INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL SCIENCES AND...

2017

AID

CONFERENCE

INTERNATIONAL

CONFERENCE ON

SOCIAL SCIENCES

AND HUMANITIES

(ICOSAH)

OUM, SEREMBAN

01 NOVEMBER

2017

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES (ICOSAH) 2017

1

Copyright ©2017 AID Conference

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Copyright ©2017 AID Conference

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e-lSBN 978-967-14573-3-7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

HOW DOES OWNERSHIP CONCENTRATION AFFECT FIRM PROFITABILITY AND FIRM

SUSTAINABILITY?

1

MANAGEMENT OF DA’WAH TOWARDS MUALLAF: A CASE STUDY AT KOMPLEKS AL-

SAADAH, SEREMBAN

11

THE PREVALANCE OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG UNDERGRADUATES 28

SUSTAINABLE GROWTH RATE OF FIRM AND SHARE PRICE

PERFORMANCE IN MALAYSIA: A PANEL DATA ANALYSIS

40

DETERMINANTS OF RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY VALUES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOOD CRIME

54

JOB CRAFTING AMONG MALAYSIAN ACADEMICS: THE ROLE OF

RELIGIOUS PERSONALITY IN JD-R MODEL OF BURNOUT

74

PENGARUH BIMBINGAN ROHANI ISLAM TERHADAP KESEHATAN MENTAL PASIEN

SAKIT JIWA MASA REHABILITASI DI RUMAH SAKIT JIWA DR. AMINO

GONDOHUTOMO SEMARANG

87

FAMILY HARDINESS AND CAREGIVER BURDEN AMONG THE FAMILY OF STROKE

PATIENTS

104

PENGEMBANGAN MEDIA PEMBELAJARAN ANIMASI FISIKA BERBASIS. MOBILE

LEARNING ANDROID

114

SOLAR SMARTPHINE: A GREENER SOLUTION 125

MOLLUSCICIDE REMOVAL FROM PADDY FIELD WASTEWATER A SUSTAINABLE

METHOD

132

LEARNING GUITAR IN AUGMENTED REALITY 144

IMPLEMENTASI PROGRAM GERAKAN GEMAR SEDEKAH (GREGED) DI SD

MUHAMMADIYAH (PLUS) KOTA SALATIGA, JAWA TENGAH, INDONESIA

158

THE ROLE OF CUSTOMERS CULTURAL VALUES IN DEVELOPING E-LOYALTY 177

RAPOR KURIKULUM 2013. TINGKAT MADRASAH IBTIDAIYAH BERBASIS WEB 192

INTERNATIONAL TERTIARY ENROLEMENTS IN MALAYSIA TWO PROPOSED

VARIABLES FOR MACRO ANALYSIS

220

COLLECTIVE INTEGRATIVE IJTIHAD. AN ATTEMPT OF DEVELOPING CONTEXTUAL

FIQH MU’AMALAH AS THE FOUNDATION OF SHARI’AH BUSINESS PRODUCT

DEVELOPMENT

234


1

HOW DOES OWNERSHIP CONCENTRATION AFFECT FIRM PROFITABILITY

AND FIRM SUSTAINABILITY?

Irene Wei Kiong Ting

Faculty of Industrial Management

Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pahang, Malaysia

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Norazlin Ahmad



Mohd Ridzuan Darun



Qian Long Kweh

Faculty of Management

Canadian University Dubai, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

ABSTRACT

Today’s competitive environment creates a critical problem for firms on how to create

sustainable performance in response to the fast-growing development of information

technologies and business environment. In this regard, this is the first study examines the

impact of ownership concentration on firm profitability and firm sustainability among

Malaysian public listed companies. The multiple regression method is employed to examine

on the relationships. The study concludes that low ownership concentration provides higher

profitability for firms compared to high ownership concentration. The research implications

contribute to the argument on the corporate governance structure, the application of agency

theory and the factors associated with firm profitability and firm sustainability in the

literature part. In all, this study highlights the indirect approach to test the impact of

ownership concentration to firm profitability and firm sustainability in one test.

Keywords: Ownership concentration, firm profitability, firm sustainability


2

Introduction

In view of performance and sustainability, maximizing a firm’s value is related to

maximizing the shareholders’ wealth. Therefore, managers and investors need to formulate

strategies to ensure their firms can sustain good performance where it can give benefits to

stockholders as well as insiders’ ownership. In other words, firms must attract more investors

to contribute funds for their projects. This argument is supported by Ke and David (2007)

which mentioned investors with large ownership stakes have strong incentive to maximize

the firms’ value. In other words, firms can improve their profitability if they have higher

managerial ownership. Other than that, a study conducted by Clò et al. (2017) show that firms

can be sustainable if the shareholders can contribute more capital into the firms, instead

relying on the lenders.

However, major problems occur in concentrated ownership when management takes

action on the divergence between the control or monitoring rights and the cash-flow rights of

the controlling shareholders (Wang & Shailer, 2017). Continuing this debate, boards with a

large number of shareholders making it difficult to exercise their power to control and

monitor management performance (AL-Najjar, 2015). Thus, this issue has generated interests

among researchers in both developed and emerging markets. In this light, even though the

relationship between ownership and performance has been a popular topic for decades, most

scholars have failed to identify how concentrated ownership affects firm profitability and

firm sustainability in one study (Clò et al., 2017).

In general, this study aims to investigate the effect ownership concentration on firm

profitability and firm sustainability in Malaysia. Numerous studies have shown the impact of

ownership concentration on firm performance and how they can enhance firms’ profits.

However, no quantitative analyses have investigated the effects of ownership concentration

on firm sustainability in Malaysian publicly listed companies. Thus, this study seeks to fill

this gap.

This paper contributes to the argument on the corporate governance structure from

several aspects. First, this is the first study that significantly shows the direct relationship

ownership concentration on firms’ profitability and firm sustainability in one study. Second,

this paper is also the first study that analyses the impact of firm sustainability to ownership

concentration for firms in Malaysia. Third, this study used the indirect approach to test the

impact of firm profitability on ownership concentration and the impact of ownership

concentration on firm sustainability. Therefore, it is hoped that the study’s results could


3

become an indicator to develop strategies in order to ensure the importance of higher profit

with good performance and long-term sustainability, especially for public listed companies in

Malaysia.

Materials and Methods

The sample data set included the top 200 Malaysian firms excluding finance and

insurance firms which are listed on the market capitalization as at 31 December 2015. This

study used Malaysian firms as samples as the ownership structure of Malaysian firms is more

inclined ownership concentration where there are many large institutions or state-owned

enterprises (Nguyen & Giang, 2015). The study period is from 2009 until 2015. The two-

stage least squares (2SLS) regression analysis is used to test the hypotheses. The 2SLS

approach is used because it deals with the endogeneity problem involving ownership

concentration (OC), whereby OC is first regressed on various firm characteristics, including

LNTA, which represents firm size; LEV, which denotes firm leverage; FAGE, which means

firm age; AMAT, which signifies asset maturity; NDTS, which means non-debt tax shield; and

TANG, which means capital intensity. As such, the following equation is estimated.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6it it it it it it it

i i t t it

OC LNTA LEV FAGE AMAT NDTS TANG

Year Industry

Next, using the predicted values of OC derived from the Stage-1 regression analysis,

Equations (1) and (2) below are used to test the effects of OC on (i) firm profitability (FP), as

well as (ii) firm sustainability (FS), respectively.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10

it it it it it it it it

it it it i i t t it

FP OC LNTA LEV FAGE AMAT VOL BDIV

BIND BSIZE BMEET Year Industry

(1)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10

it it it it it it it it

it it it i i t t it

FS OC LNTA LEV FAGE AMAT VOL BDIV

BIND BSIZE BMEET Year Industry

(2)

where i refers to firm; t refers to year; Yeari refers to year fixed effects; Industryi refers to

industry fixed effects, and εit refers to the error term. FP is proxied by (i) return on assets

(ROA), which is measured as firm i’s ratio of net income to total assets in year t, as shown in


4

Marwa and Azizkpono (2015); (ii) return on equity (ROE), which is measured as firm i’s

ratio of net income to the book value of shareholder equity in year t as shown in Omran,

Bolbol, and Fatheldin (2008); and (iii) market/book ratio (MTB), which is measured as firm

i’s ratio of market value to its book value in year t, consistent with Kaserer and Moldenhauer

(2008). As for FS, the measures are split into two specific categories with their own

additional robustness checks. First, following the concept of Marwa and Azizkpono (2015),

operational self-sufficiency sustainability (Sustainability) is measured as the ratio of total

revenue to total expenses. As such, this study also included financial sustainability (FINSUS)

which is a dummy variable equal to 1 if firm i has a Sustainability level of 110% or more in

year t, and 0 otherwise. The study also examined operation-related sustainability using (i) net

profit margin (NPM), which is measured as firm i’s ratio of net income to sales in year t,

consistent with Bhuiyan, Siwar, Ismail, and Talib (2011); and (ii) operational sustainability

(OPSUS), which is a dummy variable equal to 1 if firm i has a Sustainability level of 100% or

more in year t, and 0 otherwise. Prior studies (Omran et al., 2008; Zeitun & Tian, 2007)

showed that ownership concentration is quantified as the percentage of shares owned by the

top three largest shareholders (Top 3), as well as the percentage of shares owned by the top

five largest shareholders (Top 5) as a robustness check.

Our analyses also included various control variables related to firm-specific elements

that could affect both firm profitability and firm sustainability, in line with prior studies

(Brailsford, Oliver, & Pua, 2002; Erbetta, Menozzi, Corbetta, & Fraquelli, 2013; Martinez &

Requejo, 2017). Firm size (LNTA) is represented by the natural logarithm of total assets; asset

maturity (AMAT) is measured as (gross property, plant and equipment/Assets) multiplied by

(gross property, plant and equipment/Depreciation); non-debt tax shield (NDTS) is calculated

as the natural logarithm of depreciation; volatility (VOL) is the standard deviation of ROA for

period t in each industry; firm age (FAGE) is the natural logarithm of number of years of

establishment; capital intensity (TANG) is the ratio of gross property, plant and equipment to

total assets; and firm leverage (LEV) is the ratio of total liabilities to total assets. Moreover,

variables related to board of directors are also incorporated in the equations shown above.

Board diversity (women directors/total directors), independence (independent directors/total

directors), size (logged total board of directors), and meeting (logged total board meetings)

are also used in the analyses.

Results and Discussion


5

The results in Table 1 show a significant, negative relationship between ownership

concentration and firm profitability. This finding is consistent with Erbetta et al. (2013)

which indicated that when firms grow to be larger, their performance, especially on profit,

will decline due to the difficulty to control and transfer the firm or business culture. The

results in Table 2 show that there is a significant relationship between ownership

concentration and firm sustainability. We also used net profit margin and operational

sustainability as a measurement to measure firm sustainability, which are untabulated in this

paper.

Our findings on Malaysian public listed firms are consistent with existing studies

(Akimova & Schwodiauer, 2004; Erbetta et al., 2013). High ownership concentration is

related to larger firm and old firm. In other words, when firms already establish for long

period, they become larger and can attract more investor. However, when they have a lot of

employees, department, subsidiary, rules and procedure, it will create difficulties in

monitoring and controlling behaviours of employees. They become take action to exploit

minority shareholders interest due to their interest are different with shareholders interest

(Fitriya & Stuart, 2012). The interest of employees or manager are more concerned on

financial performance while the shareholders are focusing on the return on investment

(Gomez-Mejia, Cruz, Berrone, & De Castro, 2011). In this light, even though firm

profitability depends on firm sustainability, it is not necessary if higher profit reflects

sustainability (Abdullah et al., 2012; Clò et al., 2017).

This study also performed robustness checks in a different setting to support our

results. Consequently, we adopt the firm growth instead net profit margin as a proxy of firm

sustainability to replicate the results, following Kaserer and Moldenhauer (2008). In this

light, when the shareholders are passive, they lost the power to control and monitor the

behaviours of managers or employees (Audretsch, Huelsbeck, & Lehmann, 2013; Miller,

Minichilli, & Corbetta, 2013), and when managers will take action and give benefit only for

their side, it will give bad impact to firms’ performance, hence, To solve this problem,

shareholders will hire someone that can be called as the board of directors to help them (AL-

Najjar, 2015). The board of directors will use their knowledge and experience to identify

factors that can help to firm sustainability. Outsider directors will be appointed to identify

and to solve the problems faced by the firm.


6

Table 1 Regression Result – OC and FP

Variable DV = ROA DV = ROE DV = MTB

Intercept 0.4864

(8.8261)**

*

0.6386

(7.8777)**

*

0.6617

(7.1969)**

*

1.0041

(8.0061)**

*

7.4983

(9.7038)**

*

9.1694

(9.6035)**

*

Testing variable

Top 3 -0.9944

(-

3.3748)***

-2.3675

(-

6.7549)***

-7.0484

(-

3.2770)***

Top 5 -1.2368

(-

3.2207)***

-2.8478

(-

6.7910)***

-11.6588

(-

4.8358)***

Control variable

LNTA 0.0099

(1.0468)

0.0140

(1.2523)

0.0443

(4.3638)**

*

0.0514

(4.6813)**

*

-0.0966

(-1.6767)*

0.0088

(0.1524)

LEV -0.0517

(-1.6321)

-0.0562

(-1.8814)*

0.0964

(1.3336)

0.0884

(1.2489)

-0.0171

-(0.0580)

-0.1329

(-0.4562)

FAGE 0.0133

(2.6502)**

*

0.0189

(2.7915)**

*

0.0281

(2.6408)**

*

0.0405

(3.3987)**

*

0.0665

(0.9744)

0.1377

(1.8461)*

AMAT -0.0001

(-2.0182)**

0.0000

(-0.9543)

-0.0001

(-2.1872)**

0.0000

(-0.7882)

-0.0003

(-1.1293)

0.0001

(0.1998)

VOL 0.0820

(0.4793)

0.0849

(0.5008)

0.0095

(0.0676)

0.0157

(0.1125)

0.0623

(0.0547)

0.1022

(0.0899)

BDIV -0.0438

(-1.6384)

-0.0455*

(-1.7221)

-0.0980

(-1.1771)

-0.1021

(-1.2301)

-0.4244

(-1.3962)

-0.4370

(-1.4497)

BIND 0.0164

(0.5172)

0.0132

(0.4094)

-0.0771

(-1.7639)*

-0.0852

(-1.9506)*

-0.2400

(-0.7469)

-0.2490

(-0.7777)

BSIZE -0.0021

(-0.1536)

-0.0023

(-0.1669)

0.0219

(0.6154)

0.0211

(0.5934)

0.0377

(0.1986)

0.0455

(0.2404)

BMEET -0.0059

(-0.6661)

-0.0060

(-0.6743)

0.0043

(0.2644)

0.0042

(0.2552)

-0.3163

(-

2.3230)**

-0.3171

(-

2.3385)**

Year fixed effect Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Industry fixed

effect Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Adjust R2 0.1058 0.1097 0.1018 0.1060 0.1927 0.1989

F-statistic

7.4627***

7.7321***

7.1896***

7.4764*** 14.0375**

*

14.5581**

*

Notes: t-statistics are given in parentheses. ***, ** and * denotes the significance level at 1%, 5% and

10%, respectively.

Table 2 Regression Result – OC and FS (Sustainability and FINSUS)

Variable DV = Sustainability DV = FINSUS

Intercept 4.2166

(3.2598)***

6.4232

(3.2598)***

2.1550

(3.1070)***

2.5148

(2.8085)***


7

Testing variable

Top 3 -29.2735

(-2.1996)**

-3.7834

(-1.3875)

Top 5 -25.3163

(-1.8837)*

-3.6199

(-1.1696)

Control variable

LNTA 0.9839

(2.2653)**

0.8083

(1.9940)**

0.0621

(0.7260)

0.0485

(0.5530)

LEV -3.1338

(-2.8043)***

-2.9479

(-2.7078)***

-2.9300

(-10.4962)***

-2.9146

(-10.5284)***

FAGE 0.3034

(2.2116)**

0.3495

(2.0189)

0.0561

(0.9010)

0.0658

(0.9588)

AMAT -0.0007

(-1.2564)

-0.0004

(-0.5246)

-0.0015

(-2.4085)**

-0.0014

(-2.2662)*

VOL 0.3168

(0.4524)

0.3277

(0.4752)

0.0740

(0.0890)

0.0758

(0.0913)

BDIV -0.2411

(-0.4427)

-0.2898

(-0.5154)

0.0236

(0.0695)

0.0179

(0.0526)

BIND 1.7104

(1.4432)

1.5645

(1.3688)

0.2272

(0.5993)

0.2051

(0.5418)

BSIZE -0.4396

(-1.8662)*

-0.4810

(-1.9658)**

-0.0260

(-0.1405)

-0.0305

(-0.1646)

BMEET -0.4607

(-2.1183)**

-0.4616

(-2.1197)**

0.0984

(0.7050)

0.0986

(0.7065)

Year fixed effect Yes Yes Yes Yes

Industry fixed effect Yes Yes Yes Yes

Adjust R2 0.0641 0.0540

LR statistic 243.9471*** 243.3937***

F-statistics 4.7424*** 4.1166***

Notes: t-statistics are given in parentheses. ***, ** and * denotes the significance level at 1%,

5% and 10%, respectively.

