of interest. The fourth sequence (3 of 0 to 4) captures images and decodes the barcodes. The last sequence is used to release the vision memory, etc. Notice that the images are being supplied by a function called “simu GRAB”, replace this with the normal snap routine and run the program (put a vi in front of the camera). You should now see the images, but they are not decoded properly. Notice that the barcode icon has an integer digit input of ‘3’, you will need to change this value to get the barcodes to decode properly.

5. Close the vi (don’t save any changes). Open the example vi “caliperdemo.vi”, and run the vi. This vi can be used to check the presence of objects. Draw lines across the image. Each point where the line goes from light/dark or dark/light an edge will be detected. If the line is accepted you will see it appear on the list, you will want to change the number of edges. You can have more than one test line. When done run the test and see how it behaves. Look at the diagram for the vi and modify it to use the camera (as you did for the barcode reader).

17.13 LABORATORY - VISION SYSTEMS FOR INSPECTION

Purpose: A vision system will be explored and implemented in the laboratory setting.

Overview: The vision system is based on Labview. A dedicate PC will be used in the cell to process

the vision commands. Using labview the PC can then be connected to the Soft PLC controller.

Pre-Lab:1. Review labview programming using tutorials found at the national instruments site

(www.natinst.com).

In-Lab:

page 501

1. Complete the Labview vision tutorial.2. Modify the appropriate test program to read bar codes, and save them to a file3. Modify the appropriate test program to read a dimension of arbitrary parts and write the

dimension to a serial port.

Submit:1. Printouts of the modified test programs.

page 502

18. INTEGRATION ISSUES

18.1 CORPORATE STRUCTURES

• First consider the major functions within a company,

- Production- Materials- Process Planning- Design- Customer Orders / Service- Marketing- Accounting- Management

• All of these functions generate and use common information which must be communicated

between departments.

• Since computers handle information, we must be aware of what we get, and what we pro-

duce.

18.2 CORPORATE COMMUNICATIONS

• Previous paper based systems provided support for data transfer between departments, and

provided a good basis for the introduction of computers

• ASIDE: Computers can make a good system better, but they will always make a bad system

worse. This is because a system which is not well defined and poorly understood cannot be pro-

grammed, or optimized.

• Characteristics of paper based manufacturing systems,

page 503

- Multiple copies of same information.- Revising information is hard when multiple copies exist.- Delays for the transfer of paper.- Easy to lose paper.- Paper is not interactive.- Paper requires bulky storage.

• Computers overcome and reduce the problems above, but introduce some technological

challenges,

- Creating programs to support corporate functions.- Software to support interdepartmental communication and data sharing.- Hardware to support the software.

page 504

• This figure below shows various departments, and the information flow [source - ???

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page 505

• Requirements for interfacing corporate management and staff functional entities to the fac-

tory [source - find]

• Assumed functional hierarchy computer system structure for a large manufacturing com-

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page 506

plex [source - find]

Operational andProductionSupervision

Supervisor’sConsole

ManagementData

Presentation

DedicatedProgrammable

Logic Controllers

Plant ProductionScheduling and

Operational

Inter-areaCoordination

(Shop coordination)

Work Cell(Direct Numerical

Control)

Work Station(Computerized

numerical Control)

PlantManagementInformation

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Operator’sConsole

PROCESS

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page 507

• Report interfacing to corporate management and staff functional entities from the factory

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page 508

• The Shop Floor Production Model (SFPM):

[ source - find]

The ISO Reference Model for Factory Automation adds a couple of layers

[ source - find]

Level Sub-Activity Responsibility

4 Section/

Area

Supervise shop

floor production process

Supervising and coordinating

the production and supporting the

jobs and obtaining and allocating

resources to the jobs.

3 Cell

Coordinate shop

floor production

process

Sequencing and supervising

the jobs at the shop floor produc-

tion process

2 Station

Command shop

floor production process

Directing and coordinating the

shop floor production process

1 Equipment

Execute shop floor

production process

Executing the job of shop

floor production according to com-

mands

Level/

Hierarchy

Area of Con-

trol

Responsibility Basic Functions

6 /

Enterprise

Managing the

corporation

Achieving the

enterprise’s mission

and managing the

corporation

Corporate management

Finance

Marketing and sales

Research and Development

page 509

5 /

Facility or

plant

Planning Pro-

duction

Implementing

the enterprise func-

tions and planning

and scheduling pro-

duction

Product design and production

engineering

Production management (upper

level)

Resource management (upper

level)

Procurement (upper level)

Maintenance management

(upper level)

4 /

Section or

area

Allocating and

supervising materi-

als and resources

Coordinating

production and

obtaining and allocat-

ing resources to jobs

Production management (lower

level)

Procurement (lower level)

Resource management (lower

level)

Maintenance management

(lower level)

Shipping

Waste material treatment

3 / Cell Coordinating

multiple machines

and operations

Sequencing and

supervising shop

floor jobs and super-

vising various sup-

porting services

Shop floor production (cell level)

2 / Station commanding

machine sequences

and motion

Directing and

coordinating the

activity of the shop

floor equipment

Shop floor production (station

level)

Level/

Hierarchy

Area of Con-

trol


page 510

1 / Equip-

ment

Activating

sequences and

motion

Taking action on

commands to the

shop floor equipment

Shop floor production (equip-

ment level)

Level/

Hierarchy

Area of Con-

trol


page 511

• A LAN (Computer Network) Hierarchy for Shop Floor Control [source - find]

D e v ic e

L e v e l 6 :E n te rp rise

L e v e l 5 :F a c ility o r P la n t

L e v e l 4 :S e c tio n o r A re a

L e v e l 3 :C e ll

L e v e l 2 :S ta tio n

L e v e l 1 :E q u ip m e n t

S e c tio nC o n tro lle r A

S e c tio nC o n tro lle r B

S e c tio nC o n tro lle r C

s im ila r to A s im ila r to A

E n te rp rise L A N

F a c to ry B a c k b o n e L A N

S e c tio n A L A N

C e ll A L A N C e ll B L A N

C e llC o n tro lle r A

C e llC o n tro lle r B

D e v ic eC o n tro lle r A

D e v ic eC o n tro lle r B

D e v ic eC o n tro lle r A

D e v ic eC o n tro lle r B

D e v ic eD e v ic e





D e v ic e

page 512

• Typical Architecture for Manufacturing Components [ update]

Item Equipment Workstation Cell

EXAM-

PLES

Hardware

Lathe, Mill, T-10

Bridgeport Series I

IBM 7545 Robot

Robot tended

Machine Center, Car-

trac Material Handling

System

Variable Mission

System, Several Inte-

grated workstations

Controller

Hardware

Mark Century

2000, Accuramatic

9000, Custom-single-

board system.

Allen-Bradley

PLC-5, IBM-PC, etc.

Windows NT,

SUN workstation, etc.

Type Con-

troller

Single-board pro-

cessors, Machine tool

controller, Servo-Con-

troller, etc

PLC, PC, Mini-

computer

PC, Microcom-

puter, Super-MiniCom-

puter

Language

Application

Assembler, Part

programming, Robot

programming, etc.

C, Ladder logic,

Pascal and other

sequential languages

C, LISP, FOR-

TRAN, and other high

level languages

Memory/

Size Require-

ments

8k-128k RAM

plus custom ROM,

EPROM, etc.

32M RAM, >1M

Hard Drive

128M RAM,

>1Gigabyte Hard drive

Response

Time

< 10-3 sec < 1 sec < 20 sec

Machines/

Interconnects

1-1 connect 1-many

1-[1,8] Machine

tools,

1-[1-50] Material

handling

1-many

1-[1-15] worksta-

tions

page 513

• Functional Breakdown of Control Architecture

• In all of these models we must consider the value of the information being passed. At the

low level control stages, information that is more than a few seconds old may be completely

Equipment Workstation Cell

Planning Tool selection, parame-

ter specification, tool path

refinement, GMT code, tool

assignment to slots, job setup

planning

•Resource allocation

jobs

•Batch splitting and

equipment load balancing

Batching, Workload

balancing between worksta-

tions, Requirements planning

Task allocation to

workstations

Planning

Horizon

Milliseconds - Minutes Minutes - Hours/Days Hours - Days/weeks

Schedul-

ing

•Operation sequencing

at individual equipment

•Sequence equipment

level subsystems

•Deadlock detection

and avoidance

•Gantt chart or E.S.

based scheduling

•Buffer management

•Assignment of due

dates to individual worksta-

tions

•Look ahead ES/simu-

lation based scheduling

•Optimization based

tech

•Batch sequencing

Control •Interface to worksta-

tion controller

•Physical control

(motion control at NC and

robot pick and place level)

•Execution of control

programs (APT, AML, etc.)

