INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN THE EMPLOYMENT

OF BURMESE WORKERS BY LOCAL BUSINESSES IN

SOUTHERN THAILAND

Preeda Nakaray

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Communication Arts and Innovation)

The Graduate School of Communication Arts

and Management Innovation

National Institute of Development Administration

2017

ABSTRACT

Title of Dissertation Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese

Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand

Author Miss Preeda Nakaray

Degree Doctor of Philosophy (Communication Arts and

Innovation)

Year 2017

The aims of this present study are: 1) to investigate intercultural

communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the south of

Thailand; 2) to compare their attitudes towards Thai and Burmese cultures; and 3) to

examine relationship between their personal and organization factors and adaptive

abilities. A mixed-methods research design was employed. An in-depth interview was

conducted with Thai employers and Burmese employees to provide qualitative data.

For the quantitative part a questionnaire was distributed for data collection. A non-

random sampling method was applied to obtain the participants from the list of

employers hiring Burmese employees. The sampling frame was defined as those

employees whose original nationality was proven or imported based on MOU.

Finally, a snow ball sampling technique was employed to gain the participants in

Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. In terms of data analysis, Intercultural

Communication Concepts, Hofstede’s Value Dimensions, Media and Media Exposure

Behaviors, and Psychological and Cultural Factor Model were used as the basis for

the theoretical framework.

The qualitative results indicated four areas of the differences in ethnographic

attitudes of Thai employers and Burmese employees. Firstly, the employers reflected

their positive attitudes towards the employees with no conflicts between the two

parties. In contrast, Burmese employees still perceived Thai people to be suspicious.

Secondly, regarding Thai mass media, the Thai workers noticed their roles in

reproducing the idea of enmity between Thai and Burmese. On the contrary, the

iv

Burmese workers were not influenced by the mass media in the formation of their

belief and negative attitudes. Next, historical lessons in class were related to their

perceptions on the relationship between Thailand and Myanmar. Moreover, in terms

of cultural dimensions, it was found that Thai employers were collectivistic, while the

workers were more individualistic. Next, both Thai employers and Burmese workers

appeared to be with high power distance and certainty avoidance. Moreover, the

employers reflected high femininity, while the Burmese workers were more

masculine.

The quantitative data analysis of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards their

own culture and Thai culture indicated four areas of similarity. They showed traits of

high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and collectivism.

However, the hypothesis testing showed different perceptions on power distance in

Thai and Burmese contexts. In addition, different personal factors such as ethnicity,

types of living, business types, working areas, and types of media exposure resulted in

different levels of the adaptive abilities of the workers. Moreover, the ethnic attitude

was the best predictor of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities. However, the

results show a negative relationship. Other influential factors included age,

educational levels, attitudes towards power distance, and knowledge about Thai

culture, respectively. All of the five factors accounted for 12.3% of the Burmese

workers’ adaptive abilities

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This present study aims to achieve balance of immigrant worker employment

in Thailand. Luckily, the researcher gained assistance and corporation from Provincial

Employment Offices, Thai employers, Burmese workers, acquaintances, and students.

I am introduced to the participants in this study by these people. Also, they assisted in

data colleting in all the three provinces namely, Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla.

My deepest thanks go to my main supervisor, Professor Yubol Benjarongkij

(Ph.D.), who guided me how to seek for knowledge and provided suggestions for

thesis conducting as well as how to live a sustainable life under the pressure along the

path of pursuing my Ph.D. I also would like to thank Associate Professor Patchanee

Cheyjunya, Committee Chairperson, for her advice and suggestion. She always

relieved my anxiety and panic during my years in this academic institution. Next, I

would like to express my sincere thanks to Associate Professor Metta Vivatananukul,

an external committee, who always boosted my energy and provided body of

knowledge for me entire years of my study.

I own my most sincere thanks for care, good will, and generosity from

classmates at NIDA and those in Program of Public Administration, Prince of

Songkhla University. My most sincere gratitude is extended to colleagues in Program

of Communication Arts and Innovation, Nakhon Si Thammarat Rajabhat University,

who took care of my teaching load, and also to Ying Khiew, my Doraemon. Then, my

thanks go to the staff at Sukhum Nawaphan Library and computer laboratory, NIDA

for their selfless facilitation.

Finally, I would like to express my feelings to my parents, sisters, and nieces

for their endless devotion and opportunities for me to develop myself.

This research was supported from graduate scholarship provided by the

National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) as of fiscalyear 2017

Preeda Nakaray

May 2018

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES xii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background and Rationale of the Study 1

1.2 The Perception of Thai People towards the Burmese 3

1.3 The Adaptation of Burmese Workers in Thailand 5

1.4 The Working Culture of Thai People and the Burmese 6

1.5 Problems of Burmese Workers Employment in the South of 7

Thailand

1.6 Research Questions 9

1.7 Research Objectives 9

1.8 Definition of Terms 10

1.9 Scope of the Study 11

1.10 Limitations of the Study 12

1.11 Significance of the Study 12

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 15

2.1 Intercultural Communication 15

2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences 19

2.3 Hofstede’s Value Dimensions 27

2.4 Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theories 31

vii

2.5 The Demographic Characteristics Influencing 33

the Adaptation Ability to Work

2.6 Backgrounds of Myanmar and Figures of Burmese 34

Workers in Thailand

2.7 Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign 49

Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)

2.8 Related Studies 55

2.9 Hypotheses 75

2.10 Research Conceptual Framework 76

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 77

3.1 Qualitative Methods 77

3.1.1 Population and Sampling 78

3.1.2 Research Tools 80

3.1.3.Data Collection 81

3.1.4 Data Analysis 82

3.2 Quantitative Methods 83

3.2.1 Population and Sampling 83

3.2.2 Research Tools 86

3.3.3 Data Collection 88

3.3.4 Data Analysis 88

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 92

4.1 The Qualitative Results 92

4.1.1 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions 93

4.1.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences 100

4.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors 108

4.1.4 Perceptions towards History of Relationship 113

between Thai Employers and Burmese Workers

4.2 The Quantitative Results 117

4.2.1 Results from a Survey of the Burmese Workers 118

4.2.2 The Results of Hypothesis Testing to Survey 129

Research Objective #2

viii

4.2.3 Summary of Hypothesis Testing to Survey 147

Research Objective #3

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION, 148

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 149

5.2 Discussion 156

5.3 Recommendations 169

BIBLIOGRAPHY 175

APPENDICES 184

Appendix A : Guide Questionnaire 185

Appendix B : Questionnaire 207

Appendix C : Illustration of Data Collection 222

Appendix D : Respondents in an In-depth Interview 234

BIOGRAPHY 236

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

2.1 Residual Figures of Legal Immigrant Workers in the Kingdom 42

Classified by the Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens

2.2 Residual Figures of Section 9 Aliens Whose Original Nationality 43

is Proved (Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian) Allowed to Work

in the South

2.3 Residual Figures of Aliens Imported According to MOU in 45

the South

2.4 Total Figures of Residual Legal Immigrant Workers in the South 47

Classified by Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens

3.1 Population of Thai employers and Burmese worker in southern 79

Thailand

3.2 Numbers of Burmese worker samples classifies by areas 80

and types of businesses

3.3 Numbers of Burmese workers requested for registration 84

classifies by areas and types of businesses

3.4 Numbers of the samples in the quantitative phase 85

3.5 Summary of the research methods 89

3.6 Summary of the mixed-methods design 90

4.1 Comparison between the Cultural Dimensions of Thai employers 94

and Burmese workers

4.2 Comparison of Psycho-Cultural Influences of Thai employers 101

and Burmese workers

4.3 Comparison of media exposure behaviors between Thai employers 109

and Burmese Workers

4.4 Comparison of perceptions towards history of relationship 113

between Thai and Burmes

x

4.5 Frequencies and percentage of working areas, types of businesses, 118

and organizational structures

4.6 Frequencies and percentage of genders, ages, nationalities, 119

education, characteristics of living, and work experiences in

Myanmar

4.7 Frequencies and percentage of the media, objectives of media 120

exposure, presentation of contents about Myanmar by Thai

mass media, and responses to negative contents about the Burmese

4.8 Mean and S.D. of ethnic attitudes 123

4.9 Mean and S.D. of religious behaviors 124

4.10 Mean and percentage of the Burmese workers’ knowledge 126

about Thai culture

4.11 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 128

4.12 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards 131

Thai and Burmese culture

4.13 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and 133

Burmese culture

4.14 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 135

in the south classifying by genders

4.15 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 136

in the south classifying by working experiences in Myanmar

4.16 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 136

in the south classifying by organizational structures

4.17 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 137

in the south classifying by exposure to traditional media

4.18 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 137

in the south classifying by exposure to new media

4.19 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive 138

abilities to work in the south classifying by demographic

characteristics

4.20 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 139

in the south classifying by ethnicity

xi

4.21 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 140

in the south classifying by types of living

4.22 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 141

in the south classifying by types of businesses

4.23 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work 142

in the south classifying by working areas

4.24 Summary of One-Way-ANOVA of the Burmese workers’ adaptive 143

abilities to work in the south classifying by demographic

characteristics as a personal factor

4.25 ANOVA outputs of personal, organizational, and adaptive abilities 145

to work in the south of the Burmese workers

4.26 Output of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of the Burmese 146

workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south

5.1 Summary of comparison of cultural dimensions between Thai 150

employers and Burmese workers

5.2 Summary of Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and 155

Burmese cultures

5.3 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes 156

towards Thai culture

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Research Conceptual Framework 76

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Rationale of the Study

The move towards the ASEAN Community has transformed migrant workers

to become social capital. They encourage international relations and promote

economic growth. That is to say, in a country with labor shortage, these migrant

workers can move freely to fill up the gaps. As a result, ASEAN people gain more

income and the economy is improved (Pichet Saiphan & Piyanat Sroikum, 2014, p.

132). The underlying cause of the import of migrant workers deal with political

decisions unlike importing other goods as it involves “people.” Hence, their “feeling”

is more crucial. Meanwhile, positive or negative attitudes toward these people might

be constituted. In Thailand, the majority of the migrant laborers are Burmese (Foreign

Workers Administration Office, 2016).

The migration of these workers is partly fueled by some attractive domestic

factors. For instance the shortage of labor in Thailand results in a huge demand for

migrant labor. Regarding this, Pholphirul (2013) found that the underlying causes

behind the employment of migrant workers is a labor shortage rather than the low

hiring rates. As a result the migrant labor is a key factor in accelerating the production

processes.

However, previous studies have found that some Thai employers and Thai law

treat these workers unfairly. As presented in Sastharam Thammaboosadee (2012),

from the perspective of political economy, the dynamic of replication mechanism of

capitalism is observed, which alters the laborers from the status of a human being to

commodity until they become alienated and powerless. The employment conditions

are changing and the migrant laborers need to be responsible for more risks resulting

from capitalism. Meanwhile, in terms of the legal dimension, Ekachai Eutanpisit,

2

(2011) pointed out that the law is unfair to the migrant laborers in three aspects: 1) the

management policy of injury rights and compensation in workplace; 2) the protection

of workers’ compensation rights; and 3) the challenges, handicaps and policy

limitations of the compensation. Similarly, Podsakorn Yothinneeranath (2012) found

that the rights and benefits for those migrant laborers depend greatly on the

employers’ satisfaction regardless of the types of compensation or the methods of

getting it. For instance, a migrant female maid working in a Thai household is not

protected by the power and government mechanism.

In addition, regarding the compensation, even though migrant workers

perform more effectively than their local counterparts. However, their performances

are usually evaluated lower than the domestic workers (Muwanguzi & Musambira,

2012). In general, the employment standard and working conditions of migrant

laborers are lower than the standard indicated by the government. For instance,

inChiang Mai these foreign workers gain the average compensation of 162.5 baht per

day. In addition, the entrepreneurs or employers are negligent in registering these

workers as legitimate migrant laborers due to the extra pay they need to take care of.

Hence, the workers need to hide themselves from the authorities (SuThep

Kaewnanchai, 2008). Other previous studies discovered that Burmese workers

reflected their belief that “Thai employers would not cheat” at a moderate level

(Kwanchanok Pantufuk, 2014). Athitpura Suwannarat (2010) also found that the

migrant workers in Nakhon Si Thammarat believed that the Thai employers treated

them unfairly.

Similarly, Supattra Tantijariyaphan (2013) discovered that considering the

security impacts from work of the migrant workers in Chiang Mai, in case of

accidents, regardless of having a working permit or not the migrant workers couldn’t

receive any compensation from the Social Security Office. This is especially true if

they are illegal migrants that waived labor registration. This is because the

government has stated that only those who contribute to the fund will gain the

compensation. However, most organizations in the province, especially the

construction businesses try to avoid paying to the fund. They hire workers through an

employer or subcontractor who is not registered as a juristic person. Thus, these

workers are not protected by the Labor Protection Law. Besides, Thai Yai migrant

3

workers are also treated unfairly by some authorities. They are arrested despite having

a work permit. Some of them are arrested and fined. Hence, they cannot attain their

mental security and feel alienated from Thai people. In certain instances some of them

need to endure racist attitudes by some Thai people.

1.2 The Perception of Thai People towards the Burmese

Republic of the Union of Myanmar (from now on, Myanmar) is one of the

most familiar neighboring countries for Thai people. The perception towards Burmese

people relies greatly on historical stories about the long-term wars waged between the

two nations. Unsurprisingly, Thai people see the Burmese as their enemy or invaders.

The term, “Myanmar” has become a subject of historical discourse. This has

negatively produced the meanings, identities, and truth about the race. When the word

Myanmar is mentioned, it refers to the enemy rather than a neighbor or another nation

sharing this world (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham , 2008b, p. 3).

The memory about the history of Thailand and Myanmar usually reflects

hatred on the Burmese as an enemy. The war between the two nations has been the

starting point of the hatred towards the Burmese of the Thai from all classes. In

addition, the racial bias towards these people, which is a product of the historical

portrayal, has always been reproduced. No matter how long it takes, regardless of any

eras, the memory does not faded away from the heart of Thai people (Sipim

Sornbanlung, 2015).

Mass media reproduced the historical portrayal (the wars between Thailand

and Burma) as well as the incidents at present (the crimes committed by Burmese

laborers). Considering media exposure behaviors about migrant laborers of Thai

people according to each media type, Pachara U-Suk (2012) found that newspapers,

relatives, and television are the three most popular sources of migrant information

among people residing in Chiang Mai. Most of the contents regarding these workers

from the newspapers are criminal news, illegal migrant laborers issues, and infectious

diseases. However, those Thai employers who hired the migrant labors reflected more

positive identities, both in terms of the individual and group, of the workers than those

4

who do not hire migrants. The positive identities included being diligent, united,

healthy, hard-working, patient, and always pleased with the assigned tasks.

Thai people have both positive and negative perception towards the Burmese

laborers. Those who have direct experiences with the workers such as the employers

who hire them are likely to perceived their behaviors and working behaviors in a

positive way, since the employers had experienced the life styles and working habits

of these workers. This is congruent with U-Suk’s study, which was mentioned earlier.

He found out that while the employers or other people who have mass-mediated

experiences usually view those workers in a negative way. Similarly, Athitaya

Duangumphai (2013) discovered that Thai people are worried about the leaking out of

Thai money from hiring the Burmese labors. Another issue is the higher

unemployment rates due to the employment of migrant workers. In addition they also

see the workers as carriers of diseases as some of them did not get through the

immigration check as they entered Thailand by ships. Also Thai people are concerned

about security issues dealing with the spying of some news for Burmese government

by the workers.

A study by Supattra Tantijariyaphan (2013) supported the fear. She

investigated the management of migrant labors from the lens of political economy and

found some negative impacts from the fluctuating numbers of the migrant workers.

Consequently, the ratios of the migrant workers per the overall numbers of workers

had been increasing and this resulted in lower employment rates. Furthermore, the

government has to shoulder larger annual burdens on the welfare for those workers.

Thus, the financial status of the government is affected by the illegal immigration. To

put it simply, the government has more expenses from providing education,

healthcare, and crime prevention.

Poranee Kaewbaworn (2015) investigated the employers’ perceptions towards

Burmese workers in Chiang Rai and found that this group people tended to change

their jobs more frequently. They lack of responsibility, leave work without notice,

need more restriction and critical care than other groups. In addition, the employers

extended their perceptions that the workers seemed to be introverted and reclusive due

to their ways of life and the circumstances of Thai society. Meanwhile the employers

5

themselves do not allow the workers to disclose any information to the person making

inquiries.

Shim (2010) conducted a study in Korean contexts and confirmed different

perceptions from direct experiences and mass mediated experiences. In other words,

Korean people who had met or were friends with American people had more positive

attitude towards the American than those who did not.

Meanwhile, a number of previous studies discovered unfair employment of the

Burmese workers. As a result, they felt alienated from Thai people and encountered

racial abuse. One of the reasons might be rooted from the perceptions towards

Burmese people, which relied greatly on historical textbooks and mass media. They

have transferred negative feelings, reproduced the historical issues, and presented

them to Thai people. In addition, it might be because some Thai people have no

opportunity to work with Burmese laborers. Eventually, this current study aims to

discover the underlying causes of such circumstances.

1.3 The Adaptation of Burmese Workers in Thailand

The major goal of Burmese workers who travelled to work in Thailand is to

gain more income and have better lives. Some of them maintain their own identity

while staying in Thailand through their language use, application of Tanaka Powder

on their faces, eating of betel nuts, and style of dress. The Burmese migrant workers

are required to adapt to the host culture. Thus, they have less power to negotiate for

their benefits. They need to survive in an unfamiliar culture where they are always

inferior (Holmes, 2015; Fan & Hebbani, 2014). Previous studies on migrant

adaptation such as the case study of Portuguese workers who needed to learn

Cantonese when moving to work in Macau (Amaro, 2015) or the case of Ugandan

workers who need to learn a new language and accept American culture when

immigrating to the USA. However, adaptation to new language is not as hard as

attitudinal adjustment as the inferior feeling and social discrimination, which is

unacceptable (Muwanguzi & Musambira, 2012).

In the Thai context, a study by Parida Kochek (2005) on the adjustment of

Burmese workers migrating to Thailand through the borders of Chiang Rai, Tak, and

6

Ranong found that the Burmese workers had integrated adaptation and acculturation.

The core artifacts of their home culture were preserved in the “own personal areas” or

at home. The adaptation was displayed when they went out to get “accepted” by Thai

people and reduced the feelings of alienation or “otherness” in Thai culture.

Kwanchanok Pantufak (2014) found that Mon Burmese laborers in

Samuthsakhon took ethnocentrism by maintaining their own identity with some

necessary adaptation. They had moderate ability to adapt to the new culture. They

might adjust their thoughts, feelings, or ways of life just because of their benefits or

for work cooperation as well as for their condition of life in the society. Meanwhile,

in terms of the adaptation of Thai people who interact with the Burmese workers,

Warangkana Tippayachon (2013) discovered some adaptation to their language and

acceptance of their identity by trying to use easy words for their understanding. Thai

employers attempted to forge a relationship with the workers to raise trust and

familiarity between them for better communication, which facilitated mutual

understanding.

In general, the Burmese workers need to adapt to their work more than the

employers in order to reduce the feeling of otherness between the two parties. Hence,

for a better life of these workers, the researcher was keen to investigate the other

factors which required critical consideration about the adaptation of the Burmese

workers such as religious factors, knowledge of Thai culture and law. These elements

constitute the research interest.

1.4 The Working Culture of Thai People and the Burmese

General Newin, a former Burmese Prime Minister, has explained the identity

of Burmese people that “in the past some Burmese were likely to see people from

other nations to be savages. They were arrogant like a frog in a pond seeing itself as

being in the ocean. This is a reflection of the narrow vision based on no facts. They

did not know how to be as competitive as other nations. Thus, the flaws allow English

troops to easily invade its borders (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, p208).” The

Burmese identity to the eye of the leader might be related to Burmese culture these

days, which is passing through social transformation processes.

7

When comparing how Thai and Burmese workers perform their work, it was

found that the Burmese are sincere, smile easily, shy, arrogant, polite, and innocent.

They seem content with what they have with less need and ambition from

materialism. They are active and service-minded. Besides, they value a patronage

system and respect the elderly. The relationship between the leaders and the followers

is crucial. For them, government officers are respectful and dignified. However, most

of them work in the agricultural sectors or work in other businesses like commerce,

services, and industry. They tend to have quality life, especially the ones in

agricultural sector. Similarly, relative and patronage systems are the core culture. Thai

people love freedom thus they sometimes fail to follow strict rules and regulations.

They tend to put themselves first and respect authorities and the elderly based on their

social hierarchy. Thai people are usually sincere, helpful, and friendly. Also, they

need security from work (Wirat Niyomtham, 2008, p. 17 as cited in Warangkana

Tippayachon, 2014, p. 22).

The comparison above shows some common characteristics and culture of the

two nations, while some variations are detected. The similarities might result from the

religious root of their culture as both countries practice Theravada Buddhism

(Sutheera Phrasertsap, 2007, p. 61-65 as cited in Warangkana Tippayachon, p. 22).

However, despite the shared cultural values, which facilitate mutual understanding,

the intercultural communication between the two nations requires taking into account

the dissimilarities, which might result in misunderstandings at the beginning phase.

Also, they might lead to cultural conflict. It is likely that the dissimilarities and

cultural conflict are more influential than the similarities in an individual,

organizations, or mass media. Hence, this study aims to compare the attitude of

Burmese workers towards Thai culture and their own using Hofstede’s value

dimensions.

1.5 Problems of Burmese Workers Employment in the South of Thailand

The circumstance in which the numbers of Burmese workers in Thailand has

continued to increase every year emphasizes the multicultural context in the country.

According to the record, in 2016 the South of Thailand was top destination for

8

Burmese migrant workers who are working in the suburban areas. These workers

have their original nationality proven and have come to work based on the MOU

signed by the Thai government. Most of the workers or 63,388 went to Surat Thani,

48,319 went to Ranong, and 38,607 settled in Songkhla (Foreign Workers

Administration Office, 2016). The major aim of these people was to gain more

income than that in their home country. However, the migration to work in Thailand

was neither smooth nor comfortable, while the employers also encounter many

problems. According to the literature review, the problems of the migrant workers in

the South can be summarized as follows:

1.5.1 The stereotype of the Burmese workers by the employers and other Thai

people include the perception on the Burmese as their enemy. As a consequence it

affects the judgment of the workers’ performances and the attitude towards each

other. For instance the employers and colleagues are paranoid while anxious to

cooperate. Racial discrimination occurs and the some of the workers cannot stand the

bias. Then they react inappropriately by hurting the employers or colleagues, stealing

and doing other misdeeds.

1.5.2 The motivation in adapting themselves of the Burmese workers is

lessened since the workers usually persuade their relatives or friends to work in

Thailand. Thus many of them come to Thailand and live in a community. Then they

rarely communicate to Thai people. Meanwhile, modern technology allows them to

expose to the media in Thailand more effectively. As a result, the opportunities or

necessity in adapting themselves to Thai society is reduced. The types of adaptation

depend on each case such as they may adapt to the language, while their attitude

towards Thai people is stable.

1.5.3 The Burmese workers flee away from work or quit without any notice

due to the unfairness in employment. This includes working more but earning less, no

welfare or medical care and the lack of the channels in negotiating for their rights.

Thus, the employers need to recruit new workers.

1.5.4 Different interpretation between the two parties from the lack of

awareness of Thai and Burmese cultural differences result in misunderstanding,

obstacles, and problems for work.

9

1.6 Research Questions

1.6.1 What is the extent of the intercultural communication between Thai

employers and Burmese workers in the South?

1.6.2 What is the extent of the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai

culture when comparing to their own?

1.6.3 What factors are connected to the ability to adapt themselves to work of

the Burmese workers in the South?

1.7 Research Objectives

1.7.1 To investigate the intercultural communication between Thai employers

and Burmese workers the South

1.7.2 To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai culture and

their own

1.7.3 To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and organizational

factors which are related to the ability to adapt themselves to work

1.8 Definition of Terms

1.8.1 The factors related to the ability to adapt to work of the Burmese

workers referred to: 1) personal factors, which includes demographics data, media

exposure behavior, ethnocentric attitude, knowledge of Thai culture, and religious

behavior, and 2) organizational factors including the organizational structures and the

attitude towards Thai and Burmese culture.

1.8.2 Adaptive ability to work referred to the Burmese workers’ feeling of

working in Thailand such as wellness, happiness, acceptance, and relationship with

others, and success in working, familiarity with Thai culture/ relaxation.

1.8.3 Intercultural communication associated with the reflection of cultural

attitude between the Thai employers and Burmese workers.

1.8.4 The attitude towards culture refers to the Burmese workers’ attitude

towards their working conditions and life styles. In this study Hofstede’s value

dimensions were applied as the research framework. Those dimensions are:

10

1.8.5 Individualism or collectivism

1.8.5.1 Individualism refers to the society in which personal rights are

valued. People believe in their own thoughts and values. They make decision by

themselves and believe in equity, freedom, and liberation.

1.8.5.2 Collectivism refers to the society which takes cooperation as a

common practice. People rely on each other and put try to achieve a shared goal

focusing on the similarity rather than the differences.

1.8.6 Power distance

1.8.6.1 High power distance describes the society where power is

accepted as a part of their elements. In this society, people have different positions,

power, and take different roles. They convey their opinions based on their roles,

status, and social power.

1.8.6.2 Low power distance refers to the society in which people are

equally valued. Subordinates are brave enough to argue their bosses when necessary.

1.8.7 Masculinity or femininity refers to the following aspect rather than

focusing exclusively on genders:

1.8.7.1 Masculinity is the society which focuses on competitiveness

and takes work as a key success. Material success is ideological. Also, men and

women are clearly separated.

1.8.7.2 Femininity focuses more on quality of life rather than material

success. Men and women are not separated.

1.8.8 High or low uncertainty avoidance

1.8.8.1 High uncertainty avoidance refers to the society, which takes

uncertainty of the future seriously. People are likely to seek for security and stability

in their lives. The society has strict and fixed rules and regulations. People need more

information and clear formal plans.

1.8.8.2 Low uncertainty avoidance associates with a society where

people enjoy challenges and do not stick to rules. They have adjustable lifestyle which

can be postponed and flexible. It is unnecessary to have strict rules for work.

1.8.9 The elements of cultural psychology referred to the internal factors of

individuals which constitute their thoughts, attitude, perception, interpretation, and

11

different ways of thinking. In this study, the focus is on stereotype, ethnocentrism,

and prejudice/ bias.

1.8.10 Media exposure behavior means the types of Thai media the Burmese

workers expose themselves to, the objectives of the exposure, the advantages from the

exposure, and the opinions towards the contents about the Burmese through Thai

media.

1.8.11 Demographic characteristics are referred to gender, age, education,

nationality, workplace, housing, types of businesses, and work experiences in

Myanmar.

1.8.12 The Southern region referred to the three provinces with the largest

population of Burmese workers in 2016. This includes Surat Thani, Ranong, and

Songkhla, respectively (Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016).

1.8.13 The Thai employers are referred to as the entrepreneurs in

construction, agriculture, cattle, service-providing, and fishery businesses who are

hiring Burmese workers in the South of Thailand.

1.8.14 The Burmese workers referred to those who entered Thailand through

MOU. Their original nationality have been proven and are hired to help in

construction, agriculture, cattle, service-providing, and fishery businesses who are

hiring Burmese workers in the South of Thailand.

1.9 Scope of the Study

1.9.1 The Scope of the Contents

The contents of this study consist of two major parts as follows:

The first section presents the data from two groups of the participants: the

Thai employers and Burmese workers whose original nationality have been proven

and entered Thailand through MOU. The assessment would be made according to the

elements of cultural psychology, media exposure behavior, and the perception

towards the relationship between the two nations.

The second section presents the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai

culture and Burmese culture in conjunction with the factors related to the ability to

adapt to work of the Burmese workers in the South.

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1.9.2 The Scope of the Research Site and the Period of Study

The research site covered the three provinces in the South of Thailand with the

highest number of Burmese workers in 2016 (Foreign Workers Administration Office,

2016). The three provinces are Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. The participants

were limited to those who are in construction, agriculture, cattle, service-providing,

and fishery businesses that are hiring Burmese workers in the South of Thailand.

The period of study was from May 2016 to April 2017.

1.10 Limitations of the Study

The limitation of the study is associated with approaching the participants.

Purposive sampling technique, which is a non-probability sampling methodology, was

applied in obtaining the participants. As a result, some parts of the population might

not have equal opportunities to be chosen. In other words, the Burmese workers were

chosen by the Thai employers based on the researcher’s specification with assistance

from acquaintances and friends. Hence, the participants were not from all the areas

due to the limitation of location and business types. This is because it was not possible

to collect data from all business sectors.

1.11 Significance of the Study

1.11.1 Academic Significance

This study could broaden the scope of knowledge in intercultural

communication. Experts, supporters, and multicultural activists might have higher

awareness and focus more on cultural issues and coexistence of people in the society.

1.11.2 Social Significance

The knowledge about intercultural communication facilitates

adaptation for coexistence of others in society, which is more likely to become

multicultural. The members have more knowledge and are aware of the cultural

differences between each other. Thus, this promotes human rights and sharing for

human beings on the basis of equality. Also, the education of people with different

cultural backgrounds should be higher. This is crucial as it is a fundamental factor for

work of the migrant workers in Thailand.

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1.11.3 Economic Significance

Employers’ and business targets’ perception and acceptance of cultural

differences allow entrepreneurs to predict the behavior, attitude, and values of the

targets. As a result, the organizational management will be more effective.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The study titled “Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese

Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand,” aims to investigate the

intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the

south of Thailand. The investigation allowed the comparison of the Burmese workers’

attitudes towards Thai culture and their own. Also, the analysis of personal factors and

group factors in relation to the adaptation abilities to work was also conducted.

In order to provide the baseline knowledge for this study, the following

concepts, theories, and previous studies were reviewed:

2.1 Intercultural Communications

2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influence

2.3 Hofstede’s Value Dimension

2.4 Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theories

2.5 Demographic characteristics influencing the adaptation ability to work

2.6 Backgrounds of Myanmar and figures of Burmese workers in Thailand

2.7 Royal Decree on Managing the Work of Aliens B.E. 2560 (2017)

2.8 Previous studies

2.8.1 Previous studies on intercultural communications and cultural

dimensions

2.8.2 Previous studies on media exposure and media cultivation

2.8.3 Previous studies on the employment of migrant worker

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2.1 Intercultural Communications

2.1.1 Definitions of Intercultural Communications

Intercultural communications refer to the processes of transferring and

interpreting interaction and signs between people with different cultural backgrounds

within a certain context of communication. The study of intercultural communications

has the focus on promoting the understanding of cultural differences, the underlying

causes and elements resulting in those differences including the problems and solutions

to improve understanding among people (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.9).

In the context of intercultural communications, the sender and receiver are from

different cultures. The communications traditionally occurs in the cultural context of

the sender, while the receiver interacts with the sender as a cultural member rather than

a member of a nation. Besides, intercultural communications usually is associated with

the encounter between people in the same country, who share the same nationality, but

have different culture such as the northern people and the southern people in Thailand.

2.1.2 Roles and Significance of Intercultural Communications

Globalization leads to mobility and exchange of people by narrowing the gaps

between familiarity and convenience in their origin and the unfamiliarity in new places.

These differences can limit their performances and wellness in their lives. Some of them

might resist the new circumstances and maintain their original ways of living. On the

other hand some might try to become like the people in the new culture or the

communities in order to feel better but have failed (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 10).

As a result, it is necessary for people from different cultural backgrounds to

contact or interact with each other. Thus, methods that can facilitate the most effective

communications should be applied. The knowledge about intercultural communications

is crucial in promoting mutual understanding between the two groups. It can also

contribute to positive relationship between individuals, understanding and acceptance

of other societies, abilities to work, and togetherness among individuals or people from

other cultures or nationalities (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 12).

16

When communicating with people from other cultures, there are high chances

of transfer and change in the cultures of the two groups. The processes include

“acculturation”, “assimilation,” and “cultural imperialism.”

2.1.3 The Fundamental Beliefs underlying Intercultural Communication

The fundamental beliefs underlying intercultural communication refer to 4 areas

as follows (Kanjana Kaewthep, 2014, p. 154-157):

2.1.3.1 Among the different cultures in the world, each has its unique

characteristics; however, it is believed that there is “commonality,” which can connect

one culture to another.

Concerning to intercultural communications, the following four criteria

are employed in determining the cultural commonality and differences (Samovar,1998

as cited in Kanjana Kaewthep, 2014, p. 154):

Perception is the first gateway to beliefs, values, attitude, and worldview.

1) Verbal communications becomes the most outstanding

element in intercultural communications as the “communications through a different

language” hardly leads to mutual understanding.

2) Non-verbal communications with the assumption that

although verbal communications through written or spoken forms are outstanding

modes for intercultural communications, previous studies proved that it only explains

20% of communications success. Nonverbal communications plays another 80% in

promoting understanding.

3) Contextual communication refers to cultural contexts such as

the context the communication takes place, for example, public health, tourism, sports,

or employment.

2.1.3.2 Intercultural groups promote the encounter and exchange

between cultures with the underlying assumption that, it is inevitably necessary for each

culture to always adapt or change itself. The exchange between cultures leads to cultural

enrichment.

2.1.3.3 Despite the belief that commonality between cultures is

available, intercultural communication must take into account cultural differences. The

differences initiatively lead to misunderstandings and result in cultural conflict.

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Besides, it seems that cultural differences are more active than the commonality

regardless of individual, organizational, or mass levels. Hence, studies on intercultural

communications should focus on seeking for understanding of those differences and

conflicts. Not only the results from such studies can be added to academic knowledge,

but also they might be practically beneficial.

2.1.3.4 At present, numbers of studies on intercultural communications

are increasing due to its necessity and possibilities. The changes, which are relevant to

intercultural communications include:

1) The advancement of communications technology and

information systems

2) The transfer of the economic system to intercultural industry

and global enterprises allow people in different countries to cooperate in the same

company, while organizational communications must take into consideration the

dimensions of intercultural communications.

3) Population mobility from the advancement in transport

allows people to move from one place to another for a certain activity. For example, for

the permanent or temporary migration to work, the migrants must adapt to the culture

of the targeted nation. However, they might take their culture with them and still have

contact with the original society, for example, the Thai people in America resulting in

co-culture.

2.1.4 Methods of Intercultural Communication Investigation

Metta Vivatananukul (2005, p. 31) has outlined the methods of how intercultural

communications can be investigated as follows:

2.1.4.1 Anthropology approaches refer to the early phase of behavioral

investigation with the underlying belief that we can predict or explain one’s behavior

from studying their culture. The emphasis is on the examination of values, beliefs, and

personal needs, which are governed by an individual’s culture. Thus, it aims to respond

to the question, “What are the determinants of human behaviors?”

Hence, if we understand one’s culture, we can predict their behaviors and

the understanding of their social roles and characteristics. This results in more precise

and valid prediction. In the investigation of intercultural communications, the studies,

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which take this approach, appear to be behavioral-based. That is to say, they put efforts

in describing behavioral differences of individuals, which are affected by the difference

in their cultures. This approach gains popularity in communications and organizational

management.

2.1.4.2 Social psychology approach focuses on how humans explain

what happens in their lives. In other words, the major focus is the perception or

interpretation of behaviors, especially explanations and justification of the behaviors

with the belief that people with different cultural backgrounds tend to have different

perception on a certain issues.

Miller and Steinberg (1975, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 31)

have integrated the two approaches in explaining and predicting effects of

communications. They discovered four aspects of the influences of the two approaches

as follows:

1) Cultural influences refer to general perception of cultures in

terms of values and world view such as the concept of value orientation.

2) Socio-cultural influences associate with the narrower view of

cultures with the understanding of where the person belongs to such as gender, age,

occupation, and religion. People in each group have different sub-cultures. The focus

is on the indicated social roles and relationship as well as the expectation for the

behavior of the people in the group.

3) Psycho-cultural influences refer to understandings of internal

processes in an individual’s mind regarding mindsets, attitudes, perception, and thought

categorization of individuals with different cultural backgrounds.

4) Environmental influences refer to the investigation of

environmental impacts on cultural and behavioral constitution such as the landscape,

weather, places, sizes and types of organizations, as well as the influences of cultures

on the environmental management.

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2.1.5 Intercultural Adaptation

Cushner and Brislin (1996, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul (Krittawit), 2016,

p.324) refers to four indicators of success in adaptation and effectiveness of intercultural

communications as follows:

2.1.5.1 Feeling of contentment and well-being state

2.1.5.2 Maintenance/respect/good relationship with others

2.1.5.3 Task effectiveness including understanding of others’ cultures and

working styles

2.1.5.4 No culture shock or being able to eradicate most of it

In this study the researcher integrated anthropology and social

psychology approaches in the investigation of the intercultural communications

between Thai employers and Burmese workers with the exclusive focus on psycho-

cultural influences. In addition, the adaptation and the factors related to the abilities to

adapt to work of the Burmese workers were also examined.