Conclusion

Our analyses of the ownership concentration of Malaysian public listed firm had

shown firm profitability and firm sustainability and profitability is usually related to

performance and sustainability. In this light, when firms can achieve higher profits for their

business, they can sustain for a longer period. One of the factors leading to high profitability

and sustainability is resources or fund contributed by the shareholders or investors. When

firms have high ownership concentration, it will increase financial resources in their business.


8

However, when separate ownership and control is given to different parties, it will create

bigger problem reduce profitability and become unsustainability.

This study thus contributes to the argument on corporate governance structure, the

application of agency theory and the factors associated with firm profitability and firm

sustainability in the literature part. However, the sample size is limited to only Malaysian

public listed firms; hence, future studies could used samples from other countries. Besides,

future research may assess the differences in the roles played by the different types of

ownership structure.

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11

MANAGEMENT OF DA’WAH TOWARDS MUALLAF: A CASE STUDY AT

KOMPLEKS AL-SAADAH, SEREMBAN

By:

Masnih binti Mustapa1 , Nur Aimie Syarmimi Binti Jaafar, Kalsom binti Ali.

Faculty Leadership and Management

Islamic Science University of Malaysia

Nilai, Negeri Sembilan

(1Corresponding Author: [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Islam is a religion that promises life to the welfare of its adherents. Prophet is a noble man

who has been sent to bring prosperity to the entire world. Islam presents a guide that covers

all aspects of life. However, based on various information and display news there is some

Muslims who are still looking for the promised prosperity. Based on these issues, this study

was conducted to review and explored what about the implementation management carried

out to the new Muslims by the responsible authorities and others who also contribute and

help to the solution of problems faced by the New Muslims. This study will attempt to get

information and views on the various aspects which could clarify the real issues that have

been and are taking place. Implications of the study will be elaborated together with

recommendations for future studies.

KEY WORDS

Islam, muallaf, da’wah, management, responsible

mailto:[email protected]


12

INTRODUCTION

Da’wah to muallaf is one of the important issues that need to be focused. It is very important

to avoid a convert back to the original teachings of their religion. This is because there are

cases of converts apostasy. Da’wah management to these people need to be upgraded from

time to time in order to favor the supremacy of Islam and Muslims can live as they enjoyed.

Many people would like to see those muallaf get feeling of pleasure religion after Islam and

no major issues were impediment to achieving that goal.

Well-being of a person closely associated with financial factors, knowledge, faith,

relationships, jobs and so on. Parties involved in matters related to the muallaf shall take

steps as soon as possible to ensure the well-being of this group is reached. If the issue cannot

be resolved, it is feared that symptoms such as such as apostasy, an increase of street beggars,

the collapse of marriage and similar other things will occur

Based on these needs, this study related to the management of Da’wah to the muallaf

converts were made at Kompleks Al-Saadah, Seremban, Negeri Sembilan. This study focuses

on Da’wah management system implemented by them, in addition to identifying programs

for the benefit of muallaf and the problems that exist among them.

In the end of the study, suggestion and the view will be presented and hopefully it can

be a guide to any parties’ deal with the issue management of Da’wah to Muallaf.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Islam is a religion that promises life to the welfare of its adherents. The Prophet Muhammad

S.A.W is a noble man who has been sent to bring prosperity to the entire world. Islam

presents a guide that covers all aspects of life. It is all spelled out by the basic resources of

life in Islamic guidance by either the Quran or Hadith is broken or otherwise clarify the

scholars that these sources.

However, based on various information and display news there is some Muslims who

are still looking for the promised prosperity. The question is whether they have not tried to

get it as demanded welfare or absence of any efforts to help them achieve the dream of the

promised Islamic. These are topics that always linger and become an issue among muallaf

who have chosen Islam as a way of life.


13

It is common knowledge that the authorities and given responsibilities and various

other parties have done what is necessary to ensure that those muallaf get a prosperous life

based on the teachings of Islam professed. Various aid has been granted that cover various

aspects. Nevertheless, the voices and views that questioned the role and responsibilities as

well as the assistance provided is still an issue in the community. This situation is evidenced

by what have been displays in news about the hardships that reveals to some Muslim

converts.

Based on these issues, this study will be conduct by the researcher to review and

explore about the implementation Da’wah carried out in their management to the muallaf by

the authorities with responsibility and others who also contribute and help to the solution of

problems faced by the muallaf. This study will attempt to get information and views on the

various aspects which could clarify the real issues that have been and are taking place.

The study on the management of his missionary recently been implemented

specifically in Kompleks Al-Saadah, Seremban, Negeri Sembilan. However, this study will

also look at the roles undertaken by other parties such as organizations and charitable

organizations and any party that has to do with muallaf either directly or indirectly.

RESEARCH QUESTION

a) What is the management system of Da’wah against the Muallaf taken by the Kompleks Al-

Saadah?

b) How Kompleks Al-Saadah implement Da’wah program to Muallaf?

c) What is the problems arising in the management of Da’wah to Muallaf.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this study is:

a) Identify the management system of Da’wah against the Muallaf taken by the Kompleks Al-

Saadah.

b) Identify the Da’wah programs for Muallaf taken by the Kompleks Al-Saadah.


14

c) Identify the problems that arise in the management of Da’wah to Muallaf.

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANT

The results of this study will hopefully help all parties especially those involved directly in

the management of the muallaf, especially Kompleks Al-Saadah and other related

organizations. It is hoped that this study will further strengthen the management systems of

Da’wah to the Muallaf.

The study is also expected help the parties involved indirectly or directly in the

management of Da’wah to Muallaf. Based on the studies conducted, appropriate measures

may be carried out in their efforts to contribute and help the Muallaf.

The results from this study is expected that those Muallaf will receive attention and

assistance as possible that eventually help them solve their problems.

The study is also expected to help the Muallaf continue to live as a Muslim in a calm,

peaceful and prosperous. All or part of the problems faced either due to self, family,

community, work, study etc. is no longer a barrier to becoming a true Muslim.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The term methodology is derived from the English “method” that brings meaning a

way of doing something, especially one that is well known and often used.1 While the term

methodology is the science of method and procedure and the methods used in a particular

activity.2 In other words, methodology is the set of methods and principles that used when

studying a particular subject or doing a particular kind of work.3

In scientific research, research methodology is a way to systematically solve the

research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done

scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in

1 Pearson Education Limited (2009), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Rotolito Lombarda,Milano, Italy: Edinburgh Gate, p.1100 2 Joyce M. Hawkins (1992), The Oxford Study Dictionary, Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti, p.433 3 Pearson Education Limited (2009), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Rotolito Lombarda,Milano, Italy: Edinburgh Gate, p.1100


15

studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the

researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology.4

From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many

dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope

of research methodology is wider than research methods.5

From the above discussion, it is understood that the method is a very important

scientific research. The study will be based on an appropriate method obtain results that are

not in doubt. Instead of an investigation without applying the appropriate methods and

correctly, resulting in findings disputed authenticity.

In this study, the method to be used is:

a) Data collection method

b) Data analysis method

a) Data collection method

The data is intended here is information collected and analyzed in a research.

Similarly, any question in the data include the words, letters, diagrams, charts, the ballots,

reading water meters and so on. In conclusion, the data is raw information which forms the

basis research, either for analysis or made by conclusions.

Data is basically divided into two basic data and secondary data derived from second

parties. Data base is one that is collected directly from the object or source. In addition to

basic data is the data obtained from secondary sources such as printed materials.6

In this study, the main method of data collection is made directly on the object or

source, known as external studies which include the random sampling method. This method

is a method to obtain the necessary information related to the management of da’wah the

Muallaf. Getting close to the parties involved in the management of da’wah to the Muallaf

4 C.R. Kothari (2004), Research Methodology Methods and Techniques (Second Revised Edition), New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, p.8 5 Ibid, p.8 6 J. Supranto (1986), Kaedah Penyelidikan : Penggunaannya dalam pemasaran, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, p. 41 – 42.


16

and view management system and implementation practices. Survey forms submitted to the

respondent through a series of meetings held.

b) Data analysis method

The procedure for analyzing the survey data is by using the Statistical Package for

Social Science (SPSS). The process of analyzing data from the questionnaires will be started

by reviewing the questionnaires that were obtained from the respondents. After the

quantitative data obtained will be analyzed using SPSS. The questionnaires have adopted the

binary scale on which it will only see the descriptive aspects only, through frequency

distribution and percent. While data from interviews were analyzed by comparison to

institutions involved as well as comparisons with previous studies.

With the amount of accumulated data obtained through the ways above, the data is

analyzed by the following methods:

i. Inductive method, means to offer a general truth by showing, that if it is true for a

particular case. It is true for all such cases. Inductive approach is psychological in

nature. Inductive method develops curiosity with in the individual which is need

of the day.7 The data obtained will be concluded in the form of a general

description.

ii. Deductive method, is based on deduction. In deductive method, we proceed from

general to particular and from abstract and concrete.8

iii. Comparative method, is a fundamental tool of analysis. It sharpens our power of

description, and plays a central role in concept-formation by bringing into focus

suggestive similarities and contrast among cases.9

Data and information is still treated as raw materials that serve as the basis either for research

or analysis material for temporary conclusions.

7 Atta, D. M. A., Ayaz, D. M., & Nawaz, Q. (2015). Comparative Study of Inductive & Deductive Methods of Teaching Mathematics at Elementary Level. Gomal University Journal of Research, 31(1). p.21 8 Ibid, p.22 9 David collier (1993), The Comparative Method, Political Science: The State of the Discipline II. Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association, p.105


17

LITERATURE REVIEW

During the early history of Islam during shortly after the time of the prophet, ‘muallaf’ has

been a concept in literature which refers to those who are ready to embrace the Islamic

religion and/or the muallaf.10 Jasni bin Sulong (2014) wrote that religious conversion or

converts is referring to one leaving his faith and embracing another faith. Conversion to Islam

or “muallaf”, is specially refers to whom embracing Islam and giving devotion to the

teaching of Islam and its law.11 The term muallaf, the same meaning as ‘convert’ is also

applied in the Constitution of Malaysia.12

The word ‘Muslim converts’ means those who are changed from their previous religions to

Islām and become Muslim. In Islām, they are called ‘muallaf’. The Encyclopedia of Islām

explains that the word comes from the Arabic ‘Al-a Qulūbuhum’ which means “those whose

hearts are won over” or “those hearts that need softening” (C.E Bosworth, E. Van Donzel,

W.P Heinrichs and C.H Pellat, 1993:254). The term applied to those former opponents of the

Prophet Muhammad who are said to have been reconciled to the cause of Islām by gifts of

100 or 50 camels from the Prophet Muḥammad’s share of the spoils of the battle of Hunayn,

after Muḥammad’s forces had defeated the Hawāzin confederation, and which were divided

out at the al-Dijrana. The list included the Meccan Leader Abū Sufyān and his sons

Mua’wiyya and Yazīd and various Bedouin chiefs of the tribes of western Arabia. On the

other hand, the actual phrase is connected with the Qurān in the Sūra Al-Tauba: 60, which

means: “Zakāt is for: the poor, the destitute, those who collect it, reconciling people’s hearts

(), frees slaves, spending in the way of Allah, and travelers. It is a legal obligation from

Allah. Allah is all knowing, all wise”.13

Until now, the scientific study to those muallaf is quite a lot, but there is a gap of studies on

the management to muallaf and it still in the beginning. This condition may be due to the

convergence of in depth research on topics such as the reasons for the muallaf to Islam, the

causes of apostasy among muallaf and so on. The research on the issue of muallaf seem to

10 Hakim Joe. Accessed:15 October 2011. “Muallaf”. < http://www.malaysia-today.net/mualaf/> 11 Jasni bin Sulong. 2014. The implications of Religious Conversion towards Muslim Inheritance under Malaysian Law. International Journal of Liberal Arts and Social Science. p. 122. 12 The word was used in the Administration of Islamic Law Enactment of Malaysia, 1992 and the Law Reform (Marriage and Divorce) Act, 1976. It also used in the same meaning of (those who are embraced Islām and not from Malays) in Article 11 (1) and Article 12 (3) and (4), Federal Constitution of Malaysia. 13 Razaleigh Muhamat. 2014. Orang Asli: A Study of Their Level of Interaction in Malaysia. International Interdisciplinary Journal of Scientific Research. p. 39.

http://www.malaysia-today.net/mualaf/


18

make a notion that the management of this group will go hand in hand with the titles of the

study as stated.

In order to decide on the management of Da’wah to muallaf as the title of this writing, some

previous writings that touch on those muallaf have been seen. The results of the observations

made in respect of available writings focus on the issue of muallaf as described and did not

touch directly on the issue of management of da’wah to Muallaf.

The literature review of this research is divided into four major parts:

(i) Muallaf: Historical and theoretical issues.

(ii) Implementation of Da’wah to Muallaf.

(iii) Management of Muallaf in Malaysia.

(iv) Problem rise among Muallaf.

i. MUALLAF: HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES.

It is known whether Islam started around the 7th to 8th centuries. Despite concerns about the

reliability of early sources, the beginnings of Islam date back to the 7th century, when the

prophet of God Muhammad was active in the area of Mecca and Medina as a messenger of

God, teaching and governing in the name of God.14 In Muhammad’s lifetime, Muslims

became a religious and political community in which the Prophet was the head of the state.

His authority allowed him to manage the territory and the nation, pass justice, collect taxes,

lead the army and make peace. After the death of the Prophet it was necessary to find a

suitable successor in order to preserve the unity of the Islamic world and to spread the word

of God (Allah).15

Alwani Ghazali (2015) explained that the Prophet Muhammad’s hadith (literally means

speech), which is regarded as source of knowledge in Islam, contains mostly a record of his

conversation with the people around him during his time. To this extent, all fields in Islamic

studies concerns with the contents of the hadith for providing important reference for

problems in Qurˊanic exegesis, jurisprudence, ethics and Islamic thought. Some studies in

Arabic linguistics and literature focused on Prophet Muhammad’s use of metaphor, analogy,

syntax and other literary elements, but none investigates ‘how’ the Prophet thinks in all his

conversation with people of many styles, personalities and backgrounds.

14 Dragan Poto Cnik. Islam Between the Past and the Present. University of Maribor, Slovenia. Volume 2. p. 171 15 Ibid, p. 171.


19

His first successor was the Prophet’s father-in-law Abu Bakr. Almost half a century later, the

eagerness which was ignited by the new religion made the Arabs set out to conquer the

world, which started one of the most important chapters in the history of the humankind.16

Sayid Abul A’la Mawdudi (1996) says the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) changed

the character of Arabian life in a short period of only twenty-three years. He instilled in the

people a spirit that helped to serve the cause of Islam. They set out with a great mission of

spreading Islam all over the entire world. The Prophet passed away at the age of sixty-three,

after completing the greatest mission of all time. During the period of Prophet Muhammad,

there was a gradual breaking of new ground. Islam was gaining a following all over Arabia.

This is one side of the story. On the other hand, the defenders of the old order, people with

vested interest and steeped in ignorant customs were hardening their opposition to Islam.

Whenever muallaf in Islam were presented, they were abused, humiliated, beaten, tortured,

expelled and even put to death. Nevertheless, they remained firm and steadfast. At last the

Makkah elders devised a plot to assassinate the Messenger of God in order to nip the Islamic

movement in the bud. When affairs reached the pitiful state, God ordered His Messenger to

leave Makkah and migrate to Madinah.17

Contemporary studies have explored conversion in sociological terms, reflected in the

theoretical contributions of Lewis Rambo and Charles Farhadian (2014, 2005, 1999), where

conversion is seen as the term for all forms of religious change, whether physical, mental,

psychological, emotional or intellectual. Rambo (1993) examined a variety of disciplines –

including anthropology, sociology, religious studies and psychology – to establish why

people convert. His main focus lay in attempting to understand the factors that contribute to

conversion, alongside the effect of the individual’s decision on his or her society. Rambo

created his own framework of seven interlinked conversion stages to explain his theory: (1)

context, (2) crisis, (3) quest, (4) encounter, (5) interaction, (6) committing and (7)

consequences. These stages emphasize the complex set of factors that can affect the

individual’s decision-making process, such as marriage, commitment, or the need for spiritual

security and social belonging said Mona Alyedreessy,(2016).18

16 Dragan Poto Cnik. Islam Between the Past and the Present. University of Maribor, Slovenia. Volume 2. p. 172. 17 Ibid, p.3. 18 Mona Alyedreessy. 2016. British Muslim Converts: An Investigation of Conversion and De-Conversion Processes to And from Islam. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Kingston University, London. p.34.