•Monitor equipment

states and execute part and

information flow actions

based on states

•Synchronize actions

between equipment (eg.

robot & machine while load-

ing/unloading parts)

• Ladder logic execu-

tion

Organizational control

of workstations, Interface

with MPS, generation of

reports, etc.

page 514

worthless, while the same information at the higher level may be valuable for quality tracking

months later.

• We can draw part of a simple flow chart that illustrates a simple CIM system. The elements

shown include a PLC, NC machine, and stand alone sensors. These are all integrated by a single

computer running cell control software.

18.3 COMPUTER CONTROLLED BATCH PROCESSES

• The nature of Batch processes,

- Batch processes deal with discrete quantities of raw materials or products.- batch processes allow the tracking of these discrete quantities of materials or products- batch processes allow more than one type of product to be processed simultaneously, as

CNCController

Actuators,Structure,Sensors

NC NC QualityPrograms Status

Gaugesand Meters

Measurements

CellController

Operation Cell status andplans quality reports

(IBM PC)

CNCController

Actuators,Sensors

page 515

long as the products are separated by the equipment layout.- Batch processes entail movement of discrete product from processing area to processing

area- Batch processes have recipes (or processing instructions) associated with each load of

raw material to be processed into product.- Batch processes have more complex logic associated with processing than is found in

continuous processes- Batch processes often include normal steps that can fail, and thus also include special

steps to be taken in the event of a failure.

• The nature of steps in a batch process,

- Each step can be simple or complex in nature, consisting of one or more operations- Generally, once a step is started it must be completed to be successful.- It is not uncommon to require some operator approval before leaving one step and start-

ing the next.- There is frequently provision for non-normal exits to be taken because of operator inter-

vention, equipment failure or the detection of hazardous conditions.- Depending on the recipe for the product being processed, a step may be bypassed for

some products.- The processing operations for each step are generally under recipe control, but may be

modified by operator override action.• A typical process step

Bypass StepHold

at stepcompletion

Perform StepOperation

Operator orRecipe BypassCommand

Operator orRecipe Hold atCompletion

Operator AbortCommand Command

Yes

No

Yes

NoPreviousStep

Fault Detectedor Operator Abort

NextStep

Fault Exit topre-defined step

page 516


1. List 5 industries that are well suited to integration, and 5 that are not. Indicate why you

think so.

2. In an automated factory there as many as six levels of control. Discuss the equipment

available in the lab and how this relates to the 6 level model of factor floor control.

3. Information drives an automated factory from the initial entry of geometry in CAD, to the

final production of parts with CAM. Discuss how data networks support this and the impact of

open network standards.

4.

18.5 LABORATORY - WORKCELL INTEGRATION

Purpose: All of the components explored in the laboratories of previous weeks will be integrated

into a final working cell.

Overview:

Pre-Lab:

The lab equipment (right now) only satisfies the first couple of levels. You can ans.

page 517

To be determined.

In-Lab:1. To be determined.

Submit (individually):1. To be determined.

page 518

19. MATERIAL HANDLING

• Basic purpose is to provide automatic transfer of workparts between automated machines,

and interface with individual work stations.

19.1 INTRODUCTION

• Basic layouts for material handling include,

- lines - stations arranged along a fixed part transfer path.- batch - stations are grouped by function and batches of raw materials/WIP are brought in

batches- job shop - individual parts are carried through one or more stages by one worker- job site - equipment is brought to the work

• These transfer systems can also be categorized by their timing approach,

- synchronous - the entire line moves parts with a fixed period cycle. This is well suited to mass production of similar products.

- asynchronous - parts are moved as completed or needed. Often buffers are required, but this is more tolerant of problems than synchronous systems.

- continuous - the product flows by without stopping

• Basic Requirements,

• Random, independent movement of palletized workparts between workstations in the FMS- pallets can flow from any station to any other- parts are mounted in pallet fixtures- pallets can move independently to avoid interference

• Temporary storage or banking of workparts- queues allow parts to wait for machines, thus increasing efficiency

• Convenient access for loading and unloading workparts- easy to do manual load/unload.- automatic loading/unloading of parts at workstations- can load/unload from either side of system

• Compatible with computer control• Provision for future expansion

page 519

- modular extensions to system are desirable

• Adherence to all applicable industrial codes- safety, noise, etc.

• Access to machine tools- allow unobstructed floor level access to each workstation

• Operation in shop environment- must be reliable when exposed to metal chips, cutting fluids, oil, dirt, etc.

• Common type of Material handling systems

- power roller conveyors

- power and free overhead conveyors

- shuttle conveyors- floor “towline” systems

page 520

- robots (in a limited sense)- indexing (geneva mechanism)- walking beam

19.2 VIBRATORY FEEDERS

• When small parts are hard to orient we can dump them in a vibratory feeder.

• The vibrations cause parts to ‘hop’ forward.

• Various cutouts, tracks, etc are added to sort parts.

page 521

19.3 PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. What are pallets used for?

(ans. to acts as holders for work that is being transported)

2. List possible methods for guiding an AGV.

(ans. guide wire, vision, painted lines, chain)

19.4 LABORATORY - MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM

• For this lab the class will be divided into two halves. One group will do part A, the other group will do part B. Both groupswill have to work together for a successful lab.

• System Objective: When done the system should be able to pass a shuttle in a continuous loop.

19.4.1 System Assembly and Simple Controls

Purpose: The SoftPLC and devicenet will be used to control the material handling system Lock and

go stations.

Overview: The material handling system is designed in a modular format. Each of the track sections

can be disassembled and reassembled in other configurations. In total there are,4 turnstations6 straight track sections (2 have stands for suspending overhead gear)2 90 degree track sections1 conveyor system for a straight track section12 shuttles

The material handling system will be outfitted with the devicenet based controls system to move the shuttles around the system. This system will be added to in later labs. The shuttles are actuated using solenoid valves for an air supply. By actuating the “lock and go” stations the cart can be stopped, or ejected.

page 522

Pre-Lab:Examine the system components and determine (as a group) how the system will work.

Implement ladder logic to control the system.

In-Lab:1. Connect the track sections.2. Connect solenoid valves to the “lock an go” stations - except on the turnstations. Add

sensors to detect the presence of a shuttle3. Wire the solenoid valves to the softPLC and write the ladder logic required to control

the stations.

Submit:1. All design work.

page 523

19.5 AN EXAMPLE OF AN FMS CELL

19.5.1 Overview• A workcell has been constructed using one light industrial robot, and one NC milling

machine. Some automated fixtures are also used.

• All of the devices in the workcell are controlled from a single Sun computer. This is an

engineering workstation with UNIX. Thus, it is capable of multitasking (running more than one

program at once).

• Software drivers, interfaces, and applications have been developed, to aid in teaching and

demonstration.