2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences

According to Miller and Steinberg (1975, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul

(Krittawit), 2016, p. 73), it is necessary for people with different cultural backgrounds

to realize the influences of at least four factors in order to holistically understand their

impacts on the individuals’ ways of thinking, attitudes, expressions, communication,

and perception or interpretation. Eventually, they can communicate with people from

other cultures more successfully. The four factors include; Cultural influences, Socio-

cultural influences, Psycho-cultural influences, and Environmental influences.

In this study, the researcher aims at investigating psycho-cultural influences.

Metta Vivatananukul (2005, pp. 110-129) refers to this element as another factor

influencing intercultural communications with the assumption that when those

interacting together learn and understand each other, the intercultural communications

is likely to be successful.

Psycho-cultural influences play key roles in encoding, which relies on the

processes of perception/ interpretation to understand the messages. Furthermore, they

might have influences on the responses to the senders. In addition, due to the

20

expectation of those involved in the interaction these influences also have impacts on

the communications as senders. Thus, the communicative behaviors are different

depending on individuals’ perception towards others. These behaviors determine how

people communicate.

Psycho-cultural influences are influential in the processes of communications,

both the sending and receiving procedures. In other words, the perception and

interpretation processes of the messages from the favor of psycho-cultural influences

will become the responses after they understand, interpret, and send a message back to

the sender. Hence, psycho-cultural influences associate with dynamic two-ways

communications.

Even though, there are a number of internal factors or psycho-cultural

influences on intercultural communications, in this study two the most challenging

factors that can hinder success in intercultural communications are of interest. They can

be defined as follows:

2.2.1 Stereotypes

A stereotype is an image or characteristic of a group of individuals in

one’s mind. It usually refers to a specific image for a certain group, for example, the

saying that Germans are good at engines, Jews are stingy, Chinese are hard-working,

Americans are hot-tempered, Thai northern people are calm, Thai southern people are

ferocious, medical students are scholarly, and models love freedom. According to

Hewstone and Brown (1986, as cited in Gudykunst and Kim, 1992, p.91, as cited in

Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.118) , stereotypes have three outstanding characteristics

as follows:

2.2.1.1 People are always categorized according to their outstanding

characteristics such as genders or nationalities, which can be observed from their shapes

or skin.

2.2.1.2 Certain attitudes are used to explain or justify the underlying

causes of behaviors of the entire group of people. Each member is perceived to be the

same, but different from other groups based on the attitude towards certain behaviors

of the group.

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2.2.1.3 Attitude can be used to explain the behaviors of a member of a

group based on the stereotype towards their group.

Due to the large amount and complexity of information or contact with

the environment, stereotypes facilitate easier and more systematic perceptions. It is

beneficial to adaptation or understating of certain matters.

Stereotypes might be resulted from personal experiences or what one had

encountered. For instance if someone got lost in Tokyo and a Japanese person provided

assistance, after that the person would believe that all Japanese are helpful or Esan

workers as a whole are seen to be lazy after meeting up with a lazy Esan. This idea may

not accurately reflect reality.

In addition, some stereotypes are products of cultivation, which

influences the whole society to see things in the same way. The circumstance refers to

“social stereotype”.

Vassilion, et al., (1972, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 119)

have classified stereotypes into two aspects below:

a) Normative stereotypes refer to the stereotypes from

information through education, mass media, and historical events.

b) Non normative stereotypes, in contrast, are not based on

other sources, but from real observational incidents or from direct interaction. They

usually occur without normative stereotype towards other groups.

The influences of stereotypes on communication cover three areas.

1) With a stereotype a person is likely to believe that certain

psychological characteristics such as consideration or rudeness are connected to every

member of the group. For instance, Chinese are usually hot-tempered; men are ruder

than women, which may not accurately reflect reality.

2) Stereotypes influence on perception and interpretation of

messages. They are influential in four aspects.

(1) Stereotypes lead to perception, for example, when people

encounter with an ambiguous message, they tend to interpret it according to their

previous experiences or stereotypes. For instance when a person crying people would

22

assume that the person is sad since most people cry when being sad. This is a stereotype

and it might be tears of happiness.

(2) Stereotypes facilitate the processes of perception. That is

to say, when a stereotype is altered, the new stereotype can distort our perception. For

example, we believe that the English are arrogant and scornful of Asian people. When

we talk to the English we might believe that they are looking down on us like the image

in our mind. This is a major obstacle to communication.

(3) Stereotypes block the perception processes. In other

words, stereotypes determine the amount of messages and perceived information.

Individuals might believe in their previous perception towards a certain thing and reject

new messages or lead to the lack of attention. With the rejection and low attention, they

seemed to observe less about the person or objects. Meanwhile, this affects the

individuals’ recall and interpretation relying on their memories. Thus, with fewer

inputs, the abilities to perceive are lessened.

(4) Stereotypes facilitate the perception processes. As

mention earlier, people with stereotypes seem to believe in their previous experiences.

Thus, provided that the stereotype accurately reflects reality, individuals understand

and receive the message easier by learning from experiences to which they have been

exposed. This is one of the advantages of stereotypes. However, the stereotypes must

accurately reflect reality, otherwise, the perception processes might be distorted.

2.2.2 Intergroup Attitude

Attitudes are influential to group members. Each of them shares similar attitudes

and sometimes they have impacts on the relationship intergroup. Thus, the investigation

of intercultural communications centers at examining attitude between groups.

Generally, attitude consists of three domains.

2.2.2.1 Components of attitudes

1) Cognitive component is related to thoughts and beliefs on a

certain thing or person. It refers to knowledge and understanding of the other groups

we are interacting with. It is how individuals distinguish differences based on reasons

and consequences. The pros and cons of cognitive components of attitudes associate

with how individuals apply their accumulated and transferred information and

23

justification in evaluating the object or person. The process is without emotions, but

relies much on the reasons based on their personal beliefs.

2) Affective components are connected to emotions and

responses of how individuals evaluate a certain stimulus. The emotions refer to the

feelings of likes, dislikes, love, hatred, or fear resulting from their emotions or “heart”

in Thai contexts.

3) Conative components associate with objectives or intention

to behave or react. Sometimes they are perceived to be behavioral component as the

action tendency. The tendency is connected to feelings, consciousness, and reasons.

This behavior can become an immediate response to a situation or object (Tithaya,

1984, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 121)

2.2.2.2 The Significance of Intergroup Attitudes on Intercultural

Communication

1) Ethnocentrism is an attitude of regarding one’s group as

center of everything. Individuals from other cultures or groups are judged on the basis

of their cultural norms and values. It is obviously seen in people with high levels of

nationalism, who regard their culture as superior to others.

In reality, people are likely to regard themselves, as the center

based on how they have socialized. For example, traditionally the Chinese believed that

their country was center of the world and perceived people from somewhere else as

being wild. However, with slight ethnocentrism communication is not affected.

Burk (1976, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 121)

claimed that high ethnocentrism leads to conflicts. The people tend to believe that their

lifestyles are better than others, which is likely to cause conflicts.

In addition, ethnocentrism leads to wrong perception towards

people from other cultures and later constitutes mistaken attitudes towards their

behaviors. That is to say, they usually apply their frame of reference in judging others.

Thus, the message might be distorted. When people don’t understand or misunderstand

each other, ineffective communication occurs. High ethnocentrism results in

unacceptance of knowledge and other cultures and mutual understanding is affected

(Supattra, 1998, pp. 42-43, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.121).

24

Ethnocentrism has a lot of effects on communication. One of

them is communicative distance, which does not refer to distance measured in meters

or kilometers. In contrast, communicative distance refers to abstract ideas like the

atmosphere and the feelings while communicating, which are constituted by many

factors such as the attitude or messages, or the exchanged nonverbal communication at

the moment of communicating.

Communicative distance consists of three levels ranging from

the levels of ethnocentrism in the following ascending order:

(1) The distance of difference is conveyed through spoken

and nonverbal language to show one’s ignorance about people from other cultures and

unawareness of cultural differences. An obvious example is how people talk to

foreigners with the ideas that the foreigners should speak their language for better

understanding between the two parties.

(2) The distance of avoidance is transferred through spoken

language, avoidance or limitations of interaction with the people outside their group.

For example, using jargon so that other people cannot understand and communicate

with members of the group is a popular means to avoid intercultural interaction.

(3) The distance of disparagement associates with distance

from critical nationalism through spoken language to reflect disgust and insult to other

groups. The example of distance of disparagement conveyed through spoken language

is how they address others using “Ethnophaulism.” The practice is classifies into three

levels as follows:

a) Insulting by using nationality terms such as “ Irish

confetti,” “Jewbird,” or “Nigga,”

b) Devaluing some groups by using certain expressions

such as “Luck of the Irish” or “Jew him down.”

c) Using nicknames to refer to people from a certain

nation to show insult such as “Polack,” “jungle bunny.” “Honky,” “Cruel Sarong,” or

“Baksiao”

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In addition, the distance of disparagement can be

transferred using nonverbal communications such as walking away, making faces to

show dissatisfaction, or insulting to other groups

Therefore, in order to improve the effectiveness of

intercultural communications ethnocentrism should be reduced to an appropriate level

with higher awareness of cultural differences. In judging others’ behaviors reliance

should be made on the basis of cultural references of those who are the target of

communications. This facilitates better interpretation of people outside the groups,

bridges gaps in the communication, and leads to smooth and successful

communications.

2) Prejudice, rooted from Latin, is defined as decision making

based on previous decisions or experiences. The term has both positive and negative

meanings, but mostly negative ( Allport, 1954, as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005,

p.123). It might be defined from hatred which is resulted from mistakes. Prejudice can

be transferred through feelings or expressions. It can be targeted towards the whole

group or a person as a group member. It happens naturally and is unavoidable since it

has been constituted through socialization. Prejudice associates with fixed, unfair, and

unfavorable attitudes towards other groups. It can be overt or hidden or against the

whole group or a person as a group member.

Examples of prejudice include racist, sexist, or ageism.

Everyone can be prejudiced against certain issues. However, even with low prejudice

one might prefer to communicate with their people than those from other society due

to less stress and more understanding than communicating with people from other

cultures that look different from them.

People with prejudice are likely to encounter with

communicative problems as prejudice is similar to stereotype in the way that it

organizes the input information obtained through sensory organs and guide them to

understanding of messages in a certain way. Besides, people usually allow prejudice to

be a framework indicating their communicational behaviors towards others. It is

interesting that this framework usually conform to this framework more than the stimuli

or the information in the real situation. When we are prejudiced against people in a

26

nation, we tend to behave differently, for example, an English manager might greet a

French subordinate, but not the Irish.

Prejudice is rather permanent. Regardless of new information

that can eradicate prejudice, people might not change their preconceived feelings. Thus,

if we are prejudiced against a certain group, but have the need to communicate with

them the prejudice can negatively affect the communications. A study on the discussion

about minorities by Teun A. Van Dijk, (as cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p. 126)

is in line with the notion. 49 sets of interviews with 53 interviewees were conducted. It

was found that 50 out of 53 interviewees preferred not to interact with minorities. This

means that when one is prejudiced against a certain group or have negative attitude

towards them, the prejudice is not only play its roles while communicating by

constituting wrong prediction or interpretation of the behaviors of the interactant, but

might also lessen the desire to communicate with the group ( Van Dijk, 1991, p. 51 as

cited in Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.126).

Generally, people are more or less prejudiced, which is similar

to the case of ethnocentrism. They are natural and unavoidable. With low prejudice

people are able to behave to other similarly to how they do to themselves because the

interaction is more convenient and less stressful.

People tend to have positive attitude towards the people in their

group and have negative attitude towards the outsiders. However, it is possible for ones

to have negative attitudes towards the group members, while having positive attitude

towards the outsiders.

People with high prejudice tend to be ignorant to information,

intolerant to mistakes, and ignorant about comments.

Moreover, people with high prejudice are likely to rely on their

beliefs in dealing with their attitude when encountering with unexpected information.

People who remain their preconceived decisions after getting correct new information

are those with high prejudice, while those who are flexible enough to change are with

low prejudice.

However, a person can be prejudiced and open-mined at the

same time. If we communicate unconsciously, we will be prejudiced. However, with

consciousness we think carefully about the causes and effects and see the interactant

27

with broader view until we become less prejudiced. Hence, we should be conscious

when communicating.

2.3 Hofstede’s Value Dimensions

The approach of intercultural communications is based on the idea that every

culture has both “similarities” and “differences.” Trying to understand those similarities

and differences can improve intercultural cultural exchange and learning (Kanjana

Kaewthep, 2014, p.169).

Hofstede’s value dimensions are criteria for cultural comparison based on an

extensive survey of more than 10,000 IBM employees in 50 countries across the globe.

The model consists of four criteria as follows (Samovar, Porter, McDaniel & Roy, 2013,

p.177): The Hofstede model of national culture consists of the following four

dimensions.

2.3.1 Individualism versus Collectivism

2.3.1.1 Individualism is defined by Hofstede as a society where human

rights and privacy are highly valued than groups’ decisions. For instance, in the US in

which people seem to be individualistic, employees tend to change their jobs in order

to improve their careers. They focus on their own sake as priority, while the

organizations or colleagues are secondary. In contrast, in Japan individuals are expected

to follow their traditional way of life. They tend to stick to their organizations and will

be seen as disloyal to the organization and the colleagues when changing jobs.

2.3.1.2 Collectivism refers to relationship constituted by strict social

customs, which separate within group and out group people from each other. The

following characteristics are usually found in a collectivistic society.

1) Perspectives, needs, or goals within group are more

dominant than individuals’ own needs or goals.

2) Social norms and responsibilities are identified by

individuals within group rather than the satisfaction of each individual.

3) Sharing within group is vital than excluding from groups.

4) Group members are ready for cooperation within group.

28

The outstanding characteristics of collectivism society associates with

how people live in extended family. The family sincerely support and protect them from

any changes. In general, people accept group decisions as if they are personal desires.

The significance of group-oriented society is reflected in a Chinese saying, “No matter

how stout, one beam cannot support a house.”

Collectivism focuses on the contexts and the environment, for example,

a group work in class contributes to warm and cooperative atmosphere rather than

competitiveness or in the context of healthcare a patient would be frequently visited by

family members. This confirms that the sense of belonging to the groups is very strong.

Another example is the incidents of earthquake, Tsunami, and new clear crisis in Japan.

The whole nation agrees to revive the country as soon as possible. The whole population

is volunteering to adopt a conservative approach to consumption reflecting their

devotion to the nation and raise harmony in the nation regardless of any crises they had

encountered.

2.3.2 Power Distance

Hofstede refers to power distance as inequality of social administration/

management. The core concept is “How much the institution or organization members

with low power can expect and accept unequal decentralization?” Although both high

and low power distance seem to be found in every society, either of them tends to be

more dominant. Hofstede categorizes power distance into two aspects as follows:

2.3.2.1 High power distance

In a high power distance society, people accept that power is a significant

element of the society and power is the truth for life. Thus culture cultivated the people

to believe that inequality exists in the world. Everyone is in their right place and

hierarchy and social status are obvious.

2.3.2.2 Low power distance

In a nation with low power distance, inequality in the society is minor.

Separation is devalued as much as possible. In an organizational context, evaluation of

supervisor is fair. They try to express themselves with less power than their real status.

For example, teacher-centered approach is applied in a high power

distance society in terms of education. The teachers start the conversation, while the

29

students are subordinate. They never critique or argue with the teachers. “Wisdom” of

individuals is valuable. In contrast, in a low power distance society the “truth” gains

high value than individuals themselves. In workplaces, people can share their ideas, for

example, employees can consult with others, supervisors provide support, and signs of

status are minor.

2.3.3 Uncertainty Avoidance

Hofstede has proposed that uncertainty avoidance associates with how much the

group members realize their encountering with unclear or unknown situations and how

well they manage the vagueness and expectation.

2.3.3.1 High uncertainty avoidance

In a culture with high uncertainty avoidance, people are afraid of

unexpected situations as well as highly ambiguous incidents. They tend to be aware of

consensus, against changes, and believe in social traditions. The people in a high

uncertainty avoidance society are with high stress and anxiety. For them it is possible

to encounter with danger or risks and they will try to avoid them. People rely on strict

and written laws. They make plans and set regulations. Japan is one of the countries

with high uncertainty avoidance with formal social customs.

2.3.3.2 Low uncertainty avoidance

People in a low uncertainty avoidance culture tend to accept uncertainty

as a part of their lives and are likely to stand inconstancy. They are less likely to be

threatened by different opinions from outgroups. They are usually imaginative, ready

for risks, quite flexible, but do not prefer hierarchical societies. They can follow rules

when necessary, but with as few rules as possible. Finally, in general the people who

believe in low uncertainty avoidance are less likely to stick to social customs.

2.3.4 Masculinity versus Femininity

The terms “masculinity” and “femininity” are used by Hofstede to refer to a

frame of reference for men and women characteristics in terms of values and

expressions. The underlying justification behind his study associates with the

assumption that women and men’s behaviors are products of socialization and transfer

of norms and cultural ways of life. In addition, Alder and Gunderson offers more

30

rounded definition of the two terms. In their work “masculinity” refers to career

success, while “femininity” associates with quality of life.

2.3.4.1 Masculinity

According to Alder and Gunderson, people in the culture that focus on

“masculinity” or “career success” highly value sexual roles and encourage success in

work with the focus on money (materials). They usually respect seniority when

expressing interpersonal relationship with others. The U.S. is a good example of

masculine-based culture.

2.3.4.2 Femininity

In a feminine-based culture, people reflect their desire to be caretakers or

social guardians. Even though it is termed “femininity,” sexual roles and emotions are

overlap. That is to say, both men and women are supposed to be simple and gentle with

the focus on quality of life. With this belief, it is unnecessary for men to be confident

and they are expected to take roles as caretakers or social guardians. In this society,

sexual equality is promoted, while people and the environment are crucial elements

which rely on each other. Taking both men and women roles is preferable. They do not

have high expectation. A good example of feminine-based culture is Norway.

2.3.5 Thai Culture

Thailand is one of the targeted countries in Hofstede’s cultural comparative

study. It was found that Thailand is outstanding in two dimensions - power distance

and uncertainty avoidance. The survey shows that in Thai society people are unequal

in power and different in economic status. The circumstance does not depend on the

population, but social acceptance. As a result, social difference is a part of its long-

term cultural legacies.

Similarly, uncertainty avoidance is another outstanding characteristic of

Thailand. The study reveals that Thai people are not accustomed to changes and risks.

In contrast, individualism is not influential in the country, which is congruent to the

Thai contexts where it tends to be collectivistic rather than individualistic. This is

obviously in long-term close relationship in groups such as families and marriage can

extend the extent of the relationship. At the same time, loyalty to groups is crucial and

is superior to any social rules or regulations. The society is maintained through

31

assistance and support from group members. In addition, the study found that

masculinity gains the least attention comparing to other Asian countries and all the

countries across the globe. The low indicator shows that Thai people are less assertive

and competitive than those countries where the two aspects are essential. The incident

encourages the promotion of Thai typical roles of men and women. According to

Hofstede, 95% of Thais are Buddhists. The essence of this religion was the focus on

morals, ethics, and behaving and practicing of mind according to ways of Buddhism

(Wonghatai Tancheevawong, 2011, pp. 58-59).

As a result, the characteristics of Thai cultural are investigated and revealed

based on Hofstede’s value dimensions. However, this present study is different to that

of Hofstede as it is aimed to compare the cultural dimensions of Thai employers and

Burmese workers in the south of Thailand.

2.4 Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theories

Mass media in Thailand has a key role in determining the perceptions and

understandings towards a certain nation, especially about power and images. However,

mass media frequently constitute misunderstanding of other races. Similarly, the power

of media possession was well as the frequencies of presentations are influential in the

constitution of the images against other races. Hence, intercultural communications

play an important role in encouraging people to be aware of mass media roles on self-

perceptions and other races or nations as well as the creation of stereotypes of each

nation presented through mass media (Metta Vivatananukul, 2008, p.14).

Bureau of Cultivation of Mass Media makes a notion that direct experiences of

people tend to be limited in the modern era as they usually experience things through a

medium. Thus, it is questionable that “most of the truth around us” would be constituted

by mass media (especially television) more than direct experiences. It can be said that

quantitatively, mass media are more influential in drawing mental maps than

individuals’ direct experiences (Kanjana Kaewthep, 2013, 2014).

In responding to the question about how cultivation processes take place,

concerning television, the cultivation processes relate to interaction between the

audience and the contents on televisions based on Social Construction of Reality.

32

According to the concept, people in the television era create their symbolic world from

two sources -direct experiences in the real world and mass-mediated experiences from

television.

It is necessary for the investigation of whether individuals choose “media-

mediated truth” or “the truth around them” to create their symbolic world to consider

from the incident where the two sources clash. Then consider which source is selected.

The three investigation methods are helpful.

Method 1: Message system analysis associates with analysis of the available

contents on television to discover the most frequently presented images, themes, and/or

values.

Method 2: Viewers’ social reality refers to exploration of the real world in the

viewers’ context such as the frequencies of crimes in the area considering from the

statistic records.

Method 3: Audience survey refers to a survey on the audience in two aspects -

exposure behavior and their opinions towards life and the world.

In addition, the characteristics of the samples/audience should be taken into

account when considering the extent of cultivation. For example, Erba (2013)

investigated perceptions towards contents about Latin in mass media of university

students in America. The participants had different characteristics: those with obvious

Latin identities and low identities. The results showed different arenas of their

perceptions.

In conclusion, according to Media Exposure and Media Cultivation Theory,

mass media are influential in gradually constructing ideas, attitudes, and values of the

audience. Consequently, those factors are taken into account in this study. They include

types of media exposure, objectives of media exposure, opinions towards the

presentations of mass media, and behavior after the exposure.

33

2.5 The Demographic Characteristics Influencing the Adaptation Ability to

Work

An analysis of audience’s demographic characteristics is a relatively popular

method in mass media research. As the audience is large and scattered, it is impossible

to study all of them. As a result, they are categorized into groups based on their

demographic characteristics such as genders, ages, occupations, education, and

incomes.

2.5.1 Genders

Psychological studies indicated that men and women are quite different in their

thoughts, values, and attitudes for the reason that the society and culture identify life

styles and activities of the two genders differently.

2.5.2 Ages

Ages or lifespans refers to the demographic characteristics which constitute

different worldviews and experiences. In other words, older people tend to have more

experiences than the younger. For example, Brown, Hayashi, & Yamamoto (2012)

found out that university students in Japan were more individualistic, while working-

aged people were more collectivistic.

2.5.3 Education

Education or knowledge is not only influential to audience, but also defines

other consequent variables such as occupations, incomes, attitudes, and values.

2.5.4 Occupations

People with different careers have different thoughts, attitudes, and values. For

example, government officers are likely to be conservative. They usually focus on the

titles, dignity, and honors. Meanwhile, people who are in private sectors focus on the

incomes and pride in their ability to afford or buy the things they want. Thus,

occupations result in different attitude and values.

34

2.5.5 Working areas

Working areas is a factor relating to settlement and locations of the workplaces.

In other words, the characteristics of the working areas results on different attitudes and

values of people. Pholphirul (2013) found that a variable, which influenced

employment of migrant workers, was the location of factories. For example, workers in

a factory close to the border or in the vicinity of Thai-Myanmar border were likely to

quit their jobs more than those in other working settings.

2.5.6 Domiciles

Domiciles or a place where a person was born have some impacts on his/her

attitudes and adaptation. For instance, Nguyen (2015) discovered differences in cultural

attitudes of people from different domiciles in the case of Vietnam and the U.S.

2.5.7 Ethnics

Ethnics are indicators or social marks to show differences between groups,

which share the environments or have interaction, for example, the long-term ethnic

conflict in Myanmar.

In this study, six demographic factors were taken as dependent variables in

individual variable group. The factors included age, education, occupation, working

areas, ethnics, and life styles.

2.6 Background of Myanmar and Figures of Burmese Workers in Thailand

The Republic of the Union of Myanmar has a total area of over 261,228 square

miles (about 1.3 times the size of Thailand). Myanmar is bordered by China to its north

and northeast, Thailand and Laos to its east, India and Bangladesh to its

west, and Andaman Sea and Bengal Gulf in the south (Pirote Phosai, Setthachai

Chaisanit, Nichapa Natesisri, and Kanjana Rattarasarn,. 2012, introduction). All the

mountains and bodies of water run from the north to the south. The significant mountain

ranges include Yahai Yomoh (Arakan Mountain Range), Bako Yoma (Hongsawadee

Mountain Range), and Tanin Tayi Yoma (Tenessarim Mountain Range), while the major

waterbody consist of Shinwin Irawadee Sittong (Satong) and Tanlawin (Salawin). The

Irrawaddee flows from the topmost spot in the northernmost areas of the country (19,269

35

feet high). The highest area is Hkakabo Razi Mountain at the end of Meka River and

Malikalam River, while Irrawaddee flows to the south for 1,250 miles into Andaman Sea

(Maung Swe Thet, 2015, p. 32).

2.6.1 The Population

The current population of Myanmar exceeds 55,124104 million people

(January, 2016) (http://countrymeters.info/en/Myanmar). The majority of Burmese

people live along Irrawaddee River, Yakhai River, and Khanin Tayee Coastline in the

south. About 135 ethnic groups constituted the population. Most of them are Burmese,

followed by six ethnic groups, which have their own government. The two groups

occupy 92% of the whole country (Pirote Phosai et al., 2012, p. 323)

2.6.1.1 Languages and figures: About 68% of the population use

Burmese. They are the majority of people and are called “Burmans,” while 10% of the

population uses Karen. Meanwhile, Thai Yai makes up 8% of the population (Thai Yai

refers to “shan” or “Chan”) Burmese people are short, thin, slim with brownish skin

tone, but the Karen have bigger bodies. They are sturdier with fairer complexion (Pirote

Phosai et al., 2012, p. 324).

2.6.1.2 Arts and cultures: Myanmar has long been influenced by

Chinese, Indians, and Thais. However, nowadays they seem to accept more influences

from the west. For example, Longejes, which are made from colorful cotton and silk,

are still popular among people in suburb areas. Those for women are with prints at the

hems and small prints all over. Belts are not popular amongst women, but they usually

wear longejes and cropped tops with five buttons at the front. Both men and women

wear sandals. While, even though men also wear sarongs. They are not as colorful as

those for women. Men usually wear white shirts and for formal occasions they wear

long sleeve Chinese-style shirts and shoes.

2.6.1.3 Population society: Myanmar consists of diverse ethnic groups.

Each of them has unique identities and can be easily grouped based on where they live.

Regarding local administration, each ethnic group forms a state. About half of the

country consists of many states. Each state is named after its ethnic group. Meanwhile,

the other half is made up of different divisions. The densely populated areas feature

36

seven divisions, while the other seven states are less densely populated. Thus, Myanmar

contains 14 areas: 7 divisions, and 7 states as follows:

1) The 7 states of Myanmar are defined as follows :

(1) Kachin State is located at the topmost part of the country.

It is bordered by China in the north and the east. The majority of people used Burmese

in communications.

(2) Kayah State is located in the east of the country. Mae

Hong Sorn, Thailand is the neighboring area.

(3) Kayin State is in the east. It is bordered by the lower area

of Mae Hong Sorn, Tak, and Kanchanaburi. The people in this area are called Karen.

(4) Chin State, located in the west, is neighbored by India in

the north and the west. Most terrain is mountainous, thus, various dialects are used.

(5) Mon State is in the south is neighbored by some areas of

Kanchanaburi, Thailand.

(6) Raknine State is located in the west of Myanmar.

(7) Shan State is in the northern part of the country. The state

is neighbored by Thailand and Kayah State in the south.

2) The 7 divisions of Myanmar are defined as follows:

(1) Sagaing Division is located in the northeastern area with

India as its neighbor.

(2) Taninthayi Division is in the southernmost area. It shares

land borders with Thailand to the west, from Kanchanaburi to Ranong and Andaman

Sea to the west.

(3) Bago Division is in the lower area of the central region.

(4) Magway Division is located in dry terrain of the central

region.

(5) Mandalay Division is in the central region.

(6) Yangon Division is located in the center of Myanmar

(7) Ayeyawady division is in the central region (Wirat-

Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.17-26).

2.6.2 Life Style and Culture

37

Most Burmese in the rural areas exclusively rely on themselves. Each household

usually spare some areas for planting fruits and vegetable for their people. In the

socialism era in which their country was still closed, the government ran a campaign

for their people to be economize and self-reliant. A motto in the campaign was launched

to warn and encourage young people. It was, “Build your own shop in your own

backyard,” referring to planting of vegetables is widely known. Besides, another

famous saying, is “Wasting your money on households” meaning if you do not use

money carefully, you will waste it. In other words, it teaches people not to waste money

on eating. At present the two sayings are still popular due to living conditions in

Myanmar. If they are careless about living, they will be in trouble. As a result, families

take this custom seriously and every house has an area for planting food crops (Wirat-

Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, p. 182).

Another widely adopted practice is betel nut chewing. Betel nut can be bought

from regular shops. While for those who are detail-oriented, they might prepare it by

themselves to serve their own taste and have it when they have artistic mood without

any care for the outside world. However, this is almost impossible as people have more

hasty lives. Then most of them stop to get some betel nut from shops, throw it into their

mouths and leave for work (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p. 108).

2.6.2.1 Religion and beliefs Myanmar had believed in ghost and tree

angels before taking Buddhism like other nations stretching from Indochina to

Indonesia. Generally, they paid respect to invisible souls and ghost called, “Nats”. Nats

could be goddesses in certain places, natural angels, zombies, sky angels, rain angels,

wind angels, forest goddesses, mountain goddesses, river goddesses, tree goddesses, as

well as village goddesses, house goddesses or house ghost (Pirote Phosai et al., 2015,

p.19). In addition, offering bells to temples is meaningful for the Buddhists in

Myanmar. The people believed in the grateful impacts of the practice as the sound of

the bells can make them happy. Also it can wipe away guilt in their hearts and replaces

it with peace. The sound of the bells is also signified as an announcement or a mean to

tell people to join a merit activity as well as invite other to be glad with the merit made

by others. In addition, building bells to offer to temples has been popular as well as

building pagodas. However, the building of huge bells is preserved for ones with great

virtue like Kings or royal families (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.212-213).

38

Another area, which gains great attention from the Buddhists in Myanmar, is

the act of great pagodas worship. Those pagodas are prominent in encouraging people

to do good things and believe in Karma. For example, praying and recalling of the

sacrifices of the Lord Buddha, while traveling to Shawedagon Pagoda is a good deed.

Hence, the people gain merit even though they do not arrive at the pagoda. After they

reach the balcony, which surrounds the pagoda, they offer flowers, incense sticks, and

candles to Lord Buddha’s ashes. In addition, donation on maintenance of the pagoda

and the above practices are praiseworthy. The good deeds provide people with more

energy to fight against any obstacles in their lives (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p. 45).

Pagodas bring Burmese people together. Any conflicts between people are

eradicated when a new pagoda is built, an old pagoda is renovated, or a festival is held.

Most people donate money, things, or labor to do the merit. From the history the

circumstances are similar to what happen at present (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p. 45).

Another belief associated with applying Tanaka on the face, ears, and neck for

people who are alive, and only to the face for dead people. A piece of flat rock called,

“Jao Piang” is used to scrape Tanaka. Burmese people believe in the angles, which take

care of Jao Piang. On the first day of the 1st waning moon at the end of Buddhist Lent,

they make offering to the Nats and request for God’ blessing or endless beauty (Wirat-

Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.198-199).

2.6.2.2 Education and careers .The education system in Myanmar can be

classified into different grades. Grade 1-4 fall into beginner level (primary level), 5-8

are in intermediate (secondary level), and grade 9-10 are in advance level (high school

level). After students finish grade 10, most of them get a job or further their study to

tertiary level without taking any tests (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b, pp.268-

269). In addition, educational careers like teachers are honorable in this society.

Teachers are included in one of the five people children should be grateful to in their

lives -father-mother, the Lord Buddha, monks, and teachers. Generally, parents are

proud of their child when they become a teacher, especially university lecturers.

2.6.3 Conflicts among Ethnic Groups in Myanmar

The most challenging problem Myanmar has been dealing with conflicts among

ethnic groups in the country as the nation is home to a number of ethnic groups. That is

39

to say, the total figures of the minorities outnumber the Burmese. As a result, the

Burmese has become minority. Consequently, those ethnic groups have put their efforts

in seeking for freedom such as Thai Yai and Shan. In the opinions of Thai Yai or Mon

people, who have settled before the Burmese did, the Burmese are seen as “invaders”

and see themselves as “the residents.” Hence, provided that the Burmese had good

leaders or strong Kings, the minorities are controlled. However, when the Burmese

were weak, they were likely to set themselves free. Therefore, conflicts with minorities

are continued throughout history (Pirote Phosai et al., 2012, pp.1-2).

The situation in Myanmar is pitiful. A number of efforts have been put to raise

unity in the society and promote sense of belonging among people. The considerable

efforts have made into many activities such as dissemination of Burmese culture,

customs, and traditions as well as teaching Burmese in schools. These activities were

aimed to unite people within the nation. However, these minorities include Thai Yai,

Karen, and Mon perceived the campaigns to be oppressed with assimilation policies.

For them, it is common that every individual preserve their long-term traditions from

being destroyed by any one. Thus, conflicts are barred in the nation. It might be

impossible to be eradicated. Meanwhile, the government tried to calibrate with leaders

of each minority, but the minorities insisted to govern by themselves or even those

settling in Myanmar require for more self-government. In other words, it refers to

separation of Myanmar into many countries. Hence, Myanmar government cannot

allow this. Then the problems are protracted to this day (Pirote Phosai et al., 2012, p.

274).

2.6.4 Figures of Burmese Workers in Thailand

According to the record of total licensed migrant workers across the country in

January 2016 by Office of Foreign Workers Administration Organization of Private

Organization, Movement of Persons by Free Trade Agreement and Information

Technology Division (Website : http://wp.doe.go.th), there were 1,451,817 workers in

Thailand. The three most commonly found nationalities were Burmese, Laotian, and

Cambodian. Meanwhile, 1,274,241 of them were allowed to work in Thailand

according to section 9. They included 991,565 of the workers whose nationalities were

proven and 282,676 imported through MOU. They were allowed to work into two

40

positions: labor jobs and maids in 24 businesses. For those whose nationalities were

proven, the three most popular jobs were 1) 177,301 workers in construction, 2)

159,896 in agriculture and livestock, and 3) 126,717 in services. Similarly, the three

most common jobs for the workers imported through MOU were allowed to work in 1)

construction with 59,827 workers, 2) services with 56,568, and 3) 34,770 in jobs

relevant to agriculture.

2.6.4.1 According to Working of Alien Act, B.E 2551, migrant workers

are allowed to work in Thailand under the following conditions:

1) Life-long immigrants refer to migrant workers who were

allowed to stay and work in the kingdom according to Announcement of the 322th

Revolutionary Assembly dated on December 13, 1972.

2) Temporary migrant workers are those residing in Thailand or

are temporarily allowed to stay in the kingdom according to Section 9 of the General

Immigration Law with no prohibited characteristics as prescribed in the Ministerial

Regulations, excluding tourists or transit travelers.

3) Migrants workers whose nationality is proved according to

Section 9, Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian who illegally enter the country are

temporarily allowed to stay and work following the cabinet’ s resolution after the

proofing of their nationality and adjustment of their immigration status is legitimized.

4) Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian migrant workers based on

Section 9 imported according to MOU who work in the kingdom under an agreement

between the Thai government and the country of origin.

5) An alien according to Investment Promotion of Section 12,

migrant workers who come to work in the Kingdom under the law on investment

promotion (Investment Promotion Act, 1977) or other laws such as Industrial Estate

Authority of Thailand Act, 1979 and The Petroleum Act, 1971, for example, investors,

craftsmen, professionals.

6) An alien according to Section 13 categorized as a minority

type, defined as a non-Thai alien under the law on nationality, would the Ministry of

Interior to issue a document to prove the status for work permit application.

7) An alien according to Section 14 includes Burmese,

Laotians, and Cambodians. They work along the border taking round-trips or in

41

seasonal occasions in an agreement area of the transit between the Kingdom of Thailand

and its neighboring countries.

8) Aliens with three nationalities (Burmese, Laotian, and

Cambodian) refer to migrant workers working in Thailand as laborers or servants under

MOUs with Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian government to fill in the shortage gaps

of Thai workers. This includes illegal migrant workers whose status was adjusted to

become legal. Thus, they are allowed to work in the country.

In this study, the focus is on migrant workers defined in Section 9 whose

nationalities were proved and have been imported according to the government MOU.

Only those who work in livestock, construction, services, and fishery businesses in the

south of Thailand were sampled. The area was the second most densely populated with

302,367 migrant workers (Statistics of the Foreign Workers Administration Office ,

2016). The top three provinces with the most numerous migrant workers were chosen

as the research setting. This includes Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla as shown in

following table:

42

Table 2.1 Residual Figures of Legal Migrant Workers in the Kingdom Classified by the Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.