20

Individuals have specific needs or reasons that drive the conversion process: spiritual,

emotional, social, intellectual, psychological or political. The search for what is deemed

significant to individuals shapes the journey of converts. It will influence the type and

sources of educational literature they will read, the type of people they associate with and the

communities they would like to join. The ‘search’ refers to the pathways and processes that

individuals take to reach their destination. Meredith McGuire (1997: 71) defines conversion

as a process of religious change, which ‘transforms the way the individual perceives the rest

of society and his or her personal place in it, altering one’s view of the world’. Usually

people adopt new identities and lifestyles once they convert to a religion, as it requires

commitments to worship, rituals and moral obligations.19

ii. IMPLEMENTATION OF DA’WAH TO MUALLAF.

Recent writings, which highlight the da’wa, are numerous. There are few areas where the

da’wa is useful such as inviting non-Muslims to embrace Islam. In fact, it is also proposed to

show something new in Islam.

Since most of what is written, in both Arabic and English, by Muslims on da’wa toward non-

Muslims assumes mostly Christian targets, it is natural that da’is have elaborated specific

strategies for this group. The grounding idea among almost all Muslim activists is the

insistence that Christianity has somehow failed.20 According to Forey (2012), the 18th and

especially 19th centuries witnessed an onslaught of Christian missions to the Muslim lands,

though there had been previous organized attempts by Christians to baptize Muslims.

Makdisi (1997) also said that European colonies in most Muslim Asia and Africa countries

made these Christian missionary activities possible. Christian missionary societies were also

active in the Ottoman Empire where authorities kept them from openly proselytizing among

mainstream Muslims (though they were free to engage non-Muslim subjects of the empire as

well as heterodox Muslims, like Alevis).

Muslims, on the other hand, did come into occasional contact with Christian missionaries.

These contacts (educational, medical, and others) had several consequences for Muslims. In

fact, some converted to Christianity, while others, still nominally Muslim, embraced

19 Ibid, 35. 20 Consider, for example, Muhammad Ghazali’s position provided in the previous chapter (Ghazali, 1965: 26). See also Nadwi, 1983: 65–80


21

European lifestyles. An absolute majority of them, however, not only remained true to Islam

but also made it their objective to keep Islam alive within their communities and to foster

Islamicity there. Siddiqui argues that da’wa was indeed a direct reaction to activities of

Christian missionaries in Muslim lands, especially on the Indian Subcontinent, but also in the

Levant and in Southeast Asia (Siddiqui, 2001).

Egdunas Racius (2004) says, it is these Muslims who held unfriendly attitudes to both

Christianity and Christians as missionaries. The tendency to negatively view Christian

missions, both in former (colonial) and contemporary times, has persisted to the present day.

To Muslims, Christian missionaries did and continue to do an anachronistic, and thus

negative, service – they drag Muslims backwards into a religion both wrong in itself and one

that has been abrogated by the coming of Muhammad and the revelation of the Quran.

Sometimes Christian missionaries, therefore, are identified as Satan’s minions and urged to

be resisted by all available means. Among other things, Christian missionaries are accused by

Muslims of having reaped an ill-begotten fortune in Muslim lands: They did not gain

significant numbers of converts to Christianity, and yet they lured many Muslims away from

Islam, effectively secularizing Muslim societies. Ultimately, Muslims were made to suffer the

loss, even as the Christian missionaries themselves were among the losers. In other words,

while Christians hoped to bring God to Muslims, they instead distanced Muslims from Allah.

According to Abur Hamdi Usman (2016), the study found that there are various factors that

drive Muallaf in Selangor. The results show there are three factors driving a respondent to

embrace Islam such as to find meaning in life, to find peace with yourself, observations.

Based on table 1 above, 176 respondents said they want to find a meaning in their life, and

138 said they want to find peace within themselves, and 111 respondents said among the

factor that motivate them to embrace Islam was the result of their long observation towards

Islam. The data obtained show the highest factor that drives to Islam was to find the meaning

of life (Ali, 1999). Other factors which are preferred by respondents in the conversion to

Islam was their studies of Islam. They believe Islam can solve their problems, rather than

inspiration or dream, and influence their interactions with Muslims (Wohlrab-Sahr, 1999).

Abur Hamdi Usman (2016) in his study, the truth in Islam can be gained directly or through

research, observation and inspiration or dream become major encouragement for Muslim

converts to Islam in Selangor. The absence of information and do not receive accurate

information about Islam were the factors that delayed the acceptance of da’wah efforts by


22

Islamic groups. Attention and efforts should be intensified to attempt descriptions of Islam

towards the people who are not embraced Islam yet. These efforts also can remedy

misconceptions or misunderstandings Non-Muslim towards Islam that causes them to abstain

or be afraid to reach out to Muslims. Encouragement aspects in the form of Psychosocial and

bio psychosocial have been undertaken by MAIS in particular and all those involved should

be maintained even can be improved to encourage muallaf to choose Islam as their faith.

Hence, letting those who are not embraced with Islam to find Islam trough their natural

instinct only, or just feeling of shortage when they are not convert to Islam will cause the

process of Islamization become stagnant.

In fact, da'wah should also be directed toward the Muslim. It is called as indirect da'wah or

Islamic lifestyle (Da'wah bil-Hal). It is to take Islam to non-Muslim, not by pulpit preaching

and mailing Islamic literature but by doing what Muslim ought to do, living, drinking, eating,

sleeping and behaving as Muslims are enjoined to do. This method is more attractive because

people can practically see the beauty of Islam within the ummah. (Su'aidi, 2007).

iii. MANAGEMENT OF MUALLAF IN MALAYSIA.

There are a lot of academic writings on Management of Muallaf in Malaysia. But this writing

only focusses on the management of zakat for muallaf in Malaysia and studies on the

management to muallaf still in the beginning. Only Abur Hamdi Usman (2016) described

about management of muallaf that Selangor Fatwa which dated on October 25, 2007, the

convert will carry the name muallaf after 5 years by ‘uruf (custom) provided that they have

been joining the religion classes that are recognized or organized by MAIS. Moreover, MAIS

is responsible for financing the cost of learning for this newly convert. Selangor Fatwa

decided that in five years, a person muallaf can manage themselves if they are committed to

follow each class organized in each district, attend courses and programs which organized by

the MAIS.

Fuadah Johari (2014) asserts the success of zakat distribution and aids for sustaining muallaf

belief and thought. Fuadah says that the management of zakat is made efficient to ensure that

the rights of the recipients and the society, in general, will not be put in jeopardy. The

question is then raised regarding the type of zakat distribution or programmes pertaining to

the asnaf Muallaf. Fuadah Johari (2014) also concluded in her study, that Muallaf lack of

understanding of Islam is a problem to be solved. It is because there is still a possibility of


23

apostasy (murtad), back to their original or previous religion. Therefore, as our responsibility

towards the Muallaf, the coaching or fostering program should be scheduled and conducted

intensively and structurally. So, there will not be any impression directed to Muslims or Islam

which is large in quantity but weak in quality. Muallaf’s problems should be solved integrally

both in terms of understanding the true Aqidah and how to develop an Islamic family life.

Therefore, the newly converted Muslims could be expected to experience and embrace Islam

totally (kaffah).

iv. PROBLEM RISE AMONG MUALLAF.

Islamic conversion is a common daily activity in Malaysia, but there are some problems

faced by Muslim converts after their conversion to Islam. These problems could be due to

many reasons, such as lack of knowledge, realization, confirmation or confused acceptance of

the religion or the sociological complexities or the negative impact of surroundings.

However, the issue of conversion is complicated.

Sayyid Buhar (2013), said the transition period experienced by the converts attests their inner

conflicts adapting to their new surroundings. Their parental faith may no longer be relevant,

but adopting a new religion and living in the same society with different traditions of the old

religious faith would lead to traumatic inner conflicts which are invisible. Consequently,

these feelings may gradually direct them to various conflicting feelings towards Islam on two

continue, negative insights or otherwise. It is the impact of the inner conflicts involving the

invisible feelings of the converts that lends weight to the concern of this study. The inner

conflicts involving the invisible feelings of the new Muslim converts are caused by various

factors. Among others are religion, ruhani and sociological aspects, or any other self-

motivated negative feelings or it could also be a real test from Allah s.w.t.

Certain problems faced by Chinese Muslim converts after their conversion to Islam,

especially Malaysian Chinese Muslim converts. These kinds of problems may lead to certain

negative invisible feelings from time to time in the converts before, during and after their

conversion. The following are the stated problems in her research; the place of residence,

cultural shock and transformation of identity, identity crisis, the impact of being referred to

as mu’allaf, the weakness of faith (aqidah) among the Muslim converts, acceptance by Malay

society, financial problems, lack of proper Islamic knowledge, misunderstanding and

misconception of Islam, boycott of non-Muslim family, confidential or secret conversion,


24

fear of losing Chinese identity, acceptance and usage of Islamic name, confusion of

converting to Islam or becoming Melayu, ill treatment from Muslim community or racial

issues of Islamic conversion, loss of jobs because of Islamic conversion, lack of support from

Muslim community, feelings of inferiority complex when with the Muslim community,

unwanted attitudes of religious authorities, the challenges during the conversion and with the

registration procedures, attending in obligated official Islamic classes or Islamic compulsory

courses over an extended period of time explains Suhaila Abdullah (2006).

In Islam, how to establish sociological stability of Muslim converts at their cross-cultural

diversity is very clearly stated by M. Muslehuddin (1999) in his book A comparative study of

Islam and its social system which says, “Islam takes a theological view of life which has a

purpose and design to be fulfilled, the value of Islamic society lies in its morality and its

norms of good and evil virtue and vice which are to be strictly observed by the divinely

revealed knowledge.” The scholar added Allamah Iqbal’s (1915) statement in his Asrar-

ekhudi (The secrets of the self) exhorts the individual to develop his personality through faith

and try to imitate God in His Attributes which are the real spiritual values that impart

solidarity to the state and society alike. God is the locus of intrinsic values and the Qur’an is

the source of moral law. (Allamah Muhammad Iqbal).

In the research done by Shakirah Binti Mohd Annuar (2002) on the understanding of Islam

among the Muslim converts of Pulau Pinang, she stated certain weaknesses of conversion

authorities such as the time schedules for Islamic classes which are not convenient to those

working Muslim converts, the untrained teachers or the inefficiency of the teachers to

conduct Islamic classes, the disorganized syllabus or irrelevant Islamic books. This research

study agrees with the scholar when she highlighted the above problems faced by Muslim

converts. These problems may also lead the new Muslim converts to uncertainty about their

newly embraced religion. Subsequently, this may lead them to a confused stage where they

may have some negative invisible feelings towards Islam.

Following the literature on dialogue is the need to study and discuss several issues that

remain vague. Firstly, theological issue in dialogue–of whether adopting pluralistic outlook is

the only way to approach interfaith dialogue or is there any harm to alternately use some

other style? Secondly, further discussion on the relationship between da’wah and dialogue by

considering the comprehensive meaning of both terms. Thirdly, how does sirah indicate

Muslims’ international relations? Additionally, there is also a need to demonstrate practical


25

example of the theories of dialogue embedded in the Qur’an. The study of dialogic thinking

in the sirah is only the beginning of the long journey ahead in relation to dialogue and

peaceful co-existence.21

CONCLUSION

It is hoped that the study of management of da’wah to Muallaf will benefit many parties

either are related directly or indirectly with those Muallaf. Through the findings obtained and

proposals, hopefully it will give new impetus to the new Muslims to continue the pleasures of

life as an individual called a Muslim and thereby achieve the level of faith stronger as felt

most by another Muslim.

The number of muallaf are increasing from time to time across the country has admitted

enhanced the growth and development of Islamic da’wah, but in the meantime the problems

that go with it also has made their life just distracted from the corner harmony and serenity.

With the effective measures taken in the management of da’wah to these Muallaf by all

parties, it is expected to continue and grow the teachings of Islam and the problems that arise

can be addressed properly and effectively.

BIBLIOGRAFY

Abur H.U, Majid, M. A., & Sungit, F. (2016). The Conversion of Muallaf to Islam in

Selangor : Study on Behavior and Encouragement, 7(3), 19–26.

https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2016.v7n3s1p19

Ali, K. (1999). The journey from the secular to the sacred: Experiences of native British

converts to Islam. Social Compass, 46(3), 301- 312.

Alyedreessy, M., Huq, R., Seetzen, H., & Herbert, D. (2016). British Muslim Converts: an

Investigation of Conversion and De-Conversion Processes To and From Islam.

Atta, D. M. A., Ayaz, D. M., & Nawaz, Q. (2015). Comparative Study of Inductive &

Deductive Methods of Teaching Mathematics at Elementary Level. Gomal University

Journal of Research, 31(1).

21 Sayyid Buhar Musal Kassim. 2013. A Survey of Problems Faced by Converts to Islam In Malaysia. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. Vol. 8, No. 1 (2013) 085-097. p.11.

https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2016.v7n3s1p19


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Title: THE PREVALANCE OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG

UNDERGRADUATES

i. Ninderpal Singh Balwant Singh (Author) [email protected]

Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 31900, Kampar,

Perak.

Contact address:

ii. Charles Ramendran SPR (Co-author) [email protected]

Faculty of Business and Finance, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 31900, Kampar,

Perak.

iii. Clarence Anthony Puspanathan (Co-author) [email protected]


Perak.

iv. Pragash Muthurajan (Co-author) [email protected]


Perak.

v. Lim Shiang Shiang (Co-author) [email protected]


Perak.







29

THE PREVALANCE OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG

UNDERGRADUATES

NINDERPAL SINGH BALWANT SINGH*

CHARLES RAMENDRAN SPR

CLARENCE ANTHONY PUSPANATHAN

PRAGASH MUTHURAJAN

LIM SHIANG SHIANG

Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 31900, Kampar, Perak.

Abstract

Although alcohol is banned in same states in Malaysia, the country's non-Muslims population

still consumes an extremely high level of alcohol without much restriction. Alcohol

consumption among undergraduates in Malaysia is a topic less discussed. This paper would

like to propose peer pressure as the key determinants of alcohol consumption among Chinese

and Indian undergraduates. The study was conducted using a validated Alcohol use Disorder

Identification Test (AUDIT) and followed by a face-to-face interview with the consented

respondents. Data was collected from 10 respondents from a private university in Perak. The

results indicated high prevalence of alcohol consumption among undergraduate students. All

respondents had an innate to consume alcohol and would prefer consuming alcohol in groups.

Reason of consuming alcohol consumption differed for male and female. It was found that

male drinkers would consume alcohol in order to reduce stress and to kill boredom.

Compared to female consumers were due to the eagerness to try and being part of the group

was seen as the reasons for consumption. Whereas, joyful feeling and the sense of happy

experienced after the few sips was also identified as reasons to repeat consumption. There is a

need for a more proactive intervention in order increase awareness and behaviour towards

alcohol consumption.

Key words: Alcohol, Undergraduates, Peer Pressure


30

Literature Review

Alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colourless, clear liquid with slight characteristic odor that

comes from breaking down (fermenting) of natural substances such as fruit, corn, grain or

sugarcane. Ethanol or ethyl alcohol, an organic compound found in any alcohol. It is classed

as a ‘depressant’ drug. High doses of this drug may depress the central nervous system,

reduce the brain functions which eventually will affects the cognition, emotion and action of

the consumer (Dougherty et al., 2000).

Alcohol consumption is classified as yearning, tolerance, and pensiveness with alcohol and

keep drinking despite the drinker aware of its insidious consequences to their health, personal

or even business affairs (Drummond et al., 1990). Often, some internal organs issues such as

liver, pancreas, heart and brain damages can go unnoticed until it’s too late. The vital part is

drinkers must be aware that even low consumption of alcohol can crucially undermine one’s

driving, even when they don’t feel buzz (Warren, 2010).

The complications of frequent alcohol consumption always overlooked. Alcohol companies

often promoting alcoholism as something ‘fun’, but the major consequences of regular

consumption is that when people’s ‘fun’ is limited the moment they begin to depend on

alcohol to socializing (Steketee, 2013).

Alcoholism can be sneaky in how it affects not only the life of the drinker, but the lives of

their beloved one. There are two basic ways that someone can misuse alcohol – they can

either have a behavioral disorder, more commonly known as “alcohol abuse,” or they can

have an actual physical dependence on alcohol, which is the technical definition of

alcoholism (Alan, 2013). Alcohol abusers typically have the ability to curtail their use of

alcohol, but due to whatever external stimuli are driving them to drink, they typically are

locked in a self-destructive cycle that can frequently lead to full-fledged alcoholism (Alan,

2013).