• The following pages will describe the interfacing in the workcell, as an example of the con-

nection between process control computers and a plant floor computer. A project in development

will be discussed for networking Plant Floor (and higher) computers.

page 524

Ethernet Ethernet

RS 232

Process Controllers

rocesses

Sun Computer (“Sunbane”)Sun Computer (“RA”)

IBM PC Compatible

(Running CAM/CAMSoftware)

CRS Robot Controller Dyna Controller Microbot Controller

DYNA NC

Milling MachineCRS Plus Robot Microbot Teach MoverPneumatic Vice

Conveyor Belt

RS 232RS 232RS 232

FMS Cell Connection DiagramPlant Floor Control & Up (Network Based Level)

Interface Level

Sensors and Actuator Level

page 525

19.5.2 Workcell Specifications

• Workcell Layout

• Devices:

1 Sun Computer2. CRS-Plus robot

• A five axis, articulated robot arm• Communicates over an RS232 serial data line• Interprets a language called RAPL• Has 16 Digital I/O lines• Uses a pneumatically controlled gripper• The robot controller is 8088 based

3. DYNA-Mite Milling Machine• A 3-axis 2.5D milling machine• Uses a proprietary NC code• Can be run locally, or remotely (over RS232 serial communication lines)• Programs may be executed as they are entered, or when they are completely

ordered• Can handle objects of dimensions 6” by 5” by 4”

ConveyorRobot

NC Milling Machine

Robot Controller

NC Milling

Sun 3/60 Computer

Controller

Pneumatic Vicegripper

Machine

Pneumatic ViceController

page 526

• Can machine plexiglass, wax, aluminum, steel (at low feed rates)4. Pneumatic Vice

• Has a maximum opening of 4 inches• Has a maximum travel of 1 inches• Controlled by a pneumatic solenoid• Pneumatic solenoid controlled from CRS-Plus robot controller

5. Conveyor• A former undergraduate student project• Activated electronically by the CRS-Plus robot controller

6. Fixtures (for making customized keytags)• These are highly specific to the task being performed• Parts Feeder - Provides a structured environment so that the robot may easily

pick up the parts.• Robot Gripper - Designed to provide a reasonable reach into the vice (and parts

feeder), and to firmly grasp the workpiece.• Vice Fixture - Designed to hold the workpiece at a level fixed height, and has a

location for drill through of the keytag. This part does not effect the travel of the vice.

19.5.3 Operation of The Cell

page 527

• Developed/Proprietary software in the workcell

RobotControl

Subroutines

ViceControl

Subroutines

ConveyorControl

Subroutines

DynaMillControl

Subroutines

Serial Communication Subroutines

CRS-Plus Robot ControllerDynaMillController

CRS-PlusRobot

Pneumatic ConveyorBelt

DynaMillMillingMachineVice

UserInterface

DeviceSpecificRoutineson Sun

SerialInterfaceRoutineson Sun

Controllersand

OperatingSystems

Hardware

Routineson Sun

User Interface(written with the Sunview Window Interface Library)

ProgrammingModule

High Level User Interface ( or application program)

Hardware and Controllers Supplied by Manufacturers (except Conveyor)

Low Level Device Drives and Communication Routines

proprietary HardwarePurchased

SoftwareWritten

or Built

page 528

2.1.4 - Example of Robot and Vice Software Driver Use

void demo()

static double a1, a2, a3, a4, a5;

crs_init();

crs_speed(40.0);

crs_open();crs_close();

conv_on();

crs_xy_r_move(-5.0, -5.0, 0.0);crs_xy_status(&a1, &a2, &a3, &a4, &a5);

conv_off();

crs_xy_a_move(a1+3.0, a2+2.0, a3);

crs_depart(-2.0);crs_depart(2.0);

crs_home();crs_r_move(0.0, 10.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0);crs_speed(100.0)

vice_closed();

crs_a_move(-90.0, 0.0,0.0,0.0,0.0);

vice_open();

Set up Robot

Set speed to 40% of Maximum

Open the Gripper

Close the Gripper

Turn on Conveyor

Move Robot with relativeCartesian Coordinates

Return Cartesian Position ofEnd Effector

Turn off Conveyor

Move Robot to absoluteCartesian Position

Move robot gripper 2” forward

Move robot gripper 2” backward

Move robot to home position

Move robot in relative jointcoordinates

Close the Vice

Move the Robot inAbsolute Joint Coordinates

Open the Vice

page 529

• NC code Example (for the Dyna Milling Machine)

000 START INS 01001 TD = 0.125002 FRXY = 10003 FRZ = 4004 SETUP > zcxyu005 GOY -.625006 GOZ -.125007 GRa -180008 ZERO AT009 X .634010 Y .5011 GOr .125012 a 90013 GRa -30014 > REF COODS015 ZERO AT016 X 1.50017 Y 0018 GOr .125019 a 60020 GRa -60021 > REF COODS022 ZERO AT023 X 1.5024 Y -0.3025 GOr .125026 a 0027 GRa -90028 GRX -1.3029 END

2.00”

0.50”

0.50”

30°

0.20”R

Start Program in inches

Set Tool Diameter

Set Feed Rates

Set Absolute Zero Position

Move to Start Position

X

Y

Z

End Program

A

B

A

B

C

D

C

D

E

F

EF

page 530

• An Example of the Dyna Mill Software Drivers

void demo()

char ret[100];/* Initialize Dyna Mill and check for failure */if(dyna_init() == NO_ERROR)

/* Send NC Program to Dyna Mill */dyna_load(“/usr/people/cim/nc.code/test1.nc”);/* Download program from NC Mill */dyna_download(“/usr/people/cim/nc.code/test”);/* Send program to mill 1 step at a time */dyna_step(“/usr/people/cim/nc.code/test2.nc”);

/* Deinitialize mill */dyna_kill();

page 531

• A User interface for Workcell Control

Robot ControlSubwindow

Vice and ConveyorControls

Dyna Mill ControlSubwindow

Key Tag Programs

ProgrammingMaster Control

(Also uses Dyna Mill)

page 532

• Actual Communication with devices, via a report window

page 533

• Workcell Programming window

• Advantages:

• UNIX Based system allows easy control of cell in modes which are both parallel and/or concurrent

• A blend of high level computers with low level devices allows for a very modular sys-tem, with a variety of computing resources.

• Synchronization of processes is very simple.• Allows rapid reconfiguration of the workcell.• This workcell will perform all of the basic CAD/CAM/CIM functions.• The hierarchical design of software tools has simplified the development of new applica-

tions.

• Disadvantages:

page 534

• Many Equipment manufacturers have not considered this type of control (they prefer stand alone modes), and thus their machines lack self calibration features, and soft-ware is made to be user interactive, and batch, but is not very friendly for software applications.

• Requires technical people to operate the equipments.

19.6 THE NEED FOR CONCURRENT PROCESSING

• An individual computer is not powerful enough to control an entire factory. And, a single

program would be too complex. Therefore, there is a need for many computers and programs

which interact.

• The example below involves two programs. The first program will control the robot, and the

second will cut key tags with the NC machine.

• While the keytags are being cut, the robot program will move pegs around in the cell. This

requires that the control software be very complex, or that two programs be used.

• if two programs are used, then some communication is required for sequencing tasks in the

work cell.

• Concurrent tasks in the workcell use message passing between programs,

page 535

• Strategies for Concurrent processing, involve how the processes are split apart, and how

they communicate,

- Have a number of processes which communicate directly to one another (point to point). This is synchronous and well suited to real-time control.

- Use a buffered message passing system. This allows asynchronous communication between processes running at different speeds, which do not do real-time control.

- Remote Procedure Calls allows one program to run other programs remotely. This is suited to well defined problems, but every program must have knowledge of the other computers in the network.

IsAnotherNameLeft ?

Stop

Start

IsDyna Mill

Waiting forPart ?

Yes

LoadPart

IsDyna Mill

Done withPart ?

Yes

UnloadPart

Swap aPeg

Start

Call forNew Part

Wait forPart Loaded

Move toMilling Position

Mill outKeytag

Move toUnload Position

Call forUnloading Keytag

Wait forPart Unloaded

Yes

messagespassed throughfile #1

messagespassed throughfile #2

Program #1 Program #2

No

No

No

page 536


1. What is concurrent (parallel) processing and why is it important for workcell control?

(ans. to allow equipment to do other tasks while one machine is processing)

2. What is meant by the term “Device Driver”?

(ans. a piece of hardware that allows a connections to a specific piece of hardware)

page 537

20. PETRI NETS

20.1 INTRODUCTION

Petri nets are useful tools for modelling systems with control flow. In particular they aid in

modelling systems with concurrency, and parallelism. A set of routines have been developed at

UWO to serve as the basis for a manufacturing simulation. The routines will support a number of

various Petri net functions. The basic operation of the Petri net may be simulated. As well the

EOR transitions will also be modelled. An attempt has been made to add ‘colors’ to the tokens,

but at the present there is insufficient information (i.e., no references) to verify the implementa-

tion.