Provinces Total (people)

Section 9 Section12 Section 13 Section 14

Life-long General Proved

Original

Nationality

Imported

under

MOU

Investment

promotion

Minorities Round-trip

or seasonal

workers

The whole kingdom 1,451,817 495 104,836 991,565 282,676 40,536 29,608 2,101

Bangkok 202,522 1 54,016 65,488 52,968 27,632 2,417 -

Regional 1,249,295 494 50,820 926,077 229,708 12,904 27,191 2,101

Vicinities 464,165 - 10,920 364,366 85,293 1,196 2,390 -

Central Region 280,346 - 13,900 165,678 83,570 9,711 5,555 1,932

Northern Region 180,765 3 7,482 145,778 7,915 1,056 18,531

North-eastern Region 21,652 1 3,291 9,223 8,205 414 349 169

Southern Region 302,367 490 15,227 241,032 44,725 527 366

43

Table 2.2 Residual Figures of Section 9 Aliens Whose Original Nationality is Proved (Burmese, Laotian, and Cambodian) Allowed to

Work in the South

Regions/Provinces Proving of Original Nationality (Unit: People)

Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian

Southern Region 44,920 241,032 234,066 3,477 3,489

Nakhon Si Thammarat 1,095 14,694 13,942 551 201

Krabi 3,619 14,086 12,881 1,117 88

Phang-Nga 7,463 24,531 24,420 87 24

Phuket 1,179 11,454 11,421 141 19

Surat Thani 9,412 60,545 59,295 048 202

Ranong 16,636 48,325 48,311 10 4

Chumphon 1,133 13,890 13,707 149 34

Songkhla 2,409 33,671 31,846 178 1,647

Satun 402 3,703 3,268 120 315

Trang 397 7,768 7,260 184 324

Phatthalung 57 143 138 - 5

Pattani 514 4,022 3,435 13 574

44

Table 2.2 (Continued)

Regions/Provinces Proving of Original Nationality (Unit: People)

Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian

Yala 225 1,177 1,166 1 10

Narathiwart 379 3,023 2,976 5 42

Source : Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.

45

Table 2.3 Residual Figures of Aliens Imported According to MOU in the South

Regions/Provinces Imported According to MOU (unit : person)

Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian

Southern Region 3,269 44,725 28,063 5,531 11,313

Nakhon Si Thammarat 594 5,745 4,706 472 567

Krabi 115 810 182 433 195

Phang-Nga 5 11 7 4 -

Phuket 55 1,215 848 107 260

Surat Thani 561 6,218 4,093 1,458 667

Ranong 7 17 8 5 4

Chumphon 1,268 9,340 8,756 485 99

Songkhla 223 16,584 6,761 1,648 8,175

Satun 249 2,564 1,897 297 370

Trang 99 1,853 678 492 683

Phatthalung 35 146 23 89 34

46

Table 2.3 (Continued)

Regions/Provinces Imported According to MOU (unit : person)

Employers Total Burmese Laotian Cambodian

Southern Region 3,269 44,725 28,063 5,531 11,313

Pattani 31 76 12 27 37

Yala 25 118 92 8 18

Narathiwart 2 28 - 6 22

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.

47

Table 2.4 Total Figures of Residual Legal Migrant Workers in the South Classified by Methods of Immigration and Types of Aliens

Provinces Total

(people)

Section 9 Section 12 Section 13

General Proved

Original

Nationality

Imported

under MOU

Investment

promotion

Minorities Round-trip or

seasonal workers

Southern Region 302,367 490 15,227 241,032 44,725 527 366

Nakhon Si Thammarat 21,048 490 119 14,694 5,745 - -

Krabi 15,838 - 880 14,086 810 16 46

Phang-Nga 25,163 - 611 24531 11 2 8

Phuket 20,293 - 7,368 11,454 1,215 212 44

Surat Thani 70,760 - 3,917 60,545 6,218 56 24

Ranong 48,585 - 87 48,325 17 - 156

Chumphon 23,317 - 76 13,890 9,340 8 3

Songkhla 51,929 - 1,429 33,671 16,584 230 15

Satun 6,440 - 161 3,703 2,564 1 11

Trang 9,855 - 198 7,768 1,853 2 34

Phatthalung 360 - 66 143 146 - 5

48

Table 2.4 (Continued)

Provinces Total

(people)

Section 9 Section 12 Section 13

General Proved Original

Nationality

Imported

under MOU

Investment

promotion

Minorities Round-trip or

seasonal workers

Pattani 4,216 - 117 4,022 76 - 1

Yala 1,417 - 104 1,177 118 - 18

Narathiwart 3,146 - 94 3,023 28 - 1

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.

49

2.7 Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)

During the period of conducting this research, the Royal Decree on the

Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 (2017) was announced and became effective

on May 23rd, 2017. The new degree adopted some regulations from the Alien Work Act,

B.E. 2551 (2008) and Royal Degree on Bringing Alien to Work in the Kingdom, B.E. 2559

(2016). However, the legislation has a major impact on the numbers of businesses, thus the

cabinet has approved the implication of Section 44 extending the enforcement of this act

for another 180 days for some section to relieve some of the problems, which the private

sectors are facing (“From TIP Report”, 2017).

2.7.1 Significance Changes in Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign

Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)

The significant change in the degree is increasing penalties such as employers, who

hire migrant workers without a work permit (with a work permit for other entrepreneur),

are subject to a fine from 400,000 to 800,000 baht per person.

An employer who employs a migrant worker to work differently than the conditions

specified in the work permit is subject to a maximum fine of 400,000 baht per person.

A migrant worker without a work permit or having a job reserved for Thai citizens

is subject to maximum imprisonment of five years or a fine of 2,000-100,000 baht or both.

A migrant worker working on an urgent and necessary basis without notifying

officials is subject to a fine of 20,000-100,000 baht.

A migrant worker who works differently than the conditions specified in the work

permit is subject to a fine of 100,000 baht.

Anyone who holds a fake work permit or alien registration document is subject to

maximum imprisonment of 6 months or a fine of 100,000 baht or both.

Anyone who deceives others that they can bring an alien to work with a domestic

employer is subject to maximum imprisonment of 1 to 10 years or a fine of 600,000-

1,000,000 baht per alien or both.

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Anyone who runs a business dealing with importing migrant workers to work in

Thailand without permission from the Director-General of the Department of Employment

is subject to maximum imprisonment of 1 to 3 years or a fine of 200,000-600,000 or both.

A license for importing migrant workers to work in Thailand costs 20,000 baht.

Renewal of a license for importing migrant workers to work in Thailand costs

20,000 baht.

Hiring a migrant worker costs 20,000 baht.

A work permit costs 20,000 baht

Renewal of a work permit or extension of working period costs 20,000 baht each

(Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560(2017)).

2.7.2 Influences from the Announcement of the Royal Decree on the

Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560

Experts and individuals related to alien workers have shared both positive and

negative views on the influences from the announcement of the Royal Decree on the

Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560. To conclude, the positive influences of this

degree refers to more systematic management and control of foreign workers provided that

all related parties cooperated well. The following views support the conclusion:

Adisorn Kerdmongkol, Multinational Transnational Enterprise Network, explained

that in general the degree has numbers of advantages because of its long-term plan to

manage and protect foreign workers. With systematic admiration and management, the

employment of those workers will be more effective. However, so far the problem is the

delayed bureaucracy (Parinya Chaosamoon, 2017)

At the same time, stakeholders have reflected negative impacts of the degree that it

will affect the production of both industrial and agricultural sectors. Some businesses might

be terminated, especially small businesses, fishery businesses, restaurants, and

construction firms. Besides, taking into account overall economic indicators during this

period, all of them are bared form growing. Most entrepreneurs are not confident to invest

as numbers of migrant workers travel back to their origin. It is hard to predict when they

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would get back. Most of the workers do not clearly understand the major theme of the law.

All they know is they need to handle more expenses. Moreover, unavoidably other

countries see this as abandonment of foreign workers in the country. Thailand is not

responsible for taking care and protecting the workers leaving them to face and solve

problems by themselves. The workers are required to legalize themselves prior to returning

back to work in Thailand.

The bad image of Thailand with violation of human right or human trafficking has

been confirmed by the circumstance in which Burmese, Cambodian, and Laotian

migrant workers stampeded back to their country of origin. Moreover, the scandal

has escalated across the globe when international media reported that Thai officials

called for money from Burmese workers who fled back to their country, which was

“redundant (Tears& Tears, 2017).”

2.7.3 Potential and Necessity of Hiring Migrant Workers

Unfortunately, the entrepreneurs, who hire migrant workers, encounter with

standstill in their businesses from the sudden stampeding of migrant workers to their

country of origin. Thus, it is necessary to reconsider how to appropriately treat those

workers. Besides, considering the necessity of hiring migrant workers, in short-term the

workers are essential for Thai employers who rely on those people for accelerating

industrial and agricultural sectors as they are experiencing shortage of labor. In contrast, in

the long run if Thai business owners still rely on those unprofessional labors instead of

technology and innovation they might not be able to compete with international businesses

according to “Thailand 4.0” policy, which aims to move forward to digital economy. Some

experts made a notion that:

According to Dr. Bhumsak Rasi, Director of the Center for Agricultural Economics,

Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE), employment of migrant workers in

agricultural sectors (agriculture, livestock, and fishery) promotes economy and

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fulfils the shortage of labors, especially in the 3 D jobs referring to dirty, dangerous,

and difficult jobs (“Special Report,” 2017).

Mr. Yongyut Chaleamwong, Director of Labor Development, Thailand

Development Research Institute (TDRI) revealed the prediction of labor demand in

the next five years that 30 to 40 million of labors are needed each year. Thai laborers

make up about 38 million people. Meanwhile about two million migrant workers

are needed to fulfill the gaps. Of this about 10-20% are illegal migrants or about

400,000 of them (“From TIP Report”2017).

Mr.Terdsak Taweetheratham, Executive Vice President, Asia Plus Securities

Public Company Limited, explained that the enforcement of Royal Decree on the

Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 at the beginning of year 2018 might

result in fewer numbers of migrant workers and delay of the government investment

on infrastructure (“Analysts' Association,”2017).

Actually, numbers of migrant workers should decrease to serve the economic

policy, which aims to reach Thailand Digital Economy 4.0. However, the increase

in numbers of these unskilled workers might delay some areas of technological

development. For example, the case of SMG, the productive technology

advancement might be delayed for 10 years. Hence, it affects domestic

competitiveness in the long run. (Nakharin Srilert, 2017)

2.7.4 Suggestions for Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers

B.E. 2560(2017)

The sudden adoption of the Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers

B.E. 2560 has a number of impacts on Thai employers and migrant workers. After that, the

Cabinet has resolved to use Section 44 for extending the time of enforcement of this Act.

Some of these laws will be enforced at the beginning of year 2018. Consequently, the

government has extra time to revise and accelerate certain issues, which are not against the

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law to promote balance in employment of migrant workers and congruency with the digital

economic policy in the nation.

Academic experts and relevant people have proposed two areas of policy

suggestions for the enforcement of Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers

B.E. 2560 -awareness of equality of migrant workers and seeking for channels to publicize

foreign laws.

2.7.4.1 Awareness of Equality of Migrant workers

Thai people usually treat migrant workers, as they are superior and better

than the foreigners. Moreover, Thai government might take ineffective roles in launching

laws as criticized below:

For whatever reasons, some Thai people have strong hatred of migrant workers.

Imagine if we work in another country. Surely, we must want to be accepted by the

owner of the country. Besides, they should see us as human beings and as a part of

their society in a similar status of the people. We do not surely want them to look

down on our skin colors, hair color, or our language. (“How Do We See Migrant

Workers,” 2017)

“Thainess discourse has spread its influences until there is no space left for

“otherness.” Thai people should see others in order to see themselves, accept diversity and

differences among people, which are the essence of being human.” (Phanthip Teeranet,

2017)

Foreign laws should aim to promote the quality of lives of migrant workers and

protect them from being deceived and exploiting by employers. Provided that the

objectives of the laws are to serve those aims, the migrant workers have confidence

and trust to further their work in Thailand. (“How Do We See Migrant Workers,”

2017)

According to Mr. Montri Sokatiyanurak, Director of Program in Public and Private

Sectors Management, NIDA, The government should clearly identify the

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registration fees and fines for the benefits of all parties. Also, they should consider

increasing more welfare for the workers. (Thai and Burmese, 2017)

Another area of the problem, which is the most critical one is associated with some

employers, who are selfish and greedy seeking for gaps in laws. They aim to raise

profits without no regard for the whole nation by importing some legally registered

migrant workers with a higher proportion of illegal individuals from assistance of

agents and government officers who take advantage using their authority. This

problem is found from local to policy levels. (Bundit Panwiset, 2017)

2.7.4.2 Seeking for channels to publicize foreign laws

Migrant workers are directly related to the business sector because they

affect the investment of Thai entrepreneurs. Thus, it is inevitably necessary for the business

owners to learn more about immigration laws. They might be fined at a high price or need

to pay more for registration fees as a result from violating the laws. Inadequate

opportunities to access knowledge about the laws are one of the reasons for unconscious

law violation or unlawful acts. The clarification is about this issue are defined as follows:

Dr. Bhumsak Rasi, Director of the Center for Agricultural Economics, Office of

Agricultural Economics (OAE), has proposed that the ONE STOP SERVICE

should continuously create press releases to encourage and urge Thai employers to

register their migrant workers legally on time extended by the government sector.

(“Special Report,” 2017)

Mr. Yongyut Chaleamwong, Director of Labor Development, Thailand

Development Research Institute (TDRI) suggested immediate publicizing of this

law, promoting knowledge and understanding of the legal processes to

entrepreneurs as well as establishing of International Labor Law Consultancy

Center. (“From TIP Report,” 2017)

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Mr. Winai Luwirote, Former Deputy Permanent Secretary of Labor, explained that

the exclusive reason of conflicts and the major cause of the challenges to enforce

the new migrant workers' legislation is that entrepreneurs and the general public

still have limited knowledge and understanding of advantages and disadvantages of

the law. There is inadequate availability of the entrepreneurs to accommodate

changes due to the fact that the issuance of new decrees to tackle human trafficking

and anti-corruption issues requires corporation from all parties (“Special Report,”

2017).

Sompong Srakaew, Director of the Foundation for the Promotion of the Quality of

Workers' Life, mentioned that, “Now, the panic has decreased, but more publicizing

of the law to the employers and migrant workers is still needed. This is helpful for

those who have difficulty in preparing the necessary documents to have extra time

to do it.” (Parinya Chaosamoon, 2017)

2.8 Related Studies

This study aims to investigate three areas - communications, cultures, and

employment. Thus, in order to obtain holistic literature review the researcher has studied

three areas of previous studies: 1) previous studies on intercultural communications and

cultural dimensions; 2) previous studies on media exposure and media cultivation; and 3)

previous studies on employment of migrant workers. The details are provided in the

following section.

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2.8.1 Previous Studies on Intercultural Communication and Cultural

Dimensions

The researcher has carefully studied previous research on intercultural

communications, which reflects problems accounted for different thoughts, attitudes, and

behaviors of people from two cultures.

Dementeva, Franzke, & Loyko (2015)’s “Russian-German Immigrants in Germany

and Their Intercultural Communication” The purpose of this study was to investigate the

significance of intercultural communication and tolerance to cultural differences of the

participants. Results showed that after German secession from the Soviet Union, the

Russian-Germans are legally citizens of Germany. Then those people travelled back to

Germany to encounter unemployment and gain low wages. Moreover, diplomas and work

experiences from Russia were not accepted in Germany.

In addition, the people were not accepted as a part of the society due to their

inadequate skills in using German and were usually called, “The Russians.” This reflected

underlying negative perceptions towards the ethnic group regardless of their citizenship.

To date, more than 2 million of Russian-German in Germany has been suffering from

economic and social crises since they are living between two cultures. The significant

problems they have been encountering included, 1) negative perceptions, which influence

expectation, knowledge, emotions, and feelings of people and result in stereotype; 2)

problems with language, the most challenging issue, as the two languages are critically

different in terms of elements of language, tone and intonation, and grammar (nouns and

interpretation); hence, misinterpretation might occur; and 3) different communication

channels. That is to say, Native Germans were individualistic and favored low-context and

direct communication. In contrast, Russian Germans were more collectivistic and

communicate in high- context styles and preferred to be indirect.

Holmes (2015)’s “The Cultural Stuff around How to Talk to People: Immigrants’

Intercultural Communication during a Pre-Employment Work-Placement” This study was

aimed to obtain answer to the research questions, “To what extent of intercultural

communication do immigrants need to encounter at work?” “Does intercultural

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communication promote or hinder their work?” and “To what extent do the immigrants

negotiate for and reconstruct their new communicative identities?” An in-depth interview

with 16 volunteers to work in New Zealand was conducted together with an interview with

five employers. It was found that the participants were unfamiliar with some new cultural

practices such as having a tea break, conversing, or using e-mail in collaborating without

any face-to-face meetings, but required more worry about the replies, which seemed to be

cold and serious. Moreover, intercultural communications discouraged the immigrants and

resulted in disempowerment. In other words, the participants felt less confident when

interacting with people from other cultures, colleagues or employers. For example, some

immigrants use good English in their home country; however, no one understood their

accent in the targeted society. Thus, they had less confidence and low motivation to speak

English.

Amaro (2015) ’s “ ‘We’, ‘They’ and the Spaces In-Between: Hybridity in

Intercultural Interactions between Portuguese and Chinese Residents in Macau” The

purpose of this study was to examine Portuguese and Chinese cultural integration in

Macau. The background and rationale of this study is associated with the incident in which

Portuguese and Chinese people had shared their lives in Macau. The Chinese are not

motivated to learn Portuguese, while the Portuguese do not realize the benefits of learning

Cantonese. Meanwhile, the Chinese perceived their culture to be “strong” and the

Portuguese’s to be “weak.” Besides, they were against cultural hybridization between the

two nationalities. As a result, “I hear them, I smell them, but I do not see them” was a well-

known saying, which signified the perception towards varieties of cultural identities

between the two groups, but without acceptance.

The research question was, “to what extent do the Portuguese in Macau negotiate

with the Chinese when interacting to each other?” The researcher applied Hybridization as

a research conceptual framework. Data were gained from an interview with Portuguese

people who had resided in Macau for more than two years and had resident ID cards. The

targeted data were their interpretation of the interaction with Chinese people, self-

evaluation of abilities to use Cantonese, early adaptation experiences in Macau, and the

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relationship with the Portuguese and Chinese. The results revealed four significant areas.

Firstly, in terms of the sense of belonging, the participants realized that most Portuguese

living in Macau were elite and likely to be arrogant and superior to other groups. Social

classes are obvious even among themselves. Moreover, they often excluded the Chinese

from their groups. Secondly, the participants were aware of the benefits of using Cantonese

to develop their roles and social status. The other area of the finding associated with the

imaginative boundaries from the isolation between the two groups based on stereotypes,

bias, and language handicaps, which hindering the interaction between those groups.

Finally, the cultural gaps between the two groups might lead to misunderstanding such as

greeting culture when people first meet.

Fan & Hebbani (2014)’s “Navigating through the Australian Workplace: Mapping

the Experience of Taiwanese Working Holiday Makers (WHMs) in Brisbane” The

participants were young people in Taiwan. Results showed that mono-ethnic enclaves and

English proficiency had some impacts on employment. Hence, it was necessary for

Taiwanese people to promote positive relationship by communicating with the people in

the host country and learn the life-styles and working environment in the contexts. In

addition, the low English proficiency of the Taiwanese resulted in alienated feeling from

the native people who used English as a medium for communication.

Muwanguzi & Musambira ( 2012) ’s “Communication Experiences of Ugandan

Immigrants during Acculturation to the United States,” This qualitative research applied

an in-depth interview and used Kim’s Theory of Communication and Cross Cultural

Adaptation (TCCA) as a framework. Data analysis revealed that most Ugandan people

immigrated due to educational reasons, seeking for housing and work, and fleeing from

political and economic crises. Besides, all participants had been middle-class and were

fluent in English. Their education varied from high school certificate to doctoral degree

level. The outstanding findings of this study included four areas as follows:

1) Issues of languages were widely debatable since a language is a

medium connecting people from the two different cultures. Prior to their immigration to

the U.S, the Ugandan have been colonized by British Colony. Thus, they used both

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languages. Consequently, their accents and the use of nonverbal cues or gestures were most

challenging for them.

(1) Accents of the Ugandan had both advantages and

disadvantages. That is to say, they understood the meaning of each word clearly with less

chances of misunderstanding; however, numbers of Americans perceived the accent

through stereotypes and divided their race based on the accent. Therefore, Ugandan’ accent

had double meanings.

(2) Gestures or nonverbal communication might lead to

misinterpretation. For example, a Ugandan man might interpret a woman’s smiles or offer

of a ride as encouragement for intimate relationship with her. Most of the times, American

women were wrongly interpreted. Hence, their relationship might be affected.

2) Message of superiority complex and discrimination: In the case

of Ugandan immigrants with high positions in an organization, the native people scarcely

perceived them as having higher positions and power over other immigrants. Sometimes,

they look down on those immigrants by talking to them as if they were strangers. In

addition, the language used with the immigrants was likely to be more direct until they

were aware of the inequality.

3) Message of self-promotion and aggressiveness referred to

inappropriate language use of the native people to the immigrants. The messages might be

immoral, disrespectful, selfish, and impolite.

4) Adaptation and cultural changes: The immigrants must adapt to

and accept some cultural practices, which were uncommon in their home country, for

example, kissing in public of students, sexual deviance. They usually accepted some

practices in the new culture while maintaining their ethnic identities.

Warangkana Tippayachon, (2013)’s “Intercultural Communication between Thai

Employers and Burmese Workers” was a qualitative study, which aimed to study the

intercultural communication between Thai and Burmese people. Communication problems

and obstacles between the two parties were investigated. In addition, the study provided

guidelines for successful communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers.

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An interview with Burmese workers in Berker Mania Co., Ltd. was conducted. The

participants were 10 workers who are legally registered to work in Thailand and three

entrepreneurs and Thai workers who directly interact and assign tasks to those Burmese

workers. Most participants were female and their average age was 31 (all working age).

All of them were workers in a factory. Their speaking and listening skills were moderate.

They could communicate with native Burmese accent. Besides, they still had some

listening problems. However, they had poor reading and writing skills. It was obviously

that only 1 out of 10 participants could barely write his/her name and read Thai.

In terms of cultural adaptation, both the Thai and Burmese participants adapted

themselves well in all aspects such as their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. They usually

adapted to the new culture while preserving their unique identities, for instance, chewing

betel nuts, applying power in Burmese style, as well as cooking Burmese food every day.

These practices could be seen in Burmese groups, exclusively in their private areas or in

the neighborhood with Burmese people. In contrast, when interacting with Thai people

they adapted to the target culture to gain more acceptance.

Regarding intercultural communications problems and obstacles, it was found that

the most challenging problem in the organization was the issues about languages. In other

words, the differences between Thai and Burmese languages are obvious. Thus, the status

as an official language for the communication in the organization of the host language

resulted in numbers of problems and handicaps. This was the only issue found in this

organization. Thus, it can be concluded that inadequate language knowledge is one of the

handicaps of intercultural communications.

Finally, to solve those problems, both the Thai and Burmese in the firm basically

communicate through nonverbal cues. That is to say, while interpreters or translators

provided verbal communications, Thai was adopted as the official language. Nonverbal

communications referred to the solutions to intercultural communications problems

through behaviors or gestures. The use of the nonverbal cues was interpreted based on

one’s cultural background as well as close relationship between the interactants, which

promoted familiarity and cultural learning. Moreover, selflessness, neutrality, and positive

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attitudes towards people with different cultural background, and respectability for others

were essential elements for successful intercultural communications.

Kwanchanok Pantufak, (2014)’s “Communication and Adaptation of Burmese

Workers in Thai Society” employed a mixed-methods design. Data was collected from the

distribution of a set of questionnaire to 400 Burmese workers in SamutSakorn Province

and an in-depth interview with 12 managers and colleagues. Moreover, a non-participant

observation was conducted to examine the extent of how the migrant workers live together

in the community, media exposure, communication and adaptation, factors influencing

their adjustment and adaptation abilities of the workers, and the relationship between those

factors and adaptation abilities in Thailand.

The results showed that 1) the Burmese workers preferred integration and

communicate with their people at work and after work the most. They communicated to

Thai people due to work agenda and Burmese people about relationship and general topics

most frequently. Besides, they were likely to perform face-to-face communications to both

the Thai and Burmese. 2) The Burmese workers averagely exposed themselves to the

media. Most of them exposed to Thai media for adaptation, while gaining news and current

issues from the Burmese media. Online Thai and Burmese media were their entertainment.

Next, they communicated to the Thai to entertain themselves and to the Burmese to

socialize. 3) They had few communicative problems and low adaptive abilities in term of

knowledge and understanding. In contrast, the problems due to knowledge about Thai

culture were more significant than those about laws and regulations. Next, communicative

problems and attitudinal and emotional adaptation were average. They perceived “the

generosity of Thai people” in the lowest scale and had moderate communicative problems

and behavioral adaptation problems and when being asked to respond to, “I have many

Thai friends,” they chose the lowest scale. 4) The Burmese workers’ adaptation associated

with “preservation of ethnicity,” focusing on preserving unique characteristics of the

Burmese and performed necessary adaptation and had moderate adaptation abilities. 5) The

hypothesis testing revealed that the Burmese workers were with different ethnics groups

and had various ways of life and different levels of adaptive abilities. Besides, the

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relationship between their adaptive abilities and their Thai proficiency, frequencies of Thai

media exposure, and frequencies of communicating with Thai people after work was

obvious at the significant level of .05.

Metta Vivatananukul, (2013)’s “Perceptions and Intercultural Communication

between Thai Students and People in ASEAN Countries” The study was aimed to

investigate types and channels of communication between Thai students and people in

ASEAN countries. In addition, the purpose was to examine Thai students’ attitudes and

ethnic perception towards ASEAN Countries, factors in relations to the attitudes and

perception. The other objective was to survey barrier to intercultural communication

between the two parties and to provide guidelines and learning methods to promote positive

attitudes and close relationship with those people. Data were gained from a distribution of

a set of questionnaire to 1,200 high school students in Education Hubs, Sister Schools,

Buffer Schools, and others, which promote ASEAN Studies. Meanwhile, interviews with

four groups of Thai student representatives and project heads of Education Hub and Spirit

of ASEAN, teachers from ASEAN countries, academic experts, and social media and

cultural professionals were conducted.

Results showed that Thai students were with negative ethnic attitudes towards. As

a result the attitudes created obstacles to intercultural communications in the “average”

degree. They were likely to be biased against some neighboring countries, especially

Cambodia and Myanmar. Most of the bias was resulted from historical events and media

presentation. Next, Thai students were ethnocentric believing that Thailand is the best place

to live and the most fertile that foreigners needed to adapt to Thai culture. This might be

the resulted from the cultivation through lessons in class, educational systems, and

stereotypical perception and attitudes. The majority of Thai students stereotypically

perceived the Burmese as unfriendly, illiterate, and wick. In addition, regarding the factors

constituting the perception and attitudes, they included “economic status,” “English

knowledge/ proficiency,” “personalities/ characteristics,” “historical lessons,” “roles of

teachers,” “roles of mass media,” and “opportunities and frequencies to communicate with

people from ASEAN countries.”

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O-larick Khunsit, (2012)’s “Communication and cultural adaptation of Thai

expatriates working in subsidiaries of multinational corporations in neighboring countries”

was a qualitative study in which an in-depth interview was conducted to gain data. The

main purpose was to investigate intercultural communications, types of relationship,

organizational communications, work values, potential directions of cultural adaptation

and its challenges for international companies’ personnel with a branch in adjacent

countries. Results indicated that (1) when communicating to local people English was most

frequently-used by the Thai personnel followed by the local language, Thai, and favor of

interpreters, respectively. Besides, the use of local language could promote understanding,

sense of belonging, and positive relationship (2) The working values of the personnel in all

the four countries were congruent, while the Thai personnel and the local people seemed

different in terms of the perception about time, especially perception about the past and at

present. Besides, the two groups seemed to vary in valuing theories and experiences, for

example, the local people were likely to have values based on their experiences, stuck to

traditional theories with no adaptation. (3) Even though most Thai personnel performed

bicultural adaptation by adjusting to new culture while preserving their own, more attention

was on Thai culture. Also, they adjusted themselves to the organizational cultures such as

becoming stricter, devoting more time to work, and asking other personnel to repeat their

instructions. (4) Finally, communicative problems and cultural adaptation were averagely

challenging to Thai personnel. Most of the problems about these issues relied greatly on

attitudinal and emotional levels, which included freezing, ethnocentrism, as well as black

and white perception towards local personnel.

Pathita Kimprakon, ’s (2008) “ Interracial Communication between Thais and

Indian-Thais” .The study aims to investigate Thai people’s perception towards the Thai-

Indian, characteristics of the communication and the problems between the two parties.

Result showed that they perceived “Indian-ness” from the appearance mostly from the face,

beard and moustache, clothing, while the Thai-Indian accent was another dividing

appearance. In addition, the Thai with no experiences interacting with Thai-Indian people

were likely to have more negative attitudes towards the group than those who have direct

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and mass mediated experiences with them. Finally, in general the most outstanding

stereotype and negative attitude towards the Thai-Indian were related to their careers. That

is to say, Thai people usually perceived the ethic group as nut, roti, or clothe sellers or even

illegal loan providers.

Peerayut Oraphan,’s (2008) “Intercultural communication of Malay-Thai in

Southern Thailand and Thai-Malaysian in Kelantan” The results of the comparison

between communicative behaviors between the two groups revealed three characteristics.

They were 1) implicit communication, for example, avoidance of interaction, equivocation,

avoidance of interaction on sensitive agenda; 2) explicit communication, for instance,

expressing of friendliness, participating in the other group’s social or religious events while

preserving their own; and 3) overly explicit communication including adopting the other

group’s identity to hide their identity. Finally, the aim of interaction between groups

associated with 4 areas 1) separation form groups; 2) adaptation towards each other; 3)

blending with other group; and 4) blending other groups into their community.

In addition, Thai-Malay people were stereotypically seen as “guests” or the non-

native in the area. They were masked with an image of being dirty, terrorist or “separatist,”

while most the Thai-Malay perceived Thai people to be “Kafre” or those who were

disrespectful to god, but statues. For them, Thais were contaminated with pig dirtiness,

favored pork, and alcoholics. In terms of communicative behaviors, the data analysis

revealed variations in how the two groups communicate. In Thailand, the Thai-Malay and

the Thai potentially had negative perception towards each other; however, in Malaysia the

Thai-Malay and Malaysian-Malay had more positive perception of each other. Hence, ethic

differences in Malaysia could promote acceptance, while those in Thailand resulted in

conflicts between groups.

Parida Kochek,’s (2005) “Intercultural Communication Affecting the Adaptation

of Transitional People: Case Study of Myanmar People in the Provinces of

the Thai Border” Results indicated that factors positively influenced Burmese migrants

workers adaptive abilities included demographic characteristics, abilities to communicate

in Thailand, and attitudes towards Thai people. That is to say, provided that the three areas

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were high, the migrant workers had more adaptive abilities. Next, it was found that media

exposure behaviors had direct negative influences on adaptive abilities. In other words, the

Burmese who mostly exposed themselves to Burmese media were likely to show low

adaptation to Thai society. In addition, abilities to communicate in Thailand had indirect

negative influences on their adaptation as obviously seen from their media exposure of the

migrant workers. Besides, their adaptive abilities were indirectly and negatively influenced

by demographic characteristics of the migrant workers as shown in their communicative

abilities in Thai society, the attitudes, and media exposure behaviors.

Moreover, the migrant workers performed integrated adaptation through

acculturation. Some aspects of their own culture were preserved. The preservation of their

original culture occurred in their personal “spaces” in private places or at homes. When

going out they adapted to Thai customs to gain more “acceptance” from the Thai who were

not aware of their alienation in the society. Also, it reduced their “otherness” in Thai

society.

Recently, cultural dimensions were applied in a number of previous studies to serve

organizational management, analyze marketing target, and solve problems in intercultural

communication. Examples of those previous studies are presented in the following section.

Vasile (2016)’s “Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions and Management in

Corporations” The study investigated Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and organizational

management. Results confirmed that cultural dimensions should be taken into account in

the planning of organizational management. Executives must pay attention to the

significance of considering cultural dimensions together with other factors, for example,

historical, economic, and political factors for the organization to achieve successful

management.

Nguyen’s (2015) “Using Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions to Describe and to

Analyze Cultural Differences between First Generation and Second Generation

Vietnamese in the Vietnamese Church in America” aimed to compare cultural dimensions

of the first and second Vietnamese generation in Vietnamese Church in America. Data

were gained from two groups of participants: the first generation and second generation.

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The first generation participants were born in Vietnam, aged more than 18 years old, and

moved to America regardless of their duration of immigration. Meanwhile, the second

generation participants were those born in America or Vietnam, aged above 18 and moved

to America since they were 4 years old. Results indicated differences between the two

groups. First, the people in first generation were with high power distance and were

collectivistic. They preferred masculinity and stronger uncertainty avoidance. Generally,

they had short term views. In contrast, second generation participants were contrastive with

lower means.

Yoo, Donthu, & Lenartowicz (2011)’s “Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of

cultural values at the individualism level: Development and validation of CVSCALE” The

study examined Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions and marketing attitudes. Results indicated

that the participants with strong belief in power distance and the dimension was positively

related to their marketing attitudes. On the contrary, the participants’ with masculinity

culture were likely to have negative marketing attitudes, while those with high uncertainty

avoidance appeared to have positive marketing attitudes. Finally, long- term oriented

culture was also related to the participants’ marketing attitudes.

Brown, Hayashi, & Yamamoto (2012)’s “Japan/Anglo-American Cross-Cultural

Communication” The three academic experts worked together to critique studies on

intercultural communication between Japanese and American using 1)

individualism/collectivism, 2) hierarchy/egalitarianism, and 3) direct/ indirect

communication as a framework. Results indicated that the dimension of

individualism/collectivism did not explicitly identify the identities of the two nations. For

example, in Japan the student participants were individualistic, while adults or working-

aged participants were collectivistic. The results were incongruent with Hofstede’s study.

The study found that Japanese believed in collectivism and the Americans valued

individualism. They criticized that the validity of the research tool was inadequate. In other

words, it might not be able to measure what was indicated as the research objectives, and

etc.

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Regarding hierarchy/egalitarianism, the result of the study was in line with those in

previous studies. In other words, Japanese people were strongly hierarchical, while

American people were egalitarian. In America, all social members had opportunities to

express their ideas. The varieties of nouns were not as much as those of Japanese, which

indicated the hierarchy and seniority in Japanese society. Similarly, the findings in terms

of direct/indirect communication also supported previous studies, which found out that the

Japanese preferred indirect communication, while Americans favored direct transferring of

their ideas.

To conclude, according to the review of literature on intercultural communication

above, the potential factors backfiring on the communication between Thai employers and

Burmese workers might include: stereotypes, ethnocentrism, and hosts’ prejudice or bias

towards the migrant workers. These factors were critically considered according to Psycho-

Cultural Influence Theory to set the theoretical framework for the present study.

In addition, the four cultural dimensions including 1) individualism/ collectivism,

2) power distance, 3) masculinity/femininity, and 4) uncertainty avoidance were the

framework for explaining the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai culture and their

own.

2.8.2 Previous Studies on Media Exposure and Media Cultivation

The fundamental assumption behind this study was that media could contribute to

the success or failure of intercultural communications. To support the assumption, the

following previous studies were carefully reviewed in the next section.

Poranee Kaewboworn , (2015)’s “Identity Changes among Myanmar Laborers in

Chiang Rai after Media Exposure” The purpose of the study was to investigate participation

in a Thai-Burmese radio program. Results showed that exposure to the radio program and

its participation had impacts on the Burmese adaptation from gaining more knowledge

about laws, health, and other living agendas. More importantly, their self-esteem was

developed as Thai people were aware of their existence in Thailand by running Thai-

Burmese radio programs. Thai employers could share their grievance against the Burmese

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employees, or the workers could revealed unfair practices of the Thai employers or shared

their homesickness with others.

Pachara U-suk, (2012)’s “Image of Immigrant Laborers as Viewed by Citizens in

Sunsai District, Chiang Mai” Results showed that the participants, who had experiences

hiring migrant workers tended to have more positive attitudes towards an individual and

group than those without any experiences. The migrant workers were masked with five

identities -hard-working, united, strong, patient, and determined to accomplish work

assigned.