According to medical expert Wandler (2013), alcohol is generally the first drug that teenagers

engaged with. Moreover, most people in the US viewing alcohol as something better than

drugs, which most of the time drinkers don't aware about their evolution from social drinking

to alcohol abuse and all the way to alcohol dependence. He added, the difference in all of

these is the intensity and duration of drinking, and it is different for men and women. It's

considered a woman has a problem with alcohol if she is consuming more than four alcoholic

beverages in a sitting, or more than seven alcoholic beverages in a week. Meanwhile for a


31

man, more than five alcoholic beverages in a setting and 14 alcoholic beverages in a week.

He observed this alone is probably more called alcohol abuse. While alcohol dependence

means the drinker actually addicted to the alcohol, which the body cell reconstructed rapidly

to the high alcohol consumption, resulting in a higher level of “tolerance”.

Patterns of alcohol consumption vary between countries. In Western societies, alcoholism is

socially recognised and it is the world’s most favorite drug. Meanwhile in Malaysia, it is

legal to consume alcohol in most areas; although it is forbidden to Muslims. The legal age for

consumption is 18 which would be raise to 21 on 1st December 2017. Christina (2011) stated,

despite its small population and size, Malaysia is ranked world’s 10th largest in alcohol

consumption, with more than US$500mil (RM1.5bil) spent on alcohol with a per capita

consumption of seven litres (Assunta et al., 2010). Kortteinen (2008) cited, 45% of

Malaysians youths that admitted engage with alcohol are underage.

High demand for alcoholic drinks amounts to consequences such as increased violence in

society (Stempliuk, 2005). High alcohol consumption among women believed to cause

unfeminine, immoral attitudes and other problems in the fetus among pregnant women.

Ironically, low to moderate drinking able to lower the risk of heart disease and stroke, and

vise-versa (Warren, 2010).

Sommers & Sundararaman (2007), opined that alcohol consumption among teenagers under

21 has been identified as a serious health issue.

Alcohol consumption among youth can result several consequences. Obviously, alcohol

consumption will affect the health the consumers. There are four main issues will be resulted

from alcohol consumption; academic achievement, social relationships, risk-taking behaviors

and health issues (Wechsler & Nelson, 2008).

High levels of alcoholism among individuals aged 18 to 29, which mostly are undergraduates

represent a distinct population, is of particular concern (Harrington et al., 2008). Reavley

(2011), observed the rampancy of alcoholism and related issues is higher in tertiary education

institution than in the general public. Carey et al. (2007) opined students nowadays drink

more than among earlier generations.

The review of literature for alcohol-related violence is immense. A quick search in various

literature databases reveals countless number of articles that evolve within this topic.


32

The risk of injury and accidents related to alcohol consumption, alcohol dependence and a

lower tolerance to alcohol is believed to be greater on the young drinkers up to the age of 25,

compared to older adults (WHO, 2006). Underage drinkers always dealt with social issues,

often resisted to involve in healthier activities, more prone to involve in illegal activities and

unprotected sex (Langley & Kypri, 2003).

Alcohol consumption is a leading factor of many types of violence, and there is solid

evidence of a linkage between alcoholism and violence (Graham & Homel 2008).

Alcohol is also a significantly contribute to violent crime. In England and Wales alone, 44%

of victims believed their attacker consumed alcohol and it is thought to be a reason behind

half of the domestic violence incidents in the UK (Kohn & Smart, 1984).

According to a study by Australian’s national drug institution, harm linked with the

alcoholism, especially among youth is an accounting issue by the government. In average,

one in four citizens were victimized verbally; 13% were frightened and 4.5% of victims aged

14 years or older were victimized physically by an individual who consumed alcohol (Rivers

& Noret, 2010).

The frequency of abuse by an alcohol drinker is doubled the frequency caused by any other

types of drug. Besides that, more than one-third of victims (38%) were drunk during the

incident. This is clearly shows that violent offences are involved people who have consumed

alcohol (Plant et al., 2002).

The environment of tertiary education institution, including the accessibility of alcohol and

the type of institution, will influence alcoholism and abuse in the campus. Schools known as

‘party schools’ is a place for binge drink. Drinking at 21st birthday party, and sport events

have been linked with high alcohol consumption (Glassman et al., 2010).

A study on 4,390 high school alumni revealed 80% of respondents reported either drunk,

binge drinking, or drank and drive. More than 50% admitted that drinking had caused them to

feel ill, absent to school or work, get arrested by police, or involved in car accident (Ellickson

et al., 1996).

Research conducted by Otago University in 2003 on students aged 16 to 24 shown that 84%

of the respondents were harmed by their friends whom under the influence of alcohol. The

study showed that 20% of the male and 10% of the female respondents were physically


33

attacked at least once in four weeks prior to the study, and 20% of the respondent’s property

destroyed (Kohn & Smart, 1984).

Accordingly, to Porter & Pryor (2007), alcohol consumption is believed to have a negative

impact on education both directly (cognitive ability) and indirectly (study habits). As a result,

underage students who consumes alcohol reflects poor attendance and academic

performance.

A study conducted by Eng et al. (1996) in New Zealand revealed the presence of direct effect

of drinking on student’s cognitive ability, as the brain is still under the developing phase up

to the age of 20. Put it simple, students allocated more time for drinking and less hours spent

on studying outside of class. Thus, resulted poor academic performance

Yamada et al. (1996) revealed that alcoholism among high school students significantly

reduces the probability of their graduation by 6.5% on every 10% increase the probability of

being a frequent drinker.

Johnston et al. (2010) revealed, over 80% of college students in United States had at least one

alcoholic drink in a two-week time. 40% of these college students are binge drinking, easily

surpassing their non-college peers. College environment which turned the students from

depending on parents at home to depending on their peers on campus is the reason behind the

large discrepancy between college students and their non-college peers (Borsari et al., 2015).

The transition to tertiary education institution is a difficult time frame for parents to monitor

and curb the misuse of alcohol among their children. Most of the time, students entering

university with alcohol addiction which their parents have no idea how the habits developed

into an addiction, and the university is clueless on how to screen the addiction during the

admissions process (Wood et al., 2004).

The major influence on commencement of drinking habits among young drinkers rooted from

parents’ attitudes and behaviour with respect to alcohol, before peer influences become more

influential and bring it to the next level of consumption called ‘addiction’. Children from

high alcohol consumption family and children of strictly prohibitive parents more likely to

have a greater risk of drinking excessively. Nevertheless, this is a complex relationship. For

instance, some children from heavy drinking parents consciously avoid alcohol due to the

negative consequences that they have eye-witnessed in their family (Pettigrew & Donovan,

2013).


34

The more positive effects of consuming alcohol that a student experience on one week, the

more they consume on the following week. There is no such thing as all individuals who

engage with alcohol will experience negative effects, and not all individuals will experience

the same on all their subsequent consumptions. The experience of negative consequences are

just being a part of the factors to maintain the drinking habits (Lange et al., 2002).

Another study in Federal University of Alagoas observe family institution is the influential

for the commencement of alcoholism among students, the higher education institution is just

play the role as a venue to keep up with the addiction (Brandão et al., 2011).

Lorant et al. (2013) exposed, environmental factors highly contribute to the alcohol

consumption among university students, and the impact is worst among students staying in

university accommodation which engaged with large number of room-mates.

Method

Participants

There were only ten respondents participated in this study. All respondents were selected for

a face-to-face in-depth interview session. All participants are pursuing their tertiary education

at a private university in Perak. The participants consist of five male and five female

respondents; with five from the Indian and five Chinese.

Measures

Besides seeking demographical questions to the participants, the Alcohol Use Disorders

Identification Test (AUDT) was used as well (Babor, Higgins-Biddle, Saunders, & Monteiro,

2001). The AUDIT is a widely used by scholars as well as medical practitioners to identify

the level of risk. Moreover, the AUDIT has been used widely among 1st world countries as

well as third world countries (Almarri, Oei, & Amir, 2009; Giang, Allebeck, Spak, Van

Minh, & Dzung, 2008; Tsai, Tsai, Chen, & Liu, 2005).

Alcohol use was measured by the total score of AUDIT where higher scores indicate greater

alcohol use. In addition, the participants’ risk level was measured based on the AUDIT’s four

risk categories. Risk categories were: low-risk (AUDIT total score 1–7), risky or hazardous

(AUDIT total score 8–15), harmful risk (AUDIT total score 16–19), and high risk (AUDIT

total score 20 or more; Babor et al., 2001).


35

Procedure

The participants were identified out of their university campus ground and informal

permission to carry out the research was sought and granted individually. Any participant,

who fulfilled the inclusion criteria, was eligible to participate. The inclusion criteria were

university students. The AUDIT was distributed individually and was collected right after

completing. Respondents were then asked if they were willing to continue with the in-depth

interview session.

Findings and Discussion

A personal interview was conducted on ten respondents using snowball sampling technique.

There were five male and five females selected as the respondents for this study. The

respondents consist of Chinese and Indian and were in their final year of undergraduate

study. The family monthly income of all respondents was above RM3000.00.

Based on the validated Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT), majority of the

respondents are categorized as hazardous drinkers and are alcohol dependent. According to

the feedback, seven out of eight respondents would consume six drinks in one session.

Moreover, eight of the respondents were advised by a health care worker to reduce their

alcohol consumption due to health concerns. It is further supported by the findings of Idayu,

Mahmoud, Azlinda, Rusdi and Anne (2015) whereby Malaysian youth have shown high

incidence towards alcohol consumption.

All ten respondents consumed their first alcoholic beverage during secondary school. Six of

the respondents were approached by their peers and two of the respondent by their own

initiative. The findings also revealed that all respondents had the innate intention of

consuming alcohol. All respondents were classified as current drinkers and beer was the most

common alcoholic beverage consumed by respondents.

Majority of the respondents would consume alcohol out of their home without their parent’s

knowledge and prefer drinking in a group. This result is consistent with Amit, Hasking and

Enderson, (2012), where pressure, social-economic status and different level of exposure was

seen as the contributing factor. Moreover, the decision to consume alcoholic beverages tends

to be perceived as a personal choice and as an individual; it is expected to be responsible for

his or her drinking behavior.


36

The male respondents would consume alcoholic beverages due to “stress” and / or due to

“boredom”; whereas female respondent was due to the “joyful feeling” and sense of

“happiness”. Despite of the changes in trends (Roche et al., 2008), tendency of being

involved in risky drinking are commonly experienced by men compared to women (Johnston,

O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2004). The source of money to pay for their drinks

would be from the pocket money provided by their parents.

The finding of this study also shows that peer influence is the root cause of alcohol

consumption. Consuming alcoholic beverages is synonymous with male gender among Asian

countries. But in recent decade women have also shown interest due to awareness as well as

influence of western civilization. Hence, it has become a major concern due to the fact that,

alcoholic consumption elevates risk of sudden death and personal injury (Amit, Hasking &

Enderson, 2012).

Limitation of Study

The findings of this study should be interpreted with limitations in mind; since it is self-

reported, in which participants were self-selected for participation. Hence, participants that

were anxious of discussing their alcohol use may have elected not to participate in the study.

Correspondingly, participants may have not been truthful with their alcohol use as it is an

undesirable behavior, especially among females. Ample effort was made to reduce participant

biasness and increase the chances for drinkers to be involved in this research.

Conclusion

The finding of this study is imperative in providing the direction for future research on

alcohol consumption among Malaysian youth. A key indication of this study shows that

consumption of alcohol consumption begins within the secondary school age between 13

years of age up to 17 years of age. Peer pressure was reported as the contributing factor of

alcohol consumption. Nevertheless, self-initiation based on the environment the participant

was brought up also plays as a contributing factor.

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marijuana use on high school graduation. Health Economics, 5(1), 77-92.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_4aPUEkmxU


40

SUSTAINABLE GROWTH RATE OF FIRM AND SHARE PRICE

PERFORMANCE IN MALAYSIA: A PANEL DATA ANALYSIS

Norfhadzilahwati Rahim

PhD. Candidate

Correspondence Author: [email protected] / [email protected]

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This paper investigates the relationship between sustainable growth rate and share price

performance of firm in Malaysia. The results support the efficient-market hypothesis ((EMH)

that share price performance reflect all relevant information especially the increasing and

decreasing sustainable growth rate of firm. This research uses yearly data covering the period

2005-2015 for a total of 4470 observations. The impact of before and after crisis during 2007

is also investigated, using dummy variables as proxies, respectively. Three different models

like Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Random Effect Model (REM), and Fixed Effect Model

(FEM) were used for the analysis. Breusch-Pagan LM test, and Hausman test are also

conducted to choose which model is more appropriate for the analysis. And, analyze time

fixed effect by using Least Square Dummy Variable (LSDV) time-fixed effect estimation.

The results found that there is a significant relationship between sustainable growth rate and

share price performance of firm in Malaysia. Fixed effect model is more applicable to use on

the analysis means each firms have their own heterogeneity. And, there is a significant

difference on sustainable growth rate and share price performance between before and after

crisis during 2007. This research gives valuable information to the literature by contributing

understandings of the firm’s growth and also, firm’s future share price performance.

Keywords: Sustainable Growth Rate, Share Price Performance, Ordinary Least Squares

(OLS), Random Effect Model (REM), and Fixed Effect Model (FEM)


41

1. Introduction

The general body of realistic work in finance and accounting studies whether there is

information in firm’s growth for their future share price performance. Growth and firm’s

management can be one of the conflict arise in the organizations because many executives

realize that higher growth will give the company higher profit and market price. The

management did not see that rapid growth can lead the company into bankruptcy (Higgins,

1977)

This is happened because when the company grow too quickly, its can put considerable

draining on a company’s resources. While, company grow to slow have a different situation

which is the company no less pressing set of financial concerns. And, when company grow at

a rate that is not sustainable, the company will face financial distress because available

resources may not enough to support the growth rate. The concept of SGR can force manager

to make a decision based on financial consequences when sales increase and to set target

sales growth that are consistent with financial policies. Gao & Zhang (2015) stated that the

share price can be reflected by the disappointment and negative emotions of the investor and

can diverge from the objective of financial management.

The share price performance will enable the investors, fund managers, brokers, and bank

analyst to make an appropriate investment decision. The theory supported the efficient-

market hypothesis ((EMH) that share price performance reflect all relevant information (E. F.

Fama, 1970), especially the increasing and decreasing sustainable growth rate of firm.

Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the relationship between sustainable growth rate and

share price performance of firm in Malaysia.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the literature review

based on previous studies. Section 3 describe the sample and research methodology, and

detail discussion on findings in Section 4 and section 5 concludes the discussion.

2. Literature Review

The term sustainable growth rate has come to be used to refer to the maximum a firm can

grow without borrowing more money and selling new equity. The definition was first

suggested by Higgins (1977). A firm’s sales and assets can grow if the company sells no new


42

equity and needs to retain its capital structure (Platt, Platt, & Chen, 1995). The sustainable

growth rate is seen as a factor strongly related to firm performance and it can play an

important role in addressing the issue of maximizing growth rate in sales without to increase

firm debt or issues new equity. The sustainable growth rate is a key indicator to the firm in

gauging their business prosperity performance.

Raisch & von Krogh (2007) confirmed the growth corridor’s relevance for managerial

practice: Companies that grew within the limits set by their growth corridor outperformed

their peers that did not. The so-called “smart growers” delivered an average return to

shareholders of nearly double the rate of slower- or faster growing companies. However,

more than 75% of the overall group failed to operate within this zone and paid a price one

way or another in rising debt, declining profit margins or falling share prices.

Moreover, Lockwood & Prombutr (2010) investigated the associations between sustainable

growth and stock returns for the duration of 1964–2007 by monthly stock price. In that study,

they used Time-Series Regressions, Cross-Sectional Regressions and Cross-Sectional Firm-

Level, and Regression Tests to obtain the significant results. They found that high sustainable

growth firms tend to have low default risk, low book-to-market ratios, and low subsequent

returns. In addition, net profit margin is the major determinant of subsequent returns

compared with each sustainable growth rate components. Sustainable growth rate maintain

after controlling for asset growth and capital expenditure growth.

Another analysis stated that the sustainable growth effect is attributable to risk and not to

mispricing. The results are consistent with E. Fama & French (1995) discussion on rational

pricing. The authors found that low-profit firms tend to have high BE/ME ratios and also,

high required returns. In this case, Fama and French mentioned that low profitability reflects

high distress risk, which in turn should be related with high required returns.

The sustainable growth rate for acquiring firm is an important determinant of the

crosssectional variation in the merged entity’s long-term operating and stock performance

(Olson & Pagano, 2005). To get the accurate results, they used the mergers of U.S. publicly

traded bank holding companies during 1987-2000 period. The most economically significant

determinants of the merged bank’s abnormal stock return performance are the acquiring

bank’s estimated sustainable growth rate prior to the acquisition, as well as post-acquisition

changes in this growth rate, and the bank’s dividend payout ratio.


43

Gu & Huang (2014) examined the association between credit booms, financial crises and

income inequality as an indicator to determine whether the firm’s sustainability was affected.

Taken together, this study used data from 14 advanced countries between 1920 and 2000

suggesting that these are not general relationships. They found evidence which noted that a

rise in top income shares leads to credit booms while credit booms heighten the probability of

a banking crisis. Rather, it points back to a familiar boom-bust pattern of declines in interest

rates, strong growth, rising credit, asset price booms and crises.