The routines have been written in a user friendly way to allow simple application interface.

Places and Transitions are specified with textual names. A brief theory of petri nets follows.

• These are like state diagrams, except multiple states can be active at the same time.

• Other techniques, such as GRAFCET, are based on Petri nets.

20.2 A BRIEF OUTLINE OF PETRI NET THEORY

There are four basic elements in a petri net; places, transitions, arcs, and tokens. If we are to

think in terms of a factory, tokens are equivalent to work parts. Arcs are the paths the work will

follow through the factory. Places are buffers where parts are stored temporarily, and transitions

are equivalent to machines where the parts are used to make new parts.

page 538

The basic operation is that tokens are introduced to the network, and then transitions are fired

in different orders, and thus tokens are created and destroyed at the transitions. The example

below follows the petri net for a few cycles. The first figure shows the Petri Net with the initial

markings.

Token Place Arc Transition

stock frominventory

stock fromsupplier

stock fromcutter

feeder hopper

Bolt Maker Nut Maker

Bolt Hopper Nut Hopper

Screwing Machine

Finished Part

Petri Net Model

page 539

this transition was fired


page 540

The reader should note that there are a few interesting properties found in Petri nets.

• Transitions are fired when all of their inputs are satisfied, and the user specifies that transi-

tion.

• Most analysis of petri nets uses random firings of the transitions to obtain statistical perfor-

mance.

Other basic references to the petri net theory are available in Peterson [1981] and Reisig

[1985].

20.3 MORE REVIEW

• Ideal for parallel control problems


page 541

Token - Indicates place active (control)

Place - Indicates part of a system state (as before). If there is a token here, the place is valid, or active.

Transition - This will wait until all inputs have a token. Those tokensare destroyed and new tokens are put into all the outputs

e.g. An example of basic operation

The Petri Net (with no tokens)

page 542

Initial State : The tokens are added below, based upon the system

Step 1 : One of the states gives up a token (this is arbitrary and depends on the state)

transitionconditionfires

Step 2 : Another state gives up a token (again arbitrary)

In this case the transition can fire because both input places now have tokens, we are only wait-ing for the condition to occur.

page 543

• Basic logic functions are shown below,

Step 3: Here the conditions of the transition are met. The two input tokens are con-sumed and a new token is created for the output place.

This continues on indefinitely.........

Step 4: We see the condition for the transition met.

page 544

• We can model various logic functions with Petri nets,

state machines (only 1 input/output on transitions)

action

if/wait(state transition)

synchronize

loop/repeat

or

regulatorexclusive or

and

page 545

• Reachability allows us to determine if a state (set of places) is possible given an initial con-

dition.

• Boundedness determines whether the number of states will be controlled, or grow/shrink.

• Deadlock and liveliness - will the controller find itself unable to continue.

Recirculator - keeps only one action at a time

Or - one or the other input will start the process

If - this state can chose to send the token on either arc

And - Both inputs must be present to fire

Parallel - both processes will run in parallel at the same time

page 546

• The procedure for producing ladder logic and other programs from the Petri Nets, is identi-

cal to producing Ladder Logic for SFC diagrams.

page 547

e.g. Petri Net for a single cup coffee maker

Try:1. Add a coffee strength selection to the Petri Net.2. Draw the petri net above using a Parallel Process Flowchart3. Develop some ladder logic for the petri net diagram

startgrinder

stopgrinder

drop cup

start waterheater

heater off

filtercoffee

pourcoffee

startcleaning

cleaningoff

moneyadded

3 sec delaytemp. sensor

10 sec delay

cleaning done

cup removed

page 548

• Petri nets have been used for the modeling, control and validation of the control model

[Teng and Black, 1988]

20.4 USING THE SUBROUTINES

20.4.1 Basic Petri Net Simulation

The subroutines are applied in a methodical manner. Before the user can integrate the subrou-

tines into their program, they must draw out the petri net, and label all places and transitions. The

example given above is illustrated below.

After these labels are determined, they are defined using the petri net subroutines. The arcs in

the petri net are also defined in the program. There are defined with respect to the transitions. That

is to say that an arc is an input to, or output from a transition. After the petri net structure has been

defined, tokens may be placed in the places of the net. The tokens are as given in the previous

example.

p1

p3

p4

p5p2t1 t2

t3

t4

page 549

The transitions are then selectively fired in the net, by function calls in the program. This pro-

gram also has calls to functions which print the petri net structure after each transition. The code

is show below for the example above.

#include <stdio.h>#include <stdlib.h>#include <string.h>

#include “global.h”#include “petri.h”

int test1()/* * BASIC TEST NET (Peterson book, 1981, pg. 19) */

static int error;static struct petri_net net;static int p1, p2, p3, p4, p5;static int t1, t2, t3, t4;

error = petri_init(&net);p1 = petri_place(&net, “p1”);p2 = petri_place(&net, “p2”);p3 = petri_place(&net, “p3”);p4 = petri_place(&net, “p4”);p5 = petri_place(&net, “p5”);

t1 = petri_transition(&net, “t1”);t2 = petri_transition(&net, “t2”);t3 = petri_transition(&net, “t3”);t4 = petri_transition(&net, “t4”);

petri_input(&net, p1, t1, 1);petri_input(&net, p2, t2, 1);petri_input(&net, p3, t2, 1);

p1

p3

p4

p5p2t1 t2

t3

t4

page 550

petri_input(&net, p4, t2, 1);petri_input(&net, p4, t3, 1);petri_input(&net, p4, t3, 1);petri_input(&net, p5, t4, 1);

petri_output(&net, p2, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p3, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p4, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p4, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p2, t2, 1);petri_output(&net, p5, t3, 1);petri_output(&net, p3, t4, 1);petri_output(&net, p4, t4, 1);

petri_add_tokens(&net, p1, 1);petri_add_tokens(&net, p4, 2);petri_add_tokens(&net, p5, 1);

petri_print(&net);

petri_event(&net, t4);petri_print(&net);



return error;

As can be seen this method of implementation is very simple. The user is able to define a

number of nets, and refer to transitions and places by name.

20.4.2 Transitions With Inhibiting Inputs

In some cases we want to prevent a transition from firing. To do this, the idea of inhibiting

inputs has been proposed. If a transition has an inhibiting input from a place, that has any tokens

in it, then the transition cannot fire. Otherwise the transition may fire normally. A sample net has

been devised for this case, it is seen below.

page 551

The program below shows that the inhibiting input is simply defined when the arc is defined.

int test2()/* * INHIBITED TEST NET (Peterson book, 1981, pg. 196) */

static int error;static struct petri_net net;static int p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6;static int t1, t2, t3, t4;

error = petri_init(&net);p1 = petri_place(&net, “p1”);p2 = petri_place(&net, “p2”);p3 = petri_place(&net, “p3”);p4 = petri_place(&net, “p4”);p5 = petri_place(&net, “p5”);p6 = petri_place(&net, “p6”);

t1 = petri_transition(&net, “t1”);t2 = petri_transition(&net, “t2”);t3 = petri_transition(&net, “t3”);t4 = petri_transition(&net, “t4”);

petri_input(&net, p1, t1, 1);petri_input(&net, p2, t2, 1);petri_input(&net, p3, t2, 1);petri_input(&net, p5, t3, 1);petri_input(&net, p3, t4, INHIBIT);petri_input(&net, p4, t4, 1);petri_input(&net, p6, t4, 1);

Inhibiting input

p1 p2

p3

p4

p5 p6

t1 t2

t3t4

page 552

petri_output(&net, p1, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p3, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p2, t2, 1);petri_output(&net, p4, t3, 1);petri_output(&net, p5, t3, 1);petri_output(&net, p6, t4, 1);

petri_add_tokens(&net, p1, 1);petri_add_tokens(&net, p2, 1);petri_add_tokens(&net, p5, 1);petri_add_tokens(&net, p6, 1);

petri_print(&net);

petri_event(&net, t1);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t3);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t4);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t2);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t4);petri_print(&net);

return error;