Sipim Sornbanlung, (2015) “Securitization of Migration Workers: A Case Study of

Burmese Workers in Thailand” The results indicated that nationalism ideology and

suspicions of Burmese workers in Thailand were significant factors contributing to

securitization of the migrant workers through transferring of impacts of hiring those

workers on security of the nation in many aspects regardless of socio-economic, political,

cultural security as well as international relationship. The claim seemed to celebrate its

success as obviously seen from the acceptance and agreement of the audience and setting

of policies on dealing with those problems, which were perceived as the state’s security

problems. A number of policies were launched, for example, the relaxation of migrant

worker employment or migrant workers’ prevention or control policies. The factor fueling

the processes included both internal factors and external factors. First, the internal factors

referred to effectiveness of language use through sets of discourse referring to Burmese

workers as a threat to security of the state in many aspects. Meanwhile, the external factor

related to the status of the policy makers and Thai mass media which performed active

roles in accelerating securitization of the Burmese workers to the state.

Erba (2013)’s “That's What They See on TV, That's How They View Our Culture."

Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Identification and Media Representations of

Latina/os and Latino Students Experiences, Identity Development and Relationship with

the University They Attend” The study applied Symbolic Interaction as a research

framework. Data were gained from interviews with 2 groups of students: high-identifying

Latino, and low-identifying Latino. Results indicated that the high-identifying Latino

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students perceived TV to negatively influence experiences and interaction with other

students, especially the white students. At the same time, the low-identifying Latino

students were not sensitive to the messages on TV. In addition, the high-identifying Latino

students developed coping mechanism to protect their self-esteem from the presentation of

criminals and uneducated immigrants through the media.

Seated (2012)’s “Understanding the Role of Emotions in Mediated Intergroup

Threat: A cultivation and Appraisal Theory Approach” drew insight from Cultivation and

Appraisal Theory. Results revealed that media played significant roles in cultivating

emotional expressions to ethnic minorities. Besides, long-term exposure to TV was related

to concern and distrustfulness on the blacks. Moreover, exposure to news on TV was

connected to anger towards the blacks. In addition, constant exposure to TV had influences

on the extent of anger and concern about the Latins and Asians, while the news on TV led

to distrustfulness on the Asians.

Shim (2010)’s “Mediated Contact and Intergroup Relations: When Koreans Met

Americans through U.S. TV Dramas” The study examined attitudes towards entertainment

programs on American TV of 2 groups of participants. The first group exposed exclusively

on the programs on American TV, while the other group had direct experiences interacting

with the Americans along with the exposure to American entertainment on TV. The results

showed that:

1) Media-mediated communications had effects on intergroup

attitudes.

2) Parasocial interaction was the most influential on the

participants’ attitudes

3) Viewing amount of the media-mediated group had negative

effects on the attitudes, while it had positive impacts on those with personal contact.

4) Viewing diversity had positive effects on the media-mediated

group, but had no effects on personal contact group.

In conclusion, according to the review of the previous studies above, mass media

like Television is influential in how people live. It cultivates beliefs and thoughts, and

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evaluates their values and behaviors. Hence, the researcher applied those concepts as the

variables in this study.

2.8.3 Previous Studies on Employment of Migrant Workers

This present study aims to investigate the employment of migrant workers. Thus,

the researcher takes into consideration the data from stakeholders. They include the

employers, employees, and organizations employing migrant workers. Thus, the following

previous studies on necessity of employing migrant workers, employing processes,

wage/pay, and welfare from the employers and employees’ point of views were reviewed.

Warunsiri Prasitsuntorn, (2014)’s “Methods of Immigrant Workers Recruitment of

Fishery Entrepreneurs in Kuraburi District, Phang Nga” The study revealed five aspects of

recruiting methods. They were characteristics of labor, wage, welfare, labor shortage, and

support from the government. In contrast, legal or illegal migration was not essential for

the recruitment since the employers must legally register the workers later. The most

influential factor for the recruitment of migrant workers was their personal characteristics

regardless of their work experiences due to labor shortage. Similarly, working habits were

not in consideration at first, but after they started working the factors would be taken into

account during the first month. Hence, sometimes fishery employers might get

unsatisfactory workers from the recruitment. For example, it might be hard to get diligent,

patient, loyal, obedient workers who were ready for all kinds of tasks and did not cause

disturbance in workplaces. Those characteristics were unobservable when first met.

Consequently, the real recruitment of fishery workers occurred after they started working

for a while and unsatisfactory workers would be fired later.

Pholphirul (2013)’s “Immigration, Job Vacancies, and Employment Dynamics:

Evidence from Thai Manufactures” The study aimed to explain how migrant workers fill

in labor shortage and promote employment dynamics. A survey of 928 Thai companies

was conducted. Results showed that migrant employment was not very complicated. Most

of them were from the neighboring countries and were labor workers in production lines.

They had low computer and technology skills. Most of them preferred working for big new

companies, where low education workers were usually recruited. The vacancies required

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either skilled or unskilled workers. In addition, the migrant workers were essential for

continuous production processes. Thus, the productions in some factories were interrupted

due to strike and labor shortage. The participants from 765 companies revealed that the

significant reason of employing migrant workers was labor shortage rather than the low

wage. In addition, the location of the companies along the borders also had impacts on the

employment of migrant workers. That is to say, the migrant employees in companies along

the borders were more likely to transfer to other companies than those on other areas. The

workers usually moved to the companies, which offered more pay. In addition, the cost of

employment or pay and welfare was much higher, while the popular channels for recruiting

was social media or friend’s persuasion.

Supattra Tantijariyaphan, (2013) ’s. “The Political Economy Analysis and

Transnational Labor Management in Thailand: A Case Study of the Myanmar Labor in

Chiang Mai Area” The study found that negative impacts of foreign workers migration to

Thailand referred to the circumstance in which the increasing ratio of transnational labor

to total workers in the country resulted in lower wage, while the government also had to

provide annual welfare for the workers. Thus, in a long run the continuous illegal migration

would result in poor economic status of the government. In other words, the government

had more expenses in providing services for those migrant workers in terms of their

education, healthcare, and crime prevention.

In addition, regarding the security at work, especially when having accidents while

working Thai Yai migrant workers in Chiang Mai were treated unfairly by the officials

even though they had legal work permits. However, as they illegally entered the country,

they were allowed to register as labors in Thailand. However, they couldn’t join

Compensation Fund and Social Security Fund. The government indicated that those who

contributed to the fund would gain from the fund. Besides, most employers in construction

businesses in Chiang Mai were likely to avoid contributing to the fund by hiring the migrant

workers from other employers or subcontractors who were not juristic persons. As a result,

those workers couldn’t achieve security at work as stated in labor protection laws. In

addition, the Thai Yai workers were aware of their mental insecurity and felt alienated from

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Thai people. Moreover, sometimes the ethnic and language of the workers were insulted

by some Thai people.

Podsakorn Yothinneeranath, (2012)’s “Government Policies and Approaches

towards Migrant Labours in Regard to Workmen’s Compensation Act B.E.2537 (1994)”

The purpose of this study was to investigate three areas with regard to the act. They were

the policies, workforce protection, and related problems and obstacles. Data were gained

from review of law document and relevant government regulations. In addition, interviews

with four respondents - a Senior Officer from Office of the Compensation Fund, a

Secretary-General of State Enterprise Labor Relations, Chairman of the Human Rights

Subcommittee on Racism, Stateless persons, Migrant Workers and Displaced Persons,

Lawyer Council, and the Director of Human Rights Development Foundation and 11

migrant workers affected by the act.

Moreover, in terms of workplace injury claims management policy, it no

relationship was found between national policy and organization policy. Thus, problems in

injury claim management for three nationalities of migrant workers - Burmese, Cambodian,

Laotian occurred. Next, the workers’ compensation rights and benefits aimed at paying

compensation after the injury from work. The major mechanisms for workers’ right

protection according to Social Security Office (SSO) were in accordance with Workmen’s

Compensation Act B.E.2537 (1994), which promoted equality and no discrimination.

However, practically the study found that some workers did not receive fair compensation

as indicated in the law. Finally, in terms of the policy problems and obstacles (circular

letter# 0711/751) in making compensation referred to identity document of the workers

with those three nationalities according to the interpretation of SSO, which was

incongruent to the spirit of the law to protect every worker equally. As the law failed to

indicate conditions about identity document, some workers could not gain the

compensation. Consequently, this resulted in the national image of human rights abuse.

Sastharam Thammaboosadee, (2012)’s “ The political economy of transnational

worker’s welfare : a case study of Burmese workers in Samuthprakarn” The study aimed

to examine migrant workers’ welfare in the neo-liberalism modes of productions though

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the political economy approach. The major aim was to indicate the dynamic of capitalism

reproduction processes, which transferred human labors to commodity until they felt

alienated and powerless. Data was collected through an in-depth interview with Burmese

workers and relevant people in Samuthprakarn and a participatory observation at the

research field during 2010-2012.

Data analysis of the welfare as a replication mechanism in capitalism through the

case of Burmese workers in Samuthprakan showed the characteristics of the condition of

neoliberalism relations to production as follows: 1) The commoditization of labor power

was intensified; 2) transformation of employment in the way that the workers needed to be

responsible for more risks in capitalism such as hiring contract workers, outscoring, or

temporary hiring; 3) conversation of welfare provision by leaving individuals to deal with

more burdens by focusing on wage and the aforementioned conditions; and 4) emergence

of “precariat,” which was diverse from laborers. Precariat referred to workers who took

charge for any risks for investors and struggle for class benefits. The analysis of the new

mode of welfare revealed a model for welfare provision in neoliberalism, which required

holistic consideration of multidisciplinary via citizenship and de- commoditization to avoid

alienation in this production society.

Ekachai Eutanpisit, (2011)’s “Maids: Migrant Domestic Workers in Thai

Household and State Protection” The purpose of this study was to analysis forms and

means of exploitation of migrant domestic female workers who work as housekeepers in

Thai households, their legal status, wage or compensation, and welfare, which depended

greatly on the satisfaction of the Thai employers without any regulations. The exploitation

of the migrant maids rose questions about effectiveness of state laws and mechanism in

protecting the rights of these workers, why can’t the government mechanism approach

households, restrict the employers, or even protect them. In responding to the questions,

certain facts must be considered. That is to say, it was necessary for Thai households to

rely on female migrant workers for many reasons. First, employers tended to have higher

competency and female played varieties of roles outside the house, while transfer of middle

class women’ s roles to become specialists, who gained more economic values than doing

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chores; hence, importance and roles of housewives and daughters obviously expanded

outside until they couldn’t stay home and did chores. As a result, reliance on female

migrant workers was necessary. However, the employment seemed unfair and the migrant

workers were treated with inadequate care and attention by the employers and relevant

organizations, while international labor organizations and state mechanism could not

interfere with the employers’ power in households.

To conclude, according to the theories of international communications, which aim

to investigate communications and interaction between people with different cultural

background, it is necessary for each group to behave, learn, and try to understand other

people in order to live peacefully in the multicultural contexts. In addition, it is found that

some psycho-cultural influences such as stereotype, ethnocentrism, or bias/ prejudice are

significant factors contributing to separate between “their group” and “our group” in Thai

society. Therefore, in tracing back to the origin of how Thai people perceive migrant

workers as “others,” which results in unfair employment, cultural dimension theories

including individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity/femininity

was applied in the comparison between the working values of Thai employers and Burmese

workers. In addition, in establishing the hypotheses of this study, media exposure and

media cultivation theories, demographic characteristics, together with the aforementioned

theories referring to psycho-cultural influences and previous studies on relationship of

adaptation abilities of the workers in Thailand was carefully studied. The hypotheses are

presented in the following section.

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2.9 Hypotheses

2.9.1 Research objective #2:

To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai culture and their own

The research hypotheses are presented as follows:

H1: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding power distance

are different.

H2: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding individualism/

collectivism are different.

H3: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding masculinity/

femininity are different.

H4: Attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture regarding uncertainty

avoidance are different.

2.9.2 Research objective #3:

To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and organizational factors

relating to the ability to adapt themselves to work.

The research hypotheses are presented as follows:

H5: Different personal factors and organizational factors contribute to Burmese

workers’ different adaptive abilities.

H6: Personal factors and organizational factors are related to adaptive abilities.

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2.10 Research Conceptual Framework

Figure 2.1 Research Conceptual Framework

1. Demographic Characteristics

- Genders, ages, education, ethnicity, working locations,

living styles, types of businesses 2.Media exposer behaviors

3. Ethnographic attitudes

4. Knowledge about Thai culture

5. Religious behaviors

Adaptation abilities to work of

Burmese workers

(Cushner and Brislin (1996 as cited in

Metta Vivatananukul (Krittawit), 2016,

p.324) 1. Well-being

2. Being accepted and connected to

others

3. Abilities to work

4. Familiarity with Thai culture/ not being

stressful

Personal Factors

1.Characteristics of organizations

1.1 Structured /unstructured

2. Cultural attitudes (Hofstede, 1984)

2.1High/low power distance 2.2 Individualism/collectivism

2.3 Masculinity/femininity

2.4 High/low uncertainty avoidance

Organizational Factors

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The purposes of this study are 1) to investigate intercultural communications

between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the southern provinces; 2) to

compare the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese culture;

and 3) to analyze personal factors and organizational factors in relation to their

adaptation abilities to work in the south of Thailand. The preliminary study was

conducted through in-depth interviews and observations to discover real situations

and assure the significance of the investigation according to the qualitative approach.

Later, the data gained were categorized into themes through data deduction. Then the

data sets were integrated with relevant concepts and theories to establish a conceptual

framework for this study. Finally, research tools were developed to collect the second

set of the data based on the quantitative approach. As a result, the study titled,

“Intercultural Communication in the Burmese Workers Employment of Local

Businesses in Southern Thailand,” utilized a mixed-methods approach in which both

qualitative and quantitative methods were integrated to gain insightful answers to the

research questions.

3.1 Qualitative Methods

In the initial phase, a qualitative approach was applied through the review of

related literature and previous studies. After that concepts and theories of intercultural

communication, cultural dimensions, psycho-cultural influences, media exposure and

cultivation theories, and adaptation were integrated to establish a research conceptual

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framework. This section outlines 4 sub-topics relating to the qualitative research

methodology

3.1.1 Population and Sampling

3.1.2 Research Tools

3.1.3 Data Collection

3.1.4 Data Analysis

3.1.1 Population and Sampling

In this study, the research setting included the three provinces with the most

Burmese workers in southern Thailand. These provinces are Surat Thani, Ranong, and

Songkhla with 63,388, 48,319, and 38,607 Burmese workers, respectively (Foreign

Workers Administration Office, 2016). The population consisted of two groups - Thai

employers and Burmese employees in the three provinces. They were limited to those

dealing with four areas of businesses -agriculture and livestock, construction,

services, and fishery. The Burmese workers were those who were officially allowed to

be employed in two occupations referring to laborers and maids in 24 businesses.

Burmese workers with proven original nationality are commonly found in three

businesses including 1) 177,301 workers in construction, 2) 159,896 workers in

agriculture and livestock, and 3) 126,717 workers in the service sector. Meanwhile,

the imported workers according to MOU were allowed to be employed in three

businesses including 1) 59,827 workers in construction, 2) 56,568 workers in services,

and 3) 34,770 workers in agriculture (Division of Private Organization Management,

Movement of Persons According to Free trade Agreement and Information

Technology Division, http://wp.doe.go.th.

Finally, when considering the numbers of the Burmese workers as a sampling

criterion the respondents were drawn from the workers in construction, agriculture

and livestock, and service businesses, while those in fishery business were also

sampled to serve the need of stakeholders in the research setting. Problems in this

business are significant, especially those in Surat Thani, in which the impacts were

broad and difficult to deal with.

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Table 3.1 Population of Thai employers and Burmese worker in southern Thailand

No. Types of

Businesses

Numbers of Workers

Requested for Registration

Total

Surat Thani Ranong Songkhla

1. Agriculture &

Livestock

30,711 15,020 9,370 55,101

2. Construction 15,406 4,059 6,507 25,972

3. Service 7,783 1,341 1,082 10,206

4. Fishery 1,298 4,253 1,149 6,700

Total 55,198 24,673 18,108 97,979

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.

In terms of the sampling frame, the respondents were selected from the Thai

employers and Burmese workers in the three provinces in 4 areas of businesses. For

those employers, the name lists from Provincial Employment Office in all the three

provinces were obtained and employers who hired Burmese workers with proven

original nationality and imported through MOU were included in the sampling frame.

After that a snowball sampling technique was applied to get well-known and

cooperative employers as key informants to gain diverse and holistic data.

Similarly, the Burmese workers were sampled as a dyad along with the Thai

employers. That is to say, the workers who were working for the employer

participants were also interviewed. The employers assisted in choosing the workers as

the participants in the in-depth interview to promote variation in the data. Thai

proficiency was a criterion in obtaining the participants. As a result both the workers

with Thai communicative competence and those could not communicate through Thai

were selected. The Burmese workers who have Thai proficiency became the

interpreters in the in-depth interview.

The unit of analysis in the qualitative part was defined at the individual level.

It consisted of Thai employers and Burmese workers who shared their opinions on

intercultural communications in the work setting.

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Table 3.2 Numbers of Burmese worker samples classifies by areas and types of

businesses

Areas Roles

Numbers of the Samples in each Business

(persons)

Total

Agriculture&

Livestock

Construction Services Fishery

Surat

Thani

Employers 2 1 1 1 4

Workers 1 2 2 2 7

Ranong Employers 1 2 2 1 6

Workers 1 0 1 1 3

Songkhla Employers 2 2 1 0 5

Workers 2 2 2 0 6

According to Table 3.2 the total number of all the participants in the

qualitative analysis was 31, including 15 the employers and 16 the workers.

3.1.2 Research Tools

As mentioned earlier this research employed a mixed-methods approach; thus,

both qualitative and quantitative research tools were used. Firstly, Intercultural

Communication Theories, Psycho-cultural Influences, Hofstede’s Value Dimension,

and Media Exposure and Cultivation were the baseline concepts in the design of the

unstructured in-depth interview, which is a qualitative research tool. The interview

forms consisted of 2 sets of questions -one for the Thai employers and another for the

Burmese workers. The two forms featured similar sections including cultural

dimensions, psycho-cultural influences, media exposure and cultivation, and

perceptions towards history of Thai and Burmese historical relationship, but with

different questions for each group of participants.

The unstructured in-depth interview allowed changes of the questions to fit

with the circumstances for example, when the Thai employers had limited time the

interview must be short and precise or when it was noisy nonverbal communication or

jotting down of the data gained was helpful. In other words, the researcher made a

note soon after the interview as recording of the interview was impossible due to the

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disturbance. Similarly, the researcher reconsidered asking certain questions when

noticing negative expressions or boredom of the participants.

3.1.3 Data Collection

3.1.3.1 Data sources

1) Primary data referred to direct data collection from the

participants through an in-depth interview and a non- participant observation to

triangulate the data. The researcher observed the group passively from a distance

without participating in the group activities. The environment and contexts such as

interactions and communications between the workers were observed.

2) Secondary data was obtained from the review of books,

journals, statistical information, and information about Myanmar as well as numbers

of the immigrant workers in Thailand.

3.1.3.2 Data collection

1) The literature review in this study was associated with the

review of books, journals, and previous studies on intercultural communication in the

contexts of immigrant workers working in America, Australia, European Union, and

Asia. With the primary aim to work in these multicultural contexts, the migrant

workers faced with cultural differences in the targeted countries. Besides, it is

necessary for them to adapt themselves and their ethnic attitudes such as stereotypes,

ethnocentrism, bias/ prejudice, cultural dimension theories. The literature compared

and contrasted cultures of each country. Meanwhile, cultivation of the media from

reproduction processes results in misunderstanding. The concepts and theories were

adapted to assist in the data analysis phase.

2) An individual in-depth interview was conducted to gain

data from the Thai employers and Burmese workers. The interview data provided

qualitative data, while they guided the design of the questionnaire, which offered data

for the quantitative analysis. Moreover, the interview promoted interaction between

the interviewer and participants, which might lead to the discovery of other problems

enriching the quality of the data. Next, the individual level was defined as the unit of

analysis. The analysis covered the extent of intercultural communication such as the

cultural dimensions, psycho-cultural influences, and media exposure and cultivation

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of Thai employers and Burmese workers. At the beginning, the interviewees were 24

individuals: 12 of the Thai employers and the same number of the Burmese workers

in 4 businesses in the 3 provinces. However, while interviewing it was found that the

Thai employers and Burmese workers in some businesses cooperated well. Thus, the

participants in the interview increased to 31. In addition, the unstructured interview

was applied due to its flexibility and it was not too time-consuming. This was

beneficial, for example, the interview with foremen in Surat Thani was conducted in a

construction site while they were working. All of them were eager to answer the

questions and the researcher could control the topics and the scope of the talk well

without using fixed steps as in structured interview framework.

3.1.4 Data Analysis

The primary data from the interview and the non-participant observation were

analyzed along with the secondary data from the literature review of books, journal

articles, and related previous studies to provide answers to the interesting emerging

questions and the research questions in this study. The dual analysis might discover

unknown facts, for example, the underlying reasons behind the conflicts between the

Burmese and other ethnic groups even though they were from the same geographic

origin or why the Burmese workers seriously have strong faith in Buddhism. Besides,

findings from each interview were baseline data for the next interview. Finally, the

findings provided guidelines for data collection in the next phase. In addition, the

researcher reflected, “Are there any unknown facts or interesting facts left behind?”

As a result, the qualitative data collection was well-rounded. After that data deduction

was performed to indicate the variables, discover the connections and relationship of

the data to categorize them, and establish themes of the findings. They precisely

established trends of the results. Finally, the findings were analyzed using related

theories. They were categorized into two sets: the data form the Thai employers, and

those from the Burmese workers.

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3.2 Quantitative Methods

A quantitative method was applied to provide answers to Research Question

#2 and #3. Related theories, literature, and previous studies were reviewed and

integrated as a conceptual framework, while the qualitative results which provided

answers to Research Question #1 were also the baseline data for the design of the

questionnaires, which was aimed to exclusively investigate the Burmese workers’

opinions. The analysis of the in-depth interview in accordance with the first research

question yielded the following results:

a) The majority of Thai employers had positive attitudes towards employing

immigrant workers.

b) The Thai employers and Burmese workers in the same organization shared

different ideas and did not rely on each other.

c) One way adjustment by the Burmese workers was outstanding.

As a result, Research Question #2 was, “to compare the attitudes towards Thai

and Burmese culture of the Burmese workers”

Finally, Research Questions #3 was, “to analyze personal factors and

organizational factors influencing adaptive abilities of the Burmese workers in

southern Thailand. To answer the quantitative research objective above, the research

methods are listed below:

3.2.1 Population and Sampling

The population for the quantitative phase was 97,979 Burmese workers in the

three provinces, namely Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. They were employed in

four areas of businesses, which included agriculture and livestock, construction,

services, and fishery. They were limited to those who requested for registration to

work in the state as shown in Table 3.3.

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Table 3.3 Numbers of Burmese workers requested for registration classified by areas

and types of businesses

No. Types of Businesses

Numbers of Burmese Workers

Requested for Registration Total

Surat Thani Ranong Songkhla

1. Agriculture & livestock 30,711 15,020 9,370 55,101

2. Construction 15,406 4,059 6,507 25,972

3. Service 7,783 1,341 1,082 10,206

4. Fishery 1,298 4,253 1,149 6,700

Total 55,198 24,673 18,108 97,979

Source: Foreign Workers Administration Office, 2016.

The population was sampled using the convenient sampling technique from

two sets of the name lists from Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla Employment

Office. This included the Burmese workers whose original nationalities were proved

and those imported through MOU. The employers were requested to choose the

workers according to their convenience and readiness of the organizations. In

addition, the snowball sampling technique was used from the assistance of a

researcher’s acquaintance to get the interviewees. That is to say, firstly, 400 Burmese

workers were sampled by determining the proportion of the samples and the total

numbers of the workers from the database of each province. Thus, 225 Burmese

workers in Surat Thani, 101 of them in Ranong, and 74 workers in Songkhla were the

selected as respondents in this phase.

However, at the research site there were difficulties in approaching the

respondents in Surat Thani since some of them moved to work in another site or had

limited time, for example, those in construction and fishery businesses. Moreover, it

was impossible for some employers to manage to provide the samples and ask them to

fill up the questionnaire forms. Even when they could, some forms were incomplete.

As a result, the respondents in Surat Thani were fewer than expected numbers

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indicated in the previous phase. Hence, the name lists of the employers in Ranong and

Songkhla were added to compensate the missing samples.

Similarly, the numbers of the samples in Ranong and Songkhla were altered

from the plan due to their high cooperation. In other words, they actively allowed

their workers to answer in the questionnaire forms. Some of them even assisted in

explaining the instruction of how to fill up the forms and administering the forms by

themselves, while some of them were with the researcher at the site. In addition, some

of the workers, who were imported through MOU were likely to have more reading

and writing skills. Consequently, the questionnaire forms were mostly complete and

the return rate was higher than expected. That is to say, of all 538 forms administered,

421 of them were complete. Table 3.4 indicates the revised numbers of the samples.

Table 3.4 Numbers of the samples in the quantitative phase

No. Types of Businesses Numbers of Samples (person) Total

Sarat Thani Ranong Songkhla

1. Agriculture & livestock 37 20 26 83

2. Construction 36 36 43 115

3. Service 24 27 35 86

4. Fishery 62 35 22 137

Total 159 136 126 421

The unit of analysis for the quantitative part was the organization level. In this

study, the purpose was to examine the attitudes of the Burmese workers towards Thai

culture and their own culture as well as analyzing personal and organizational factors

relating to their adaptive abilities in Thai contexts.

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3.2.2 Research Tools

The research tool, which provided the quantitative data, was a set of closed-

ended questionnaire. The form was administered to 421 Burmese workers and it

featured two major parts as follows:

3.2.2.1 Personal factors

1) The demographic information section featured eight items

eliciting information about genders, ages, education, ethics, working areas, life styles,

and work experiences in Myanmar. The respondents were asked to choose one

answer, which best described themselves.

2) The media and media exposure behavior section was

adopted from Theories of Media and Media Exposure. It included five items of those

required one answer and multiple answers.

3) The ethnic attitude section was adopted from Psycho-

Cultural Influences. It featured 10 items regarding stereotype, ethnocentrism, and

prejudice (Metta Vivatananukul, 2016, pp.137-156). The items were in the five point

Likert Scale format. Each scale referred to:

Totally agree referred to 5

Mostly agree referred to 4

Averagely agree referred to 3

Partly agree referred to 2

Hardly agree referred to 1

Interpretation of the scales

Scores from 4.21 to 5.00 was equal to the highest ethics attitudes.

Scores from 3.41 to 4.20 was equal to high ethics attitudes.

Scores from 2.61 to 3.40 was equal to moderate ethics attitudes.

Scores from 1.81 to 2.60 was equal to low ethics attitudes.

Scores from 1.00 to 1.80 was equal to the lowest ethics attitudes.

4) The religious behavior section was adopted to investigate

the respondents’ behaviors relating to their religion. It included eight items, which

were gained from the data in the qualitative phase. The items were in the five point

Likert Scale format.

87

5) The knowledge on Thai culture section was developed from

the survey on knowledge of Thai culture, which immigrants should know. It featured

10 item including eating and dressing culture, socializing culture, and language and

religion culture. All of them were in a true-false format.

The criteria for the interpretation of the scores on knowledge of Thai culture

were adapted from Boontham Kitpreedaborisut (2006, pp.59-61) as shown below:

Score of 80 percent was equal to very high/ excellent knowledge

Score of 70 to 79 percent was equal to high knowledge

Score of 50 to 69 percent was equal to average knowledge

Score of 50 or below was equal to poor/ inadequate knowledge

3.2.2.2 Organizational factors

1) The attitude towards Thai and Burmese cultures of the

Burmese workers section was adopted from Hofstede’s value dimensions (Samovar et

al., 2013). It included four aspects below:

(1) Individualism or collectivism

(2) High or low power distance

(3) Masculinity or femininity

(4) Low or high uncertainty avoidance

All of the 12 items were in the Likert Scale format.

3.2.2.3 Dependent Variables

The section aimed to investigate the adaptive abilities of the Burmese

workers in southern Thailand. It was adopted from Cushner & Brislin (1996, as cited

in Metta Vivatananukul (Krittawit), 2016, p.324) and consisted of four aspects of

adaptation: 1) wellness, 2) being respected and relationship with others, 3) success in

work, and 4) familiarity with Thai culture/ low stress. The 12 items were in 10 scales

and the interpretation is presented below:

The highest score- The lowest score = 10 - 0

Class interval 3

Interpretation of the mean scores

Scores from 6.67 to 10.00 were equal to having high adaptive abilities

Scores from 3.34 to 6.66 were equal to having moderate adaptive abilities

Scores from 1.00 to 3.33 were equal to having low adaptive abilities

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3.2.3 Data Collection

The quantitative data collection consisted of 3 steps below:

Step 1 refers to the collection of secondary data for the design of the

questionnaire. Literature review of books, document, articles, and related previous

studies was conducted. Next the data gained and the primary data from the in-depth

interviews were taken into consideration in designing the questionnaire.

3.2.3.1 Step 2 is the examination of the validity and reliability of the

questionnaire. Experts were asked to study the form and the researcher edited and

revised the form according to their comments.

3.2.3.2 Step 3 is the translation of the form by Burmese experts. In

addition 30 forms of the questionnaire were distributed to Burmese workers sharing

similar characteristics to the real samples of the study as a pre-test. After the workers

filled up the forms, the researcher found some unmarked or wrongly marked items.

Thus, the researcher informed the researcher assistant about the incident to modify the

instruction in bold prior to the actual data collection.

3.2.4 Data Analysis

A computer statistical package was employed in the analysis of frequencies,

percentage, means, and Standard Deviation (S.D.) of the data. Next, the t-test was

performed to compare two means. The F-test (One-Way Anova) was used to analyze

variance among three groups of the data. In addition, a multiple comparison through

Scheffe was applied to each pair of the means. Finally, Pearson Coefficient

Correlation and Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis were adopted to test

relationship between two variables.

89

Table 3.5 Summary of the research methods

Research

Objectives

Concepts&

Theories

Samples Research

Tools

Data Analysis

1. To investigate

the intercultural

communication

between Thai

employers and

Burmese workers

the south

Cultural

Dimensions/

Psycho-Cultural

Influences/

Media Exposure

Behaviors/ and

Perceptions towards

history of Thai-

Burmese

Relationship

Thai

employers

and

Burmese

workers

In-depth

interview and

nonparticipant

observation

Data deduction

and data

describing

2. To compare the

Burmese

workers’ attitude

towards Thai

culture and their

own

Hofstede’s Cultural

Dimensions

Burmese

workers

A set of

attitudinal

questionnaire

comparing

those on Thai

and Burmese

cultures

T-test

3. To analyze the

Burmese

workers’ personal

factors and

organizational

factors relating to

the abilities to

adapt themselves

to work

Hofstede’s Cultural

Dimensions/

Psycho-Cultural

Influences/

Media Exposure

Behaviors/ and

Adaptation and

Abilities to Work

Burmese

workers

A set of

questionnaire

on personal

and

organizational

factors and

adaptive

abilities of the

Burmese

workers in

southern

Thailand

- T-test/

- One-way

Anova/

- Pearson

Coefficient

Correlation/

and

-Stepwise

Multiple

Regression

Analysis

90

Table 3.6 Summary of the mixed-methods design

Methods of Data

Collection

Research Tools Methods of Data

Management

1. Interview with Thai

employers and Burmese

workers regarding:

1.1 Cultural dimensions

1.2Psycho-Cultural

Influences

1.3 Media Exposure

Behaviors

1.4 Perceptions towards

history of Thai-Burmese

Relationship

1) Two sets of unstructured

interview forms focusing on

cultural dimensions, psycho-

cultural influences, media

exposure behaviors, and

perceptions towards history of

Thai-Burmese relationship: one

for the employers and another for

the Burmese workers

2) An observation of interaction

between Thai employers and

Burmese workers such as

greeting, addressing terms, and

paying respect

1. Categorizing and

deducting of data according

to the research objectives by

comparing the data from the

employers and workers on

the following topics:

1.1 Cultural dimensions

1.2Psycho-cultural influences

including stereotypes,

ethnocentrism and prejudice

1.3 Media exposure

behaviors on the contents,

which represent ethnic

identities from Thai media

1.4 Perceptions towards

history of Thai-Burmese

Relationship

2. Summary of the

qualitative methods

through an in-depth

interview and

nonparticipant

observation

Descriptive analysis of the data

gained, categorizing them into

the themes, and linking them to

baseline theories and concepts of

the study or emerging findings

Summarizing the findings

into themes after considering

from theoretical stances and

creating a research

conceptual framework and

research tools to test

relationship among the

variables in the quantitative

phase

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Table 3.6 (Continued)

Methods of Data

Collection

Research Tools Methods of Data

Management

3. Design of the

quantitative research

tools

Close-ended questionnaires in

Burmese consisting of 7 sections

Section 1: The demographic

information section eliciting

genders, ages, education, ethics,

working areas, life styles, types

of businesses, and work

experiences in Myanmar.

Section 2: Media exposure

behaviors

Section3: Ethnic attitudes

Section 4: Knowledge of Thai

knowledge

1) Descriptive analysis

through percentage,

frequencies, means, and SD/

Inferential statistic including

t-test, One- Way Anova,

Pearson Coefficient

Correlation, and Stepwise

Multiple Regression Analysis

2) Making conclusion

according to the research

objectives

Section 5: Religious behaviors

Section 6: Attitudes towards Thai

and Burmese cultures

Section 7: Adaptive abilities to

work in southern Thailand

4. Conclusions 1) Making conclusion from the

qualitative and quantitative

phases

1) Presenting the findings

according to the research

objectives

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The objectives of the study, titled “Intercultural Communication in the

Employment of Burmese Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand,” are to

investigate intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese

workers in the south of Thailand and to analyze personal and organizational factors

relating to their adaptive abilities to work in southern Thailand. A mixed-methods

design was employed. Firstly, a qualitative method was applied through in-depth

interviews with 31 Thai employers and Burmese workers. After that a set of closed-

ended questionnaires was distributed to 421 Burmese workers to provide quantitative

data for triangulation of the results. The respondents were drawn from the three

southern provinces, which had the second densest population of migrant Burmese

workers in the country. The three provinces with the most numbers of workers

reported in 2016 were selected. They are Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. The

participants were limited to the workers and employers in four businesses, which

attracted most Burmese workers. They consisted of agriculture and livestock,

construction, service, and fishery.

4.1 The Qualitative Results

Research Objective #1: To investigate the intercultural communications

between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the south

In order to respond to the first research objective, dyadic in-depth interviews

with 31 Thai employers and Burmese workers were conducted. The two groups of the

interviewees were from the same organizations in three provinces and dealt with four

businesses. They consisted of 16 Thai employers and 15 Burmese worker

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Hofstede’s Value Dimensions, Psycho-Cultural Influences, Media Exposure

Behaviors were baseline theories used for the data analysis. The results were

classified into 4 themes as reported below:

4.1.1 Hofstede’s Cultural dimensions

4.1.2 Psycho-cultural Influences

4.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors

4.1.4 Perceptions towards the history of Thai and Burmese relationship

4.1.1 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

To begin with the cultural dimensions, the results were analyzed using

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions (Samovar et al., 2013, pp.177-186), which consisted

of the following four aspects.

a) Individualism or Collectivism

b) High or Low Power Distance

c) Low or High Uncertainty Avoidance

d) Masculinity or Femininity

The results regarding the 4 aspects of the participants’ cultural dimensions

were summarized in Table 4.1

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Table 4.1 Comparison between the cultural dimensions of Thai employers and

Burmese workers

Cultural

Dimensions Thai Employers Burmese Workers

1. Individualism

or collectivism

The Thai employers were

collectivistic with cronyism

behaviors. They were

considerate and valued the

society and other employers.

The Burmese workers were

individualistic. They

focused on their own

benefits and their families.

They appeared to be goal-

oriented.

2. High or low

power distance

The Thai employers showed

high degree of power distance.

Clear hierarchy in the

workplaces was established.

The workers were under

control and serve the

employers’ commands.

The Burmese workers

showed high degree of

power distance. When they

had work problems, they

usually talk to their

colleagues rather than to the

employers.

3. High or low

uncertainty

avoidance

The Thai employers showed

high degree of uncertainty

avoidance. They had plans and

solutions to the potential

problems caused by the

Burmese workers, for example,

they asked for the workers’

important documents so that

the workers couldn’t flee from

work.

The Burmese workers

showed high degree of

uncertainty avoidance. They

required security at work

and tended to favor jobs

with high pay and were

more secured.

4. Masculinity or

femininity

The Thai employers favored

femininity. They focused on

the qualities of life and

relationship building activities.

The Burmese workers

preferred masculinity. They

were task-oriented.

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According to Table 4.1, the full results are presented from each cultural

dimension. The results of the Thai employers are presented first, while the last sub-

topic presents the Burmese workers’ cultural dimensions in the following section.

4.1.1.1 Individualism vs. Collectivism

1) Collectivism among the Thai employers

The data analysis revealed that the Thai employers were more

collectivistic. These people were loyal and seemed to pay attention to the society.