3. Research Method

3.1 Variables Used

The study analyzes the impact of sustainable growth rate on the share price performance by

using panel data analysis. Yearly data are collected from the Thomson Reuters database for

the 10 years period of 2005 until 2015 (4,470 observations). Share price performance (SPP) is

used as the proxy for the dependent variable. Sustainable growth rate (SGR) and pre and post

financial crisis during 2007 (prepost) represents as the proxy for independent variables. Table

1 shows the statistical summaries of each variable.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Sustainable growth rate and each key financial factor

Standard

SPP Overall

Between

Within

.142556 .9474558

.2728173

.9074101

0.89767

0.07443

0.82339

-1

-.2854024

-5.171105

4.696211

43.4595

N =

4470 n

= 447

T =

10


44

Mean deviation Variance Min Observations

Source: Authors’ calculation.

Based on Table 1, for share price performance (SPP) the overall variance is 0.94746 2 =

0.89767, of which the within variance is 0.907412 = 0.82339, or just 82.339 percent. The

result implies that within variance for sustainable growth rate is higher than between

variance. This means that the time series variation is more dominated than cross sectional

variation. Similar with sustainable growth rate (SGR) and pre and post financial crisis during

2007 (prepost by using dummy variable which are 0 is before crisis and 1 is after crisis) the

within variance component dominates. This result indicates that within variance (time series

variation) is dominated than between variance or cross-sectional variance.

3.2 Model Equation

Share price performance (SPP) as a dependent variable, regressed with two different

independent variables such as Sustainable growth rate (SGR) and pre and post financial crisis

during 2007 (prepost). Three different models like Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Random

SGR

Overall

Between

Within

.014094

.5069475

.1628226

.4801437

0.25700

0.02651

0.23054

-20.76

-1.466

-19.27991

12.52

1.24

11.29409

N =

4470 n

= 447

T =

10

PREP

OST

Overall

Between

Within

.6

.4899528

0

.4899528

0.24005

0

0.24005

0

.6

0

1

.6

1

N =

4470 n

= 447

T =

10


45

Effect Model (REM), and Fixed Effect Model (FEM) were used for the analysis. The

framework for this analysis is a regression model of the form

yit = β0 + β1x1it + β2x2it + εit (1)

Based on pooled model, it is pooling all data together into one dataset and imposing a

common set of parameters across units and time. And, pooled model essentially has the same

intercept and slope across unit and time. But, the result of pooled model may result in

heterogeneity bias. Therefore, random effect and fixed effect assume that each unit has their

own intercepts. To solve such a heterogeneity bias, error term can be form as

εit = λi + μit (2)

In order to apply random effect and fixed effect denotes as:

yit = β0 + β1x1it + β2x2it + λi + μit (3)

Moreover, random effect is when λi is uncorrelated with each variable (xit) shown as Cor (λi,

xit) = 0. The hypotheses to choose either pooled OLS or Random effect is more appropriate as

shown below:-

H0: σ2λ = 0 (pooled OLS model)

H1: σ2λ > 0 (random effects) And, fixed effect is when λi

is correlated with each variable (xit) shown as Cor (λi, xit) ≠ 0. The hypotheses to choose

which one is more appropriate either random effects or fixed effects can be form as

H0: Cov (λi, xit) = 0 (no correlation between λi and xit: Random effect)

H1: Cov (λi, xit) ≠ 0 (correlation between λi and xit: Fixed effect)

4. Findings and Discussion

4.1 Results

The correlation matrix is conducted to see the relationship between share price

performances (SPP), Sustainable growth rate (SGR) and pre and post financial crisis during

2007 (prepost). The results of correlation matrix is presented in Table 2.


46

Table 2: Correlation Matrix between each variables

SPP SGR Prepost

SPP 1.0000

SGR 0.0950***

(0.0000)

1.0000

Prepost -0.0548***

(0.0002)

0.0063

(0.6751)

1.0000

Notes: ***, **, and * denote correlation is significant at 1%,

5% and 10% levels, respectively.

Based on table 2, the result found that the positive correlation between the share price

performance (SPP) and sustainable growth rate (SGR) at 1 percent level of significance. In

other words, sustainable growth rate increasing or decreasing will make share price

performance increased or decreased. Moreover, the relationship between share price

performance and pre & post financial crisis during 2007 is negatively correlated at 1 percent

level of significance. Meaning that the prepost crisis would give negative relation to the share

price performance.

The pooled OLS effect model, random effect model, and fixed effect model are conducted to

test which model are more suitable for the regression analysis. The results of panel data

analysis are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Results of Panel Data Analysis with Dependent variable is

Share price performance (SPP)

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Variables Pooled

OLS

Random Effect Fixed Effect

Constant 0.204*** 0.204*** 0.205***

(0.0223) (0.0223) (0.0225)

SGR 0.178*** 0.178*** 0.153***

(0.0278) (0.0278) (0.0297)

Prepost - -0.107*** -0.107***


47

0.107***

(0.0288) (0.0288) (0.0291)

BP Test 0.00

(1.0000)

Hausman Test 6.18***

(0.0456)

Observations 4,470 4,470 4,470

R-squared 0.012 0.010

Number of company 447 447

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses except for Breusch-Pagan LM test, and

Hausman test, which are p-values. ***, **, and * denote significant at 1%, 5%

and 10% levels, respectively.

The pooled effect model analysis creates the results of uses all variation in the data which

mean that the intercept and the slope are the same across units and time. Based on table 3, the

results in Model 1 (Pooled OLS) show that sustainable growth rate (SGR) and pre-and post-

financial crisis during 2007 have significant impact to the share price performance with the

same intercept and slope across units and time. The results are significant at 1 percent and 5

percent.

The random effect model analysis produces the results based on individual effects (λi) which

the intercept based on individual may eliminated the result in heterogeneity bias. The results

of model 2 (Random effect) indicate sustainable growth rate (SGR) and pre-and post-

financial crisis during 2007 have significant impact to the share price performance at 1

percent and 5 percent level of significance, respectively. In order to test whether a random

effect (GLS) or pooled OLS is more appropriate for the heterogeneity biases. Based on

Breusch-Pagan LM test, the null hypothesis is accepted because p-value is more than 0.05

(σ2λ > 0). Therefore, the OLS (pooled OLS model) is appropriate to use than random effect

model.

Based on the results fixed effects in table 3, the results indicate that sustainable growth rate

(SGR) and pre-and post financial crisis during 2007 have significant impact to the share price


48

performance which the results same like pooled OLS and random effects model. The results

are significant at 1 percent and 5 percent level of significance, respectively. Moreover, by

using the Hausman test to find which one is more appropriate either random effects model or

fixed effect model. The null hypothesis tested is Cov (λi, xit) = 0. The results indicate that it is

significant at the 5% level. Hence, we choose a fixed effect model due to rejected the null

hypothesis indicated that there are correlated between λi and xit. This mean that the fixed

effect model analysis is more accurate when focusing on a specific set of company that are

not randomly selected but fixed selected from some large of a population.

The further analysis, we have to detect heteroscedasticity by using the Modified Wald test for

groupwise heteroscedasticity in the residuals of a fixed effect regression model (Greene,

2012). The results are shown as below

H0: sigma(i)^2 = sigma^2 for all i

chi2 (447) = 2.2e+05

Prob>chi2 = 0.0000

This result found that the p-value is less than 0.05 or 5 percent level of significance. It is

indicated that the variances are not constant which mean that there is a heteroscedasticity

problem.

The following analysis is to analyze the serial correlation or autocorrelation in panel data by

using Wooldridge test. The results form as

H0: no first-order autocorrelation

F( 1, 446) = 0.046

Prob > F = 0.8305

Since p-value is more than 0.05 or 5 percent level of significance, we accept the null

hypothesis. This means that there is no first-order autocorrelation.

Based on results on table 3, since the final model is fixed effect, therefore table 4 is

conducted by using Least Square Dummy Variable (LSDV) time-fixed effect estimation to

test if time fixed effect are needed when running a fixed effect model. The hypothesis is H0:

No timeeffect, and H1: There is a time-effect.


49

Table 4: Results of Least Square Dummy Variable (LSDV) time-fixed effect with Dependent

variable is Share price performance (SPP)

Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Constant 0.509***

(0.0431)

0.509***

(0.0431)

0.509***

(0.0431)

SGR 0.175*** 0.175*** 0.175***

(0.0269) (0.0269) (0.0269)

Prepost -0.468*** -0.454*** -0.469***

(0.0610) (0.0528) (0.0498)

Tdum1 -0.220*** -0.220*** -0.220***

(0.0610) (0.0610) (0.0609)

Tdum2 -0.107* -0.107* -0.107*

(0.0610) (0.0610) (0.0610)

Tdum3 -0.889*** -0.889*** -0.889***

(0.0610) (0.0610) (0.0609)

Tdum5 0.168*** 0.154*** 0.169***

(0.0610) (0.0528) (0.0498)

Tdum6 -0.0306 -0.0450

(0.0610) (0.0528)

Tdum8 0.282*** 0.268*** 0.283***

(0.0610) (0.0528) (0.0498)

Tdum9

0.0288

(0.0610)

Tdum10 -0.109* -0.123** -0.108**

(0.0610) (0.0528) (0.0498)

F-statistics

39.18***

(0.0000)

44.75***

(0.0000)

52.09***

(0.0000)

Observations 4,470 4,470 4,470

R-squared 0.077 0.077 0.077

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses except for F-statistics, which is p-values.

***, **, and * denote significant at 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively.


50

Model 1 is the first process of analysis which are Tdum4 and Tdum7 is omitted. Model 2 is

the process to drop Tdum9, and Model 3 dropped Tdum6 because p-value for Tdum9 and

Tdum6 is the highest among the time dummies. In model 1, all the variables except Tdum9

and Tdum6 is significant at 1 percent and 10 percent level of significant. And, F-statistics

indicated that the null hypothesis is rejected meaning that all years coefficients are jointly

significant since p-value is less than 0.05. Therefore, time effect are needed.

Next, Model 2 is a further investigation on the time dummy variable which is drop

insignificant time dummy variable where drop the highest p-value first. The results also

shows that all variables is significant at 1 percent and 10 percent level of significant excepted

Tdum6 because p-value is more than 0.05 or 5 percent level of significant. F-statistics shows

that p-value is less than 5 percent.

Furthermore, Model 3 dropped Tdum6 because the p-value is more than 5 percent and the

results shows that all variables is significant at level 1 percent and 10 percent, respectively.

The F-statistics also show p-value is less than 5 percent and therefore, the result indicates the

time dummies are significant. This confirms the significant joint time dummies results on

Model 1 and Model 2.

Lastly, Paired sample t-test is conducted to test whether there is a significant different on

share price performance between pre and post financial crisis during 2007 and the results is

presented in Table 4.

Table 5: Results of Paired Sample t-test before and after crisis on

Share price performance (SPP)

Variable Obs. Mean Standard

Error

Standard

Deviation

[95% Confidence

Interval]

prespp 1,788 .2061669 .0313044 1.323699 .1447698 .267564

postspp 1,788 .0975402 .0130759 .5529128 .0718945 .1231859

diff 1,788 .1086267 .0338506 1.431364 .0422358 .1750176

mean(diff) = mean(prespp - postspp)

t = 3.2090 Ho: mean(diff) = 0

degrees of freedom = 1787

Ha: mean(diff) < 0 Ha: mean(diff) != 0

Ha: mean(diff) > 0


51

Pr(T < t) = 0.9993 Pr(|T| > |t|) = 0.0014***

Pr(T > t) = 0.0007

Notes: ***, **, and * denote significant at 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively.

Based on Table 5, the results shows that there is a mean difference between prespp and

postspp of 0.1086267 with a standard deviation of 1.431364, a standard error of the mean of

0.0338506, and 95 percent confidence interval of .0422358 to .1750176. Then, the t-value is

3.2090 with the degree of freedom of 1787 and the statistical significance (p-value) of the

paired test (Pr(|T| > |t|) under Ha: mean(diff) != 0), which is 0.0014. As the p-value is less

than 0.05, it can be concluded that there is a statistically significant different between prespp

and postspp which is not equal to zero.

5. Conclusion

This research analyzes the relationship between sustainable growth rate and share price

performance by using three models to investigated such as pooled effect model, random

effect model and fixed effect model. Based on the results, three models produce the same

results that sustainable growth rate and share price performance is significant at 5 percent

level of significant. In other words, the increasing or decreasing on sustainable growth rate

may affect to the share price performance.

By identifying heterogeneity bias, the analysis used Breusch-Pagan LM test, and Hausman

test to find which model is more appropriate. And, the final results we get that fixed effect is

more appropriate to be choosing from the specific set of company. For further analysis, Least

Square Dummy Variable (LSDV) time-fixed effect estimation is conducted to test if time

fixed effect are needed when running a fixed effect model. And, F-statistics indicated that the

null hypothesis is rejected meaning that all years coefficients are jointly significant since p-

value is less than 0.05. Therefore, time effect are needed. The results also found that there is a

significant difference on sustainable growth rate and share price performance between before

and after financial crisis during 2007.

The results of this research could give some information and understanding about the

association between sustainable growth rate and share price performance. This also aligned

with efficient-market hypothesis ((EMH) that share price performance reflect all relevant


52

information (E. F. Fama, 1970) and useful information especially for investors, fund

managers, brokers, and bank analyst to make an appropriate investment decision. Future

research might analyze another factor such as macroeconomic and microeconomic variables

in order to find another factors that contribute to the changes of share price performance.

References

Fama, E. F. (1970). Efficient Capital Markets-A Review of Theory and Empirical Work. The

Journal of Finance, 25(2), 383–417. http://doi.org/10.2307/2329297

Fama, E., & French, K. (1995). Size and book to market factors in earnings and returns. The

Journal of Finance. http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5903

Gao, L., & Zhang, J. H. (2015). Firms’ earnings smoothing, corporate social responsibility,

and valuation. Journal of Corporate Finance, 32, 108–127.

http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2015.03.004

Greene, W. W. H. . (2012). Econometric analysis. Pearson Education Limited (Vol. 97).

http://doi.org/10.1198/jasa.2002.s458

Gu, X., & Huang, B. (2014). Does inequality lead to a financial crisis? Revisited. Review of

Development Economics, 18(3), 502–516. http://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12099

Higgins, R. (1977). How much growth can a firm afford?. Financial Management, 6(3), 7–

16. http://doi.org/10.2307/3665251

Lockwood, L., & Prombutr, W. (2010). Sustainable Growth And Stock Returns. Journal of

Financial Research, 33(4), 519–538. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6803.2010.01281.x

Olson, G. T., & Pagano, M. S. (2005). A new application of sustainable growth: A

multidimensional framework for evaluating the long run performance of bank mergers.

Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, 32(9–10), 1995–2036.

http://doi.org/10.1111/j.0306686X.2005.00656.x

Platt, H. D., Platt, M. B., & Chen, G. (1995). Sustainable growth rate of firms in financial

distress. Journal of Economics and Finance, 19(2), 147–151.

http://doi.org/10.1007/BF02920515


53

Raisch, S., & von Krogh, G. (2007). Navigating a Path to Smart Growth. MIT Sloan

Management Review, 48(3), 65–72. Retrieved from

http://www.redibw.de/db/ebsco.php/search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx%3Fdirect%3Dtrue

%26db%3Dbth%2 6AN%3D24841221%26site%3Dehost-live


54

DETERMINANTS OF RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY VALUES WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOOD CRIME

Sunday Emmanuel Olajide1 & Mohd Lizam2

1Department of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic of Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State,

Nigeria

2Department of Real Estate, Faculty of Technology Management & Business, Universiti

Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected]

Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

A cursory search into relevant literatures reveal that required attention is yet to be paid to

the impact of Residential Neighbourhood Crime (RNC) on residential property values (RPV)

in spite of its lethal effect especially on the real estate professionals who are expected to

champion the cause. The paper explored the position of residential neighbourhood crime in

determinants of residential property value. The study adopted stratified and purposive

sampling methods in selecting 1000 residential housing residents within Southwestern

Nigeria for sampling. Only 467 of the sampled resident provided data that were found

usable after data screening. Data collected were analysed using structural equation

modelling (SEM). The study identified accessibility as the most statistically significant

determinant of residential property value, followed by residential neighbourhood crime, and

lastly, by the building and neighbourhood characteristics. The study was, thus, able to

empirically establish residential neighbourhood crime as an important determinant of

residential property value in Southwestern Nigeria. Practical implication of the study is the

need for realtors, researchers and policy makers to put up frantic effort in ensuring that

residential neighbourhood crime is eradicated or at least controlled to the barest minimum

so as to boost housing investment.

Keywords: Accessibility; Building and neighbourhood characteristics; Determinants;

Residential neighbourhood crime; Residential property values; SEM.