20.4.3 An Exclusive OR Transition:

The inhibitory inputs are complimentary to the exclusive or function. Thus another research

proposed an Exclusive or transition which will fire when one (and only one) input is from a place

with tokens. An example of a problem using this, a ring shift register was modelled. This net is

modelled as shown below.

page 553

In this example the EOR transition is marked with a plus in a circle (at ‘t7’). When run, a

token will appear in p1, p3, and p5 in a repeating cycle. The program to set this up is seen below.

int test3()/* * EOR TEST NET (Peterson book, 1981, discussed pg. 190) * This is for a single bit shifter */

static int error;static struct petri_net net;static int p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6, p7, p8, p9, p10;static int t1, t2, t3, t4, t5, t6, t7;

error = petri_init(&net);p1 = petri_place(&net, “p1”);p2 = petri_place(&net, “p2”);p3 = petri_place(&net, “p3”);p4 = petri_place(&net, “p4”);p5 = petri_place(&net, “p5”);p6 = petri_place(&net, “p6”);p7 = petri_place(&net, “p7”);p8 = petri_place(&net, “p8”);p9 = petri_place(&net, “p9”);

p1

p2

p3

p4

p5

p6

p7

p8 p9p10

t1 t2 t3

t4 t5 t6

t7EOR transition

page 554

p10 = petri_place(&net, “p10”);

t1 = petri_transition(&net, “t1”);t2 = petri_transition(&net, “t2”);t3 = petri_transition(&net, “t3”);t4 = petri_transition(&net, “t4”);t5 = petri_transition(&net, “t5”);t6 = petri_transition(&net, “t6”);t7 = petri_transition(&net, “t7”);

petri_input(&net, p6, t1, 1);petri_input(&net, p7, t1, 1);petri_input(&net, p2, t2, 1);petri_input(&net, p7, t2, 1);petri_input(&net, p4, t3, 1);petri_input(&net, p7, t3, 1);petri_input(&net, p1, t4, 1);petri_input(&net, p3, t5, 1);petri_input(&net, p5, t6, 1);petri_input(&net, p8, t7, 1);petri_input(&net, p9, t7, 1);petri_input(&net, p10, t7, 1);

petri_output(&net, p1, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p3, t2, 1);petri_output(&net, p5, t3, 1);petri_output(&net, p2, t4, 1);petri_output(&net, p8, t4, 1);petri_output(&net, p4, t5, 1);petri_output(&net, p9, t5, 1);petri_output(&net, p6, t6, 1);petri_output(&net, p10, t6, 1);petri_output(&net, p7, t7, 1);

petri_type_transition(&net, t7, EOR);

petri_add_tokens(&net, p1, 1);

petri_print(&net);

petri_event(&net, t4);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t7);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t2);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t5);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t7);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t3);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t6);petri_print(&net);petri_event(&net, t7);petri_print(&net);

return error;

page 555

20.4.4 Colored Tokens

This section should be considered incorrect. The theory has not been found, although the

approach should adhere to the concept. The concept is that each token may now have a color, and

a second bit of private information. If a transition is specified to be colored, it will only fire if

tokens of the specified color are available at the inputs. The subroutines will then require that the

user supply a new set of instance information so that new tokens may be issued.

The net used has tokens of mixed colors in it, an is seen below.

The code is shown below. The reader should note that a second subroutine is used. This is

done because there is a bit of code which would be repeated for each update of tokens at the tran-

sition.

int test4()/* * COLOR TEST NET (Assumed for now) * Two consumers of different colors and one input. The instances of tokens * are kept track of. */

p1 p2

p3

t1 t2

page 556

static int error, i;static struct petri_net net;static int p1, p2, p3;static int t1, t2;static int color1 = 1, color2 = 2;static int instance[20], instance_pnt;

error = petri_init(&net);p1 = petri_place(&net, “p1”);p2 = petri_place(&net, “p2”);p3 = petri_place(&net, “p3”);

t1 = petri_transition(&net, “t1”);t2 = petri_transition(&net, “t2”);

petri_input(&net, p1, t1, 1);petri_input(&net, p3, t1, 1);petri_input(&net, p2, t2, 1);petri_input(&net, p3, t2, 1);

petri_output(&net, p1, t1, 1);petri_output(&net, p2, t2, 1);

petri_type_transition(&net, t1, COLORED);petri_type_transition(&net, t2, COLORED);

for(i = 0; i < 20; i++) instance[i] = i;instance_pnt = 0;

petri_add_color_token(&net, p1, color1, instance[instance_pnt]);instance_pnt++;petri_add_color_token(&net, p2, color2, instance[instance_pnt]);instance_pnt++;petri_add_color_token(&net, p3, color1, instance[instance_pnt]);instance_pnt++;petri_add_color_token(&net, p3, color2, instance[instance_pnt]);instance_pnt++;

petri_print(&net);sub4(&net, t2, color1, instance, &instance_pnt);petri_print(&net);sub4(&net, t1, color1, instance, &instance_pnt);petri_print(&net);sub4(&net, t1, color1, instance, &instance_pnt);petri_print(&net);sub4(&net, t2, color2, instance, &instance_pnt);

petri_print(&net);

return error;

int sub4(net, transition, color, instance, instance_pnt)struct petri_net *net;int transition, color, *instance, *instance_pnt;

page 557

static int error, i, list[20], n, outputs;

error = ERROR;if(petri_in_event(net, transition, color) == NO_ERROR)

if(petri_get_consumed(net, transition, &color, list, &n, &outputs) == NO_ERROR)

for(i = 0; i <= n; i++) instance[list[i]] = -1000;if(petri_set_produced(net, transition,

&(instance[*instance_pnt]),outputs) == NO_ERROR)*instance_pnt += outputs;error = petri_out_event(net, transition);

return error;

20.4.5 RELATIONAL NETS

Relational nets will use various firing rules for each transition. This is by far the most useful

for varied manufacturing conditions. An example is seen below.

page 558

This may be seen in the fifth test subroutine in the program.

20.5 C++ SOFTWARE

At present there is one data structure used which holds structures for Places and for Transi-

tions. Arc information is stored (redundantly) in both. These are defined when a Place or Transi-

tion number is requested for one that does not exist. Each place and transition have reference

numbers, which are used by all other net functions.

aabb

aa

b bb

a

b

p1

p2

p3

p4

t1

b

ab

b

aa

b bb

a

b

p1

p2

p3

p4

t1

a

a

bb

aa

b bba

b

p1

p2

p3

p4

t1

fired with rule 1 fired with rule 2

ab

page 559

The software is still undergoing development, and testing, thus a list of functions would be

premature.

20.6 IMPLEMENTATION FOR A PLC

• Consider the example of a parts buffer. Parts enter the buffer and are added to the top of the

stack. The part at the bottom of the stack is checked and sorted (ejected differently) based on a

quality check.

page 560

• This can be implemented in ladder logic, but unlike the sequential techniques, there may be

multiple tokens in the places, so counters are used to keep track of token counts.

keepalive

part notenteringsorter

part enterssorter

part waiting

waiting forfor next

part atbottomof sorter

part check

eject bad

eject

part ejected

P1

goodpart good

part not good

no part atbottom ofsorter

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6P7

P8

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

page 561

MOVsource 1dest. CNT C5:1.ACC

first scan

RES

RES

RES

RES

RES

C5:2

C5:3

C5:4

C5:5

C5:8

GRTsource A C5:4.ACCsource B 0

eject bad


eject good

RES

RES

C5:6

C5:7

page 562


CTUC5:4

CTDC5:3

part good


CTDC5:2

CTDC5:6

CTUC5:3



CTUC5:5

CTDC5:3

part good


CTDC5:1

CTUC5:2

CTUC5:7

part entering

page 563

• For practice,


CTUC5:1

CTDC5:7

part entering


CTUC5:6

CTDC5:8

part at sorter bottom


CTUC5:8

CTDC5:5


CTUC5:8

CTDC5:4

page 564


1. Develop a Petri net to control a part sorting station. Parts enter on a conveyor belt and are

detected by a proximity sensor. The part can then be checked with a vision system that will signal

to the PLC that the part is good/bad. There are then two cylinders that can eject the part into a

good or bad bin.

turn the coffee machine petri net diagram into ladder logic

page 565

20.8 REFERENCES

Peterson, J.L., “Petri Net Theory and the Modelling of Systems”, Prentice-Hall, Inc., N.J.,

U.S.A., 1981.