They focused on sharing among social members. They seemed to be considerate,

reliant on others, and care for others. Moreover, cronyism appeared to be favored by

the employers. These are reflected in the following quotes:

Here all people are equal. The daily workers and monthly workers get through

good times and bad times together. For example, about two to three years ago

there was a crisis. Our shrimps died and those who focused exclusively on

money cannot work here. We closely stuck together. When our business got

up again, our people got 10 months bonus, but during crises sometimes the

workers did not get paid. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal communication,

August 24, 2016)

“When assigning tasks to the Burmese workers brothers or sisters or relatives

are usually separated into different ships since they might not focus on other things

instead of working.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication,May 22, 2016)

Moreover, the employers in small, medium and large enterprises all agreed

that cooperation between organizations and helpfulness both at individual or

organizational levels were necessary for success rather than working alone as

mentioned below:

“Having partner hotels are necessary since we can help each other. For

example, in the high season we can share guests with each other when there are too

many reservations.” (Songkhla, Service, personal communication, July 28, 2016)

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2) Individualism among the Burmese workers

The data analysis revealed that the individualism was more

outstanding among the Burmese workers. These people seemed to focus on the self

and their family instead of groups. They appeared to stick to their own ideas when

dealing with tasks in the social group or their organization as explained below:

“Sometimes working is exhausting, but relaxing. We start work at 8 and stop

at 5.” (Surat Thani, Service, personal communication, May 09, 2016)

“I think we all take care of our work. When making a mistake we are

responsible for it. But without doing anything wrong we can stay here.” (Songkhla,

Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2016)

4.1.1.2 High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance

1) High power distance among Thai employers

The data analysis indicated that the Thai employers reflected

more of high power distance. That is to say, they believed that each person with

different positions performed different roles and they were unequal. Those people

with more power could indicate subordinate roles. People were taught to believe in

inequality and tasks were assigned based on their positions.

“I rarely socialize with subordinates. I am closer to foreman colleagues and

get along well with them. I see no point of getting close to the workers. I am here to

help them with work.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, August 05,

2016)

After the ship reaches the port the workers help themselves. But when they run

out of rice, they can ask for help from me. On land we can also assign them to

do tasks. Sometimes we reward them with a bottle of energy drink or stuff, but

not money. (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)

Our workers are afraid of my dad and my husband, for example, when they

don’t understand our accounting system or the wage is not congruent to the

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sum they calculated, they ask me. But, I’m sure with my accounting skills. So,

when my husband said, ‘Don’t you understand?’ they stop arguing. (Surat

Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)

2) High power distance among the Burmese workers

The interview with the Burmese workers indicated a high

degree of power distance. The workers realized the significantly different roles and

status between the workers and the employers and the inequality of their jobs and

qualities of life. When they had problems they did not dare to talk to the employers.

But preferred to talk to their colleagues as quoted below:

“When encountering with work problems I usually talk to my Burmese friend

who has long been in Thailand and have more speaking skills rather than talking to

the supervisor.” (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal communication, August24, 2016)

“Work is sometimes tiring, but I need to tolerate the tiredness.

However, sometimes it is not too tough. Working as a construction worker is

just like that; our life is just like that.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal

communication, August 05, 2016)

4.1.1.3 Uncertainty Avoidance

1) High uncertainty avoidance among the Thai

employers

It was found that the Thai employers showed high

indications of uncertainty avoidance. They were afraid of uncertainty in the

future. They rely on strict laws and have fixed plans and rules. Also, they are

direct and reliable and have social expectation. These are clearly reflected in

the following quotes.

“We don’t allow the migrant workers to keep the real copy of their official

document since we are afraid they might leave us and work with other employers.”

(Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, August 05, 2016)

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Frankly, if a friend of my worker gets on the site, I am in trouble. In other

words, I will be subject to a fine of 100,000 baht on a charge of providing

accommodation by a visit from a migrant friend with no passport. Then I

remind them that if it happens, they will be fined. (Songkhla, Construction,

personal communication, August 05, 2016)

A numbers of migrant workers moved back to their home country due to the

economic crisis. Some of them asked for advance pay, and then fled back.

Especially, ‘bad Burmese workers,’ when the ship reached the harbor, they are

gone or they flee at night without notification. But, this does not happen in my

organization since we are fierce. If they do it, they will be ‘punished.’ Thus no

one dares. In the past this sometimes happened, but now that are afraid of the

law or if they do, I will ‘slap them on their head. (Surat Thani, Fishery,

personal communication , May 22, 2016)

“The workers who can tolerate the rules can work here, but those, who cannot,

need to quit the jobs.” (Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

2) High uncertainty avoidance among the Burmese workers

The data analysis indicated that the Burmese workers reflected

high uncertainty avoidance. They were uncertain about changes in the future. They

needed plans and security for work. Besides, regular pay and security in their jobs are

necessary. Thus, they usually sought for better jobs as explained below:

“I had worked in Phang Nga and then moved here taking my friend’s

suggestion. The reason for the move was that I can do more rubber tapping and gain

more income. In Phang Nga it usually rains, rubber tapping is affected.” (Songkhla,

Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2016)

“In Myanmar, I have a betel palm plantation. It has been three years now.

When it is ready for harvesting I might move back, but now I need to make money

here.” (Surat Thani, Agriculture, , personal communication, August 24, 2016)

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4.1.1.4 Masculinity vs. Femininity

1) Femininity among the Thai employers

The data analysis indicated that the Thai employers favored

femininity culture. They focused on human beings and the environment with the

philosophy that humans and nature can rely on each other. Flexibility, qualities of life,

and relationship between people are their ultimate goals rather than material success

as presented in the quotes below:

In Myanmar, conflicts among the states are obvious. When recruiting the

Burmese workers to work in our farms, a careful interview about their

domicile is essential. Otherwise, the workers from different states might fight

against each other. We need to separate them. Positive relationship grows in

our farm as the workers persuade their friends or relatives to work here. We

stick together like relatives. However, when problems occur it is impossible to

move some of them to another farm as the workers might come from different

states provided that the workers voluntarily ask for the transfer as they might

have a friend in a target farm. Thus, we consider their congeniality. (Surat

Thani, Agriculture, personal communication, August 24, 2016)

“In our organization we rarely recruit new people since my mom takes good

care of the workers. Their quality of life is good here and they can ask for advance

pay, for example, when they want to get back home.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal

communication, May22, 2016)

“For New Year, we held a party and gave presents to our workers. But, since

there are lots of them, not all of them got presents. We had a lucky draw.”

(Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, July30, 2016)

2) Masculinity among the Burmese workers

The interview data analysis indicated masculinity culture

among the Burmese workers. They appeared to focus on success in work and money.

Their ultimate goal was to gain more money from Thailand to survive and support

their future family. The participants shared their ideas below:

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“Working is exhausting, I gain money from it. We do rubber tapping

differently from other workers. We start at 10 pm, while they do it at 2 or 3 am. They

get 1 gallon of latex liquid, but we get 5.” (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal

communication, August 04, 2016)

“I can collect more money working in Thailand. In Myanmar, I earn less

money, for example, doing rice plantation provides me with inadequate money. Then

I come here to gain more for my kids and for their bright future.” (Songkhla,

Construction, personal communication, August 05, 2016)

The above results were based on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, while

the section below presents the results of the intercultural communications between the

Thai employers and Burmese workers through the lenses of Psycho-Cultural

Influences. The results are presented in the following section.

4.1.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences

Psycho-Cultural Influences are influential on many aspects of intercultural

communications. In this study, the focus was on two challenging influences on the

communications. They include 1) stereotypes, and 2) intergroup attitudes referring to

prejudice and ethnocentrism (Metta Vivatananukul, 2016, p.144).

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Table 4.2 Comparison of Psycho-Cultural Influences of Thai employers and

Burmese workers

Psycho-Cultural Influences

Thai employers Burmese workers

Burmese workers were stereotypically

perceived as fierce, wild, and unreliable

by Thai employers; however, after having

direct experiences of hiring them some

good characteristics were discovered. For

example, they were hardworking,

tolerant, loyal, and religious. Thus,

positive stereotypes replaced the negative

ones held at the beginning.

Burmese workers were aware of

separation in Thai society. Especially the

Thai who had no direct experiences with

them, Thai individuals usually look down

on them and regard them as causes of the

problems in the south. Besides, they

realized that Thai people had xenophobia

towards them.

4.1.2.1 Psycho-Cultural Influences on Thai Employers

The data analysis showed that the Thai employers stereotypically

perceived the Burmese workers as fierce and wild. After they worked together, the

stereotype was gradually decreased and swept away. Then they became closer. The

“otherness” image of the Burmese workers was gone and they were masked with

many outstanding characteristics, which were not found in Thai people, such as being

hardworking, tolerant, and loyal, although, sometimes they focused too much on the

pay. In addition, the most outstanding characteristic of the Burmese workers was that

they were very strict Buddhists, who regarded making merit as their priority. As a

result, they were modest and tolerant as shown in the quotes below:

“Burmese workers are very modest. They depend a lot on us. For example,

when their music is too loud on the fishing ship and are told about it, they stop the

music. In contrast, for Thai workers we cannot complain or scold them.” (Surat Thani,

Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)

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“In the current economic situation, I prefer to hire Burmese workers not

because of the pay, but their characteristics. Most of them are eager to help, not

defensive and tricky.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, May 05,

2016)

1) Stereotype of being wild in the Burmese workers

The Thai employers described their perceptions that the

underlying causes behind crime news or wild behaviors to the employers were

associated with how the workers were exploited and treated unfairly by Thai

employers. Their explanations are shown below:

Taking a close look at all the problems, we would see that most of them were

resulted from how Burmese workers are exploited by Thai employers. The

case seems worse for maids, who usually get lower wage than agreed at first.

Sometimes the employers offer to keep the money for them, but when they

quit the employers take all the money. Thus, the workers get mad and that is

the cause of all the problems in Thailand. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal

communication, August 24, 2016)

“Most Thai employers exploit Burmese workers until they were angry

resulting in chronic anger.” (Ranong, Construction, personal communication, May 23,

2016)

2) Enterprises allowing/ not allowing Burmese workers to

show their identities

The outstanding Burmese workers’ identities were shown

clearly in the way they eat betel nuts, wear Sarong, eating styles, and being

economized. Some identities were allowed in public, while some of them needed to

be hidden under some condition at work. For example, they were not allowed to eat

betel nuts, apply Tanaka Powder, or wear Sarong in hotel businesses, while those

practices were acceptable for other businesses such as construction, agriculture and

livestock, and fishery. The quotes below can explain the findings.

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“Burmese workers are allowed to do anything at work. They can wear Sarong,

take their shirt off, eat betel nuts, or openly split the betel nuts away after chewing.”

(Surat Thani, Construction, personal communication, August 08, 2016)

“Most Burmese workers apply Tanaka powder, but almost all of them eat betel

nuts. The betel nut waste is everywhere. It is not as popular among women as among

men.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication, July 30, 2016)

Meanwhile, in hotel businesses their identities needed to be

hidden as quoted below:

Applying Tanaka Power and eating betel nuts are Burmese identities, but they

cannot be shown here. I ask them not to get in groups and talk since some

customers were against the Burmese. Sometimes, I cannot help with it. They

talk in Burmese and our quests discover their national identity. (Surat Thani,

Service, personal communication, May 09, 2016)

3) Direct experiences as a factor reducing ethnic stereotypes

towards Burmese workers

The data analysis indicated more positive stereotypes towards

Burmese workers after the Thai employers had direct experiences with them. In other

words, the stereotypes such as the Burmese were fierce and wild or poor at

communicating had thus been eradicated. However, similarly other Thai people the

employers, who had no direct experiences with Burmese workers, were still with

those negative stereotypes as explained below:

“The first time I worked with Burmese workers was terrifying. That day I

went to Songkhla with my husband. They really frightened me, but as I was the

captain’s wife, they didn’t do anything.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal

communication, May 22, 2016)

“Thai people perceive the Burmese as wild and fierce, but actually they are not

like that. When interacting with them we will know that they share similar

104

characteristics with Thai people.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal

communication, May 08, 2016)

“The Burmese are united in everything they do. When holding a special event

they all come regardless of their different origins. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal

communication, August 24, 2016)

4) Strong faith in Buddhism of the Burmese workers

Another outstanding characteristic of the Burmese workers was

their devotion to Buddhism and the focus on making merit. The Thai employers

explained their observation of the unique characteristic below:

It is outstanding that on holy days the Burmese always offer flowers to the

Buddha image on the pedestal at their places. Everyone has a pedestal and

their parents’ pictures at home. On holy days, incents and candles are lit and

put in front of every house. (Surat Thani, Agriculture, personal

communication, August 24, 2016)

“The Burmese are religious. They go to the Thai temple on religious holidays.

The temple is built by the workers and looks like Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar.

Both Thai and Burmese monks stay in the temple.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal

communication, May 22, 2016)

During Kathin Festival (an event in which Buddhists offer yellow robes and

money the monks), the Burmese group donated 40,000 to 50,000 baht. Their

friends from other areas join the event, even though some are from Sadao.

Once they collected more than 80,000 baht. Besides, they always sit on the

floor to pay respect to the Buddha. They never sit on the chairs, and on holy

days they always offer flowers to the Buddhist image. (Songkhla, Agriculture,

personal communication, August 04, 2016)

5) Ethnic diversity of Myanmar employees in Thailand

Problems in ethnic minority groups in Myanmar are remained

unsolved. Employers were also aware of the conflicts when workers with different

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ethnic groups were in their organization. Some of them took their people side when

workers had conflicts as explained below:

“We have many groups of migrant workers including Burmese, Yakhai, and

Tawai. Sometimes, they had conflicts just like the people in the north and the south in

Thailand.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal communication, May 08, 2016)

There are no Burmese workers here. We only have Mon employees. They are

nice. Mon and Burmese cannot get along with very well. The Mon usually

perceives the Burmese to be mean and dirty. They said the Burmese extorted

some money from them. For example, Burmese soldiers usually confiscate

rice from farmers. In some instances the farmers harvest rice and half of it will

be taken by the soldiers. (Songkhla, Construction, personal communication,

July 30, 2016)

“Most the Burmese and Mon don’t get along well with each other. The

Burmese can hurt their employers.” (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal communication,

August 04, 2016)

4.1.2.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences of Burmese Workers

The data analysis of psycho-cultural influences on the Burmese workers

revealed that the workers were aware of ethnic separatism from Thai people in

general rather than from the Thai employers. In other words, Thai people usually

look down on the Burmese and see them as inferior. Whenever, the two parties have

conflicts the Burmese were always wrong. The ethnic separatism among the Thai

employers associated with types of jobs and wage. Even though, the Burmese

participants explained that they needed to hide their Burmese “identities” from taking

some jobs such as in hotel businesses. However, the prohibition did not affect their

work performances. Besides, conflicts within ethnic groups were found. For example,

the Burmese, Mon, Thai Yai, and Karen were likely to be alienated from the Burmese.

According to the in-depth interview, some Burmese participants realized the

necessity of hiding their identities such as their language since they were afraid of

being insulted by Thai people. In addition, they did not want to be the others in Thai

society as shown in the quotes below:

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“Even though we are not in Sarongs, other people will know that we are

Burmese from how we talk” (Ranong, Agriculture, personal communication, May 24,

2016)

1) Burmese workers feelings towards the separatism

The Burmese participants were aware of the separatism

between the Thai and Burmese. They would like Thai people to eradicate the ideas

such as stop using bad words or insulting language to the Burmese as quoted below:

“I am sad about separation of Thai people. It shouldn’t happen since we are all

humans. However, some Thai people admire us saying the Burmese are hardworking.

I am happy to talk to those people.” (Surat Thani, Service, personal communication,

May 09, 2016)

I am sometimes mistaken by Thai people. They usually say, “Are you

Burmese? I thought you were Thai.” I am not mad, but I just want them to

know that some Burmese are good looking. Some Thai people are uglier than

the Burmese and there are both good and bad people in the world, Thai people

as well. (Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

“I don’t want Thai police to discriminate against the Burmese. I don’t want it

to happen. We are all human beings. Thai and Burmese people are all human. We are

all good. I don’t want us to be separated.” (Ranong, Fishery, personal communication,

May 24, 2016)

“I felt bad when thinking that, “people usually think that the migrant workers

are always bad, aren’t the Burmese human?” (Songkhla, Service, personal

communication, July 28, 2016)

We all need to admit that we are different. I feel bad when being called

“foreigners” as it means we are different. If I were Thai, I got more money,

but as migrant workers we earn less, while working more, for example in the

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construction jobs. (Songklha, Agricutlture, personal communication, August

04, 2016)

2) Taking religion seriously: the superior feeling over Thai

people

The Burmese participants perceived Thai people to be careless

Buddhists. They blamed Thai people for some inappropriate behaviors as quoted

below:

Thais and Burmese are different in how they make merit. In Myanmar we

donate more stuffs and money to the monks and more people go to the

temples, both children and adults. But, in Thailand only the elderly go there.

Moreover, how we behave when being with the monks is different. In

Thailand people sit in the same level as the monks, but in Myanmar monks

must sit in the higher position. Sitting in the same level as the monks is bad.

Here people don’t take their shoes off when talking to the monks or sit on the

chairs. The practices are wrong. (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal

communication, August 04, 2016)

3) Ethnic conflicts of Burmese workers in Thailand

The data analysis revealed that the Burmese participants

experienced ethnic conflicts and ethnocentric reactions. They were likely to believe

that their ethnic group was superior to others. So far the ethnic conflict has resulted in

a number of their national security problems since numbers of ethnic groups such as

Mon, Burmese, Karen, and Thai Yai shared the country. The feeling of being different

among the people in Myanmar is felt wherever they are. The quotes below explain the

notion.

“Sometimes, we are called, “Burmese.” We are not Burmese, we are Mon.

Mon and Burmese are different. (How do you feel about the Burmese?) Nothing, but

we are Mon. We would like to be called Mon.” (Songkhla, Construction, personal

communication, July 30, 2016)

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“Mon language is different from Burmese. Mon people can speak Burmese,

but the Burmese do not understand our language. We are bilingual.” (Songkhla,

Agriculture, August 04, 2016)

“I am not a native Burmese. I am a “Mon” when I try to speak Burmese,

policemen detect it or they can see it on my ID card. If I speak Burmese with Mon

accent, I will be treated badly. In Myanmar policemen are more fearful than soldiers.”

(Ranong, Fishery, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

4.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors

Mass media is influential in forming perceptions and creating understanding

about ethnic groups, especially regarding their power and identities. However, most of

the time the contents in mass media do not match with the truth. Thus, the power of

media possession and frequencies of presentation also play roles in forming images of

the migrant workers. As a result, intercultural communications has an active role in

raising self-perceptions and perceptions towards ethnic groups as well as their ethnic

or cultural stereotypes from mass media contents (Metta Vivatananukul, 2005, p.14).

Consequently, in this study, media exposure behavior concepts were applied as a

framework for the data analysis. The results are summarized and presented in Table

4.3.

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Table 4.3 Comparison of media exposure behaviors between Thai employers and

Burmese Workers

Media Exposure Behaviors

Thai Employers Burmese Employees

The contents in Thai mass media are

exaggerated and distorted. Reproduction

of hostility feelings against Myanmar was

outstanding. Thus, mass media played

roles in forming negative stereotypes

towards the Burmese. Thai employers did

not trust the Burmese despite direct

experiences with them.

The images of the Burmese on Thai mass

media were inappropriate for the Burmese.

However, they played keyed roles on their

lives in Thailand since they gained

knowledge and entertainment from the

media. Moreover, social media such as You

Tube were complimentary to their life in

Myanmar.

4.1.3.1 The Media Exposure Behaviors of Thai Employers

The data analysis revealed that mass media in Thailand was influential

in forming the Thai employers’ beliefs, thought, and attitudes. Consequently, these

people stereotypically perceived the characteristics and behaviors of the Burmese

workers based on what was presented through the media. However, the influences

were lessened after those employers had experiences working with the workers until

those savage images were faded away over time.

Hence, mass media played key roles in forming Thai employers’

attitudes towards the Burmese characteristics. However, with direct experiences

working with them, the negative attitudes disappeared as quoted below:

“I have heard the news about crimes committed by Burmese workers and I am

afraid it might happen to me. Anyway, after working together I am not afraid of them

since we have shared our ideas.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal communication,

May 08, 2016)

Mass media plays an active role in transferring negative images of the

Burmese. More consideration should be made after exposure to the media. For

example, regarding a crime on Koh Tao, the mass media presented a lot of

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negative information about the ethnic group. (Surat Thani, Agriculture,

personal communication, August 24, 2016)

In addition, the Thai employers believed that the contents on Thai mass

media are exaggerated and distorted with the major aim of gaining higher rating

instead of presenting real information as shown in the quotes below:

“We usually heard of crimes conducted by the Burmese. I would like the

media to report positive images of the people since outsiders might have negative

feeling towards them and be afraid of them.” (Surat Thani, Construction, personal

communication, May 08, 2016)

Moreover, the Thai employers explained that Thai mass media often

accuse the Burmese without careful examination of the facts in the presentation of

crime news in which the Burmese were excused as quoted below:

“The contents on Thai media are sometimes exaggerated. Not all the Burmese

are bad. The media try to accuse the Burmese seeing them as the Burmese,

who don’t know anything and are made as scapegoats. The truth is Thai

people did it, but “money” could hide everything.” (Surat Thani, Fishery,

personal communication, May 22, 2016)

“Giving more freedom to the media is like a double-edged sword. With no

fixed rules the Burmese might be too independent. They might not like Thai mass

media, but they cannot reveal it.” (Ranong, Fishery, personal communication, May

24, 2016)

4.1.3.2 The Media Exposure Behaviors of the Burmese Workers

The data analysis indicated no resistant feeling or stereotypes towards

Thailand as quoted below:

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“I watched “Bang Ra Jun” sometimes with not much attention. Then I just had

a quick look and don’t believe that the Thai and Burmese are opponents. (Ranong,

Agriculture, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

“Negative images of the Burmese are transferred through historical movies.

They are just movies and the history was long ago. I live for the present.” (Surat

Thani, Service, personal communication, May 09, 2016)

The Burmese workers exposed to both Thai and Burmese media,

especially television and various online media. The purposes of their exposure were to

gain news, entertainment, practice Thai, and as a compliment to their life in Myanmar

by exposing to Burmese music videos, songs, and praying clips on YouTube as

explain below:

“We watch Thai TV to know about the news and economics or sport news.

Also, we learn Thai from the Thai contents instead of talking to Thai people, which is

harder.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22 , 2016)

I usually watch TV on holidays or at night, mostly soap operas and news. I

prefer Thai news and not much Burmese. I like watching news after the soap

opera on Channel 7. At the beginning I watched TV to gain more Thai skills.

Also, I enjoy watching Chinese movies late at night such as Pao Bun Jin.

When I don’t understand anything I make notes in Burmese or Mon as a mean

to practice. I get 2-3 new words each night. (Ranong, Service, personal

communication, May 24, 2016)

“I like watching Channel 7, but I rarely watch soap operas since I need to go

rubber tapping. In the morning I check rubber prices on TV or watch crime news. I

wait until I am done with rubber tapping, then I can watch soap operas.” (Songkhla,

Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2559).

In addition to the exposure to Thai mass media, the Burmese workers

used social media as a mean to contact with their relatives or for other purposes such

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as watching Dhamma or moral lessons on You Tube until the media substituted TV as

they explained:

“I am on Facebook to follow Burmese news. Sometimes, I encounter with

Thai contents, but I can’t read them, while, on YouTube I listen to Buddhist monks

praying.” (Songkhla, Agriculture, personal communication, August 04 , 2016)

With regards to the crime on Koh Tao in Surat Thani and the

preliminary investigation revealing that Burmese workers might be the murderers.

The Burmese participants had a notion of their surrender to Thai laws, which were not

defensible as clarified in the quotes below:

I am so sorry to hear about the case in Koh Tao. If the Burmese committed it,

they need to be punished. I understand. But I feel pity for them and I can do

nothing to help. It might be the Kharma they did and they need to admit to it.

We can’t help, can we? If the Burmese steal things, we can do nothing (just

punish them by law), no regrets there. Bad people do bad things; we need to

take it easy. They committed it in their last life, that’s why they need to take

care of the Kharma. (Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24,

2016)

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4.1.4 Perceptions towards History of Relationship between Thai

Employers and Burmese Workers

Table 4.4 Comparison of perceptions towards history of relationship between Thai

and Burmese

Perceptions towards History of Relationship between Thai and Burmese

Thai Employers Burmese Employees

The war between the Thai and Burmese was

not engraved on the Thai employers’

memory since they were aware that it

happened long ago and was not connected to

the present. Thus, they did not rely on the

oral evidence when evaluating Burmese

workers’ performances.

The Burmese workers denied their

perceptions towards Thai people as

their “enemy” and extended their guilt

to their poor education in their home

country.

4.1.4.1 Perception of Thai Employers towards the Relationship

between Thais and Burmese

The data analysis revealed that most employer participants had learned

about the Thai and Burmese historical conflict in class. However, the negative

information was not engraved on their memory. They clarified that the war had

happened and was not connected to their life at present. Besides, they explained that if

Thai people had experiences working with Burmese workers, the feeling of “enemy”

would disappear. In addition, the employers extended that they had never learned the

history from the standpoint of the Burmese but their own. With more direct

experiences with Burmese workers the feeling of “enemy” was lessened.

“The Burmese came to Thailand to ask for work, not to revenge. They have

more problems with the Mon. We go too far thinking that the Burmese are our enemy.

The truth is Thai and Laotian also have conflicts, but the matter is not that severe.”

(Ranong, Agriculture, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

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“The historical event was not influential in cooperating with the Burmese

since some of them have worked with a single employer for 10 years.” (Ranong,

Fishery, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

“I had learned about the conflicts between Thai and Burmese in class, but I

don’t know when the feeling of cultural difference was gone. I am used to it now.”

(Ranong, Agriculture, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

“Most Burmese don’t see Thai people as their enemy. They don’t have the

idea as they are staying in our country although some of them might be violent.”

(Ranong, Service, personal communication, May 24, 2016)

However, when asking about the exposure to films based on historical

event, the Thai employers explained that they did not remember the historical

conflicts contents from the films between Thai and Burmese. They did not see any

connection to the relationship between Thai and Burmese workers at present. They

watched the movies to entertain themselves as quoted below:

“I watch historical films just for fun rather than for increasing hatred between

Thai and Burmese” (Ranong, Construction, personal communication, May 23, 2016)

“Historical movies were based on past events. The conflicts between Thai and

Burmese are already faded away in our generation.” (Ranong, Agriculture, personal

communication, May 24, 2016)

Considering the inadequate historical knowledge about Thai and

Burmese, the Thai employers indicated that educational systems were influential in

cultivating conflicts from the past events. For example, the lesson on wars between

the two nations had impacts on cultivating the feelings of “enemy” for those who had

opportunities learning in formal education rather than those who lack the chances as

explained below:

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“Most Thai people including our parent generation don’t know about the

conflicts between Thai and Burmese. However, if we took a history class, it will be

discovered.” (Surat Thani, Fishery, personal communication, May 22, 2016)

“The conflicts between Thai and Burmese had ended and had no connection to

the present. Only those who learn history would perceive the Burmese as an “enemy.”

(Ranong, Construction, personal communication, May 23, 2016)

4.1.4.2 Perception of Burmese Workers towards Relationship between Thai

and Burmese

The majority of the Burmese workers revealed that they had no

knowledge and had never known about the historical conflicts between Thai and

Burmese as Thai people do. The participants explained that people with low education

might not get enough information about the historical conflicts between the two

nations. Most of them were not aware of its significance and realized that there were

no connections between the history and people at present. Basically, most of the

Burmese migrated to Thailand because of two reasons: more vacancies and more pay

to those in Myanmar. In addition, they seemed to go over the feeling of “enemy,”

which was widely spread in Thailand. The clarifications are below:

“At the beginning, I had no idea about Thailand. Those with high education

might know about it, but I had no chance to further my study.” (Surat Thani, Service,

personal communication, May 09, 2016)

I have no idea about where the saying about Thai and Burmese conflicts came

from. I am here to work. Now I am learning. Some Burmese might steal

things, but seeing them, as an “enemy” was wrong since the conflict happened

now. The conflicts happened but are too old now. (Ranong, Fishery, personal

communication, May 24, 2016)

Some groups of Burmese workers confirmed that there was no

information about Thai and Burmese conflicts in class, except the information about

their relationship with neighboring countries in ASEAN as they explained:

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“When I was 5-6 years old, I studied English and learned about many areas

regarding Myanmar, but there was nothing about Thailand.” (Surat Thani, Fishery,

personal communication, May 22, 2016)

I started school at the age of 6 until I graduated (Mathayom 2 comparing to

Thai education). The lessons were delivered exclusively in Burmese, while

some general subjects were in English. There was no information about

Thailand. It was known as our neighbor. (Ranong, Fishery, personal

communication, May24, 2016)

“As far as I could remember, I have learned about Malaysia and Singapore,

but not about Thailand.” (Songkhla, Service, personal communication, July 28, 2016)

In Myanmar, I have no ideas about the conflicts. After moving here I learned

about it. Also, I learned it from a movie, which I couldn’t remember the name.

It was mainly about the past, which isn’t connected to us at present. If it is

true, it has happened and already ended. We don’t need to fight against each

other (sign)…(seemed like eager to say that where the idea was from).

(Songkhla, Agriculture, personal communication, August 04, 2016)

In addition, the results showed different problems in adaptation between

the two groups of the Burmese worker participants including the Burmese workers

whose original nationality was proven and those imported based on MOU. The

differences had influences on the control of the employers and their integration to

negotiate. Generally, the MOU workers were likely to have more communications

and work skills than the other group.

The interview data analysis provided answers to research question #1.

The results are concluded below:

1. Most Thai employers had positive perception towards employment of

migrant workers.

2. The Thai employers and Burmese workers working in the same

organization didn’t rely on each other.

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3. One-way adjustment among the Burmese workers was more

outstanding than that of the Thai employers.

Therefore, this led to the investigation to respond to the two research

objectives: the research objective #2 and #3. The qualitative results, which answered

research objective #1, were baseline data for the design of the questionnaire. The

research tool was aimed to exclusively survey the Burmese workers’ opinions as

presented in the quantitative results below:

4.2 The Quantitative Results

Research Objective #2: To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards

Thai culture and their own

Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and

organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves to work in the south

A set of closed ended questionnaire was distributed to 421 Burmese workers

in 3 provinces including Surat Thani, Ranong, and Songkhla. The respondents were

limited to those in 4 businesses: agriculture and livestock, construction, service, and

fishery.

The results are reported into two parts. They are as follows:

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4.2.1 Results from a Survey of the Burmese Workers

Table 4.5 Frequencies and percentage of working areas, types of businesses, and

organizational structures

Variables Numbers of

Organizations Percentage

Working Areas

Surat Thani 159 37.8

Ranong 136 32.3

Songkhla 126 29.9

Total 421 100.0

Types of Businesses

Agriculture and livestock 83 19.7

Construction 115 27.3

Service 86 20.4

Fishery 137 32.5

Total 421 100.0

Organizational Structures

Clear organizational

structures

157 37.3

No organizational structures 264 62.7

Total 421 100.0

According to table 4.5, 37.8 percent of the respondents worked in Surat Thani.

Meanwhile, 32.3 of the workers were in Ranong, and 29.9 percent of them settled in

Songkhla. Most of them or 32.5 percent were in fishery businesses, followed by 27.3

in construction and 20.4 in service, while 19.7 percent were in agriculture and

livestock. Next, regarding types of the workplaces considering from the

organizational structures, 62.7 of the respondents were in the organizations with no

structures, while 37.3 worked for the organizational with clear internal structures.

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Table 4.6 Frequencies and percentage of genders, ages, nationalities, education,

characteristics of living, and work experiences in Myanmar

Variables Numbers (person) Percentage

Genders

Male 163 38.7

Female 258 61.3

Ages

20 or lower 43 10.2

21-30 209 49.6

31-40 121 28.7

41-50 44 10.5

More than 50 4 1.0

Nationalities

Mon 68 16.2

Thai Yai 25 5.9

Karen 39 9.3

Burmese 282 67.0

Others 7 1.7

Education

Primary (1-4) 112 26.6

Early High School (5-8) 220 52.3

Late High School (9-10) 77 18.3

Bachelor Degree 12 2.9

Characteristics of Living

Staying with Thai people 101 24.0

Staying with Burmese workers 261 62.0

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Table 4.6 (Continued)

Variables Numbers (person) Percentage

Staying alone 57 13.5

Others 2 .5

Work Experiences in Myanmar

With work experiences 237 56.3

Without work experiences 184 43.7

Table 4.6 reveals that the majority of the respondents was female and shared

61.3 percent. Regarding the age, 49.6 percent of the respondents aged from 21 to 30

years old. Most of them or 67 percent were Burmese. Next, in terms of education,

52.3 percent of the respondents finished early high school level (grade 5-8). Besides,

62 of them stayed with Burmese colleagues. Finally, more than half of the

respondents or 56.3 percent had experiences working in Myanmar.

Table 4.7 Frequencies and percentage of the media, objectives of media exposure,

presentation of contents about Myanmar by Thai mass media, and

responses to negative contents about the Burmese

Variables Numbers (person) Percentage

Types of Media

1.Radio 58 13.9

2.Television 153 36.7

3.Facebook 183 43.9

4.YouTube 45 10.8

5.Other media/ social media 38 9.1

Objectives of Media Exposure

1.To entertain 57 13.6

2.To practice Thai 82 19.6

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Table 4.7 (Continued)

Variables Numbers (person) Percentage

3.To follow situations in Thailand 109 26.0

4.To follow situations in Myanmar 135 32.2

5.To complement to their life in Myanmar 88 21.0

6.Others 18 4.3

Presentation of Contents about

Myanmar by Thai Mass Media

1.Political news in Myanmar 130 30.9

2.Crime news conducted by the Burmese in

Thailand

138 32.8

3.Travel documentary in Myanmar 86 20.4

4.Thai and Burmese historical soap operas 49 11.6

Others 18 4.3

Responses to Negative Contents about

the Burmese

1.Convinced by the contents 59 14.0

2.Searching for more information from

acquaintances

150 35.6

3.Searching for more information from

online media

76 18.1

4.Comparing to prior knowledge 81 19.2

5.Comparing to employers’ and colleagues’

behaviors

46 10.9

6.Others 9 2.1

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According to table 4.7, 43.9 percent of the respondents used Facebook, 36.7

percent exposed to television, and 13.9 percent preferred the radios. Regarding the

objectives of Thai media exposure, 32.2 percent of the respondents wanted to follow

the situations in Myanmar, 26 percent focused on learning new situations in Thailand,

while 21 percent of them exposed to the media in order to complement to their life in

Myanmar

Most respondents (32.8 percent) realized that Thai mass media presented the

contents of “crimes committed by the Burmese in Thailand” most frequently, 30.9

believed that “political news in Myanmar” was second most frequently presented, and

20.4 percent observed the presentation of “travel documentary in Myanmar.”

After the exposure to negative contents about the Burmese on Thai media,

35.6 percent of the respondents “search for more information from acquaintances,

19.2 “compared the new information to their prior knowledge,” while 18.1 “ seek for

more information from online media.”

In addition to the investigation of variables of demographic characteristics, 3

extra variables were included to examine the Burmese workers’ adaptation abilities.

The variables are 1) Ethnic attitudes, 2)Religious behaviors, and 3)Knowledge about

Thai cultures

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Table 4.8 Mean and S.D. of ethnic attitudes

Ethnic attitudes Mean S.D. Scales

1. Thai people usually look down on the Burmese 3.35 1.51 Moderately Agree

2. Thai people avoid communicating with the

Burmese

3.09 1.39 Moderately Agree

3. Burmese workers are usually accused of

committing bad things.

3.18 1.48 Moderately Agree

4. Thai employers assign tasks unfairly. 3.09 1.46 Moderately Agree

5. Thai people usually take advantage of the Burmese,

especially those in recruiting agencies.

3.32 1.43 Moderately Agree

6. Thai employers are too strict with Burmese

workers.

3.30 1.42 Moderately Agree

7. Thai people usually complaint on how the Burmese

apply Tanaka and wear Sarong.

3.37 1.51 Moderately Agree

8. The Burmese are more competent than Thai people. 3.61 1.34 Mostly Agree

9. The Burmese are more tolerate than Thai people. 3.82 1.37 Mostly Agree

10. Sellers usually sell defected products to the

Burmese

3.19 1.45 Moderately Agree

Total 3.33 1.08 Moderately Agree

Table 4.8 reveals that in general the majority of respondents had moderate

ethnic attitudes with the mean of 3.33 (S.D.= 1.08). Most of them highly agree with

item 9, “The Burmese are more tolerate than Thai people.” The mean was 3.82 with

S.D. of 1.3, which referred to “Mostly Agree.” Next, most of them believed that their

English was better than the Thai with the mean of 3.61 (S.D.=1.34). It also fell into

“Mostly Agree.” Finally, they believed that the Thai shouldn’t complain on how they

apply Tanaka or wear Sarong. The mean was 3.17 and S.D. was1.34, which fell into

“Moderately Agree.”