Paper Type: Research paper

1. INTRODUCTION

There is enough literature to support the fact that residential property value could rarely be

discussed without mentioning some drivers that serve as determinants or attributes (Kauko,

2003; Tech-Hong, 2011; Abidoye & Chan, 2016). Prominent among these attributes include

accessibility, neighbourhood characteristics, structural attributes, availability of public

facilities and a host of others. However, residential neighbourhood crime (property crime)

which comes in the form of burglary, street incivility, robbery, vandalism and occasional

violent crimes has been found to be overly missing in the list of residential property value

determinants in most studies. This study considers this as being grossly inadequate,

considering the devastating effect property crime can have on the residential neighbourhood

which usually reflects on the housing investment as well as housing values. Inferably, this

translates to the fact that a residential neighbourhood already stigmatized for neighbourhood

crime may bring bless income to the investor or developer. Hence, there is need to undertake

research in this regard with a view to enhancing housing sustainability which is expected to

attract value appreciation of the properties within the neighbourhood.



55

Residential property as a form of real property represents the class that provides living

accommodation. It does not only accommodate the living but non-living as well (human

properties). Residential property takes different forms. Housing can be classified by four

distinct criteria: design (bungalow, duplex, flat and the likes); density (low, medium and

high density); in terms of settlement (rural, sub-urban and urban housing); and in terms of

ownership (public and private housing).

Over the years, researchers have devised different methods of measuring the critical

determinants of residential property values but just a very few have recourse to residential

neighbourhood crime (RNC) as a substantive value attribute, notwithstanding the devastating

the generally perceived consequence of RNC on housing investment. The best one could get

in existing literature (Abidoye & Chan; 2016, Babawale & Adewumi, 2011, Babawale,

Koleoso & Otegbulu, 2012) is to treat security as a subset of neighbourhood characteristics

which ought not to be. This study has been conceptualized to fill this major gap in

knowledge. The main goal of the study, therefore, is to explore the position of residential

neighbourhood crime in determinants of residential property value. The study is quite

germane at this point as existing literature (Aluko, 2011; Adegoke, 2014; Selim, 2009) have

concentrated on accessibility and neighbourhood characteristics as determinants of residential

property value. The study therefore explore: whether RNC is a significant determinant of

residential property value, and to rank its position in relation to the other two factors

(accessibility and neighbourhood characteristics) that have been established in the literature.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Nature Of Residential Neighbourhood Crime

The problem of crime has become a standard component in the discussion of urban issues,

and the control of crime is now as much an urban policy issue as is inadequate housing and

poverty (Narroff, Hellman and Skinner, 1980). It is essentially and gradually manifesting that

these problems are interrelated. Property crime, especially in homes, is said to be globally on

the increase.

Ratcliffe (2001) and Moreto (2010) define ‘residential burglary’ as the unlawful entry

into other peoples' residential apartment for the purpose of committing a crime. Offences that

constitute residential neighbourhood crime, apart from burglary, include street incivility,

graffiti, robbery and violent crime. For the purpose of this research, residential burglary is

used to refer to breaking into, entering into and stealing from dwelling offences. The fact that

homes are usually left vacant during the day accounts for the frequent burglary offending.

Many urban dwellers, especially those in high income class, are mostly victimized due to

their massive acquisition of personal effects (valuables) and the fact that they reside in large

detached dwellings with many accessible entry points like doors and windows (Grabosky

1995).

The cumulative effects of crime on the socio-economic reconstitution, or

concentration of particular groups, within neighbourhoods, play out over decades. However,

changing levels of crime are likely to induce more immediate responses at the individual

level. Increases in crime will directly impact an individual’s perception of safety in a

neighbourhood. In turn, as perceptions regarding the safety of one’s own community

deteriorate, urban residents often choose to move from impacted communities in search for a

safer neighbourhood (Cullen and Levitt, 1999; Dugan, 1999; Tita et.al, 2006). Primarily,

crime and fear of crime lead to flight from the city to the suburbs. It leaves in its wake areas


56

of concentrated poverty and racial/ethnic enclaves in the urban core (Jargowsky, 1996;

Massey and Denton, 1993).

As housing markets serve as the arena in which the impact of crime first manifests

itself, these markets can potentially serve as early indicators of neighbourhood decline.

Therefore, a more complete examination of how crime affects local housing prices will

ultimately lead to a better understanding of the larger issue pertaining to small crime impacts

on residential stability (Schwartz et. al., 2003; Ihlanfeldt and Mayock, 2010).

Increase in the crime rate in Nigeria was being reported as early as the eighties

(Fabiyi, 2006). Lives were no longer safe; the country was characterized by insecurity

challenges posed by offenders. Nigeria, as a matter of fact, has over a century developed

large towns and cities, but the reality of insecurity especially posed by criminals is relatively

recent. The crime wave and the extent of violence in Nigeria are becoming more frequent,

more offensive and horrendous. There are daily reports of more violent crimes (Fabiyi, 2004;

Agbola, 1997). High rate of poverty was also identified as a major cause of the sudden surge

of neighbourhood crime. Population in poverty has been growing steadily over time, for

example, in 1985, 27.2 percent of Nigerians were rated as poor; in 1990, it was measured as

56 percent; in 2000, it was estimated to be about 66 percent and in 2014, Nigeria was

classified as the third poorest country in the world (Federal Office of Statistics, Nigeria,

2014; World Bank, 2014).

2.2 Housing Characteristics/Attributes

Olajide et. al. (2013) defined real property as any personal belonging with a title, which can

be conveyed and re-conveyed at law with a distinguishing characteristic of immobility, like

land and building. They went further to assert that residential property is any building that is

primarily used as living accommodation. The study further unveiled that residential property

is seldom called housing which can be further expressed in terms of density as low, medium

and high; settlement as rural, semi-rural and urban; by design as tenement, flat, bungalow,

duplex, manssionatte and the likes. In terms of residential property value, Mackmin (2014)

opined that the residential market is imperfect as he believes that there is no central market

place, as a result of which buyers and sellers are relatively uninformed and even their

professional advisors, valuers and agents, only have a limited knowledge of what is available

for sale and of what is happening in the market. He added that every house, flat, bungalow or

other unit of residential accommodation is unique in some respect. Essentially, studies have

shown that the value of residential property can be influenced by a good number of factors

(see Table 1). The table reveals that most studies either omit property crime as an influencing

factor or at best put it under neighbourhood characteristics. Sequel to this and looking at the

lethal effect of property crime on the property value, there is the need for additional studies by

valuers in this respect.

A residential property as a heterogeneous good can be defined by a vector of

characteristics or attributes of which its summation makes up either the rental or capital value.

However, previous researchers had identified some housing characteristics that impact on

their prices. An effort is made in Table I to identify some of them. A cursory examination of

the attributes mentioned in Table 1, residential neighbourhood crime is either merged with

other attribute or overly ignored. Does this interpret to meaning that it is not an important

attribute of residential property value? This forms the main thrust of this study.

Table 1 Housing characteristics/attributes


57

S/N Author(s) Title of Article List of Attributes Type of Value

1. Babawale, &

Adewunmi,

(2011)

The Impact of

Neighbourhood

churches on house

prices

Quality of building

facilities, Accessibility,

Neighbourhood quality

Rental Value

2. Kauko (2003) Residential property

value and locational

externalities: on the

complimentary and

substitutability of

approach

Accessibility factors,

Neighbourhood factors,

Specific negative

externalities, Public

services, Taxes and

Identity factors

Capital Value

3. McCluskey,

Deddis, &

Lamount,

(2000)

The application of

surface generated

interpolation models

for the prediction of

residential values

Date of sale, Age of

property, size,

Neighourhood quality;

building characteristics.

Group Cluster

Capital Value

4

Teck-Hong,

Tan (2011)

Neighbourhood

preferences of house

buyers: The case of

Klang Valley,

Malaysia

Neighbourhood type,

Structural Attributes,

Locational Attributes

Capital Value

5 Selim (2009) Determinants of

house prices in

Turkey: Hedonic

regression versus

artificial neutral

network

Location, type of house,

Age of building Building

facilities, Other structural

characteristics

Capital Value

6. Megbolugbe

(1989)

A hedonic index

Model: The housing

Structural traits like size,

age roof cover and

Rental and

capital values


58

market in Jos, Nigeria plumbing features of the

building, Neighbourhood

traits like school, road,

water & electricity

quality; Locational

traits(access to economic,

social and political

activities)

7 Bello and

Bello . (2008)

Willingness to pay for

better environmental

services: evidence

from the Nigerian real

estate market.

Internal Factors like age,

size of plot and building,

condition of facilities.

External factors like

general state of economy,

population, employment,

immigration, finance,

location, infrastructure,

transport and

neighbourhood

Rental and

capital values

8 Tse and Love

(2000)

Measuring residential

property values in

Hong Kong

Structural, Physical,

Neighbourhood and

Environmental attributes

Capital Value

Source: Authors’ compilation, 2016

2.3 Residential neighbourhood crime and property investment (value) in Nigeria

In many economies of the world, real property is one of the main sources of investment. This

has been attributed to the rapid urban growth, which has put enormous pressure on land in

Nigerian cities. Residential property as a sub-sector of real estate has been described as the

second most important need of man after food (Agbola, 1997). As a matter of fact, a

substantial proportion of all investments in Nigeria are in residential real estate (Ogunleye,

2015). An approximate estimate put the value of dormant investment in real estate at about

#8.5 trillion (Hayford, 2006). Barlowe (1972) confirmed that two-thirds of the investment in

the United States of America is made up of real estate. Also, Ogunleye (2012) mentioned that

the highest share of world’s (37%) and US (40%) wealth in the context of the totality of real

estate, equity, bonds, cash and commodities. The position of Ajayi (1998) is that since so

much of the nation’s wealth lies in its real estate assets, he is of the view that valuers should


59

have the duty of contributing their expertise to efficiency in the use of the scarce resources.

The fact that residential properties are commonly and increasingly becoming popular form of

investment in Nigeria and by extension, all over the world, researchers especially in real

estate sector must do everything possible to improve through efficient management and

updated studies. Closely related to this Ajayi (1998) pointed out that investors in residential

property often times are uncertain about the outcomes of their actions. Future events are

difficult to forecast in precise term and over time such forecast becomes unreliable. In

Nigeria, a lot of risks and uncertainties affect real estate investment which includes the

soaring trend of criminal activities within the residential neighbourhood which studies have

found to be detrimental to the income flow (rental and capital incomes) from the investment

(Ogunleye, 2015; Ajayi, 1997).

Ajibola, et. al (2011) emphasized on the role that adequate provision of security facilities

within the residential neighbourhood can play in improving the values of such properties. The

study focused on the impacts of gated communities on residential property values with a

comparison between Onipetesi gated estate and its environs within Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria. The

research found that residential properties within the gated community were more expensive

(in terms of rental and capital values) than other adjacent non-gated properties. The study

further revealed that the quest for security of lives and properties was a major factor

attracting people to the estate, hence, in terms of economic sustainability, the study noted that

gated communities provided good basis for improving the standard and quality of valuation

of residential properties. The comparative analysis of rental tread Onipetesi estate (gated)

and Idi-Mangoro (non-gated revealed that over the period of 2005 and 2009, the rental values

of residential properties within the gated estate were consistently higher than that of the non-

gated estate. The percentage difference in the rental values between the two estates was

between 17-25%. Also, the result of the study showed that 76% of the respondents agreed

that the estate’s system of gates and other security systems led to increase demand for

residential properties within the estates. In addition, the result revealed that 69% of the

respondents posited that security facilities provided by the communities served as an

important consideration in negotiation during the tenancy transaction. This implies that

property crime borne out of insecurity has influence on the property value and by extension,

housing investment.

In the view of Bello (2011), high rate of crime within the Nigerian urban centers led to a

corresponding increase in the level of insecurity of lives and properties. Consequently, a

potential renter or buyer of house would always be concerned with the crime rate in a

neighbourhood before making their choices. Using Oke-Aro and Alaba-Layout in Akure to

examine the perception of crime and its effects on property values in the two

neighbourhoods, the study found that residents of the neighbourhoods have negative

perception living in crime areas and that the rate of crime was inversely related to property

values. The study observed that occupants of properties in the neighbourhoods perceived

crime (especially burglary, robbery and vandalism) to be very high especially in Oke-Aro

neighbourhood where occupants live in slum and abject poverty. This result implies that there

is a correlation among environmental planning, poverty and property values. Also, the

regression analysis showed crime to be negatively correlated with property values which

means that as crime increases, rental value of residential property decreases. The general


60

implication of this study is that crime can negatively impact on housing investment which

calls for urgent response from researches and policy makers.

From a different perspective Gambo (2012) centered his study on impact of violent enthno-

religious conflict (incivility) on residential property values in Bauchi using Hedonic price

modeling. The findings of the study revealed that conflict free area was the most influential

variable determining rent. This translates to the fact that religious conflict (incivility) is

capable of influencing housing value which ought to reflect as a determinant variable of

residential property value. From the foregoing, it can be empirically substantiated that

property crime is capable of impacting on residential property values.

2.4 Research Assessment Framework

Consequent to the analytical tool adopted for this study (structural equation modelling),

Figure 1 is presented to define the research assessment framework. The framework describes

the various applicable variables under consideration. The independent variables are

accessibility (ACB), building and neighbourhood characteristics (BNC) and residential

neighbourhood crime (RNC) while the dependent variable is named residential property

values (RPV). The framework is also presented to graphically present the three (3)

hypotheses adopted for this research. These are:

H1: Accessibility (ACB) has a significant and direct effect on residential property values

(RPV).

H2: There is a significant relationship between building and neighbourhood characteristics

(BNC) and

residential property values (RPV).

H3: Residential neighbourhood crime (RNC) has a significant and direct effect on residential

property

values (RPV).

Figure 1: Research assessment framework

ACCESSIBILITY

(ACB)

BUILDING &

NEIGHBOURHOOD

CHARACTERISTICS

(BNC)

RESIDENTIAL

PROPERTY

VALUE (RPV)

RESIDENTIAL

NEIGHBOURHOOD

CRIME (RNC)

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLE

H2


61

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Questionnaire Development

In the course of this research, the instrument was measured on a Likert Scale. Likert scale

was “developed with the principle of measuring attitudes by asking people to respond to a

series of statements about a topic, in terms of the extent to which they agree with them, and

so tapping into the cognitive and affective components of attitudes” (Likert, 1932; McLeod,

2008). This scale allows for freedom of opinion and relative ease of data analysis with the

assumption that strength/intensity of experience is linear (McLeod, 2008). Lorenzo et al.

(2008) recommended a minimum scale of 4 to 11. However, Dawes (2008) also argued that

the increase in number of response option has no significant effect on the scale reliability or

validity. In addition to this, Johns (2010) posited that when response scale is below 5 points,

the response becomes significantly inaccurate because it will be measuring only direction

instead of the magnitude. Similarly according to him, scales above five (5) points usually

pose difficulty of making distinction between the scales to respondents. Hence, this

instrument was measured on a scale of 1-5 from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).

The questions relating to each constructed were adapted, adopted and formulated through the

related literature while the reliability test was conducted to measure the internal consistence

of the research instruments.

3,2 Data Collection

The data acquired through questionnaires to answer the research questions were summarized

and analyzed using MS Excel 2013, SPSS v22 and AMOS v20. The respondents’ comments

from the open-ended questions in the questionnaire were equally quantified and used in the

analyses.

A pilot study was conducted on 75 samples out of which 50 were found usable. An

exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to confirm factor structure and reliability of

the items. Principal component analysis using Promax rotation was used to access the factor

structure.

A total of 1,000 copies of a set of questionnaires was administered in this order: Lagos- 400,

Ibadan- 300 and Ado-Ekiti- 300 totalling 1000. The questionnaire was distributed to residents

(head of household) in the study area as respondents using purposive (in the sense that only

he head of household is eligible to attend to the questionnaire) and stratified random sampling

was use to select the estates as well as the particular house on which the questionnaire is to be

administered. A sample size calculator was used to estimate the minimum sample size

required from the population of 5762 residents in the study area (Kumar, 1999; Guthrie,

2010).

This research applied the sample size formula (Figure 2); with a resident population

of 2,488 in Lagos metropolis, 1, 654 in Ibadan and 1620 in Ado-Ekiti across the three cities

under consideration using a confidence level of 95%, confidence interval of 5% (or Standard

Error), and the sample size needed was 340 for Lagos, 280 for both Ibadan and Ado-Ekiti or

more. The retrieved and useable questionnaires for the research were 488 out of which 467

passed the screen tests.