Reisig, W., “Petri Nets; An Introduction”, Springer-Verlag, 1985.

page 566

21. PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

21.1 OVERVIEW

• A design must be converted to a process plan before it may be produced.

• But, if we have thousands of process plans, and hundreds of customer orders, with dozens

of parts in each, which machines do we use when to make the products? What parts do we need?

• Traditionally jobs have been scheduled on a first come, first served basis. This resulted in a

lineup of various jobs waiting to be done at each work center.

• When jobs are not scheduled efficiently, we often will get jobs sitting half completed, while

we wait for simple parts to be processed. This costs money, wastes time, takes up floor space,

makes the customer unhappy, etc.

• Eventually computers were used to figure out how to schedule jobs so that parts were made

before they were needed, and so that work was done on time.

• As computers were used more it also became obvious that strict schedules were a nice idea,

but they don’t work. A schedule is only valid until the first breakdown.

• Newer control programs called Production Planning and Control (PPC) systems were used

to generate schedules, and fix problems that came up.

• Most systems, manual, and automatic either push, or pull the work through the factory. If

the work is pushed, then customer orders tend to drive the production. If the work is pulled, the

factory often tries to satisfy some continuous demand, and when things are about to run out, more

is produced.

page 567

• Regardless of which system is used, Scheduling is not exact, and never optimal, but you can

get a near optimal schedule with the right tools and methods.

• Some of the traditional Production, Planning and Control subject include,

1. Forecasting - Estimating the production demands using a horizon of a few month to a few years for long range planning.

2. Production Planning - Matching needed production to available resources.

• Note: This is more of a CIM topic.

21.2 SCHEDULING

• We often know well in advance what has to be produced

• We can use computer programs to come up with a ‘near perfect’ schedule for all jobs, ahead

of time.

• These methods at the present time are not well enough developed to handle sudden disrup-

tions on the shop floor (See next section on Shop Floor Control).

• Schedules are often made up weekly

*************** ADD DETAILS FOR MRP I and MRP II

21.2.1 Material Requirements Planning (MRP)

page 568

• This is one very popular approach to planning

• Uses Master Production Schedules to determine how much of each product should be pro-

duced within given periods. Master Production Schedules are based on customer, or projected

demand.

• The elements used by MRP to plan are,

- Master Production Plan (Schedule)- On-hand inventories- Bill of Materials- Current of Purchased and Manufactured Orders- Rules for each part produced (including WIP)

• The rules about each step in production include,

- Lead time- Order quantity per final part- Scrap rate- Buffer stock quantity- etc.

• MRP then tries to determine quantities required using the data input from the users, and a

set of rules, such as,

- Fixed Order Quantity - Product are produced as required using a prespecified lot size.- Economic Order Quantity - The cost of carrying inventory is weighed off against the cost

of setup for one production run.- Lot for lot - Lots are produced as required, any batch size.- Fixed-period Order Quantity - Produce parts to cover more than a single order.

• Lot sizes required are subtracted from available stocks.

• The required production quantities are used to order from suppliers, etc, while considering

lead times, and delays.

• You should note that this approach is concerned more with inventory minimization than

with utilization of machines.

page 569

• While this system can lead to easy production scheduling, it is susceptible to errors in

BOMs, routings, etc.

• Advantages,

- improved Customer Service- better Scheduling- reduced inventory- reduced component shortages- reduced manufacturing costs- reduced lead times- higher production quality- less scrap, and rework- higher morale in production- improved communication- improved plant efficiency- improved competitive position- improved coordination of marketing and finance

• MRP II (Manufacturing Resources Planning) - A closed-loop MRP system that, at a mini-

mum, includes detailed capacity analysis (see next section). Some MRP II systems include the

business plan in the closed-loop system.

21.2.2 Capacity Planning

• While MRP is concerned with determining how much should be produced, it is not con-

cerned with how to produce it.

• Capacity planners attempt to determine how to assign jobs to machines, people, etc.

• Information used by capacity planners includes,

- Planned orders (from MRP)- Orders in process (order status)- Routings, including setup and run time (from process plans)

page 570

- Available facilities- Workforce availability- Subcontracting potential

• There are some strategies used by the Capacity Planner to Assign jobs to machines,

- Splitting of lots (batches) across identical machines- Splitting of lots to expedite a smaller quantity- Sequencing of lots to minimize setup times- Alternative routings that require different resources- Loading a facility by weight, volume, etc. (eg. heat treating)

• After jobs have been assigned to machines, the capacity of the machines must be consid-

ered.

21.3 SHOP FLOOR CONTROL

• No factory is perfect, and a schedule can become invalid at any time because of,

- Machine breakdown- Sudden material shortage- Workforce vacancy- Tool breakage- etc.

• What to do about it,

- Wait and See- Try to find alternative production plans/parts- Ask engineering for replan- Bump other jobs- ?????

21.3.1 Shop Floor Scheduling - Priority Scheduling

• Instead of scheduling before production (MRP and Capacity planning), a manufacturer may

page 571

opt to do scheduling on the fly.

• Some of these methods include,

- Earliest operation due date - soonest date. This gives time until due, but ignores process-ing time.

- Order Slack - soonest date minus processing time. This gives the amount of time to play with.

- Shortest operation first - Do the quickest jobs first. This just clears out WIP faster.

21.3.2 Shop Floor Monitoring

• It is important to know what is happening on the factory floor.

• To do this we must pay attention to obvious problems like machine operation, and hidden

problems such as quality, and production quantities.

• Inspection covers a number of areas,

- Inspection of raw materials- Inspection of manufactured product

- preprocess- in-process- post process

- Inspection of production process parameters- tools- fixtures- production machinery

- Verification/calibration- inspection fixtures- Inspection gauges- Inspection machinery

page 572

22. SIMULATION

• Some complex systems can’t be modeled because of,

- random events- changing operating conditions- too many interactions- exact solutions don’t exist

• Simulation is used to determine how these systems will behave

• Simulation typically involves developing a model that includes discrete stations and events

that occur with some probable distribution.

• We can then examine the simulation results to evaluate the modeled system. Examples

include,

- machine utilization- lead time- down time- etc.

• This is a very effective tool when considering the effect of a change, comparing decision

options, or refining a design.

• Some simulation terms include,

System - the real collection of componentsModel - a reasonable mathematically (simpler) representation of the systemState - the model undergoes discrete changes. A state is a ‘snapshot’ of the systemEntity - a part of the system (eg machine tool)Attributes - the behavior of an entityEvent - something that changes the state of a machineActivity - when an entity is going through some activity. (eg, press cycling)Delay - a period of time with no activity

• Good approach to simulation,

1. Determine what the problem is2. Set objectives for the simulation

page 573

3. Build a model and collect data4. Enter the model into a simulation package5. Verify the model then check for validity6. Design experiments to achieve goals7. Run simulations and collect results8. Analyze and make decisions

22.1 MODEL BUILDING

• If we are building a model for a plant floor layout, we will tend to have certain elements,

- material handling paths (transfer)- buffers/waiting areas (delays)- stock rooms (source)- shipping rooms (destination)- machine tools (activities)

• Some of these actions can be stated as exact. For example, a transfer time can be approxi-

mated and random (manual labor), or exact (synchronous line), or proportional to a distance.

• Some events will occur based on availability. For example, if there are parts in a buffer, a

machine tool can be loaded and activity occurs.

• Some activities and events will be subject to probabilities. Consider that the operation time

in a press may vary, and there is probability of scrapping a part.