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Table 4.9 Mean and S.D. of religious behaviors

Religious Behaviors Mean S.D. Scale

1. Frequencies of going to Thai temples to make merit

on Buddhist special days

4.01 1.30 High

2. Frequencies of participating in religious ceremonies such

as praying, worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to

religious lessons in Thailand.

3.88 1.30 High

3. Frequencies of participating in Buddhist activities such as

donating money to temples, Kathin Ceremony (Offering

yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering

showering ropes to the monks).

3.90 1.24 High

4. Frequencies of applying the Buddha’s words such as

those about being tolerate, patient, and grateful in work.

3.85 1.20 High

5. Frequencies of offering food, necessary stuffs, rice, or

dried food to the monks in Thailand.

3.65 1.30 High

6. Frequencies of renovating Thai temples by fixing them or

assisting in construction of chapels, halls, or buildings.

3.43 1.42 High

7. Frequencies of promoting your children or relatives to

become a monk or novice monk in Thailand.

3.24 1.47 Moderate

8. Frequencies of participating in ordination ceremonies of

your children or relative in Thailand.

3.04 1.50 Moderate

Total 3.63 .99 High

Table 4.9 indicates high frequencies of religious behaviors of most

participants. The mean was 3.63 and S.D. was .99. Most of them preferred going to

Thai temples to make merit on Buddhist special days. The item gained the mean of

4.01 with the S.D. of 1.30, which referred to “High” scale. Next, the respondents

participated in Buddhist activities such as donating money to temples, Kathin

Ceremony (Offering yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering showering

ropes to the monks) with “High” frequencies. The mean was 3.90 and the S.D. was

125

1.24. Finally, the frequencies of the participation in religious ceremonies such as

praying, worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to religious lessons in Thailand

was also “High” with the mean ad S.D. of 3.88 and 1.30, respectively.

126

Table 4.10 Mean and percentage of the Burmese workers’ knowledge about Thai

culture

Knowledge about Thai Culture Correct Answers Wrong Answers

(Persons) (Percentage) (Persons) (Percentage)

1. It is acceptable to wear shoes in Thai temples,

but you must take them off before entering a

chapel.

64 15.2 357 84.8

2. The “Wai” (bow, with the palms pressed

together) is commonly for greeting and showing

respect to others in various situations such as to

sellers.

95 22.6 326 77.4

3. It is acceptable to wear red clothes to the

funeral if the dead person is not your relatives.

132 31.4 289 68.6

4. It is unnecessary for men to wear a top when

contacting with governmental offices, but women

need to do it every time.

234 55.6 187 44.4

5. It is acceptable to greet Thai monks as do to

other people such as saying, “Hi, Sir.”

117 27.8 304 72.2

6. It is acceptable to share the food on your plate

to others provided that the hands are clean.

211 50.1 210 49.9

7. While eating it is acceptable to loudly talk to

people on a nearby table, but not too long in a

restaurant.

286 67.9 135 32.1

8. In public transportation, it is acceptable for

everyone to sit close to the monk’s seat.

257 61.0 164 39.0

9. It is acceptable to address the elders without

using pronouns such as brother, uncle, aunt, and

etc.

309 73.4 112 26.6

10. It is acceptable to put your feet on the table

when talking to friends you are familiar with.

303 72.0 118 28.0

Total 200.8 47.7 220.2 52.3

Table 4.10 indicates that the respondents had poor knowledge about Thai

culture. Only 47.7 percent of them chose the correct answers, while 52.3 marked the

wrong alternatives. To be specific, the three most correct items included: 1)

127

addressing the elders without adding pronouns such as brother, uncle, aunt, and etc

with 73.4 correct answers, 2) 72 percent of the answers were correct when being

asked about whether it is acceptable to put your feet on the table when talking to

friends due to the familiarity, and 3) 67.9 percent of the correct answers was found

when being asked whether it is acceptable to loudly talk to people on a nearby table,

but not too long in a restaurant.

In addition to the poor knowledge about Thai culture, another outstanding

problem for adaptation abilities to work of the Burmese was their poor knowledge and

understanding of Thai law, for example, the low understanding of the significant

changes in the Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560

(2017), and etc.

128

Table 4.11 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese Workers’Adaptive Abilities to Work

Adaptive Abilities to Work Mean S.D. Scale

Wellness

1. Being happy with your life in Thailand 5.70 3.37 Moderately Agree

2. Having enough time to relax from work 6.43 3.17 Moderately Agree

3. Being healthy and ready to work everyday 6.62 3.22 Moderately Agree

Mean 6.25 2.90 Moderately Agree

Being accepted and having relationship with others

4. Being close to all colleagues 6.59 3.29 Moderately Agree

5. Being able to work without monitoring from the

employers

6.60 3.12 Moderately Agree

6. Always being assigned to take care of new workers 6.33 3.04 Moderately Agree

Mean 6.51 2.86 Moderately Agree

Success in Work

7. Always being able to finished assigned tasks 6.81 3.17 Moderately Agree

8. Always being praised by the supervisor 6.24 3.19 Moderately Agree

9. Being able to collect money and send it back to your

family in Myanmar on time

6.62 3.18 Moderately Agree

Mean 6.55 2.91 Moderately Agree

Familiarity with Thai Culture/ No Stress

10. Being able to go to Thai market alone 6.46 3.38 Moderately Agree

11. Being able to ask for help from Thai people such as

when seeing the doctor

6.50 3.26 Moderately Agree

12. Participating in activities in Thailand such as going to

the temple with the Thai

6.63 3.20 Moderately Agree

Mean 6.53 2.79 Moderately Agree

Overall Mean 6.46 2.50 Moderately Agree

Table 4.11 shows that the respondents had “Moderate” adaptive abilities to

work in Thailand with the mean of 6.46 (S.D.=2.50). Considering from all the four

aspect of the items, the most outstanding adaptive abilities referred to the abilities to

successfully work. The mean score of the item was 6.55 with the S.D. of 2.91,

129

followed by familiarity with Thai culture, which obtained the mean of 6.53

(S.D.=2.79). The third place related to being accepted and having relationship with

others with the mean of 6.51 and S.D. of 2.86. Finally, regarding wellness, the lowest

mean of 6.25 was found (S.D.=2.90).

Moreover, concerning their abilities to adapt to work of the Burmese workers

according to the 4 aspects, it can be concluded that:

Regarding the success in work, the respondents were the most successful in

being able to finished every assigned task with the mean of 6.81,

In terms of familiarity with Thai culture/ no stress, the most outstanding

adaptive abilities were found in how they participate in activities in Thailand such as

going to the temple with the Thai. The mean was 6.63, which was equal to

“Moderately Agree.”

Regarding wellness, most of the respondents were healthy and ready to work

every day with the mean of 6.62 or equal to “Moderately Agree.”

Finally, regarding the acceptance and relationship with others, the respondents

successfully adapt to environment without monitoring from the employers, which

gained 6.60, equal to “Moderately Agree.”

4.2.2 The Results of Hypothesis Testing to Serve Research Objective #2

4.2.2.1 In responding Research Question #2, a set of closed-ended

questionnaire was created based on Hofstede’s Value Dimensions. The form consisted

of 4 dimensions. They are individualism vs. collectivism, high power distance vs. low

power distance, masculinity vs. femininity, and low uncertainty avoidance vs. low

uncertainty avoidance. The four dimensions were set as the criteria for the comparison

of the Burmese workers perceptions towards Thai and Burmese culture

The comparison to serve Research Objective #2 was related to some parts of

the answers to Research Question #1, in which the intercultural communication of the

Burmese workers in southern Thailand. The investigation relied on cultural

dimensions as a framework and the data were from an in-depth interview with Thai

employers and Burmese workers. The results indicated that most Thai employers

130

shared similar cultural dimensions and were likely to be positive to the Burmese

workers. However, the Burmese workers appeared to have different cultural

dimensions. The results were congruent to previous studies on intercultural

communication, employment of Burmese workers, and adaption abilities of Burmese

workers, in which different attitudes between the two parties were found.

As a result, a survey research tool was designed to provide answer to the

second research objective: To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai

culture and their own. The hypotheses are as follows:

H1: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards power distance in

Thai and Burmese cultures

H2: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards individualism/

collectivism in Thai and Burmese cultures

H3: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards masculinity/

femininity in Thai and Burmese cultures

H4: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards uncertainty

avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures

131

Table 4.12 Mean and S.D. of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and

Burmese culture

Attitudes towards Cultures Thai Burmese

Mean S.D. Scales Mean S.D. Scales

High/Low Power Distance

1. Clear scopes of work between the

supervisors and subordinates are set.

4.01 1.12 Highly

Agree

3.75 1.15 Highly

Agree

2. Supervisors and subordinates are

clearly divided.

3.94 1.09 Highly

Agree

3.79 1.13 Highly

Agree

3. Subordinates’ opinions are usually

approved by supervisors.

3.50 1.23 Highly

Agree

3.53 1.28 Highly

Agree

Mean 3.81 .85 Highly

Agree

3.69 .90 Highly

Agree

Individualism/Collectivism

4. Being a sharing society 3.77 1.17 Highly

Agree

3.86 1.08 Highly

Agree

5. Focus on the family and groups 3.87 1.10 Highly

Agree

3.74 1.12 Highly

Agree

6. Egotism society 3.65 1.20 Highly

Agree

3.70 1.16 Highly

Agree

Mean 3.76 .92 Highly

Agree

3.77 .89 Highly

Agree

Masculinity/Femininity

7. Men usually have more power

over women.

3.81 1.25 Highly

Agree

3.71 1.24 Highly

Agree

8. Focus more on money than

relationship in the family

3.40 1.30 Moderately

Agree

3.39 1.27 Moderately

Agree

9. Focus on competitiveness, rivalry,

and victory over the opponents.

3.34 1.38 Moderately

Agree

3.25 1.39 Moderately

Agree

10. Focus on success of the tasks

rather than the relationship

3.70 1.23 Highly

Agree

3.63 1.25 Highly

Agree

Mean 3.56 9.42 Highly

Agree

3.49 .90 Highly

Agree

132

Table 4.12 (Continued)

Attitudes towards Cultures Thai Burmese

Mean S.D. Scales Mean S.D. Scales

Uncertainty avoidance

11. Officially task assignment

instead of informal oral assignment

3.58 1.33 Highly

Agree

3.45 1.29 Highly

Agree

12. Have strict social rules 3.94 1.08 Highly

Agree

3.92 1.17 Highly

Agree

Mean 3.76 .95 Highly

Agree

3.69 .97 Highly

Agree

Overall Mean 3.73 .71 Highly

Agree

3.67 .71 Highly

Agree

Table 4.12 indicates that most of the answers on Thai and Burmese cultures

were “Highly Agree.” The comparison of the attitudes towards Thai and Burmese

culture revealed the following results:

Firstly, the Burmese workers perceived high power distance in both the two

cultures. However, they seemed to be aware of higher power distance in Thai culture.

Secondly, the workers realize collectivism in both societies. To be specific,

they perceived slightly more collectivism in Thai society than theirs.

Next, the Burmese workers realized the masculinity in both cultures, but they

perceived Thai culture as more masculine.

Finally, high uncertainty avoidance was detected in both Thai and Burmese

culture according to the Burmese workers. However, they believed that Thai culture

was with higher uncertainty avoidance.

133

Table 4.13 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and Burmese

cultures

Burmese Workers’ Attitudes towards

Thai and Burmese Culture Mean S.D. t P

1. High/ low power distance .121 .843 2.95* .003

2. Individualism/ collectivism -.002 .843 -.06 .954

3. Masculinity/ femininity .069 .789 1.63 .074

4. Low/high uncertainty avoidance .074 .960 1.71 .116

Note: *P<.05

According to table 4.13, the results can be concluded as follows:

H1: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards power distance in

Thai and Burmese cultures.

The data analysis showed that the Burmese workers had different attitudes

towards power distance in Thai and Burmese cultures at a significant level of .05.

They appear to perceive higher power distance in Thai culture than in Myanmar.

H2: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards individualism and

collectivism in Thai and Burmese cultures.

The results indicated no significant difference of the Burmese workers’

attitudes towards the ideas of individualism and collectivism in Thai and Burmese

cultures.

H3: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards masculinity and

femininity in Thai and Burmese cultures.

The findings revealed no significant different of the respondents’ attitudes

towards masculinity and femininity in Thai and Burmese cultures.

H4: The Burmese workers have different attitudes towards uncertainty

avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures.

The findings confirmed no significant difference between the respondents’

attitudes towards uncertainty avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures.

134

To conclude, the results gained from the hypothesis test revealed that the

Burmese respondents perceived Thai and Burmese cultures to be different exclusively

regarding the power distance concept. In addition, even though they realized high

social avoidance in both Thai and Burmese cultures, but they seemed to notice more

of it in Thai culture.

4.2.2.2 Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’

personal factors and organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves

to work in the south

The variables in the investigation to serve Research Objective #3 are presented

below:

1) Independent Variables

In this study the independent variables consisted of personal

factors and organizational factors as presented below:

(1) Personal factors

(2) Organizational variables

Personal factors :

(a) Demographic variables including 8 aspects:

Nominal variables consisted of genders, ethnics, working areas, characteristics

of living, and work experiences in Myanmar and interval variables included age, and

educational levels.

(b) Media and media exposure was in nominal scale.

(c) Ethic attitudes were measured through interval scale.

(d) Knowledge about Thai culture was in interval scale.

(e) Religious behaviors were measured in interval scale.

Organizational variables :

(a) Characteristics of the organization were in nominal scale.

(b) Attitudes towards Thai culture were measured through interval scale. They

included 4 aspects: 1) power distance, 2) individual/collectivism, 3) masculinity/femininity,

and 4) uncertainty avoidance.

135

2) Dependent variables

The dependent variables referred to adaptive abilities to work

in the south of the Burmese workers. The variable was measured through interval

scale.

To conclude, as the independent variables were in both qualitative and

quantitative scales, the following hypotheses were included to serve the variables:

H5 : Different personal and organizational factors have different impacts on

the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south, with following sub-

hypotheses:

H5.1: Genders have different impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive

abilities to work in the south

Table 4.14 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by genders (n = 421)

Table 4.14 reveals no difference in the adaptive abilities between male

and female Burmese workers.

Genders Numbers Mean S.D. t P

Male 163 6.64 2.42 1.163 .245

Female 258 6.35 2.54

136

H5.2 : Different working experiences in Myanmar have different

impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Table 4.15 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by working experiences in Myanmar (n = 421)

Table 4.15 shows that the Burmese workers with work experiences in

Myanmar and those with no experiences had no significantly different adaptive

abilities to work in the south.

H5.3: Different organizational structures have different impacts on the

Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Table 4.16 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by organizational structures (n = 421)

Table 4.16 indicates that the Burmese workers in different organizational

structures had no significantly different adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Working Experiences Numbers Mean S.D. t P

With work experiences 237 6.66 2.36 1.854 .064

Without work experiences 184 6.20 2.64

Organizational Structures Numbers Mean S.D. t P

Clearly Structured 157 6.65 2.09 1.189 .235

Unstructured 264 6.35 2.71

137

H5.4 : Different exposure to traditional media (radios and TV) has

different impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south

Table 4.17 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by exposure to traditional media (n = 421)

Exposure to Traditional

Media Numbers Mean S.D. t P

With Exposure 197 6.18 2.61 -2.150* .032

No Exposure 224 6.70 2.37

Note: *P<.05

According to table 4.17, the Burmese workers with and without exposure to

traditional media had different adaptive abilities to work in the south at a significant

level .05.

H5.5 : Different exposure to new media (Facebook and YouTube) has

different impacts on the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the southern

Thailand.

Table 4.18 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by exposure to new media (n = 421)

Exposure to New Media Numbers Mean S.D. t P

With Exposure 210 6.85 2.37 3.247* .001

No Exposure 211 6.07 2.56

Note: *P<.05

138

Table 4.18 reveals that the Burmese workers with and without exposure to

new media had different adaptive abilities to work in the south at a significant level

.05.

Table 4.19 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to

work in the south classifying by demographic characteristics

Personal Factors Numbers Mean S.D. t P Meaning

Genders 1. Male

2. Female

163

258

6.64

6.35

2.42

2.54

1.163 .245 No

significant

difference

Working

experiences in

Myanmar

1. With

experiences

2. Without

experiences

237

184

6.66

6.20

2.36

2.64

1.854 .064 No

significant

difference

Types of

Organizations

1. Clearly

structured

2. Unstructured

157

264

6.65

6.35

2.09

2.71

1.189 .235 No

significant

difference

Exposure to

Traditional

Media

1. With

Exposure

2. Without

Exposure

197

224

6.18

6.70

2.61

2.37

-2.150* .032 Significantly

difference

Exposure to

New Media

1. With

Exposure

2. Without

Exposure

210

211

6.85

6.07

2.37

2.56

3.247* .001 Significantly

difference

139

H5.6 : Different ethnicity has different impacts on the Burmese workers’

adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Table 4.20 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by ethnicity (n = 421)

Ethnicities Numbers Mean S.D. F

PostHoc

comparison

(Scheffe)

1. Mon

2. Thai Yai

3. Karen

4. Burmese

5. Others

68

25

39

282

7

6.54

4.44

5.56

6.79

4.82

2.64

3.04

2.93

2.23

1.47

7.80 * 4 > 1, 2

Note: *P<.05

Table 4.20 shows the results of Post Hoc comparison using Scheffe Test. It is

obviously that the Mon workers had different adaptive abilities to the Thai Yai, while

the Thai Yai had different adaptive abilities to the Burmese workers.

It was noticeable that the Burmese workers had higher adaptive abilities than

the Thai Yai and the Mon.

140

H5.7 : Different types of living have different impacts on the Burmese

workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Table 4.21 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by types of living (n = 421)

Types of Living Numbers Mean S.D. F

PostHoc

comparison

(Scheffe)

1. Staying with Thai roommates

2. Staying with Burmese roommates

3. Staying alone

4. Others

101

261

57

2

7.36

6.27

5.78

5.79

2.16

2.51

2.62

.412

6.65 * 1 > 2, 3

Note: *P<.05

Table 4.21 reveals the results of Post Hoc comparison through Scheffe Test. It

was found that the Burmese workers staying with Thai roommates had different

degrees of adaptive abilities to those with the Burmese or alone.

In other words, the Burmese workers who shared a room with Thai people

seemed to have higher adaptive abilities than those who were with Burmese

roommates or alone.

141

H5.8 : Different types of businesses have different impacts on the

Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Table 4.22 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by types of businesses (n = 421)

Types of Businesses Numbers Mean S.D. F

PostHoc

comparison

(Scheffe)

1. Agriculture and Livestock

2. Construction

3. Service

4. Fishery

83

115

86

137

6.98

5.85

6.89

6.39

3.07

2.76

2.17

1.91

4.503 * 1 > 2, 3

Note: *P<.05

Table 4.22 presents the results of Post Hoc comparison by using Scheffe Test.

The results indicated that the Burmese workers in agriculture and livestock had

different adaptive abilities to those in construction business, while adaptive abilities of

the workers in construction were different from those in service business.

To clarify, the Burmese workers who worked in agriculture and livestock had

higher adaptive abilities than those in service businesses, while the workers in service

businesses had more adaptive abilities than those in construction.

142

H5.9 : Different working areas have different impacts on the Burmese

workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Table 4.23 Comparison of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south classifying by working areas (n = 421)

Working Areas Numbers Mean S.D. F

PostHoc

comparison

(Scheffe)

1. Surat Thani

2. Ranong

3. Songkhla

159

136

126

6.34

5.91

7.20

2.83

1.89

2.47

9.268 *3 > 1, 2

Note: *P<.05

Table 4.23 reveals that the results of Post Hoc comparison through Scheffe

Test. The data analysis showed that the Burmese workers in Songkhla had different

adaptive abilities to the workers in Surat Thani and Ranong.

The results indicated that the Burmese workers in Songkhla had higher

adaptive abilities than those in Surat Thani and Ranong.

143

Table 4.24 Summary of One-Way-ANOVA of the Burmese workers’ adaptive

abilities to work in the south classifying by demographic characteristics

as a personal factor

Personal Factors Numbers Mean S.D. F

Post Hoc

Comparison

(Scheffe)

Ethnicity 1. Mon

2. Thai Yai

3. Karen

4. Burmese

5. Others

68

25

39

282

7

6.54

4.44

5.56

6.79

4.82

2.64

3.04

2.93

2.23

1.47

7.80 * 4 > 1, 2

Types of

Living

1. Staying with Thai

roommates

2. Staying with

Burmese roommates

3. Staying alone

4. Others

101

261

57

2

7.36

6.27

5.78

5.79

2.16

2.51

2.62

.412

6.65 * 1 > 2, 3

Types of

Businesses

1. Agriculture and

Livestock

2. Construction

3. Service

4. Fishery

83

115

86

137

6.98

5.85

6.89

6.39

3.07

2.76

2.17

1.91

4.503 * 1 > 2, 3

Working

Areas

1. Surat Thani

2. Ranong

3. Songkhla

159

136

126

6.34

5.91

7.20

2.83

1.89

2.47

9.268 *3 > 1, 2

144

H6: Personal factors and organizational factors are related to the Burmese

workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis was conducted to evaluate the

relationship among personal factors and organizational factors with the Burmese

adaptive abilities of the Burmese workers. The variables are as follows:

(1) Personal variables included: ages (age), education (edu), knowledge about

Thai culture (culkno), and ethnic attitudes (ethno), and religious behaviors (relig).

(2) Organizational factors consisted of the following aspects:

- Attitudes towards power distance in Burmese culture, which was coded

as PDI-M

- Attitudes towards individualism or collectivism in Burmese culture,

which was coded as IDV-M

- Attitudes towards masculinity or femininity in Burmese culture, which

was coded as MAS-M

- Attitudes towards high or low uncertainty avoidance in Burmese

culture, which was coded as UAI-M

- Attitudes towards high or low power distance in Thai culture, which

was coded as PDI-T

- Attitudes towards Individualism or collectivism, which was coded as IDV-

T

- Attitudes towards masculinity or femininity, which was coded as

MAS-T

- Attitudes towards high or low uncertainty avoidance in Thailand which

was coded as UAI-T.

145

Table 4.25 ANOVA outputs of personal, organizational, and adaptive abilities to work in the south of the Burmese workers

PDI -T IDV-T UAI-T MAS-T PDI-M IDV -M MAS-M UAI-M culkno ethno relig age edu adjust

PDI -T .495** .438** .449* .540** .399** .274** .279** -.090 .326** .186** -.147** .047 -.028

IDV-T .466 .337** .315** .570** .170** .268** -.095 .090 .328** -.106* -.025 -.003

UAI-T .554** .283** .340** .350** .563** -.134** .296** .270** -.097* .052 -.109*

MAS-T .282** .229** .616** .336** -.233** .447** .186** -.098* .037 -.073

PDI-M .572** .413** .428** -.091 .277** .279** -.043 -.013 .012

IDV -M .387** .407** -.008 .171** .356** -.049 -.095 .023

MAS-M .425** -.170** .509** .270** -.082 -.005 -.074

UAI-M -.040 .245** .292** -.027 -.075 -.035

culkno -.067 -.083 .168** -.038 .115*

ethno .225** -.136** .009 -.269**

relig .004 .027 -.069

age -.073 .175**

edu .106*

adjust

Note:**correlation is significant at the 0.01 level

*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

Organizational

Factors

Personal Factors

146

Table 4.26 Output of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of the Burmese

workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients (B)

Standardized

Coefficients

(Beta)

t P

Constant 5.177 6.564 .000

Ethnic Attitudes -.633 -.274 -5.674 .000

Age .402 .136 2.891 .004

Education .422 .127 2.747 .006

Power Distance .288 .104 3.167 .031

Knowledge about Thai culture .110 .093 1.983 .048

Note: R=.351 R square =.123 Adjusted R Square = .112 F=11.633

Table 4.26 presents that output of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of

the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south. It was found that ethnic

attitudes were the best predictor in forecasting the adaptive abilities to work in the

south of the Burmese workers, followed by age, education, attitudes towards Burmese

culture regarding power distance, and knowledge about Thai culture, respectively. In

was obviously that ethnic attitudes had negative relationship with the workers’

adaptive abilities. That is to say, the workers with high ethnic attitudes were likely to

have low adaptive abilities. Moreover, all of the five predictors including ethnic

attitudes, age, education, attitudes towards Burmese culture regarding power distance,

and knowledge about Thai culture accounted for 12.3 (R=.123) of the Burmese

workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

147

4.2.3 Summary of Hypothesis Testing to Serve Research Objective #3

Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and

organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves to work in the south

H5 : ethnics, types of living, types of businesses, working areas, and exposure

to different media resulted in different levels of adaptive abilities.

H6: Personal and organizational factors were related to the Burmese workers’

adaptive abilities to work in the south. In other words, ethnic attitudes were the most

influential predictor of the workers’ adaptive abilities, followed by age, education,

attitudes towards Burmese culture regarding power distance, and knowledge about

Thai culture, respectively. The five predictors accounted for 12.3 (R=.123) of the

Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the south.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study, namely “Intercultural Communication in the Employment of

Burmese Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand,” aims to examine

intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese workers due to

the increasing numbers of Laotian, Cambodian, and Burmese migrant workers in

Thailand. However, generally, Burmese workers were mentioned more frequently and

appeared to be having dubious image for Thai people. According to Foreign Workers

Administration Office, in 2016 Burmese workers were the second most densely

concentrated in the south of Thailand. It was necessary for the workers to adapt to the

new environment by learning Thai culture in terms of the language, food, or clothing.

The workers in the south of Thailand were different from those in metropolitan areas

such as Samuthsakorn and Samuthprakarn in the way they unite. To put it simply, the

worker in the south are scattered around in the areas. They couldn’t form their own

community. Thus, these people have less power to negotiate or claim their rights than

those Burmese workers in the two provinces. Besides, Burmese workers are usually

perceived as an “enemy” by Thai people. As a result, it is questionable whether the

Burmese in the south who need to adjust themselves to the new society and culture as

a “worker” can work happily or continue working in the area under the circumstance

of labor shortage in the country. This leads to the research objectives in this study

indicated as follows:

a) To investigate the intercultural communications between Thai employers

and Burmese workers in the south.

b) To compare the Burmese workers’ attitude towards Thai culture and

Burmese culture.

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c) To analyze the Burmese workers’ personal factors and organizational

factors relating to the abilities to adapt themselves to work in the south.

This chapter presents three major section including conclusion, discussion,

and recommendations for further studies.

5.1 Conclusion

5.1.1 Qualitative Results

This study employed both qualitative and quantitative approaches in the

investigation of intercultural communications between Thai employers and Burmese

workers. The results are concluded based on each research objective and presented in

the following section.

Research Objective #1: To investigate the intercultural communications

between Thai employers and Burmese workers in the south

In responding to this research objective, two qualitative methods were

employed. At the beginning, an in-depth interview was conducted followed by a

nonparticipant observation with Thai employers and Burmese workers. The results are

concluded below:

5.1.1.1 Cultural Dimensions

1) Individualism/collectivism: Data analysis revealed that Thai

employers were collectivistic and exhibited cronyism behaviors. They were

considerate and valued the society and other employers. In contrast, the Burmese

workers believed in individualism focusing on self and family benefits by trying to

finish tasks assigned.

2) High/ low power distance: The Thai employers reflected

high degree of power distance by indicating clear hierarchy in workplaces. The

workers were under control and needed to serve the employers’ commands. Similarly,

the Burmese workers exhibited high power distance. When they had work problems,

they usually talked to their colleagues rather than to the employers. Besides, they

could follow the employers’ commands.

3) Masculinity/ femininity: Thai employers preferred

femininity. They focused on the qualities of life and relationship building activities.

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At the same time, the Burmese workers preferred masculinity. They focused more on

success of the work rather than relationship between people.

4) High/ Low uncertainty avoidance: The Thai employers

exhibited high uncertainty avoidance. They had plans and solutions to the potential

problems caused by the Burmese workers. For example, they confiscate the workers’

official document so that the workers couldn’t flee from work. Similarly, the Burmese

workers showed high uncertainty avoidance. They required high security at work;

hence, they were likely to favor jobs with high pay and more security.

Table 5.1 Summary of comparison of cultural dimensions between Thai employers

and Burmese workers

Cultural Dimensions Employers Employees

Individualism/collectivism Individualism Collectivism

Low/ high power distance High power distance High power distance

Masculinity/ femininity Femininity Masculinity

Low/ high uncertainty

avoidance

High uncertainty

avoidance High uncertainty avoidance

5.1.1.2 Psycho-Cultural Influences

Prior to the employment the Thai employers stereotypically perceived

the Burmese workers as fierce, wild, and unreliable. However, after having direct

experiences of hiring them the negative perceptions were changed. The Burmese

workers were seen to be hardworking, tolerated, loyal, and religious. Thus, positive

stereotypes replaced the negative ones. On the contrary, the Burmese workers realized

separation in Thai society, especially, among Thais who had no direct experiences

working with them. Thai individuals usually look down on them and regard them as

the causes of problems. Besides, they realized that Thais showed xenophobia towards

them. In addition to the separation between Thai and Burmese, ethnic division was

also found among the people from Myanmar who moved to Thailand.

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5.1.1.3 Media Exposure Behaviors

The Thai employers explained that sometimes the contents in Thai mass

media are exaggerated and distorted. Reproduction of hostility feelings against

Myanmar was significant. Thus, mass media played roles in forming negative

stereotypes towards the Burmese. As a result, Thai employers did not trust the

Burmese despite having direct experiences with them. In contrast, the Burmese

workers realized the key roles of Thai mass media in their lives in Thailand since they

gained knowledge and entertainment from the media. Moreover, exposure to Thai

online media such as YouTube could compensate for their feeling reminiscent of

being in Myanmar.

5.1.1.4 Perceptions Towards the History of Relationship Between Thai

Employers and Burmese Workers

Both the Thai employers and the Burmese workers believed that the war

between the two nations happened long ago and was not connected to the people’s

thought at present. Thus, when hiring the Burmese the Thai employers did not rely on

the historical event. It had no influences on the recruitment and work evaluation of the

workers. At the same time, the Burmese workers denied their perceptions towards

Thai people as their “enemy” and extended their guilt to their poor education in their

home country. However, Thais seemed to stick to the idea that the Burmese were their

enemy forever.

5.1.1.5 The Differences Between Two Groups of Burmese Workers

The participants in this study consisted of two groups. They were those

whose original nationality was proved and those imported through the government

MOU. The analysis of the interview data revealed problems in taking care of these

two groups of Burmese workers in Thailand. As a result, this affected the control of

the employers and integration among the workers. In other words, it was obvious that

the workers whose original nationality was proved needed more adaptation due to

their low education and skills. In contrast, the workers imported through MOU

usually had outstanding skills. Thus, they had more power to negotiate with their

employers and integrate with others to protect their rights. In Songkhla, a number of

MOU workers settled there until the employers worried about the conflict

management in the areas.

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5.1.2 Quantitative Results

In response to Research Objectives #2 and 3, the quantitative method of data

collection was applied. A set of close-ended questionnaire was distributed to the

Burmese respondents. The survey results and results of hypothesis testing are

presented in the following section.

5.1.2.1 Demographics Information

Most of the respondents were Burmese workers residing in Surat Thani,

Ranong, and Songkhla, respectively. They were classified based on the business

types. The majority of the workers were in fishery, construction, service, and

agriculture and livestock, respectively. Most of them worked for unstructured

organizations and female workers outnumbered the male workers. They aged from 21

to 30 years old. Most of the respondents were Burmese, Mon, and Karen. They

graduated early high school (Grade 5-8) and most of them shared an apartment with

Burmese roommates and had previous work experience in Myanmar.

5.1.2.2 Media Exposure

Most Burmese respondents used Facebook and were exposed to

television, and radio, respectively. The purposes of the exposure were to follow

situations in Myanmar, those in Thailand, and substitute for real life experiences back

home in Myanmar. The Burmese respondents reflected that the crimes committed by

the Burmese were most frequently presented through Thai mass media, followed by

Burmese political news, and travel documentary in Myanmar, respectively. After the

exposure to negative contents about the Burmese, most of them searched for more

information from familiar people, compared the new information to their prior

knowledge and went online for more information, respectively.

5.1.2.3 Ethnocentric Attitudes

The Burmese workers showed moderate ethnocentric attitudes. They

appeared to highly regard the Burmese with more patience than Thais. Some of them

were aware of higher English proficiency than Thais. Finally, regarding the criticism

of applying Tanaka Powder, the Burmese workers were moderately aware of the

criticism.

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5.1.2.4 Religious behaviors

The data analysis revealed high frequencies of three religious behaviors

among the Burmese respondents. Firstly, they preferred going to Thai temples to

make merit on Buddhist special days. Secondly, some of them participated in

Buddhist activities such as donating money to temples in Kathin Ceremony (Offering

yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering showering ropes to the monks).

Finally, they preferred participating in religious ceremonies such as praying,

worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to religious lessons in Thailand. In

addition, the results of interview data analysis were congruent to the quantitative

analysis. To put it simply, the most outstanding characteristic of the Burmese workers

was their strict participation in Buddhist ceremonies. The characteristic was obvious

among the Burmese in Thailand, for example, they came together to build a model of

Shwedagon Pagoda in Thai temples to secure their mental state. It is also a means for

the builders to make merit.

5.1.2.5 Knowledge about Thai culture

The data analysis showed that the respondents had poor knowledge

about Thai culture. Less than half of them could choose the correct answer regarding

Thai culture. The respondents realized the inappropriate practices in three items:

addressing the elders without adding pronouns such as brother, uncle, and aunt,

putting feet on the table when talking to friends due to the familiarity, and loudly

talking to people at a nearby table, but not too long in a restaurant, respectively. In

addition, another outstanding problem for adaptation abilities to work of the Burmese

was their poor knowledge and understanding of Thai laws. The Burmese respondents

explained that it might be resulted from the limited public relations from where they

could gain information.

5.1.2.6 The Burmese Workers Adaptive Abilities to Work in Thai

Society

The data analysis showed that the respondents had “Moderate” adaptive

abilities to work in Thailand. Considering from all the four aspects of the items, the

most outstanding adaptive abilities referred to the abilities to successfully work,

followed by familiarity with Thai culture. The third place related to being accepted

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and having relationship with others. Finally, the respondents had the least adaptive

abilities in terms of wellness.

To conclude, the Burmese workers were most successful in adapting to

work in the south in the following areas:

Regarding success in work, it was found that the respondents were

moderately able to finish every assigned task.

In terms of familiarity with Thai culture/ no stress, the most outstanding

adaptive abilities were moderately found in how they participate in activities in

Thailand such as going to the temple with Thais. Most of the answers fell into

“Moderately Agree”.

Regarding wellness, most of the respondents were healthy and ready to

work every day in “Moderately Agree” scale.

Regarding the acceptance and relationship with others, the respondents

chose “Moderately Agree” scale when asking about successful adaptation to

environment without monitoring from the employers.

5.1.2.7 The Comparison of the Burmese Workers’ Attitudes Towards

Thai and Burmese Cultures

The data analysis revealed positive attitudes towards Thai and Burmese

culture. The results from the comparison between the Burmese workers attitudes

towards Thai and Burmese cultures are summarized in the following section.

Firstly, the workers realized collectivism in both cultures. To be

specific, they perceived slightly more collectivism in Thai society than their own

culture.

Secondly, the Burmese workers perceived high power distance in both

the two cultures. However, they seemed to be aware of higher power distance in Thai

culture.

Thirdly, the Burmese workers realized masculinity in both cultures, but

they perceived Thai culture as more masculine.

Finally, high uncertainty avoidance was detected in both Thai and

Burmese culture according to the Burmese workers. However, they believed that Thai

culture had higher uncertainty avoidance than Burmese culture. The Table 5.2

presents the summary of results.

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Table 5.2 Summary of Burmese workers’ attitudes towards Thai and Burmese

cultures

Cultural Dimensions Attitudes towards Thai

Culture

Attitudes towards

Burmese Culture

Individualism/

collectivism

Collectivism Collectivism

High/ low power distance High Power Distance High Power Distance)

Masculinity/ femininity Masculinity Masculinity

High/ low uncertainty

avoidance

High Uncertainty

Avoidance

High Uncertainty

Avoidance

5.1.2.8 The Results of the Comparison Between the Burmese Workers’

Attitudes Towards Thai Culture

This present study aims to investigate the Burmese workers’ adaptive

abilities while working in Thailand. A mixed-methods design was employed in this

phase. The qualitative and quantitative results are compared in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Summary of the comparison of the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards

Thai culture

Cultural Dimensions Qualitative Method Quantitative Method

Individualism/ collectivism Individualism Collectivism

High/ low power distance High Power Distance High Power Distance

Masculinity/ femininity Masculinity Masculinity

High/ low uncertainty

avoidance

High Uncertainty

Avoidance

High Uncertainty

Avoidance

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1) Research Objective #2: To compare the Burmese workers’

attitudes towards Thai culture and Burmese cultures.