62

Figure 2: Sample size graph (Bartlett, Kotrlik and Higgins, 2001)

4.0 DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Reliability Analysis

The essence of carrying out the reliability analysis of each construct is to assess the internal

consistency of the measurement instrument through the Cronbach alpha. Table 2 presents the

reliability analysis result for Accessibility (ACB), Building and Neighbourhood

Characteristics (BNC), Residential Neighbourhood Crime (RNC) and Residential Property

Values (RPV). The Cronbach alpha for ACB, BNC, RNC and RPV are 0.819, 0.935, 0.928

and 0.887 respectively. These values exceeded 0.60 indicating that the items are reliable for

measuring the respective constructs (Pallant, 2011)

Table 2: Reliability Analysis

Factors/Constructs Items Cronbach

alpha

Accessibility (ACB) DPWPV, PTEHV, PCBD, HCLPV and

LDRPV

0.819

Building

neighbourhood

characteristics (BNC)

RNLPV, ABDEV, TQCM, and LAAV 0.935

Residential

Neighbourhood crime FEGCOM, COINT, INSUR, TEGHD, CCTV 0.928

Residential property

values SSNCV, AADPV, BDIV, HAPHV, ABFCV,

RMPV, PCDPU

0.887

4.2 Data Normality

In applying structural equation modeling, it is required that data should be normally

distributed. Hence, this necessitates that data normality should be confirmed (Hair, et. al.,

2011). In this particular study, all values of skewness and kurtosis for the four (4) constructs

have below +1 and -1 indicating the multivariate normality of the distributed data (Pallant,

2011).


63

4.3 STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING (SEM) USING ANALYSIS OF

MOMENT STRUCTURES (AMOS)

SEM-AMOS is software encompasses such diverse statistical techniques as path analysis,

confirmatory factor analysis, causal modeling with latent variables, analysis of variance and

multiple linear regressions. AMOS could be accessed through various ways but for the

purpose of this study it was accessed through licensing a copy from Statistical Package for

Social Sciences (SPSS), Version 22 which was meant for personal computer.

Essentially, SEM is an extension of the general linear model (GLM) that enables a

researcher to test a set of regression equations simultaneously. The basic approach to

performing a SEM analysis includes establishing relevant theory, model construction,

instrument construction, data collection, model testing, result and interpretation. The model

consists of a set of relationships among the measured variables. These relationships are then

expressed as restrictions on the total set of possible relationships. The results feature overall

indices of model fit as well as parameter estimates, standard errors and test statistics for each

free parameter in the model.

The choice of SEM-AMOS software for this study was considered desirable as a

result of a number of attractive virtues it enjoys like clear and testable assumptions

underlying the statistical analyses which gives investigator full control and potentially

furthering understanding of the analyses; a graphical interface which boosts creativity and

facilitates rapid model debugging; possibility of comparing regression coefficients, mean and

variances simultaneously; provision of overall tests of model fit and individual parameter

estimate test at the same time; possibility of purging errors through measurement and

confirmatory factor analysis and its most attractive quality among others.

4.4 Measurement Model

The use of structural equation modeling (SEM) in analyzing the data through AMOS 21.0

software required a two-step approach which was employed as a pre-requisite for the use of

SEM (Awang, 2015). The first step required the preparation of the measurement model

estimated for the purpose of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with the principal aim of

checking the model fit and validity. The goodness of fit is in agreement with the laid down

principles (see Table 3). Findings as presented in Figure 2 show that the factor loadings after

necessary deleting were found to be significant. That is, not less than 0.6 (Hair, et. al., 2011;

Awang, 2014); the chi-square/df stood at 3.824 which is less than the benchmark 0f < 5.0

(March and Hocevar, 1985); the GFI is up to 0.9 (Joreskong and Sorbom, 1984). CFI is 0.938

(Bentler, 1990). TLI is 0.926 (Bentler andBonett, 1980); RMSEA (root mean square error of

approximation is 0.078 which is less than the benchmark of ≤ 0.080 (Browne, Cudeck and

Bollen, 1983). In summary, these result figures meet all the recommended criteria for the

good model fit (Hair, et. al., 2011; Babin, et. al., 1994; Awang, 2015).

Table 3: Goodness-of-fit index and level of acceptance

Name of

Category

Goodness-of-

fit indices

Acceptance

Level

Comments Literature

support

Absolute fit Chisq P > 0.05 Sensitive to sample

size greater than 200

Wheaton et. al

(1977)

Absolute fit RMSEA RMSEA < 0.08 Range 0.05 to 1.00

is acceptable

Brownne and

Cudeck (1993)


64

Absolute fit GFI GFI > 0.90 GFI = 0.95

Is a good fit

Jorekog and

Sorbom (1984)

Incremental fit AGFI AGFI > 0.90 AGFI = 0.95

Is a good fit

Tanaka and

Huba (1985

Incremental fit CFI CFI > 0.90 CFI = 0.95

Is a good fit

Bentler (1990)

Parsimonious fit Chisq/df Chisq/df < 5.0 The value should be

less than 5.0

Marsh and

Hocevar (1985)

Figure 2: The Measurement Model


65

To ensure that the model is properly fit, the data were also tested for construct validity which

involved the discriminant and convergent validity as well as the correlation matrix for the

entire research constructs (Hair, et. al., 2011; Awang, 2014).

Discriminant validity is achieved when the square root of the Average Variance

Extracted (AVE) is greater than the correlation with other constructs (Hair, et. al, 2011). The

loadings of all reflective indicators are above 0.6 after the data had been refined through

reliability test (Cronbach alpha) and expository factor analysis (EFA). The values of

composite reliability for all reflective constructs are above 0.7 (Hair, et. al. 2011; Awang,

2015) and the AVE for each construct is above 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) confirming a

convergent validity as shown in Tables 4 and 5

Table 4: The summary of measurement Model

Construc

t

Code Items Loading

s

CRa AVEb

ACB LDRPV Location determines housing values 0.81 0.87 0.74

HCLPV House with contaminated location

affects value

0.68

PCBD Proximity to CBD affects value 0.76

DPWPV Distance to work affects property values 0.81

RNC CCTV Use of CCTV to scare offender affects

values

0.85 0.94 0.75

TEGHD Obstruction to target areas reduces

crime

0.88

INSUR Increased surveillance & lighting scare

offender

0.85

COINT Community integrations discourages

crime

0.93

FEGCO

M

Fencing and gated community aids

security

0.82

BNC LAAV Landscape attracts additional value 0.91 0.94 0.77

TQCM Type & quality of construction add to

value

0.90

ABDEV Age of building determines housing

value

0.81

RNLPV Neighbourhood layout influences value 0.88

RPV HAPHV Human activities can influence property

value

0.76 0.85 0.54

RMPV Residential mobility affects property

value

0.78

ABFCV Adequacy of building facility

determines value

0.63

PCDPU Property crime determines property

crime

0.65

BDIV Building design influences value 0.75

a. Composite Reliability (CR) = (square of the summation of the factor loadings)/ {(square

of the summation

of the factor loadings) + (square of the summation of the error variances)}.


66

b Average Variance Extracted (AVE) = (summation of the square of the factor loadings)/

{(summation of the

square of the factor loadings) + (summation of the error variances)}

Table 5: Correlation matrix for the entire research constructs

ACB BNC RNC RPV

ACB 0.86

BNC 0.55 0.88

RNC 0.11 0.02 0.87

RPV 0.86 0.48 0.23 0.73

Note: N=467; Numbers in parentheses are standard error; ACB = Accessibility; BNC =

Building and Neighbourhood Characteristics; RNC = Residential Neighbourhood Crime;

RPV = Residential Property Value

4.5 STRUCTURAL MODEL

The structural model was developed in order to test the proposed hypotheses as shown in the

research assessment framework (path analysis diagram) in figure 1. The obtained CFA model

is perfectly fit as the values of all estimated measures GFI, AGFI, CFI, TLI and RMSEA are

greater that the threshold level. The percentage of variance explained (R2) for the model

stands at 0.74 (74%) indicating that the model has good explanatory power (Hair, et al.,

2011; Awang, 2014). Figure 3 gives the graphical presentation of the structural model while

Tables 6 and 7 show the standardized regression weight and its significance for the entire

path in the Model and the summary of the tested hypotheses in this research respectively.

Figure 3:The Structural Model

Table 6: The standardized regression weight and its significance for the entire path in the

Model.


67

Construct Path Construct Estimate S.E C.R P-

Value

Result

RPV <--- ACB 0.82 0.052 13.492 *** Significant

RPV <--- BNC 0.01 0.031 0.297 0.766 Not

Significant

RPV <--- RNC 0.18 0.030 4.926 *** Significant

ACB = Accessibility; BNC = Building and Neighbourhood Characteristics; RNC =

Residential Neighbourhood Crime; RPV = Residential Property Value.

Table 7: The summary of the tested hypotheses in this research

S/N The main hypothesis statement in the

research

Estimate P-value Result

1. H1 Accessibility (ACB) has a significant

and direct effect on residential property

values (RPV).

0.82 *** Supported

2. H2 There is a significant relationship

between building and neighbourhood

characteristics (BNC) and residential

property values (RPV).

0.01 0.766 Not Supported

3. H3 Residential Neighbourhood crime

(RNC) has a significant and direct

effect on residential property values

(RPV).

0.18 *** Supported

Key: *** represents P-value is less than 0.001

5. DISCUSSION.

The comprehensive review of literature facilitated the earlier presented hypothesised research

model in the Table 7. The hypothesised results in the Table 6 outlined the outcome of every

respected path in the structural measurement model. Therefore, every path’s hypothesis in

this research is presented accordingly in the next paragraphs.

Hypothesis (H1): Accessibility (ACB) has a significant and direct effect on residential

property values (RPV). The result shows that Accessibility (β = 0.82, z = 13.49 and p = 0.000

< 0.001) are strongly significant to residential property values. Therefore hypothesis H1 is

supported and held true. The research outcome confirms that accessibility is considered a

very important determinant of residential property values. This implies that from the

residents’ perspective accessibility to market, place of work, place of worship and recreation

among others should be considered as an important attributes even from the conception stage

in order for the property not only to increase in value but also to maintain the value

appreciation.

In addition, this research finding is consistent with the empirical findings by Jang &

Kang (2015); Abidoye & Chan (2016); Oloke, Simon & Adesulu (2013) and Aluko 2011) in

which they variously supported that accessibility as an attribute does significantly influence

residential property values.

Hypothesis (H2): There is a significant relationship between building and

neighbourhood characteristics (BNC) and residential property values (RPV). In the same

vein, the research’s result found that building and neighbourhood characteristics (β = 0.01, z


68

= 0.30 and p = 0.77 > 0.05) have no significant impact (statistically) on residential property

values within the Nigerian housing neighbourhoods. Therefore, the hypothesis is rejected and

empirically not supported by this research.

This implies that from the majority of the residents that participated in this research

and quite representing the generality of Nigerian urban residential estates, building and

neighbourhood characteristics may not necessarily be of high priority for a tenant or resident.

This may not be far from the fact that in any civilized economy minimum construction

requirement is expected to be followed during residential development more so it serves as a

place of abode and where residents’ valuables are kept. Another reason why this value

attribute may not be considered as so important is the fact that different designs and standards

of residential accommodation exist like low income housing, medium income housing and

high income housing. The financial ability of the prospective resident often determines the

location and type of house to occupy.

Essentially, this finding is consistent with the past research studies of RoyalLePage

(2003) and Tse & Love (200) in which all attested to the fact that building and

neighbourhood characteristics may not necessarily constitute a serious determinant of

residential property values. However, the result of this research is in contrast with the

research findings of Aluko (2011) and Ajibola, Awodiran & Salu-Kosoko (2013) among

others which found that building characteristics of a house have a direct impact in its value

determination.

Hypothesis (H3): Residential Neighbourhood crime (RNC) has a significant and

direct effect on residential property values (RPV). As presented in the Table 7, research

outcome shows that residential neighbourhood crime (β = 0.18, Z = 4.93 and p = 0.000 <

0.001) is significant and have direct effect on property values. The outcome of this research

showed a strong support for hypothesis H3 as demonstrated in the final structural

measurement model (see Figure 3). By implication therefore, the research finding shows that

the prevalence of residential neighbourhood crime in the forms of burglary, incivilities, street

crimes, robbery and even violent crimes have a strong significant and direct effect on

residential property values and of course housing investment. Therefore, above research

hypothesis is supported.

Principally, the essence of this research is to statistically test the impact of key

determinants (Accessibility, Building and neighbourhood characteristics as well as residential

neighbourhood crime) of residential property value with special reference to residential

neighbourhood crime. In other words, the study was meant to statistically assess

neighbourhood crime as a value determinant along with two other variables as earlier on

reiterated. There are enough literature supporting Accessibilty and building neighbourhood

characteristics but a vicious dearth of publication on the impact of residential neighbourhood

crime as a determinant of housing value especially from real estate practitioners, hence, the

need for this research.

With regards to the grievous consequences of residential neighbourhood crime on the

residents, neighbourhood and government activities; the research is considered desirable.

Residents have been found to suffer psychological fear of crime which could lead to poor

health, unproductivity and often sudden death (Cohen, 1990). Residents have also found to

incur additional cost of housing maintenance in the area of providing security. Also

neighbourhood crime has caused the environment to suffer decline, stigmatization and

negative residential mobility which are found of capable of discouraging housing investment


69

with direct reflection on general practice of real estate business. Residential neighbourhood

crime has also been found to affect government activities by reducing government revenue

from property tax as well as increasing public budget to curb neighbourhood incivility. From

the foregoing, it becomes imperative to give residential crime the necessarily attention it

deserves.

In summary and by implication, residential neighbourhood crime is found to be a

great threat to housing investment and neighbourhood civility. This research finding

supported the past empirical outcome of Pope and Pope (2012); Ceccato and Whilhelmsson,

(2011); Boggess, et..al (2013); Adegoke (2014) and Ihlanfeldt & Mayock (2010) who

reported that residential neighbourhood crime (property crime) has a direct negative effect on

residential property values and essentially housing investment.

6. 6. CONCLUSION

In line with the objective and problem statement of this study, effort was made in the course

of the research to empirically prove and analyse the relevance of residential neighbourhood

crime as a determinant of housing value among other determinants of accessibility as well as

building and neighbourhood characteristics. The result of the findings supports the

proposition (hypothesis) that residential neighbourhood crime has direct and significant

impact on residential property values. Hence, the hypothesis is supported and held to be true.

Consequent to the position of existing literature, residential neighbourhood crime has

been described to be detrimental to housing investments (Gibbons, 2004; Pope and Pope,

2012; Cohen, 1990) as it is capable of causing artificial residential mobility, residential

neighbourhood stigmatization and neighbourhood decline –all towards reduction in housing

values, be it rental or capital.

It is therefore in the interest of this research to make a clarion call on researchers,

practitioner and policy maker especially in real estate profession on the need to pay more

attention toward devising modern residential neighbourhood crime prevention techniques in

the form of research and policy making. This is more needed in the developing nations like

Nigeria where the crime risk factors like poverty, illiteracy, juvenile delinquencies,

homelessness, unemployment and poor environmental design are found to be prominent.

Government at various levels is enjoined to roll out programmes and policies toward tackling

these risk factors. Also, considering the role of housing to the national economy, it is

expedient for all concerned stakeholders to see this call as an urgent one considering its

relevance in boosting housing values in particular and general economy in general. The

research however recognises the fact that the critical determinants of residential property

values are more than three, however, accessibility (ACB) and building and neighbourhood

characteristics (BNC) were found to be in the top ten through data mining. It is however open

for future research opportunity.

From the analysis and result of findings, there is a correlation between residential

neighbourhood crime and residential property value. However, while the correlation is

relatively low (23%), the causal effect (regression) of RNC on RPV is highly significant (less

than 0.001) which translates to the fact that the effect of RNC (which is mostly negative) is

strongly felt by RPV. The inference is that researchers, urban planners, realtors and policy

makers need to rise up to the challenge of making sure that all is done in the area of research


70

and mounting relevant programmes in ensuring that neighborhood crime is curbed, reduced

or prevented so as to ensure sustainable housing and boosting housing investment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) and the

Nigerian Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund). The researchers express their invaluable

gratitude to UTHM and TETFund for their support.

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JOB CRAFTING AMONG MALAYSIAN ACADEMICS: THE ROLE OF

RELIGIOUS PERSONALITY IN JD-R MODEL OF BURNOUT

Raja Mayang Delima Mohd. Beta, Nordayana Zulkifli, Noryanne Amer,

Siti Munirah Amer, Kalsom Ali

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM) Bandar Baru Nilai, 71800, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of job demands, job resources, burnout and

religious personality on the job crafting behaviour of Malaysian academics. Job crafting

refers to proactive behavior aimed at optimizing the fit between person and job. Using job

demandsresources theory, the researcher hypothesized that job crafting would be positively

related to job resources and person-organisation fit, and negatively to hindrance demands.