• The random variations can be modeled as,

- discrete - for individual units- continuous for variations

• Well known distributions include,

page 574

Normal/Gaussian

Probability Density Cumulative Probability

1

0.5

0

mean mean

Poisson/Exponential


1

0

page 575

• This data may be found using data provided by the manufacturer, sampled in-house, etc.

22.2 ANALYSIS

• To meet goals, simple tests may be devised. These tests should be formulated as hypotheses.

We can then relate these to the simulation results using correlation.

Uniform


1

0.5

0

mean mean

Normal/Gaussian


1

0

mean mean

page 576

• Simulation software will provide information such as,

- production rates- machine usage- buffer size- work in process

22.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

• WHAT? combinations of individual parameters for process control are varied, and their

effect on the output quality are measured. From this we determine the sensitivity of the process to

each parameter.

• WHY? Because randomly varying individual parameters takes too long.

• e.g. A One-Factor-At-A-Time-Experiment

cov xi µx–( ) yi µy–( )∑ µxµy–= corrcovσxσy------------=

where,cov = covariance of data sets x and ycorr = correllation of sets x and y

corr = 1 completely relatedcorr = 0 no relationshipcorr = -1 inversely related

page 577

• The example shows how the number of samples grows quickly.

• A better approach is designed experiments

• e.g. DESIGNED EXPERIMENT for springs in last section

Effect: We are finding the causes of cracks in steel springs.Causes:

1. Steel temperature before quenching 1450F or 1600F2. Carbon Content .5% or .7%3. Oil quench temperature 70F or 50F

Experiments 1 and 2:Run 1:

1. 1450F2. 0.5%3. 70F

yield(%) 72 70 75 77, X=73.5%

Run 2:1. **1600F2. 0.5%3. 70F

yield(%) 78 77 78 81, X=78.5%

Observation: 1600F before quench gives higher yield.

Run 3:1. 1600F2. **0.7%3. 70F

yield(%) 77 78 75 80, X=77.5%

Observation: Adding more carbon has a small negative effect on yield.

Run 4:1. 1600F2. 0.5%3. **50F

yield(%) 79 78 78 83, X=79.5%

Observation: We have improved the quality by 6%, but it has required 4 runs,and we could continue.

page 578

- set up orthogonal array

Run

12345678

1.

14501600145016001450160014501600

2.

0.50.50.70.70.50.50.70.7

3.

5050505070707070

Yield%

79 78 78 83

72 70 75 7778 77 78 81

77 78 75 80

Ri = X

79.5

73.578.5

77.5

Note the binary sequence

- Find effects of each factor

Main Effect Average at High( ) Average at Low( )–=

Main Effect of AR2 R4 R6 R8+ + +( )

4------------------------------------------------

R1 R3 R5 R7+ + +( )4

------------------------------------------------–=

Main Effect of BR1 R2 R5 R6+ + +( )

4------------------------------------------------

R3 R4 R7 R8+ + +( )4

------------------------------------------------–=

Main Effect of CR1 R2 R3 R4+ + +( )

4------------------------------------------------

R5 R6 R7 R8+ + +( )4

------------------------------------------------–=

- these can be drawn on an effect graph

Yield%

A- A+ B- B+ C- C+

page 579

22.4 RUNNING THE SIMULATION

• When a simulation is first run it will be empty. If it is allowed to run for a while it will settle

down to a steady state. We will typically want to,

- run the simulation for a long time- or, delay the start of data collection- or, preload the system will parts

22.5 DECISION MAKING STRATEGY

• The general sequence of thought when making decisions is,

- purpose- direction- plans- action- results

• General properties of strategy include,

- time horizon- impact- concentration of effort- patterns of decisions

Problem area

page 580

- pervasiveness

• The levels of strategies include,

- corporate- business- departmental/functional

• Decisions can be categorized,

hardware/fixed- capacity- facilities- technology- vertical integration

software/flexible- workforce- quality- production planning/material control- organization

• Typical criteria for making decisions might include,

- consistency- harmony- contribution

page 581

23. PLANNING AND ANALYSIS

23.1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER

• There are a number of factors in a company which must be considered when evaluating the

need for CAD/CAM/CAE/CIM/etc systems. Some of these are listed below,

external- company crisis- markets Niche/Global/Home/ etc.- competition- customer requirements

internal- corporate objectives, mission and culture

technological- available technology- research & development

success factors- the role of management- worker security- corporate organization- unions- middle management- worker motivation- training / worker abilities- cash- purchasing- design engineering- etc.

• Current popular planning strategies include,

Cost management- direct costing- effective capital investments- space utilization

Cycle time reduction- continuous flow manufacturing and vendor supply- pull manufacturing

page 582

- business and process reengineeringMarket driven quality

- defining market needs- first to market- agile manufacturing- 6 sigma quality

Automation- process- warehouse- information

CIM- simplifying and automated processes- increased information access

• We can draw a chart that illustrates the issues that might be encountered,

Structure Infrastructure

Micro

Macro

fiscal/tax

monetary

trade

industrial

capital market

political structure

labor organization

culture

tradition

religion

values

social behavior

business market

plant/equipment

- capacity- location- process technology

vertical integration

measure and control work-

force

vendors

management

capital budget

organization

page 583

23.2 PROJECT COST ACCOUNTING

• When considering the economic value of a decision, one method is the payback period.

• Simple estimates for the initial investment and yearly savings are,

• There are clearly more factors than can be considered, including,

- changes in material use- opportunity cost- setup times- change in inventory size- material handling change

NCI

SA-----=

CI initial investment ($)=

where,

SA savings per year ($/yr)=

N payback period (years)=

CI CE IS–=

where,

CE cost of new equipment=

IS revenue from sale of old equipment (salvage)=

SA L0H0 L1H1–( ) M0 M1–( )+=

where,

L0 L1, labor rate before and after=

H0 H1, labor hours before and after=

M0 M1, maintenance costs before and after=

page 584

• The simple models ignore the conversion between present value and future value. (ie,

money now is worth more than the same amount of money later)

• Quite often a Rate of Return (ROR) will be specified by management. This is used in place

of interest rates, and can include a companies value for the money. This will always be higher

than the typical prime interest rate.

• So far we haven’t considered the effects of taxes. Basically corporate taxes are applied to

profits. Therefore we attempt to distribute expenses evenly across the life of a project (even

though the majority of the money has been spent in the first year). This distribution is known as

depreciation.

PW C0 RAjCAj

–( ) P F⁄ i j, ,( )[ ]∑+=

where,

PW present worth of the money (in todays dollars)=

RAjAnnual revenues (income) for year j=

CAjAnnual costs (expenses) for year j=

j j years in the future=

i interest rate (fractional)=

n number of years for consideration=

P F⁄ i j, ,( ) 1

1 i+( )j-----------------= P A⁄ i n, ,( ) P F⁄ i j, ,( )∑ 1 i+( )n

1–

i 1 i+( )n---------------------------= =

page 585

• Methods for depreciation are specified in the tax laws. One method is straight line deprecia-

tion.

• Consider an assembly line that is currently in use, and the system proposed to replace it.

The product line is expected to last 5 years, and then be sold off. The corporate tax rate is 50%

and the company policy is to require a 17% rate of return. Should we keep the old line, or install

the new one?

A B T– B taxrateC( )– B 1 taxrate–( ) Dtaxrate+= = =

where,

A after tax cash ($/yr)=

B before tax cash ($/yr)=

D depreciation of equipment ($/yr)=

taxrate the corporate tax rate=

DCE IS–

n-----------------=

page 586

Current Manual Line:- used 2000 hrs/yr with 10 workers at $20/hr each- maintenance is $20,000/yr- the current equipment is worth $20,000 used

Proposed Line:- the equipment will cost $100,000 and the expected salvage value at the

end of the project is $10,000- 2 workers are required for 1000 hours year at $40/hr each- yearly maintenance will be $40,000

page 587

24. REFERENCES

Bollinger, J.G. and Duffie, N.A., Computer Control of Machines and Processes, Addison-Wesley, 1989.