The results of hypothesis testing through Cultural Dimensions

revealed only one area of difference between the Burmese workers’ attitudes towards

Thai culture and Burmese culture. The dissimilar attitude towards power distance was

discovered. That is to say, even though high power distance was detected in both

cultures, the Burmese respondents realized higher power distance in Thai society.

2) Research Objective #3: To analyze the Burmese workers’

personal factors and organizational factors relating to the ability to adapt themselves

to work in the south.

(3) Ethnicity, types of living, types of businesses, working

areas, and different types of media had different impacts on the Burmese workers’

adaptive abilities to work.

(4) The factors most relating to the Burmese workers’

abilities to work in the south referred to ethnocentric attitudes, which was the most

effective predictor. The second most effective predictor was age, education, attitudes

towards power distance, and knowledge about Thai culture. These five variables

accounted for 12.3 (R=.123) of the Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities to work in the

south.

5.2 Discussion

The major aim of this study is to discover the body of knowledge in regards to

communications and cultures. Thus, the results are discussed based on each research

objectives taking results from previous studies, concepts, theories, and the

phenomenon in the research settings.

5.2.1 The Factors Relating to the Burmese Workers’ Adaptive Abilities

to Work in Thailand

Some interesting variables, which could clarify the extent of the Burmese

workers’ adaptive abilities to work in Thailand, were examined in this study. The

variables were included to test the reliability. They were different from those in other

previous studies. The results are discussed in the following section.

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5.2.1.1 Knowledge about Thai culture -The analysis of the relationship

among the variables indicated that knowledge about Thai culture, for example, Thai

religion, clothing, eating custom, and manner had positive relationship with the

Burmese workers’ adaptive abilities. In other words, the workers with high

knowledge about Thai culture were likely to have high adaptive abilities. However,

the data analysis revealed their inadequate knowledge about Thai culture. Therefore,

this means that their adaptive abilities were rather low. In addition, the interview data

analysis showed the Burmese workers’ insufficient knowledge and understanding

about Thai laws, especially the laws on employment of migrant workers. The results

indicated that prior to moving to Thailand the workers were not aware of the

importance of learning about rights or welfare legalized by the law. They focused

exclusively on the pay as a reward from work. As a result, after working for a while

they might encounter with unfair employment and couldn’t ask for help from anyone

in Thailand. They had no idea about which organization to protect their rights. Hence,

they just barely tolerated the unfair treatment.

5.2.1.2 Types of businesses (careers)- The quantitative analysis

showed that the Burmese workers in agriculture and livestock had higher adaptive

abilities than those in service and construction. Meanwhile, the interview data

analysis showed that the Thai employers in construction, agriculture and livestock,

and fishery allowed their workers to fully reveal their identities. In contrast, in some

service businesses such as a hotel business the workers were not allowed to openly

show some elements of their identities. For example, they were not allowed to apply

Tanaka Powder, chew betel nuts, wear Sarong, and talk in Burmese while working. It

was obvious that in the businesses with no prohibitions on showing their identities,

Burmese workers seemed to work with ease, behaving freely, and being more relaxed.

Consequently, they appeared to adjust themselves more quickly and easily as the new

culture shared something in common to their own. However, most workers in the

hotel business were educated. They had more communicative competence than others.

Some of them could write and read Thai. Thus, they had more opportunities to

communicate internationally.

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5.2.1.3 Areas- The quantitative data analysis showed that the Burmese

workers in Songkhla had more adaptive abilities than those in Surat Thani and

Ranong. Moreover, job transfer was less frequently found among the workers than in

the two other provinces. This might be because they learn and are familiar with Thai

culture due to the long-term work experiences for the same employers in the same

working areas. Hence, they are more able to adjust themselves to work than others,

especially those working in Ranong, which borders Myanmar. Thus, the migrant

workers are more likely to change their jobs or easily travel back to their home

country. The result is in line with Pholphirul (2013), who found that the job transition

among migrants, who work in the areas along the borders between Thailand and

Myanmar, are higher than in other areas.

Moreover, job transfer in Surat Thani was also high. The province was a

popular tourist attraction for both Thai and foreign tourists. Thus, in terms of

economy, the demand for labor was high so that they could fulfill the need of the

numbers of entrepreneurs in tourism industry. In line with this observation, the

province had the largest population of Burmese workers reported in 2016. Thus, with

more job opportunities, the Burmese workers tended to transfer their jobs more

frequently so that they got better jobs. The high frequencies of job transition resulted

in low motivation to adjust to new people and unfamiliar tasks as they might not be

aware of the necessity to do so. Consequently, the workers in Surat Thani had low

adaptive abilities to work than those in Songkhla.

5.2.1.4 Characteristics of organizations- The quantitative analysis

revealed no relationship between the characteristics of organizations and adaptive

abilities of the Burmese workers. However, the interview data analysis showed that

the workers in organizations with clear structures seemed to have high quality of life

since better welfare was usually provided. Moreover, they were likely to feel safer

and more secure from the regular pay than those in unstructured organizations. In

contrast, the pay and employment duration might be unreliable for the workers in

organizations with no structures. These workers might sometimes need to get extra

jobs with other employers, which matched their skills in case the present employers

have no jobs for them. Unfortunately, transition to work for other employers without

permission is unacceptable according to Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign

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Workers B.E. 2560 (2017), which states that the employers who hire a migrant worker

without a work permit (with a work permit for other entrepreneurs) is subject to a fine

ranging from 400,000 to 800,000 baht per person.

5.2.1.5 Types of the Burmese workers- The Burmese workers imported

through the government MOU seemed to have higher adaptive abilities than the

workers whose original nationality was proved due to their better work performances,

the processes of recruitment, and quality check from the origin country. MOU

workers were with evidence and information, which guaranteed their migration and

legitimate settlement. As a result, it was not too difficult for these workers to adjust

themselves. They usually got the information about the types of jobs and working

areas prior to the migration. Also, they might have some other friends coming along.

In some organizations, MOU workers can group together to argue for their rights. If

the employers do not approve the proposals, they strike. Meanwhile, the workers

whose original nationalities are proved are those who illegally enter the country. They

will be legalized until employers dealt with the legitimated processes later. Hence, it

might be tough for them to adjust to work and become accepted and trusted by the

employers.

5.2.1.6 Media exposure behaviors- The interview data analysis

revealed that Thai mass media were influential in establishing and improving the

understanding towards the Burmese. The nationalism in Thai media was transferred

along with historical lessons, which portrayed the Burmese as the “enemy” of the

nation. The presentation was engraved into Thai people’s mind until stereotypes and

separation thoughts became obvious (Pijitra Tsukamoto, 2015, p. 87). In terms of the

Burmese workers’ exposure, the three most popular media were Facebook and

YouTube, which are online media. Television was the only traditional media the

workers exposed to frequently since its functions were to report Thai current

situations in Thailand and Myanmar, provide knowledge and means for practicing

Thai. However, some Burmese workers could not expose to Thai mass media and

social media due to their tiredness from work.

The interview data analysis revealed that the Burmese workers used

social media via their mobile phones for entertainment. For example, a teen worker in

the fishery business usually watched Burmese music videos after docking at the

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harbor as they had 2-3 days off. Meanwhile, the workers in the construction business

could go online during lunchbreak and in the evening after work. They preferred

using Facebook to contact with relatives in Myanmar and listen to prayer in Burmese

via YouTube. Therefore, it can be concluded that Thai mass media are not able to

engrave and equip a mindset about being “an enemy of Thai people” owning to time

limitation and the characteristics of the jobs they are taking. Moreover, it is easier for

them to expose to online media as a new alternative. Online media are usually

approachable and ubiquitous since the contents on these new media substitute those

on television. Consequently, the Burmese workers have more opportunities to choose

the contents that match their needs.

5.2.1.7 Ethnicity- The quantitative data analysis indicated that the

Burmese workers had higher adaptive abilities than the Thai Yai and the Mon. The

interview data analysis revealed that the Burmese workers had different adaptive

abilities to different ethnic groups in Myanmar such as Mon, who regarded their

language abilities to be higher than the Burmese groups and complained about the

exploitation by the Burmese while the Mon were in Myanmar. In addition, most

employers realized the differences and conflicts between ethnic groups in Myanmar.

They usually came up with basic solution by putting the same workers with the same

ethnicity on the same job to avoid the potential ethnic conflicts.

5.2.1.8 Types of living conditions- The quantitative analysis indicated

that the Burmese workers who shared a room with Thai people seemed to have higher

adaptive abilities than those who were with Burmese roommates or alone. In addition,

the interview data analysis and the non-participant observation revealed that

businesses providing accommodation usually separated Thai workers from the

Burmese. As a result, the Burmese stick together and rarely communicate in Thai

making it difficult for them to assimilate into Thai culture. Therefore, the

opportunities to learn the new culture are limited.

5.2.2 Buddhism and the ways of lives of the Burmese workers

The qualitative data analysis revealed that the Burmese workers frequently

performed religious rituals while working in Thailand. The result was in line with the

results of the interview with Thai employer and Burmese workers of all the four

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businesses in the three provinces. The interview focused on examining piety and

values on Buddhism of the Burmese workers in Thailand. In general, three significant

concepts of Buddhism were emphasized. They were Karma and merit, precepts, and

practices. Karma referred to past actions, while merits were good past actions, and the

five precepts associated with how to do good actions. As a result, the Burmese

workers made merit with no regret regardless of their financial status (Naruemon

Teerawat et, al., 2008, pp. 256-57). Thus, “religion” is a factor, which encourages and

supports the Burmese workers to work successfully in Thailand. Besides, funding for

merit events and building of Shwedagon Pagoda Model in Thai temples are the

ultimate goal for the workers. Thus, these people spare some of their income from

working in Thai society for making merit as we usually see models of Shwedagon

Pagoda in many places in Thailand.

Moreover, worshiping the pagoda is a must for all Burmese Buddhists. The

underlying concepts behind their good deeds are the belief about Karma and donation

to maintain Shwedagon Pagoda, which is huge merit leading to good actions and

helping them to get through all obstacles in their lives. The pagoda unites the

Buddhists together. Whenever, a new pagoda is being built, conflicts are solved.

Everyone would get together and help each other. They may donate money and

objects or devote their labor in the event (Kin Meaw Chid, 2012, p.45 and 58).

Considering the connection between the results and the Burmese’s ways of

life, it can be concluded that the Burmese workers relate their Buddhism beliefs to the

impacts of Karma on each individual. Hence, people of all genders at all ages are

strict Buddhists. They are likely to have similar religious behaviors to those in their

country. As a result, they can adjust themselves faster and easier. Moreover, their

religious behaviors are congruent to those of Thai Buddhists. The Burmese are

praised by the Thai people and the Thai usually have positive attitudes towards the

Burmese strict religious behaviors, which are perceived as a part of Thai culture.

Thus, intercultural communications between the Thai and Burmese occurs

unconsciously. This leads to their higher adaptive abilities to work in Thailand. The

results are in line with an investigation of Akha’s cultural adaptation through the

application of religious principles. It was found that Akha have selected the Christian

meaning to assimilate with their traditional beliefs. They apply “freedom” in

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Christianity to free themselves from restricted regulations so that their ways of life are

matched with modern changes. The study reveals Akha’s adaptive abilities to

continuous change (Sirinya Kijprayoon, 1998).

5.2.3 The ethnic attitudes

The most prominent psycho-cultural dimension in this study is ethic attitudes

between Thai and Burmese. The test of correlation revealed that ethnic attitudes had

negative correlation to adaptive abilities of the Burmese. In other words, the Burmese

workers who stick to their traditional ethnic attitudes seem to have problem adjusting

to working in Thailand. Similarly, the quantitative analysis pointed out that the

Burmese participants were with stereotypes, bias, and pride over the Thai, especially

in terms of patience with work and English abilities. Whereas, the results showed

moderate attitudes and the qualitative analysis only found the Burmese workers’

awareness of more patience with work over Thai people. Thus, the bias or stereotype

is not critical.

However, the interview data analysis showed that the Burmese workers were

sad, fearful, and worried when communicating with Thai people as they realized that

the interactants perceived them as minorities with no power in Thai society. This

might result from strong nationalism and ethnocentrism, which seem to be a part of

their thinking process and interpretation engraving into Thai cognitive system. They

form attitudes and stereotypes towards a certain individual or group. This negative

stereotype is a crucial problem hindering the adaptive abilities of the Burmese

workers. The results are congruent to the results of the study titled “Perception and

Intercultural Communication between Thai Students and ASEAN People.” The study

reveals that Thai students appear to stereotypically perceive the Burmese to be low

educated. Concerning stereotypes, it was found that most Thai students seem to have

negative ethnic stereotypes. To dig deeper, they appear to have stereotypes and bias

towards the people from the neighboring countries, especially to Cambodian and

Burmese people from the influences of historical lessons and the presentation of mass

media. Next, most of them are affected by ethnocentrism. They regard their country to

be livable and ideal; thus, for them foreigners are required to adapt to Thai culture.

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This might result from their pride of sovereignty over other countries transferred

through lessons, educational systems, and media (Metta Vivatananukul, 2013).

Similarly, different accents and message of superiority complex and

discrimination also result in racism and stereotypes. For example, the investigation of

different accents of Ugandan immigrants in the U.S. reveals that the participants were

not confident to communicate in English. This is in line with the result from the

interview data analysis, which showed that some Burmese workers with poor Thai

skills were not confident to speak Thai to Thai people. Similarly, Holmes (2015)

discovers that the migrant workers from South East Asia in New Zealand use English

with accents. Sometimes, New Zealanders can’t understand it. As a result, the workers

became depressed, unconfident, and unmotivated to communicate after that. Some of

them even sought recluse from the society or quit their jobs.

5.2.4 Communication to boost relationship

The qualitative analysis revealed communication problems when the Burmese

workers communicated with Thais. The solution for them was to avoid interacting

with Thai people. They try not to communicate to Thais and avoid making eye contact

with them since these might lead to misunderstanding and fights between the two

parties. The avoidance of interaction with Thai people is similar to the results in a

study by Peerayut Oraphan (2008). He investigated Malay- Thai and Thai people in

the south. The Malay-Thai are afraid of negative impacts from the interaction with

Thai people; thus, they avoid interacting with Thais. The result in Peerayut Oraphan’s

study is comparable to the one in this study. That is to say, Thai employers and

Burmese workers seem to adjust themselves when performing the intercultural

communications. To start with the Thai employers clearly exhibit two characteristics

of their communications. They say things half-jokingly and avoid sensitive topics.

Meanwhile, the Burmese workers employ various methods. For example, they avoid

the interaction and try to be unfriendly. Also, they implicitly protect their groups,

participate in outgroup social religious activities, while maintaining their own

identities, and try to camouflage their identities by applying other identities.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the Burmese workers might perform more

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adaptation through many means. Their efforts are more obvious than those of the Thai

employers.

Apart from verbal communications, nonverbal communications such as

gesture is vital for interpretation of feelings between the two parties due to their

limited verbal communications ability. Even though verbal cues, both spoken and

written forms, are obvious in intercultural communications, previous studies proposed

that its importance is only limited to 20% in the understanding between interactants,

while nonverbal cues takes 80% (Kanjana Kaewthep, 2014).

The data analysis in this study revealed that a number of Burmese workers did

not speak Thai, especially new migrants. On the other hand Burmese was not widely

used among Thai employers. However, they could work together since the workers

tried to adjust to Thai culture by observing the nonverbal communications of the

employers while working. They put efforts in interpreting the cues, perceiving, and

memorizing them when performing tasks. This resulted in fewer mistakes. They

learned to behave appropriately to satisfy the employers. The result is congruent to a

study of Fan & Hebbani (2014). The study found that Taiwanese people need to adapt

to the language and interaction with the host because it is crucial for the employment

in Australia. In addition Warangkana Tipayachon (2014) has proposed solution to

intercultural communications problems using nonverbal communications. The scholar

suggests interactants to express their ideas through using gestures and try to

understand them from the cultural stances. Meanwhile, positive relationship can

promote familiarity and cultural learning should be performed simultaneously.

In terms of language, most previous studies on languages and cultures

discover that people in the host culture rarely adapt to the new comers. Instead, it is

necessary for the immigrants to perform such task. However, Amaro (2015) has

proposed different findings. The investigation pointed out that the Portuguese

immigrants in Macau were not aware of the necessity to adapt to the target culture.

They were unmotivated to learn Cantonese blaming on the difficult characteristics of

the language. They believed that they could survive in Macau without using

Cantonese. In addition, the immigrants usually worked there temporarily, so they

were inactive to learn the language. Most of the time, they just remembered useful

expressions and used nonverbal communications. For example, they just remembered

165

the dish they would like to eat, and then they pointed the picture on the menu. In

addition, the Portuguese immigrants were in higher status than the people in the host

culture. Hence, adaptation to the host culture was not necessary. The study shares

similar findings to O-larick Khunsit (2012)’s study. The researcher found that Thai

personnel who worked for branches in the neighboring countries such as Cambodia,

Malaysia, Laos, and Myanmar were in higher positions than the local officers. As a

result, they maintained Thai culture and performed less adaption.

5.2.5 The comparison of cultural dimensions

Hofstede’s value dimensions were applied as a research framework in this

study. The framework has celebrated its popularity among previous studies. For

example, marketing research was employed to investigate marketing consumers (Yoo

et, Donthu & Lenartowicz, 2011), to set organization management plans (Vasile &

Nicolescu, 2016), and to seek for guideline for coexistence of people in a

multicultural society (Nguyen, 2015).

The investigation of cultural dimensions in this study aims to examine two

areas below:

5.2.5.1 To compare cultural dimensions of between Thai employers

and Burmese workers.

5.2.5.2 To compare cultural dimensions from the attitudes of the

Burmese workers towards Thai and Burmese cultures.

To begin with the comparison of cultural dimensions between Thai employers

and Burmese workers through a qualitative approach, the analysis revealed different

attitudes of Thai and employers and Burmese workers towards two cultural

dimensions. On the one hand, the Thai employers focused on collectivism, while the

Burmese workers favored individualism. Secondly, femininity was outstanding

among Thai employers. However, the Burmese workers were more masculine.

The other area of the comparison referred to the comparison of cultural

dimensions from the attitudes of the Burmese workers towards Thai and Burmese

cultures. A quantitative analysis showed that the attitudes towards four dimensions of

the two cultures were in the same trend, but different levels. Similarly, the test of

correlation between cultural dimensions and adaptive abilities revealed only one

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cultural dimension correlating to the abilities to adapt to work, which was power

distance. The results are discussed in the following section.

1) Low/high power distance- the qualitative analysis revealed

that both Thai employers and the Burmese workers favored high power distance.

While the Burmese workers established hierarchies of a person by considering their

work experiences and educational levels, hierarchies among the Burmese workers

were not clearly established. Some of them had been teachers in Myanmar, but after

moving to Thailand they were workers as others. In other words, their education

certificates and work experiences in their home country were not accepted in

Thailand. The situation is similar to that of Russian-German immigrants, who fled

back to Germany after the dependence declaration from Russia. The immigrants

needed to face a long-term unemployment as they did not gain acceptance. Some of

them got rather low pay. While some could not maintain the same positions they once

held in Russia (Dementeva, Franzke & Loyko, 2015).

In addition, the Burmese workers in Thailand were aware of the

inequality in Thai society. They realized that they must encounter with it and ignored

it as their ultimate goal was the “income” from work. Thus, it was more likely for the

workers to adapt to the Thai employers. In contrast, the results also revealed that the

Burmese workers could negotiate with the employers in some cases such as asking for

jobs after quitting or getting back from their own country. For some workers they

might be away from work for a month. This was acceptable for most employers due to

the shortage of labor. However, the employment of migrant workers required clear

rules and punishment to avoid later problems, especially in the organizations with

clear structures.

According to Hofstede’s ranking of degrees of power distance

of more than 50 countries across the globe, Thailand was in the 21th which was rather

low when comparing to other countries in ASEAN Community, especially Malaysia,

which was ranked in the 1st place (Samovar et al., 2013, p.177). However, according

to the quantitative data analysis, the Burmese workers were aware of high power

distance in Thai and Burmese cultures, with a higher degree in Thai context. Thus it is

noticeable that roles and status of the supervisors or employers of Thai people

broadened the gaps in the relationship between the two parties. The workers were

167

afraid and don’t dare to tease or be close to the employers. They preferred

communicating through foremen. Thus, much distance between the employers and the

workers was established.

2) Individualism or collectivism- The qualitative data analysis

revealed that the Thai employers were more collectivistic. In general, they relied on

other employers, government officers, and the public close to the organizations. They

valued stakeholders for the sustainability of their businesses. Previous studies also

support the finding. Most of them found out that Thai people who worked for

branches in neighboring countries also focused on collectivism. Shared principles

were established as a policy for all members so that they reached the organizational

goal (O-larick Khunsit, 2012). In addition, according to Hofstede’s study,

individualism was scarcely found in Thai society. The scholar proposed that Asian

people were less individualistic than western people; for example, the U.S was ranked

on top, while Thailand is ranked at 39th

. This implied rather low individualism in the

country (Samovar et al., 2013, p.178).

Meanwhile, in general most Burmese workers focused highly

on human rights and their responsibilities. They ultimate goal for working was the

pay. As a result, they were inactive to reflect value of reliance and focused on public

interest while working in Thailand. Consequently, collectivism was not the focus.

However, integration among the workers was clearly when they made merit and built

temples in Thailand. The activities reflected their strong collectivism through more

integration and harmony than among Thai people. At the same time, the quantitative

data analysis indicated that the Burmese workers had high attitudes towards

collectivism both in Thai and Burmese cultures with a slightly more awareness of the

value in Thai society. The results showed the only cultural dimension the workers

shared were different degrees of attitudes.

3) Masculinity or femininity- The results showed that

masculinity was more influential among the Burmese workers. They appeared to

focus on success in work and pay slight attention to quality of life. They could take

any job, which provided money, especially the jobs Thai people were inactive to take.

Those jobs were usually with high pay and they were known as 3Ds jobs, which

referred to “Difficult,” “Dirty,” and “Dangerous.” Thus, the Burmese workers were

168

rarely away from work. Some of them get extra jobs after work or they worked on

weekends. They were economized and focused less on eating. They preferred eating

vegetables than meat due to its high prices. This reflected the traditional ways of life

of the Burmese in rural areas who were self-reliant. In the socialism era in which their

country was still closed, the government ran a campaign for their people to be

economical and self-reliant. A motto in the campaign was launched to warn and

encourage young people. It was, “Build your own shop in your own backyard.”

Besides, another famous moral saying about how to economically use money is

“Don’t waste your money on households” meaning if you did not use money

carefully, you will waste it. The saying was aimed to remind the people not to spend

too much on food (Wirat-Oranuch Niyomtham, 2008b , p. 182). This became their

values until this day. The results were in line with the quantitative data analysis,

which found that the Burmese workers were aware of masculinity in Thai and

Burmese cultures, but more masculinity in Thai society.

In contrast, the Thai employers preferred femininity. Even

though they were task-oriented, they were flexible. The employers focused on the

relationship between workers as well as their quality of life. The employers in the all

three provinces conducted similar activities to improve relationship such as holding

sport events to boost morale and encouragement, giving presents on New Year or

Songkran Festival, providing transportation to nearby temples, or offering better

welfare. For example, food and apartment were provided for free to promote the

workers’ higher quality of life. In doing so the workers had less expense and could

collect more money. In this case they usually become more motivated to work.

According to Hofstede’s study, Japanese was the most outstanding country with

femininity, while Thailand fell into the 44th

place, which was lower than many other

countries in ASEAN (Samovar et al., 2013, p.184).

4) Low or high uncertainty avoidance- The qualitative data

analysis discovered high uncertainty avoidance among the Thai employers. They were

afraid of uncertainty in the future and usually rely on strict legitimate laws and

regulations, especially regarding fleeing of migrant workers by seizing the workers’

official document and passport. The workers were allowed to keep the copied

versions. Similarly, the Burmese workers also reflected high uncertainty avoidance.

169

They were uncertain about changes in the future. They needed plans and security for

work. Besides, regular pay and security at work are necessary. Thus, they usually

sought for better jobs by frequently changed their jobs for higher pay and more

security. The workers in Ranong appeared to have a high frequency of job transfer.

The result was in line with the quantitative analysis, which indicated the Burmese

workers’ high attitudes towards uncertainty avoidance in Thai and Burmese cultures.

However, higher uncertainty avoidance in Thai society was observed by the workers.

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 Recommendations for intercultural communications between Thai

employers and Burmese workers

5.3.1.1 Burmese workers’ identity formation should be promoted in the

migration destinations. In all the research settings, the employers usually refer to the

workers’ devotion to donate their money and labor as well as morale in making merit

and building pagodas for other Burmese in the adjacent areas as it might be

impossible for them to worship the Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar. For example, a

model of the pagoda can be found in Klong Hae Temple in Had Yai District,

Songkhla, Suwankeeree Temple in Kraburi, Ranong, and Pho Wai Temple in

Mueang, Surat Thani. In Pho Wai Temple, a school for Burmese children was

established. Initially, the school was for the children of a Burmese lawyer and

workers, who resided near the temple. They would like their kids to be educated in

Thailand; thus, the school was established with the funding from organizations in

Thailand and Myanmar. Until now the school provides Thai, English, and Burmese

programs. Thus with more volunteers or supporters, Burmese workers’ education

would serve more students. Consequently, social problems in Thailand such as

stealing, crimes, and conflicts due to poor language skills would be lessened. At the

same time, the workers could relieve their worry about their children in Myanmar.

Finally, Thai employers do not encounter labor shortage or job transfer among

Burmese workers.

5.3.1.2 Promoting equality in employment is necessary. Not only the

workers in all the four research settings across the four types of businesses are

170

worried about dealing with Thai police officers. They are concerned about being

unemployed and inconsistency of the employment by a certain employer. Provided

that inconsistency occurs they need to look for a new job. As a result, some workers

do not stick to specific types of jobs or organizations after immediate termination of

the previous jobs. For example, a worker in a fishery business in Surat Thani had

taken a construction job and worked in fishery business in Pattani for about 10 years.

Later, fishery in Pattani was not as prosperous as that in Surat Thani. Then he moved

to the new working area. Hence, the underlying reason of job transfer among Burmese

workers associates with no jobs available or inadequate jobs in the previous

workplaces until they gain insufficient pay to cover their expense or the high rate of

registration fee, which cost about 10,000 baht. However, learning to perform new

tasks frequently requires much patience since it is essential or the workers to

understand the key characteristics of the new jobs as well as the new employers’ and

coworkers’ characteristics. Unsurprisingly, those workers can tolerate the 3Ds jobs

(Difficult, Dirty and Dangerous jobs). Next, regarding the promotion of equality in

the employment, employers could assign tasks, which suit specific groups of the

workers, while the wage should be reasonable for the labor and their outstanding

characteristic of being much more patient than Thai people. Provided that all the

suggestion was met, the feeling of being exploited by Thai employers would be

reduced, while their working morale would be promoted.

5.3.1.3 Presentation of positive historical events between Thai and

Burmese should be promoted. So far, history of negative relationship between the two

nations has been presented in class until the hatred towards Burmese people is

accumulated into their mindset. Only those Thai people who have shared experiences

with the Burmese appear to feel less dubious. However, the Thai with direct

experiences with the Burmese form a minority group of people. Thus, media and

lessons in class should focus on presenting history of positive relationship between

Thai and Burmese in order to promote positive relationship and attitudes towards

Burmese people to serveindustrial and agricultural sectors. The aim is to encourage

investment and employment in Thai contexts where labor shortage is critical.

5.3.1.4 Cultural knowledge to boost mutual understanding and reduce

stereotypes between ethnic groups in formal education should be provided. It should

171

be parts of the curriculum along with knowledge about AEAN Community. People

must be encouraged to realize the significance of coexistence of others in

multicultural contexts. The promotion should focus on children so that they are open

to the circumstance. Also, the children will become open-minded at primary,

secondary, and university levels. The promotion should be performed in local,

regional, and national levels.

5.3.1.5 Migrant conflict management should be provided. The data

analysis revealed two areas of conflict. Firstly, the conflict between employers and

Burmese workers imported through the government MOU and worked for

organizations with clear structures was discovered. In this circumstance, the workers

negotiate and associate with each other to maintain their rights. Once a cooperation is

formed, it became challenging for the employers to deal with problems occurred.

Thus, a survey on the workers through an observation, survey questionnaires, and

relationship boosting activities are likely to be useful in an organization hiring MOU

Burmese workers. The executives can apply the results in the organizational planning

and analysis. For example, thus study found that the Burmese participants noticed

high power distance between employers and workers. Sometimes, it might be

impossible to show it explicitly. Thus, when the employers realize the problems, they

will be able to manage them appropriately.

The other aspect of the conflict associates with the conflict among

ethnic groups in Myanmar. Provided that it is impossible for the employers to recruit

Burmese workers who share different ethnic groups to work in the same organization,

they should promote balance between work and personal life of all groups of the

workers so that each ethnic group is treated equally. In addition, a close observation

on the workers’ behaviors should be conducted, especially the Burmese as they are

usually blamed on by the Mon, Karen, and Thai Yai. Other people usually do not

want to work with the Burmese. The problems have been in Myanmar for a long time

and no solution seemed to work under the dictatorial government. Unluckily, the

conflict has escalated to employment of Burmese workers in Thai society.

172

5.3.2 Recommendations for Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign

Workers B.E. 2560 (2017)

Considering the Royal Decree on the Management of Foreign Workers B.E.

2560 (2017) and the results of this study, the following suggestion for policy making

of governmental sector is presented in the following section.

5.3.2.1 Promotion of awareness on equality of migrant employment in

Thai society

The data analysis indicated that the respondents noticed differences

between the employment of Thais and the Burmese in terms of pay and welfare. Also,

Thais appear to be with ethnic stereotypes and seemed not to open to Burmese

workers. Most of the Thai people believe that they are better and more superior to the

Burmese (ethnocentrism). A survey with the workers on their adaptive abilities to

work in the south showed that the lowest score was on “Being unhappy with everyday

life in Thailand”. Thus, we should reconsider the situations, especially insulting to

migrant workers as far as we still rely on their labor to accelerate the production.

Similarly, clear amount of the fine for relevant people or others, both the employers

and migrant workers should be established. This might be helpful as the guilty people

are pleased to take care of the fine if they violate the law. As a result, the law is more

strict and applied with every one with no exception for influential people.

In addition, the results revealed the Burmese workers’ observation of

high power distance among Thai people. This means that they perceived unfair

employment by the government officers and other Thais. Thus, this might be one of

the reasons they fled home after the declaration of Royal Decree on the Management

of Foreign Workers B.E. 2560 (2017).

5.3.2.2 Appropriate channels for publicizing the law should be

provided to promote correct and clear knowledge about law for Thai employers and

Burmese workers. There are various reasons why Burmese workers flock back to their

home country and may not get back after the establishment of the decree. First, some

of them might hear about a rumor, while some of them learn from social media.

Sometimes, the rumor or news is distorted. However, one influential factor is the high

registration fee they need to take care of without any details or correct information.

Hence, during the extension of the enforcement time of this Act, the government

173

should promote correct information and clear understanding of the new regulations to

Burmese workers and Thai employers for more understanding and effective practices.

5.3.3 Recommendations for further study

5.3.3.1 Researchers should boost trust by the participants. The

participants in this study are migrant workers. They are usually panic when interact

with unfamiliar people. Most of them might not give clear and precise information as

they are afraid of negative impacts. They appear to be very careful when giving

information and usually provide positive information. Thus, the researchers must be

neutral and trusted by the employers since they can relief the workers’ worry in the

early phase. However, while collecting data, the researchers must observe their

communication behaviors to evaluate their readiness. If they feel uncomfortable, other

topics should be brought up to relief their intense, for example, talking about activities

during the weekend or favorite food. Moreover, informal communications is advisable

as it is more relaxing. Then the participants will gradually reveal more information.

5.3.3.2 A preliminary investigation of the targeted participants prior to

the visit of the researcher site can boost reliability of quantitative research. In the

present study, some of the workers are illiterate. However, they speak Burmese or

Thai. Therefore, researchers should classify the participants into groups and be with

them while filling up the questionnaire form. Researchers can read the items and

check their answers. It is necessary to simplify some terms or provide examples,

which are close to their daily life so that they understand the item well before filling

the form for the most reliable data.

174

5.3.3.3 Researchers should pay attention to the questionnaire format to

facilitate the respondents, who have no experiences filling up close-ended

questionnaire. Researchers should learn the potential problems and obstacles, which

are resulted from the lack of experiences. In this study, it was found that some

Burmese workers were not familiar with the questionnaire format. As a result they left

some items blank and the form had missing data despite using the Burmese version.

Therefore, the researchers should be aware of the challenging issue by avoiding

stratified items such as age and income. In this case open-ended items would be more

appropriate.

5.3.3.4 The potential topics for further studies on discovering body of

knowledge of intercultural communications, which is compatible with modern

situations. This would include investigation of communications channels for migrant

management in Thailand or an in-depth study of cultural dimensions, which show

incongruent results to other previous studies.

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

Guide Question

Title: Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese Workers by

Local Businesses in Southern Thailand

This in-depth interview is a part of the data collection for an academic

investigation. The researcher is not revealing your data to others, so you are not going

to be subjected to any cases. Therefore, please kindly give true information which is

compatible with your opinions. Your information is invaluable for this study.

_____________________________________________________________________

Types of Employers Business ……………………Province…………………………

Age…………………………….Educational Level ………………………………….

Elements of Hofstede’s Value Dimensions

1.Which communicative technique do you use when assigning tasks to

subordinates?

2. Have you ever experiences unfair treats by officials?

3. What is your opinion about the saying, “Adults are more experienced than

the young” in working?

4. Do you talk or exchange your ideas to subordinates after work?

5.When you disagree with someone, how do you respond?

6.Which do you prefer, working alone or in group, why?

7.On which occasions do you gain favor from others, and how do you pay

them back?

8.When making decision about work, who do you usually ask for advice?

Why?

9. In your opinion, what factors constitutes “being successful?”

10. How do you manage personal life and work? Do you think it is effective?

11.What is your opinion about the saying, “The husband brings money to the

house, the wife takes care of the family?”

12. Apart from wage and welfare, what do you think should be provided by

the employers?

187

13. How could you cope with immediate absence from work to Myanmar?

14. If you need to move to a far new company, which you are not familiar

with, how will you react?

15. Are you worried about “stability and security” in your life? How much?

And how do you manage the worry?

Media Exposure and Cultivation

1. How much do you expose to the media a day? What is your favorite

medium? Why?

2. In what way are Burmese workers presented through Thai mass media?

3. Do you like how Burmese workers presented on Thai mass media?

4. Would you like Thai mass media to reconsider the presentation of the

Burmese? How?

5. From which media do you usually expose to the contents about Burmese

workers?

6. How would Burmese workers feel if they expose to the contents about

Burmese workers

7. How do Thai mass media convey ethnic and culture discrimination?

8.When you hear about crimes committed by Burmese workers in Thailand,

do you believe in the news? Why?

9. Do you more critically monitor the work performed by the Burmese after

hearing the news from the media?

Psycho-Cultural Influences

1. What is your opinion about describing Burmese people as patient, honest,

and grateful?

2. What is a necessary characteristic of your future Burmese workers

according to types of jobs?

3 Have you ever made fun of Burmese workers by using words? Which words

do you usually use?

4. Do you allow the Burmese workers to apply Tanaka Powder, eat betel nuts,

and ware Sarong in your workplace?

5. How do you react to the Burmese workers when getting angry or

unsatisfying with their work?

6. What techniques do you apply when you assign tasks for Burmese workers?

What are the consequences?

7. How do you support the Burmese workers in terms of their traditional

activities?

8. How do you adapt to Burmese culture such as practice how to speak or

remember Burmese?

Perceptions of Historical Events

1. Have you ever read or studied history events? How do you feel after

learning the historical events?

2. How have you perceived the relationship between Thai and Burmese? After

you employ Burmese workers, is your perception changed?

Title: Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese Workers by

Local Businesses in Southern Thailand

This in-depth interview is a part of the data collection for an academic

investigation. The researcher is not revealing your data to others, so you are not going

to be subjected to any cases. Therefore, please kindly give the true information which

is compatible with your opinions. Your information is invaluable for this study.

____________________________________________________________________

Types of Business Burmese Working ……………Province…………………………...

Age…………………………….Educational Level …………………………………..

Ability to speak Thai…………………………………………………………………...

Elements of Hofstede’s Value Dimensions

1.What welfare is provided for you in your workplace? Is it sufficient?

2. Does your employer instruct you how to perform tasks or you can take care

of them by yourselves?

3. Have you ever treated unfairly by Thai government officials?

4. How do you show respect or honor to your employers?

5. If your friends plan to be away from work and go back to Myanmar during

a busy schedule at work, are you pleased to get home with them? Why?