Chang, T.-C., Wysk, R.A. and Wang, H.-P., “Computer-Aided Manufacturing second edition”, Prentice Hall, 1991.

Kalpakjian, S., Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Addison-Wesley (3rd. ed.), 1995.

page 588

25. APPENDIX A - PROJECTS

Objective: Students will learn how to design an integrated manufacturing system by selecting

and building a complete integrated system from beginning to end.

Method: The basic steps are outlined below,

1. Course begins2. Students (individuals or groups) will submit a proposal for a project within the first

three weeks.3. The instructor will review the proposal, and suggest changes as necessary.4. During the term students will design, build and test their proposed projects.5. In the last week of classes the final project will be demonstrated and formally presented.

25.1 TOPIC SELECTION

• The following topics are some possible topics, in priority,

1. Projects for the workcella) Develop a computer program for scheduling.b) Design and build a material handling station for the lab.c) Develop a product information databased) Develop a quality monitoring systemse) Write a workcell control program (either C or Java)

2. Select a problem from a local company3. Select a project based on your interests

a) Build a CMM that uses an arm with measured joint angles.b) Design and build a robot.c) Develop an idea of your own.d) Design and build an NC machine.

25.1.1 Previous Project Topics

“GVSU Workcell” (Jenny Agnello, Tom Johnson, Colin Moore, Lisa Nahin, Jeremy

page 589

Scott) The material handling system at GVSU was designed to produce puzzles. The heart of the system was an Allen Bradley SoftPLC and Devicenet. It con-trolled a material handling system supplid by Worksmart Systems. The system included a robot for loading/unloading the mill. A CNC mill for cutting the parts. A vision system for inspecting the final parts. Various feeder and fixtures were designed and build by students in EGR450.

“Hole in Sphere Project” (Alex Wong, Robert Krygier, Andre Cargnelli, Ahmed Nensey) A mechanism will be designed and built for orienting spherical balls with small through holes. This will be done with a mechanism that uses three rollers for orien-tation, and an optical pair to detect the hole. An electromechanical control system will be used.

“Automated Robot Arm” (Lev Mordichaev, Karl Fung, Dennis Ngo, Nikko Chan, Edwin Wen, Elaine Rodrigues) A robot arm will be designed and built that can move up/down, left/right, and has a gripper that will open/close. The robot will be con-trolled via a computer program, and electrical connections to the robot.

“A Manually Controlled Robot” (Keith Lou, Sue Lee, Richard Dankworth, Phat N. Huynh, Howie Lam, Tarius Makmur) To build a manually controlled robot to per-form a certain task using a joystick for control. This small scale robot will be capa-ble of picking up an object, and positioning it in another location. And, for proof of concept, a set of fixtures, jigs or feeders will be constructed for a simple robotic task. Note: This project has too many people for construction of a robot only.

“A Box Sorting System” (Joey Aprile, Don Christie, Gabe Fusco, Mike Poczo) A con-veyor based system will be designed and built for sorting boxes by a switched con-veyor path. This will include construction of the conveyor, sensors, actuators, and control system.

“Automated Drink Dispenser” (Keith German, Dave Van Den Beld, Jeff Kempson, Brent Rubeli, Michael Staples) Glasses on a conveyor belt will be transported to/from a dispensing station where they will be filled by an automated mechanism. The sys-tem will be designed and built, possibly using a PLC, or a PC for control.

“Self Leveling Platform” (Gerard Biasutto, Mario Borsella, Dino Farronato, Marco Gaet-ano, John Yuem) An actuated system will be designed and built to level a platform under tilting conditions. This will involve actuators positioned at four corners. A control system will be constructed to drive the actuating cylinders.

“Raytracing and Animation” (Greg Squires, Ed Hoskins, Marie Malyj, Allan Zander, Tara Hillebrandt) POVray was used to animate a sequence of images to illustrate a pipe layout

“NC Machining with SmartCAM” (Neil Babcock) A fishing reel was designed. The reel was cut on an NC machine using Smartcam software for programming.

“A graphical computer program for flow analysis on PC’s” (James Barr) A computer pro-gram was written to do an analysis of a sphere moving through a fluid.

“Manufacturing Database” (K. Beute, M. Mead) A manufacturing database will be devel-oped that allows operators to call up machine configurations based on part num-bers. This system uses an HMI to allow easy operator access.

“Construction and control of Stiquito Robot” (T. Cowan and J. Cummings) A kit for a stiquito robot will be purchased and assembled. The appropriate interface electron-ics and software will be written to control the robot.

page 590

“Virtual Reality Modeling” (N. Dunklin) VRML will be explored and used to implement a 3D model of a complex part. This will allow a user to explore the 3D world using a simple internet browser.

“Automatic Generation of CNC Programs” (K. Gehrke) A computer program will be writ-ten in C/C++ to automatically generate computer programs in C or C++ to cut ini-tials in keytags.

“Java Programming” (N. Kaye) The Java language will be learned, and a program will be written to cover some aspect of integration or automation.

“Computer Based Analysis of Battery Discharge Data” (R. Sietsema) A computer applica-tion will be developed using Excel, and a scripting language, to allow a user to do an analysis of battery discharge data.

“Force Feedback Joystick” (R. Serebryakov) A force feedback joystick will be designed and built. It will be interfaced to a PC and controlled with Labview.

“Design and Construction of Robot” (S. Williams) A robot will be designed and built. The robot will be interfaced to a computer for control.

25.2 CURRENT PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS

Name:

Title:

Description:

Deliverables:

page 591

26. APPENDIX B - COMMON REFERENCES

26.1 JIC ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

• The Joint International Committee (JIC) developed a standard set of symbols for representing electrical circuit elements. These are given below:

disconnect circuit interrupter

breaker (3 phase AC)normally openlimit switch

normally closedlimit switch

normally openpush-button

normally closedpush-button double pole

push-buttonmushroom headpush-button

F

Fusethermal

motor (3 phase AC)

(3 phase AC) (3 phase AC)

liquid levelnormally open

liquid levelnormally closed

vacuum pressurenormally open

vacuum pressurenormally closed

overload relay

page 592

26.2 NEMA ENCLOSURES

• NEMA has provided a set of ratings for cabinets housing voltages less than 1000V AC. The basic classifications are outlined below,

temperaturenormally open temperature

normally closedflownormally open

flownormally closed

relay contactnormally open

relay contactnormally closed

relay coil

relay time delay onnormally open

relay time delay onnormally closed relay time delay off

normally open

relay time delay offnormally closed

H1 H2H3 H4

X1 X2horn buzzer bell

control transformer2-H

solenoid 2-positionhydraulic solenoid

R

indicator lamp

page 593

Type 1 - General purpose - indoorsType 2 - Dirt and water resistant - indoorsType 3 - Dust-tight, rain-tight and sleet(ice) resistant - outdoorsType 3R- Rainproof and sleet(ice) resistant - outdoorsType 3S- Rainproof and sleet(ice) resistant - outdoorsType 4 - Water-tight and dust-tight - indoors and outdoorsType 4X - Water-tight and dust-tight - indoors and outdoorsType 5 - Dust-tight and dirt resistant - indoorsType 6 - Waterproof - indoors and outdoorsType 6P - Waterproof submersible - indoors and outdoorsType 7 - Hazardous locations - class IType 8 - Hazardous locations - class IType 9 - Hazardous locations - class IIType 10 - Hazardous locations - class IIType 11 - Gas-tight, water-tight, oiltight - indoorsType 12 - Dust-tight and drip-tight - indoorsType 13 - Oil-tight and dust-tight - indoors

FACTORprevent human contactfalling dirtliquid drop/light splashairborne dust/particleswind blown dustliquid heavy stream/splashoil/coolant seepageoil/coolant spray/splashcorrosive environmenttemporarily submergedprolonged submersion

1xx

2xxx

3x

x

3Rx

3Sx

x

4xxxxxx

4Xxxxxxx

x

5xx

x

6xxxxxx

x

6Pxxxxxx

xxx

11xxx

x

12xxxx

x

12Kxxxx

x

13xxxx

xx

*source Omron catalogs - check

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Integration and Automation of Manufacturing Systems

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