6. Would you suggest your friends work here? If yes, why?

7. How would you react to your friends when you disagree with them?

8. Would you prefer to work alone or in groups?

9. How do you define “being successful?”

10. How do you manage personal life and work? Do you think it is effective?

11. Should women work for money or should they stay home and take care of

the family members? Why?

12. What is your ultimate goal for work? Where are you now? Are you almost

there?

191

13.What do you think about “stability and security” of working in Thailand?

14. Provided that there are more job vacancies in Myanmar and the pay is

similar to that in Thailand, would you decide to move back to Myanmar? How?

15. How many times have you changed your jobs? What are the major

reasons?

16. Provided that the employer tell you to move to work in another area, what

would you react?

Media Exposure and Cultivation

1. How much do you expose to the media per day? What is your favorite

medium? Why?

2. What do you expect from exposing to Thai media?

3. In what way are the Burmese presented through Thai mass media?

4 Do you like how Burmese workers presented on Thai mass media? Do you

like it?

5. Would you like Thai mass media to reconsider the presentation of the

Burmese? How?

6. From which media do you usually expose to the contents about Burmese

workers? How do you feel?

7. Do you feel low or gloomy when exposing to the contents on Thai mass

media?

Psycho-Cultural Influences

1. How do you feel of living with two cultures?

2. Do you think you are different from other Burmese workers? How?

3. Have you ever teased by the employers? How do you feel?

4. If the employer asks you not to apply Tanaka Powder, eat betel nuts, spill

the betel nuts, or wear Sarong, how do you feel?

5. When the employer is angry with you or get upset about something, how do

you respond to him/her?

6. Have you ever been insulted or hurt by the employer or other Thai people?

7. Would you like your employer to provide job description for you in your

language? Why?

8. How would you like the employer to promote your traditional activities?

9. How do you learn Thai? Do you prefer using Thai while being in Thailand?

Why?

Perceptions of Historical Events

1. Have you ever read or studied historical relationship between Thai and

Burmese? How do you feel after learning it?

2. Do you think Thai and Burmese are enemy? Have you ever thought about i

เรอง การสอสารระหวางวฒนธรรมในการจางแรงงานเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต (ส าหรบนายจาง)

แบบสอบถามครงนเปนสวนหนงของการเกบรวบรวมขอมลเพอการศกษาวจยเทาน น ผวจยจะไมเปดเผยขอมลใดๆ ของทานทจะท าใหสงผลกระทบตอตวทานเปนอนขาด ดงนนผวจยจงขอความอนเคราะหจากทานในการใหขอมลทเปนจรงและสอดคลองกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด ซงขอมลของทานจะเปนประโยชนส าหรบการศกษาวจยครงนเปนอยางยง ______________________________________________________________________________ ประเภทกจการ ………………………..จงหวด …………………อาย……………… ระดบการศกษา ……………………. มตทางวฒนธรรมของฮอฟสเตด (Hofstede) 4 ดาน

1.ในการมอบหมายงานใหแกลกจาง ทานมกเลอกใชวธการสอสารดวยวธใด เพราะเหตใด 2.ทานเคยโดนเจาหนาทของรฐแสดงออกถงความไมเปนธรรมตอทานบางหรอไม ทาน

รสกอยางไรบาง 3.ทานคดเหนอยางไรตอค าพดวา “ผใหญยอมมประสบการณมากกวาเดก”ในการท างาน 4.ทานและลกนองมเวลาพดคยเพอแลกเปลยนประสบการณนอกเวลางานบางหรอไม

อยางไร 5.หากทานมความคดเหนทไมสอดคลองกบคนหมมาก ทานมกจะแสดงออกอยางไรบาง

ในการท างานทานมกเลอกการท างานเดยวๆ หรอการท างานเปนกลมมากกวา เพราะเหตใด 6.ทานเคยไดรบความชวยเหลอจากเพอน ๆ ของทานเกยวกบเรองใดบาง และทานตอบแทน

เพอนทานอยางไรบาง 7.หากทานตองตดสนใจเกยวกบงาน ทานมกจะปรกษากบคนกลมใดบาง เพราะอะไร 8.ส าหรบทานแลว ค าวา ‘ประสบความส าเรจ’ ตองประกอบไปดวยปจจยอะไรบาง 9.ทานแบงเวลาสวนตวกบเวลางานอยางไรบาง ทานคดวาการแบงเวลาดงกลาวเหมาะสม

หรอไม อยางไร

194

10.จากค ากลาวทวา ‘สามตองเปนผหาเงนเขาครอบครว ภรรยาตองเปนผคอยดแลสมาชกทกคนในครอบครว’ ทานมความคดเหนอยางไร

11.ทานคดวานอกจากคาจางและสวสดการแลว ลกจางควรไดรบอะไรเพมเตมอกบางจากนายจาง

12.หากลกจาง รวมตวกนเพอขอหยดงานกลบประเทศเมยนมารในขณะทมงานเรงดวนทานจะมวธการแกปญหาอยางไร

13.หากทานจ าเปนตองยายสถานประกอบการ ไปนอกพนทซงทานไมคนเคย ทานจะรสกอยางไรบาง

14.ปจจบนทานมความกงวลเกยวกบ ‘ความมนคงและความปลอดภย’ในชวตของทานบางหรอไม เพยงใด และถามทานมวธการจดการกบความกงวลดงกลาวอยางไร

การเปดรบสอและการปลกฝงจากสอ

1.ทานมเวลาในการเปดรบสอมากนอยแคไหนในแตละวน และนยมเปดรบสอประเภทไหนมากทสด เพราะเหตใด

2.ทานคดวาสอมวลชนไทยมกจะน าเสนอขอมลดานไหนเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมาร 3.จากการน าเสนอขอมลเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมารของสอมวลชนไทย ทานชอบหรอไม

อยางไร 4.ทานอยากใหสอมวลชนไทยปรบรปแบบการน าเสนอขาวหรอเนอหาเกยวกบแรงงาน

เมยนมารหรอไมอยางไร 5.ทานมกเหนการน าเสนอภาพขาวหรอเนอหาเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมารจากรายการ

ประเภทไหนบาง 6.ทานคดวาหากแรงงานเมยนมารเปดรบสอมวลชนไทยทน าเสนอเนอหาเกยวกบแรงงาน

เมยนมาร แรงงานเมยนมารจะรสกอยางไรบาง 7.สอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอเนอหาเกยวกบการเหยยดทางชาตพนธและวฒนธรรมอยางไร

บาง 8.หากทานตดตามขาวสารเกยวกบการกออาชญากรรมจากแรงงานเมยนมารในเมองไทย

ทานเชอตามทขาวน าเสนอหรอไม เพราะเหตใด และทานเคยเฝามองดพฤตกรรมการท างานของลกจางเมยนมารเปนพเศษหรอไมเมอมขาวอาชญากรรมจากการกระท าของแรงงานเมยนมารในเมองไทยผานสอมวลชน

195

องคประกอบทางดานจตวทยา-วฒนธรรม 1.ทานคดเหนอยางไรกบการกลาวถงพฤตกรรมของแรงงานเมยนมารวาเปนกลมทมความ

อดทนในการท างาน มความซอสตย และมความกตญญ 2.ในอนาคตหากตองการจางแรงงานเมยนมารเพมทานตองการแรงงานเมยนมารทม

คณลกษณะอยางไรจงจะเหมาะสมกบประเภทงานของทาน 3.ทานเคยหยอกลอแรงงานเมยนมารดวยการใชค าพดบางหรอไม และทานนยมใชค าวา

อะไรในการหยอกลอ 4.ทานอนญาตใหแรงงานเมยนมารทาแปงทานาคา กนหมาก และนงโสรงในสถาน

ประกอบการของทานหรอไม เพราะเหตใด 5.เมอแรงงานเมยนมารท าใหทานโกรธหรอไมพอใจจากการท างานทานแสดงความรสก

อยางไรตอพวกเขา 6.ทานใชวธการสอสารใดในการมอบหมายงานใหแกแรงงานเมยนมาร และผลจากการใช

วธการสอสารดงกลาว เปนอยางไรบาง 7.ทานใหการสนบสนนกจกรรม ประเพณและวฒนธรรมของแรงงานเมยนมารอยางไรบาง 8.ทานมการปรบตวเพอใหเขากบวฒนธรรมเมยนมารอยางไรบาง เชน การฝกพดหรอจดจ า

ภาษาเมยนมาร การรบรประวตศาสตร

1.ทานเคยอานหรอเรยนประวตศาสตรระหวางไทยและเมยนมารบางหรอไมและทานรสกอยางไรบางจากเนอหาในประวตศาสตรทเคยอานหรอเรยนมา

2.ทานเคยรบรความสมพนธระหวางไทยและเมยนมารอยางไรบาง และเมอทานมลกจางเ ป น แ ร ง ง า น เ ม ย น ม า ร ก า ร ร บ ร ข อ ง ท า น เ ป ล ย น ไ ป ห ร อ ไ ม อ ย า ง ไ ร

เรอง การสอสารระหวางวฒนธรรมในการจางแรงงานเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต (ส าหรบลกจาง)

แบบสอบถามครงนเปนสวนหนงของการเกบรวบรวมขอมลเพอการศกษาวจยเทาน น ผวจยจะไมเปดเผยขอมลใดๆ ของทานทจะท าใหสงผลกระทบตอตวทานเปนอนขาด ดงนนผวจยจงขอความอนเคราะหจากทานในการใหขอมลทเปนจรงและสอดคลองกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด ซงขอมลของทานจะเปนประโยชนส าหรบการศกษาวจยครงนเปนอยางยง ______________________________________________________________________________ ประเภทกจการ ……………………………….จงหวด ………………………………อาย………… ระดบการศกษา …………………………….ความสามารถในการพดภาษาไทย ………………… มตทางวฒนธรรมของฮอฟสเตด (Hofstede) 4 ดาน

1.ทานไดรบสวสดการใดบางจากการท างาน ทานคดวาสวสดการดงกลาวเหมาะสมหรอไม อยางไร

2.ในการท างานของทานสวนใหญนายจางจะเปนคนสงใหท าหรอทานท าตามหนาททไดรบมอบหมาย

3.ทานเคยไดรบการปฏบตอยางไมเปนธรรมจากบคคลซงเปนตวแทนจากหนวยงานของรฐไทยบางหรอไม อยางไร

4.ทานใหความเคารพหรอใหเกยรตนายจางของทานอยางไรบาง 5.หากเพอนของทานนดกนหยดงานเพอกลบบาน (เมยนมาร) ในชวงทมงานยงมาก ทาน

ยนดจะกลบบานพรอมกบเพอน ๆ ของทานหรอไม เพราะเหตใด 6.ทานแนะน าใหเพอนมาท างานทนกบทานบางหรอไม เพราะหตใดจงแนะน ามา 7.หากทานมความคดเหนทแตกตางจากเพอนๆ ทานมกจะแสดงออกอยางไรบาง 8.ในการท างานทานชอบการท างานคนเดยวหรอการท างานเปนกลมมากกวา 9.‘การประสบความส าเรจ’ ในชวตของทานตองมลกษณะอยางไร 10.ทานแบงเวลางานกบเวลาสวนตวอยางไรบาง และทานคดวาการแบงเวลาดงกลาวม

ความเหมาะสมหรอไม อยางไร

197

11.ทานคดวาหนาทของผหญงตองหาเงนเลยงครอบครวหรอผหญงควรอยดแลสมาชกในครอบครว เพราะเหตใด

12.เปาหมายสงสดในชวตการท างานของทานคออะไร แลวตอนนทานสามารถท าไดถงจดไหน อยางไรแลวบาง

13.ทานคดเหนอยางไรเกยวกบ ‘ความมนคงและความปลอดภย’ กบการท างานในเมองไทย

14.หากประเทศเมยนมารมแหลงงานเพมขนและมอตราคาจางทเทากบเมองไทย ทานจะตดสนใจกลบไปเมยนมารหรอไม อยางไร

15.ทานมการเปลยนงานมาแลวกครง และสาเหตการเปลยนงานเกดจากอะไร 16.หากนายจางแจงวาทานจ าเปนตองเปลยนสถานทท างาน ทานจะตอบนายจางวาอยางไร

การเปดรบสอและการปลกฝงจากสอ

1.ทานมเวลาในการเปดรบสอมากนอยแคไหนในแตละวน และนยมเปดรบสอประเภทไหนมากทสด เพราะเหตใด

2.ทานคาดหวงจะไดประโยชนอะไรจากการเปดรบสอมวลชนไทย 3. ทานคดวาสอมวลชนไทยมกจะน าเสนอขอมลดานไหนเกยวกบชาวเมยนมาร 4.จากการน าเสนอขอมลเกยวกบแรงงานเมยนมารของสอมวลชนไทย ทานชอบหรอไม

อยางไร 5.ทานอยากใหสอมวลชนไทยปรบรปแบบการน าเสนอเกยวกบเมยนมารหรอไมอยางไร 6.ทานมกเหนการน าเสนอภาพเกยวกบเมยนมารจากรายการประเภทไหนบางและทานรสก

อยางไรเมอมการน าเสนอดงกลาว 7.สอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอเนอหาทท าใหทานรสกหดหจตใจ และท าใหทานรสกต าตอยบาง

หรอไม อยางไร องคประกอบทางดานจตวทยา-วฒนธรรม

1.ทานรสกอยางไรกบการมวถชวตใน 2 วฒนธรรม 2.ทานคดวาทานมความแตกตางจากแรงงานเมยนมารของนายจางรายอนบางหรอไม

อยางไร 3.ทานเคยถกนายจางหยอกลอดวยการใชค าพดบางหรอไม และทานรสกอยางไรตอค า

หยอกลอดงกลาว

198

4.หากนายจางของทานหามทาแปงทานาคา กนหมาก บวนน าหมากและนงโสรง ทานรสกอยางไรบาง

5.เมอนายจางท าใหทานโกรธหรอไมพอใจทานสามารถแสดงความรสกอยางไรตอพวกเขาไดบาง

6.ทานเคยโดนคนไทยคนอน ๆ ทนอกเหนอจากนายจางของทานดถกหรอท าใหทานเสยใจบางหรอไมอยางไร

7.ทานอยากใหนายจางของทานอธบายลกษณะงานใหแกทานดวยภาษาของทานหรอไม เพราะเหตใด

8.ทานอยากใหนายจางสนบสนนกจกรรมในประเพณส าคญ ๆ ของทานอยางไรบาง 9.ทานเรยนรภาษาไทยดวยวธใด และทานรสกชอบทจะพดภาษาไทยหรอไมเมออย

เมองไทย เพราะเหตใด การรบรประวตศาสตร

1.ทานเคยอานประวตศาสตรระหวางไทยและเมยนมารบางหรอไมและทานรสกอยางไรบางจากเนอหาในประวตศาสตรทเคยอานมา

2.ทานคดวาคนไทยและคนเมยนมารมความรสกเปนศตรกนบางหรอไม ความรสกดงกลาวเกดจากอะไรบาง

Title : Intercultural Communication in the Employment of Burmese

Workers by Local Businesses in Southern Thailand

This questionnaire is a part of the data collection for an academic

investigation. The researcher is not revealing your data to others, so you are not going

to be subjected to any cases. Therefore, please kindly give the true information which

is the most compatible with your opinions. Your information is invaluable for this

study. The researcher is so grateful for your cooperation.

____________________________________________________________________

Section 1: Demographic Information

Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.

1. Gender Male Female

2. Age

20 or less 21 -30 31 - 40 41 - 50 more than 50

3. Ethnicity

Mon Thai Yai Karen Burmese

Others…………

4. Types of living

Staying with Thai roommates Staying with Burmese roommates

Alone Others ................Please specify

5. Business Types

Agriculture Construction Service Fishery

6. Educational Levels

Primary (1-4) Early High School (5-8)

Late High School (9-10) Bachelor

7. Working Areas

Surat Thani Ranong Songkhla

8. Work Experiences in Myanmar

With experiences Without Experienc

200

Section 2: Media and Media Exposure

Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.

1. Types of media you expose to (You can choose more than one alternatives)

Radios Television Facebook YouTube

Online media, please specify ………………..

2. What are your objectives of exposure to Thai media (You can choose more than

one alternatives)

To entertain To practice Thai To follow current situations in

Thailand

To follow current situations in Myanmar

To substitute for real experiences in Myanmar

Others ...................., please specify

3. Which contents about Myanmar are mostly presented on Thai Mass Media?

(Choose only one alternative)

Political news in Myanmar Crime news in Thailand

Travel documentary in Myanmar Thai and Burmese historical soap operas

Others ................, please specify

4. How do you respond to negative contents about the Burmese such as crimes in

Thailand? (Choose only one alternative)

Being convinced by the contents

Searching for more information from acquaintances

Searching for more information from online media

Comparing to previous knowledge

Comparing to the behaviors of the employer or colleagues

Others ................, please specify

5. From item 4 how is the most influential effect of the negative contents? (Choose

only one alternative)

The Thai are more suspicious of the Burmese

The Burmese are likely to commit more crimes.

More Burmese workers are laid off

More Burmese workers move back to their country

Others ................Please specify

201

Section 3: Ethnic Attitudes

Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.

Meaning of the Scale

5 = Totally agree 4= Mostly agree 3= Moderately agree

2= Partly agree 1= Hardly agree

Item Ethnic Attitudes Scales

5 4 3 2 1

1 Thai people usually look down on the Burmese.

2 Thai people avoid communicating with the Burmese.

3 Burmese workers are usually accused of committing bad

things.

4 Thai employers assign tasks unfairly.

5 Thai people usually take advantage of the Burmese,

especially those in recruiting agencies.

6 Thai employers are too strict with Burmese workers.

7 Thai people usually complaint on how the Burmese apply

Tanaka and wear Sarong.

8 The Burmese are more competent in English than Thai

people.

9 The Burmese are more tolerate than Thai people.

10 Thai people are cunning, for example, sellers usually sell

defected products to the Burmese

202

Section 4: Religious Behaviors

Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.

Meaning of the Scale

5 = Most frequently 4= Frequently 3= Often 2= Sometimes 1= Rarely

Item Religious Behaviors Scales

5 4 3 2 1

1 Frequencies of going to Thai temples to make merit on

Buddhist special days

2 Frequencies of participating in religious ceremonies such

as praying, worshiping the Buddha image, or listening to

religious lessons in Thailand.

3 Frequencies of participating in Buddhist activities such as

donating money to temples, Kathin Ceremony (Offering

yellow ropes to the monks) or Tod Pha Pa (Offering

showering ropes to the monks).

4 Frequencies of applying the Buddha’s words such as

those about being tolerate, patient, and grateful in work.

5 Frequencies of offering food, necessary stuffs, rice, or

dried food to the monks in Thailand.

6 Frequencies of renovating Thai temples by fixing them or

assisting in construction of chapels, halls, or buildings.

7 Frequencies of promoting your children or relatives to

become a monk or novice monk in Thailand.

8 Frequencies of participating in ordination ceremonies of

your children or relatives in Thailand.

203

Section5: Knowledge about Thai Culture

Instruction: Please mark a tick (√) in front of the correct expressions and cross (×)

for the incorrect ones.

___1. It is acceptable to wear shoes in Thai temples, but you must take them

off before entering a chapel.

___ 2. The “Wai” (bow, with the palms pressed together) is commonly for

greeting and showing respect to others in various situations such as to sellers.

___ 3. It is acceptable to wear red clothes to the funeral if the dead person is

not your relatives.

___ 4. It is unnecessary for men to wear a top when contacting with

governmental offices, but women need to do it every time.

___ 5. It is acceptable to greet Thai monks as do to other people such as

saying, “Hi, Sir.”

___ 6. It is acceptable to share the food on your plate to others provided that

the hands are clean.

___ 7. While eating it is acceptable to loudly talk to people on a nearby table,

but not too long in a restaurant.

___ 8. In public transportation, it is acceptable for everyone to sit close to the

monk’s seat.

___ 9. It is acceptable to address the elders without using pronouns such as

brother, uncle, aunt, and etc.

___ 10. It is acceptable to put your feet on the table when talking to friends

you are familiar with.

204

Section6: The Burmese Workers’ Attitude towards Thai and Burmese Cultures

Instruction: Please mark a tick in the box () that best describe you.

Meaning of the Scales

5 = Totally agree 4= Mostly agree 3= Moderately agree

2= Partly agree 1= Hardly agree

Item Cultural Dimensions Attitudes towards

Thai Culture

Attitudes

towards Burmese

Culture

5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1

Power Distance

1. Clear scopes of work between the

supervisors and subordinates are set.

2 Supervisors and subordinates are

clearly divided.

3 Subordinates’ opinions are usually

approved by supervisors.

Individualism

4 A sharing society

5 Focusing on the family and groups

6 An egotism society

Masculinity

7 Men usually have more power over

women.

8 Focusing more on money than

relationship in the family

9 Focusing on competitiveness, rivalry,

and victory over the opponents.

10 Focus on success of the tasks rather

than the relationship

205

Section 7: Adaptive abilities of the Burmese workers in southern Thailand

Instruction: Please mark a tick () in the scale that best describe your adaptive

abilities.

Meaning of the scales

10= The Most and 1=The Least (Respectively)

Item Indicators of Adaptive abilities Levels of Adaptive Abilities

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Wellness

1 Being happy with your life in Thailand

2 Having enough time to relax from work

3 Being healthy and ready to work everyday

Being accepted and having relationship with

others

4 Being close to all colleagues

5 Being able to work without monitoring from

the employers

6 Always being assigned to take care of new

workers

Success in Work

7 Always being able to finished assigned tasks

8 Always being praised by the supervisor

9 Being able to collect money and send it back to

your family in Myanmar on time

Uncertainty Avoidance

10 Officially task assignment instead of

informal oral assignment

12 Having strict social rules

206

Item Indicators of Adaptive abilities Levels of Adaptive Abilities

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Familiarity with Thai Culture/ No Stress

10 Being able to go to Thai market alone

11 Being able to ask for help from Thai people

such as when seeing the doctor

12 Participating in activities in Thailand such as

going to the temple with the Thai

Thank you so much for your cooperation

The researcher

Appendix B

Questionnaire

แบบสอบถามการวจย เรอง การสอสารระหวางวฒนธรรมในการจางแรงงานเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต

แบบสอบถามฉบบนเปนสวนหนงของการศกษาวจยเทานน ผวจยจะไมน าขอมลใด ๆ ของทานไปเปดเผยอนจะท าใหสงผลกระทบตอตวทานเปนอนขาด ดงนน ผวจยจงขอความรวมมอจากทานในการกรอกขอมลทเปนจรงและสอดคลองกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด ซงขอมลจากทานจกเปนประโยชนอยางยงส าหรบการศกษาวจยครงน ผวจยขอขอบพระคณส าหรบการใหความรวมมอ ______________________________________________________________________________ ตอนท 1 ขอมลเกยวกบคณลกษณะดานประชากร ค าชแจง : กรณาตอบค าถาม ทตรงกบขอมลสวนตวของทานมากทสด 1. เพศ ชาย หญง 2. อาย 20 และต ากวา 21 -30 ป 31 - 40 ป 41 - 50 ป มากกวา 50 ป 3. เชอชาต มอญ ไทยใหญ กะเหรยง พมา อน ๆ ………… 4. ลกษณะการพกอาศย พกรวมกบคนไทย พกรวมกบคนเมยนมาร พกคนเดยว อน ๆ ................ 5. ทานท างานในกจการประเภทใด เกษตรและปศสตว กอสราง การบรการ ประมง 6. ระดบการศกษา ประถม (1-4) มธยมตอนตน (5-8) มธยมตอนปลาย (9-10) ปรญญาตร 7. ทานท างานอยในพนทจงหวดใด สราษฎรธาน ระนอง สงขลา 8. ประสบการณในการท างานจากประเทศเมยนมาร เคยท า ไมเคยท า

209

ตอนท 2 สอและการเปดรบสอ ค าชแจง : กรณาท าเครองหมาย หนาขอความทสอดคลองกบความเปนจรงของทาน 1. ประเภทของสอมวลชนไทยททานเปดรบ (ตอบไดมากกวา 1 ขอ) วทยกระจายเสยง วทยโทรทศน เฟซบค ยทป สอ /สอออนไลนประเภทอน โปรดระบ 2. ทานมวตถประสงคใดบางในการเปดรบขอมลขาวสารจากสอมวลชนไทย (ตอบไดมากกวา 1 ขอ) เพอความบนเทง เพอฝกภาษาไทย เพอตดตามสถานการณประเทศไทย เพอตดตามสถานการณประเทศเมยนมาร เพอทดแทนบรรยากาศจรงจากเมยนมาร อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................ 3. ทานมกเหนสอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอเนอหาเกยวกบเมยนมารดานใดมากทสด (เลอกเพยงค าตอบเดยว) ขาวการเมองของประเทศเมยนมาร ขาวอาชญากรรมในประเทศไทย สารคดเชงทองเทยวประเทศเมยนมาร ละครองประวตศาสตรระหวางไทยและเมยนมาร อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................ 4. เมอสอมวลชนไทยน าเสนอขอมลขาวสารเกยวกบคนเมยนมารในทางลบเชน การกออาชญากรรมในเมองไทย ทานมปฏกรยาใดมากทสดหลงจากเปดรบสอดงกลาว (เลอกเพยงค าตอบเดยว) เชอตามทสอน าเสนอ หาขอมลเพมเตมจากบคคลใกลชด หาขอมลเพมเตมจากสอออนไลน เปรยบเทยบกบขอมลและความรเดมทเคยม เปรยบเทยบกบพฤตกรรมของนายจางและเพอนรวมงานคนไทย อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................ 5. จากเหตการณ ขอ 4 ทานคดวาจะสงผลกระทบดานใดมากทสด (เลอกเพยงค าตอบเดยว) คนไทยระแวงตอคนเมยนมารมากขน กระตนใหคนเมยนมารท าความผดมากขน นายจางไทยเลกจางแรงงานเมยนมาร คนเมยนมารจะกลบประเทศมากขน อน ๆ โปรดระบ ........................

210

ตอนท 3 ทศนคตทางชาตพนธ ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบทศนคตของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 5= มากทสด, 4= มาก, 3= ปานกลาง, 2= นอย, 1=นอยทสด ท ทศนตทางชาตพนธ ระดบความ

คดเหน

5 4 3 2 1

1 คนไทยมกแสดงอาการดถก เหยยดหยามคนเมยนมาร 2 คนไทยเลยงทจะสอสารกบคนเมยนมาร 3 ลกจางเมยนมารทท างานในเมองไทยมกถกกลาวหาวาเปนผกระท า

ความผดเสมอ

4 นายจางไทยมอบหมายงานอยางไมเปนธรรมใหแกลกจางเมยนมาร

5 คนไทยชอบเอาเปรยบ โดยเฉพาะกลมนายหนาจดหาแรงงานตางดาว

6 นายจางไทยจะออกกฎระเบยบทเขมงวดตอกลมเมยนมารมากกวาลกจางกลมอนๆ

7 คนไทยไมควรต าหนเมอคนเมยนมารทาแปงทานาคาและนงโสรงในเมองไทย

8 คนเมยนมารมความสามารถดานภาษาองกฤษดกวาคนไทย

9 ลกจางเมยนมารมความอดทนในการท างานมากกวาลกจางไทย

10

คนไทยมนสยขโกง เชน แมคามกจะเลอกขายของคณภาพไมดใหแกคนเมยนมาร

211

ตอนท 4 พฤตกรรมทเกยวของกบศาสนา ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบระดบพฤตกรรมของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 5= ถมากทสด, 4= มาก, 3= ปานกลาง, 2= นอย, 1=นอยทสด ท พฤตกรรมทเกยวของกบศาสนา ระดบความถ

5 4 3 2 1 1 ความถในการเขาวดในไทยเพอท าบญตามประเพณและวนส าคญทาง

พทธศาสนา

2 ความถในการประกอบพธกรรมทางพทธศาสนา เชน การสวดมนต ไหวพระ ฟงพระเทศนาในประเทศไทย

3 ความถในการมสวนรวมกจกรรมทางพทธศาสนา เชน การบรจาคเงนสรางวด การเขารวมทอดกฐน ทอดผาปาในประเทศไทย

4 ความถในการปฏบตตามค าสอนของพทธศาสนา เชน การน าค าสอนดานความอดทน ความเพยร ความกตญญมาประยกตใชในการท างานในประเทศไทย

5 ความถในการตกบาตร ถวายสงฆทาน ขาวสาร อาหารแหงในประเทศไทย

6 ความถในการบรณะ ปฏสงขรณวด เชน การชวยซอมแซม กอสรางโบสถ วหาร หรออาคารของวดทใชการไมไดในประเทศไทย

7 ความถในการสนบสนนใหบตรหลานหรอญาตบวชพระหรอสามเณรในประเทศไทย

8 ความถในการเขารวมพธบวชของบตรหลานหรอญาตคนเมยนมารในประเทศไทย

212

ตอนท 5 ความรเกยวกบวฒนธรรมไทย ค าชแจง : กรณาท าเครองหมาย √ หนาขอความททานคดวาถก และเครองหมาย × หนาขอความททานคดวาผด

___1. ทานสามารถสวมรองเทาเขาวดไทยได แตตองถอดรองเทากอนเขาโบสถ ___ 2. การไหวเปนกรยาแสดงการทกทายและเคารพกบทกคนและทกโอกาส เชน ไหว

คนขายของ ___ 3. ทานสามารถสวมใสเสอผาสแดงมารวมงานศพได ถาหากผเสยชวตไมใชญาตสนท

ของทาน ___ 4. ผชายไมจ าเปนตองสวมใสเสอเมอไปตดตอสถานทราชการ แตผหญงจ าเปนตอง

สวมใสเสอทกครง ___ 5. ทานสามารถกลาวค าทกทายพระสงฆไทยเชนเดยวกบททกทายบคคลทวไป เชน

สวสดคะทาน ___ 6. ทานสามารถใชมอหยบอาหารจากจานตวเองใสจานใหแกเพอนคนอน ๆ ไดถามอ

ไมสกปรก ___ 7. ในขณะทรบประทานอาหาร ทานสามารถพดเสยงดงขามโตะอาหารได แตไมควร

นานเกนไป ___ 8. ในการใชบรการขนสงมวลชนนนฆราวาสทกเพศสามารถนงเกาอใกลกบพระสงฆ

ได ___ 9. ทานสามารถเรยกชอผทอาวโสกวาโดยไมตองมค าสรรพนามน าหนาชอกได เชน พ

ปา ลง นา อา ___ 10. ทานยกเทาวางบนโตะ ขณะนงพดคยกบเพอน ๆ ไดเพราะเปนเพอนทสนทกน

213

ตอนท 6 ทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมไทยและทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมเมยนมารจากมมมองของลกจางเมยนมาร ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบความคดเหนของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 5= มากทสด, 4= มาก, 3= ปานกลาง, 2= นอย, 1=นอยทสด

ท มตทางวฒนธรรม ระดบทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมไทย

ระดบทศนคตตอวฒนธรรมเมยนมาร

5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1

โครงสรางทางอ านาจ (power distance) 1. ก าหนดพนทในการท างานอยางชดเจนระหวาง

เจานายและลกนอง

2 ในการจางงานจะเรยกเจานาย – ลกนองอยางชดเจน

3 ความคดเหนของลกนองมกไมไดรบการยอมรบจากเจานาย

ความเปนปจเจก (individual) 4 เปนสงคมแหงการแบงปน 5 ใหความส าคญกบครอบครวและพวกพอง 6 ยดถอความคดตวเองเปนทตง บทบาทความเปนชาย (masculinity) 7 ผชายมกมอ านาจเหนอกวาผหญง 8 สงคมทใหความส าคญกบเงนมากกวาความ

อบอนในครอบครว

9 สงคมทเนนการแขงขน ชงดชงเดน และการเอาชนะเหนอคแขง

10 ใหความส าคญเรองความส าเรจในงานเหนอความสมพนธ

214

การหลกเลยงความไมแนนอน (uncertainty avoidance)

11 การมอบหมายงานทเนนลายลกษณอกษรมากกวาสงแบบปากเปลา

12 มการก าหนดกฎระเบยบอยางเครงครดในสงคม

215

ตอนท 7 ความสามารถปรบตวในการท างานของลกจางเมยนมารในพนทภาคใต ค าชแจง : กรณาเลอกตอบ ทตรงกบความสามารถในการปรบตวของทานมากทสด เกณฑการใหคะแนน 10= มากทสด และ 1=นอยทสด (ตามล าดบ) ท ตวชวดระดบความสามารถปรบตวในการท างาน ระดบการปรบตว

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

อยด มสข

1 ทานมความสขกบวถชวตประจ าวนในเมองไทย 2 ทานมเวลาพกผอนจากการท างานอยางเพยงพอ 3 ทานมสขภาพแขงแรง พรอมทจะท างานไดทกวน ไดรบการนบถอและมความสมพนธกบคนรอบขาง

4 ทานมความสนทสนมกบเพอนรวมงานทกคน

5 ทานสามารถท างานไดโดยไมตองมนายจางคอยควบคม 6 นายจางไววางใจใหทานคอยดแลเพอนรวมงานทเขามาใหม

เสมอ

ท างานไดอยางประสบความส าเรจ

7 ทานสามารถท างานไดส าเรจตามทไดรบมอบหมายทกครง

8 ทานไดรบการยกยองในการท างานจากหวหนางานเสมอ

9 ทานสามารถออมเงนจากการท างานและสงเงนกลบบานไดตรงเวลา

คนเคยกบวฒนธรรมไทย/ไมมความเครยด

10

ทานสามารถเดนทางไปซอของในตลาดในไทยไดโดยล าพง

11

ทานสามารถขอความชวยเหลอจากคนไทยได เชน เมอไปหาหมอ

12

ทานมกเปนสวนหนงของการท ากจกรรมในไทย เชน ไปวดกบคนไทย

ขอขอบพระคณในการใหความรวมมออยางดยง ผวจย

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………

……………………

217

………………..

........................

........................

........................

218

........................

= ====

219

= ====

×

___

___

___

___

___

220

___

___

___

___

___

= ====

(power distance)

(individual)

(masculinity)

221

= =

(uncertainty avoidance)

222

Appendix C

Illustration of Data Collection

Construction Workers, Surat Thani

The researcher (Left) with a service worker (Hotel), Surat Thani

Illustration of Data Collection

224

The researcher (Left) with a construction worker, Surat Thani

The researcher (Right) with a service employer (Hotel), Surat Thaini

225

The researcher (Left) with a service worker (Hotel), Surat Thani

The researcher (Left) with a fishery employer (Right) and a worker (Middle),

Surat Thani

226

The researcher (Right) with a fishery worker, Surat Thani

i

A Construction Employer, Ranong

227

A Service Worker (Hotel), Ranong

The researcher (Right) with a service worker (Hotel), Ranong

228

The researcher (Left) with agriculture and livestock workers, Ranong

The researcher (Left) with an agriculture and livestock employer, Ranong

229

The researcher (Left) with agriculture and livestock employers, Songkhla

The researcher (Left) with agriculture and livestock workers, Songkhla

230

The researcher (Left) with an agriculture and livestock worker, Songkhla

The researcher (Right) with a construction worker, Songkhla

231

A Construction Employer, Songkhla

The researcher (Middle) with agriculture and livestock employers, Surat Thani

232

The researcher (Left) with service employers and workers, Surat Thani

Service workers, Surat Thani

233

The researcher (Right) with fishery workers, Surat Thani

Fishery Workers, Surat Thani

Appendix D

Respondents in an In-depth Interview

Respondents in an In-depth Interview

Date Types of

Businesses

Thai employers Burmese

Employees

Sarat Thani

May08, 2016 Construction Khun Puen(Male) A (Male)

May09, 2016 Service Daeng Roi Koh (Female) Sow (Female)

Jass (Male)

Aug24, 2016 Agriculture Pirote/ Mhoo (Male)

Sri Subun Farm

B (Male)

May22, 2016 Fishery Nan (Female) C (Male)

D (Male)

Ranong

May23, 2016 Construction Tui (Male)

Petch (Male)

-

May22, 2016 Service Saow/ Tik Eiffel Hotel

(Female)

E (Male)

May24, 2016 Agriculture Wut (Male) F (Male)

May22, 2016 Fishery Kung Racha Kanpramomg

(Male)

G (Male)

Songkhla

July30, 2016

Aug05, 2016

Construction Da (Female)

Pong (Male)

I (Female)

J (Female)

July28, 2016 Service Chanchai (Male) Porn (Female)

Pia (Female)

Aug04, 2016 Agriculture Chart (Male)

Jit (Female)

Maew (Female)

Mon (Mon)

BIOGRAPHY

Name Assistant Professor Preeda Nakaray

Academic Background 2006 Master of Arts (M.A.) (Mass Communication),

Thammasart University

2000 Bachelor of Public Administration Program in

Public Administration (B.PA.) (Human Resource

Management), Prince of Songkhla University

Present Position Lecturer, Program in Communication Arts, Faculty of

Management Sciences, Nakhon Si Thammarat Rajabhat

University