Furthermore, it will be hypothesized that these relationships would be qualified by personal

resources; religious personality. A total of 377 academics from Malaysian Public universities

is aim to fill out an electronic questionnaire. Job Crafting will be measured using Job

Crafting scale by Bakker, Demerouti & Sanz-Vergel (2014). Job demand will be

operationalized as workload, emotional exhaustion, work-family conflict and job resources

will be operationalized as autonomy, professional development and social support

(Demerouti, Bakker and Mustert, 2001). While religious personality will be operationalized

based on Muslim Religious Personality Index adapted from Krauss (2007) with pro-social

behaviour, ritual behaviour and anti-social behaviour constructs. Regression analyses will be

used to test hypotheses. Job burnout will be assessed using Oldenburg Burnout Inventory

(OLBI; Demerouti & Nachreiner, 1998; Demerouti et al., 2003), the findings will be expected

to reject the null hypothesis and may contribute on the JDR Model with an application of

religious factor that leads to one factor of personal resources. With the rejection of null

hypotheses, job crafting in the form of increasing job resources is expected to positively

related to opportunities for development, autonomy and social support; and negatively related

to hindrance job demands; workload, emotional exhaustion and work-family conflict -

particularly when religious personality was high. Conclusions: The combination of job

crafting and religious personality is important for the realization of a resourceful work

environment and fit between person and organisation. Implications for academics’

management: Interventions aimed at fostering job crafting should be tailored to the

motivation of higher education institution’s academics.

Keywords: Job Demand, Job Resources, Religious Personality, Job Crafting Behaviour

8. INTRODUCTION

Educational innovations have the potential to be viewed as a job demand or job resource

which may contribute to the different level of burnout but depending on how they are being

perceived by academicians (Huhtala & Parzefall, 2007). Increasing accountability of

academicians, mounting pressure to publish research, rising workloads, frequent

restructuring, use of shortterm contracts and additional external scrutiny are believed to


75

contribute to rising job stress (Bakker, Van Emmerik & Van Riet, 2008). Academic staff are

now expected to fulfil multiple role demands within the work setting, for example, teaching,

research, consultation and supervising research students. Academicians are also dealing with

the pressures of competing demands, such as balancing teaching with research, and

attempting to balance traditional workloads with the presence of new pressures, such as

teaching internationally and via online methods which is one of educational innovation

nowadays.

When academicians perceive that they are provided with adequate system-level support for

their work, they are less likely to experience stress and more likely to experience well-being

at work. Academicians are also required to bring money into the university through research

grants or publications, as in Malaysia, some research performance is evaluated and funded by

federal government based on research productivity.

9. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Therefore, this study will be conducted to examine the level of burnout of academics in one

of Malaysian public university with the contribution factor of job demands, job resources and

personal resource (religious personality).

Hundred (100) academicians from several Malaysian public university will be taken as a

sample for pilot study. Thus, the findings will be expected to contribute on the JDR Model

with an application of religious factor that leads to one factor of personal resources. This

study, therefore, has three primary objectives as below:

1. It aims to identify the impact of job resources on the job crafting behaviour among

Malaysian academics.

2. It aims to identify the impact of religious personality on the job crafting behaviour

among Malaysian academics.

3. It aims to identify the mediating impact of burnout between job demands and job

crafting behaviour among Malaysian academics.

10. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Three research questions will be handled with great interest. Research question 1 must be

answered to achieve research objective 1, while research question 2 must be answered to

achieve research objective 2. Same goes for research question 3 must be answered to achieve

research objective 3 regarding the influence of religious personality to assess burnout levels

among academics in Malaysian public university.

Research question 1: Is there any significant impact of job resources on the job crafting

behaviour among Malaysian academics?

Research question 2: Is there any significant impact of religious personality on the job

crafting behaviour among Malaysian academics?

Research question 3: Does burnout mediate the impact of job demands on the job crafting

behaviour among Malaysian academics?


76

In achieving its research objectives and answering the research questions,, this study will

employ a quantitative research methodology.

11. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Job crafting is, in the context of the JD-R model, about moulding a job according to the

employee’s preferences, skills, and abilities and thereby making actual changes in levels of

job demands and job resources (Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2012). It is important to note that job

crafting and job redesign are not interchangeable terms. Job redesign considers changes to the

job as a whole and is a top-down approach, while job crafting is more concerned with

taskrelated aspects of the job and is a bottom-up approach (Tims et al., 2012). Thus, in line

with the JD-R model, job crafting addresses job demands and job resources (Tims & Bakker,

2013), which can positively influence employee behaviour. Currently, there is little studies

have been conducted on job crafting within the Malaysian context. Due to its importance to

organisations, a gap has been identified that needs to be addressed. Therefore, the present

study aims to investigate the impact of religious personality, job demands and job resources

towards job crafting behaviour possessed by academics in Malaysia.

The implications of high job demands in academics can be troubling to institutions.

Academics especially junior members will quit and switch to another institution if they

cannot stand with the pressure and burnout (Idris, 2009). Statistic shows that teacher’s

burnout is in high ranking as compared to academics’ burnout. This is based on the previous

study which stated that teachers are often physically and emotionally challenged; therefore,

they may experience burnout. Teacher burnout has been shown to have negative effects on

teacher and student performance (Huberman & Vandenberghe, 1999; Maslach & Leiter,

1999). Besides, a research in Hong Kong primary and secondary school showed teachers

perceived different level of stress (Chan, Chen & Chong, 2010). Whereas most research

carried out in European and North American countries indicated high levels of burnout

among primary school teachers (Mearns & Cain, 2003). However, research on elementary

university lecturers in the United States shows that working experience can influence

academic’s burnout (Cheek, Bradley, Parr & Lan, 2003). In line with that, research in

Malaysia also indicates lecturers from different working experience categories suffer varying

levels of burnout (Mukundan & Khandehroo, 2009).

This research is likely to be beneficial to higher educational institutions in understanding

academics’ job burnout, religiosity literature and to academics. For instance, higher

educational institutions can use this research to help identify their academics staffs’ priorities,

their institutions’ performance in comparison to academics’ priorities and students’

performance in terms of continuous growth. The ability to measure what the academics want

will enable employing institutions to retain satisfied academics, promote their university

products and services and gain higher levels of satisfactions among students, parents and

external people (Masuku & Muchemwa, 2015).

So far only personal resources have been integrated into the JD-R model, but personal

religiosity factors could also be included. Again, it is likely that there is no single best way to

integrate religious personality factors of this kind into the model. It is possible that

workaholism leads to more job demands, because workaholics are actively looking for more

work (Machlowitz, 1980). However, religious personality may also moderate the relation

between job demands and burnout; for people scoring high on religious personality this


77

relation would be weaker, because religious personality did recover appropriately from their

work (Law, Sweeney, & Summers, 2008).

Therefore, it is vitally important for institutions specifically the research universities to direct

its efforts towards the level of burnout of employee. This may create an opportunity for this

research to fill in the contextual gap.

12. LITERATURE REVIEW A. JOB CRAFTING

Job crafting is a concept that explicitly focuses on employee job redesign (Wrzesniewski &

Dutton, 2001). In job crafting, employees independently modify aspects of their jobs to

improve the fit between the characteristics of the job and their own needs, abilities, and

preferences (Berg, Dutton, & Wrzesniewski, 2008). According to Wrzesniewski and Dutton

(2001), employees may initiate three types of changes in their jobs. First, employees may

craft the tasks they must fulfill at work. For example, an employee could ask for different

tasks at work that require new skills because they feels that the job is becoming monotonous.

Second, employees may craft the interpersonal relationships they experience when

performing their work. For example, an employee may regularly meet with a colleague they

considers inspiring. Third, employees may craft their own cognitive stance toward their work

by positively reframing the manner in which they think about the job. An employee engages

in the third type of job crafting when they considers a specific task boring but reframes this

task as boring but important. The task does not change, but the employee views it in a more

positive manner. These changes allow employees to make their work more engaging and

meaningful (Tims & Bakker, 2010; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001).

Because job crafting involves initiating changes in the job design, it is operationalized

according to the types of job characteristics suggested in the Job Demands Resources (JD-R)

model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001): job demands and job resources

(see also Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2012). Job characteristics that require sustained effort from

employees and are, therefore, associated with certain costs are labeled job demands. Job

characteristics that contribute toward achieving workrelated goals, reducing the effect of job

demands and associated costs, and stimulating personal development are called job resources.

This distinction allows the model to be applied to many occupations and jobs. Moreover, this

distinction allows researchers to assess which job characteristics employees change when

they craft their jobs. In line with the JD-R model, job crafters change either the level of job

demands, the level of job resources, or both.

Using the refined JD-R model, Tims et al. (2012) recently distinguished empirically between

four job crafting dimensions. Two of these dimensions refer to the type of job resources that

are crafted: structural (e.g., autonomy and variety) and social job resources (e.g., social

support and feedback). The other two dimensions refer to the level of job demands:

challenging (e.g., new projects) and hindering job demands (e.g., fewer cognitive demands).

13. B. BURNOUT

Many scholars have commented that the current research on the construct of burnout and its

history, development, and measurement are strongly related to the Maslach Burnout

Inventory (MBI; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996) and its different versions (for example,


78

MBI-GS; Schaufeli et al., 1996). 2008). An alternative instrument that was proposed to

address the content-related and methodological disadvantages of the above-mentioned

measures of burnout is the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI; Demerouti & Nachreiner,

1998; Demerouti et al., 2003). In this scale, burnout is operationalized by means of (physical,

affective, and cognitive) exhaustion and disengagement, whereas personal accomplishment is

excluded.

Furthermore, the OLBI items assess cognitive and physical components of exhaustion in

addition to the affective componentincluded in the MBI. Finally,the OLBI (MBI-GS;

Schaufeli et al., 1996) is not restricted to human services, but it can be used to measure

burnout in all employees, irrespective of their occupation. These findings further support

researcher’s decision to use the OLBI to assess burnout in academics.

14. Exhaustion

Building on the two dimensions of job burnout proposed by the OLBI (Demerouti et al.,

2003, 2010), the researcher define academic burnout as a phenomenon that is characterized

by feelings of (emotional, physical, and cognitive) exhaustion due to the demands of studying

and an attitude of withdrawal and detachment from one’s studies. According to the main

assumptions of the job demandsresources model (Demerouti et al., 2001), the study

characteristics that university students usually face are likely to initiate feelings of exhaustion

(due to increased levels of study demands) and disengagement (due to the absence of study

resources).

More specifically, university students have to deal with high levels of cognitive (for example,

studying, preparing for classes/exams, working on papers), and quantitative (for example,

meeting deadlines) demands that may deplete their energy resources and lead to exhaustion.

15. Disengagement

In a similar vein, lack of instrumental (for example, control) or socio-emotional resources (for

example, support from teachers or administrative staff) may demotivate students and enhance

their feelings of disengagement from their studies. Although there are good reasons

supporting this assumption as the structure ofthe activities pursued by students resembles the

structure found in numerous occupations, the necessity of justifying it through modern

invariance testing procedures (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002) still remains. In this study, we

aimed to fill this void in the literature by investigating the invariance of academic and job

burnout across students and employees.

C. JOB DEMANDS AND JOB RESOURCES

The JD-R model was first published under that label by Demerouti et al. (2001) in an attempt

to understand the antecedents of burnout. Their model drew upon Lee and Ashforth’s (1996)

meta-analysis, in which eight “job demands” and thirteen “job resources” were identified as

possible causes of burnout. Demerouti et al. (2001) defined job demands as “those physical,

social, or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort and

are therefore associated with certain physiological and psychological costs”

The early JD-R model proposed two processes for the development of burnout. First, long-

term excessive job demands from which employees do not adequately recover may lead to

sustained activation and overtaxing, eventually resulting in exhaustion, the energetic


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component of burnout. Second, a lack of resources precludes that job demands are met and

that work goals are reached, which leads to withdrawal behavior.

Indeed, withdrawal, or reduced motivation/disengagement, for example, the motivational

component of burnout, acts as a self-protective strategy to prevent further energy depletion.

Consistent with this reasoning, research revealed main effects of demands and resources on

burnout; whereas job demands were associated with exhaustion, lacking resources were

linked to disengagement (Bakker, Demerouti & Euwema, 2005; Bakker, Demerouti &

Verbeke, 2004 ; Bakker, Demerouti, Taris, Schaufeli & Schreurs, 2003; Demerouti et al.,

2001; Hansen, Sverke & Näswall, 2009; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007).

D. RELIGIOUS PERSONALITY

Personal resources directly impact well-being. As personal resources are defined in terms of

resiliency and control, they may reduce burnout and increase engagement. In a study among

Spanish teachers, it has been found that emotional and mental competencies at the beginning

of the academic year predicted levels of burnout and engagement at the end of that year,

controlling for baseline levels of demands and resources. Similarly, Xanthopoulou, Bakker,

Demerouti, and Schaufeli (2009) reported in an 18-month longitudinal study that personal

resources (self-efficacy, optimism, and organization-based selfesteem) predicted later work

engagement, next to job resources (control, supervisory coaching, feedback, and

opportunities for development).

One of major contribution for this study is by applying the religious personality factors that

can be considered as one of personal resources which may influence the different level of job

burnout amoung academics.

The "Religious Personality" subscale, though containing several items specific to Islamic

religious practice and ritual behavior, is predominantly comprised of items of a universal

nature not necessarily specific to Islam but deemed a key aspect of Islamic religiosity. This

construct is represented by items relating to ritual worship which reflect one's direct

relationship with God. and mu'amakit. or religiously-guided behaviors towards one's family,

fellow human beings and the rest of creation (Krauss, Hamzah & Idris, 2007).

Religiosity scales always suffer from limitations in that no single scale can entirely capture

the multiple dimensions of religious life. This study will use three constructs under religious

personality; pro social behaviour, ritual behaviour and anti social behaviour.

16. UNDERPINNING THEORY

During the past decade, the number of studies with the job demands–

resources(JDR)model(Bakker&Demerouti,2007; Demerouti & Bakker, 2011; Demerouti et

al., 2001) has steadily increased. The model has been used to predict job burnout (for

example, Bakker et al., 2005, 2008; Demerouti et al., 2001), organizational commitment,

work enjoyment (Bakker, Van Veldhoven, & Xanthopoulou, 2010), connectedness (Lewig,

Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Dollard, & Metzer, 2007), and work engagement (Bakker, Hakanen,

Demerouti, & Xanthopoulou, 2007; Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006).


80

One important reason for the popularity of the JD-R theory is its flexibility. According to the

theory, all working environments or job characteristics can be modeled using two different

categories, namely job demands and job resources. Thus, the theory can be applied to all

work environments and can be tailored to the specific occupation under consideration.

This study will focus on Job Demands and Resources theory which also known as JDR

Theory by Bakker et al (2014). Below are the research framework of this study as an

extension of JDR Theory with the contribution of religious personality factor.

17. Figure 1: The original of JDR Model by Bakker (2014)

18. Figure 2: Research framework of an extension of JDR Model of burnout with

religious personality and job crafting

This framework may illustrate the relationship between the three main hypotheses proposed

in this study.

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant impact between job resources and job crafting

behaviour among Malaysian academics.

Job Demands

Religious

Personality

Burnout Job Crafting

Bheaviour

Job R esources


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Hypothesis 2: There is no significant impact between religious personality and job crafting

behaviour among Malaysian academics.

Hypothesis 3: There is no significant mediating effect of burnout between job demands and

job crafting behaviour among Malaysian academics.

Below is the operationalization of the research framework whicn includes the constructs

identified for this study under each variable.

Figure 3: Research Framework Operationalization of an extension of JDR Model of

burnout with religious personality and job crafting

19. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Population and Sampling

The sampling frame of this study will only focus on the Malaysian public universities. A list

of academics has been selected from the current list provided by Ministry of Higher

Educational Malaysia as at December 2016. A complete population of Malaysian public

universities is 22,002 academics will form the sample for this study. This proposed study

will be using stratified sampling technique. According to Krecjie and Morgan (1970) table,

377 sample size will be selected from a total population of 22,002 academics. The

calculations of stratified random sampling are as given in Table 1.

Table 1: Stratified Random Sampling Calculation of Malaysian Public Universities

No. Universities Formula ratio Sample size

1. Universiti Malaya 1225/22002*377 21

2. Universiti Sains Malaysia 1225/22002*377 21

3. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 1050/22002*377 18

4. Universiti Putra Malaysia 1050/22002*377 18

Religious personality

- pro social behaviour - ritual behaviour - anti social behaviour

Job demands

- work pressure

- emotional demand

- role conflict

Burnout

Dis/engagement

Ehxaustion

Job Crafting Behaviour - structural - social job resources

- challenging - hindering job

demands

Job resources

- autonomy

- possibilities development

- social support


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5. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 1167/22002*377 20

6. Universiti Utara Malaysia 992/22002*377 17

7. Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia 933/22002*377 16

8. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 584/22002*377 10

9. Universiti Malaysia Sabah 759/22002*377 13

10. Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris 642/22002*377 11

11. Universiti Teknologi MARA 7878/22002*377 135

12. Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin 467/22002*377 8

13. Universiti Malaysia Terengganu 175/22002*377 3

14. Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia 467/22002*377 8

15. Universiti Tun Hussein Malaysia 642/22002*377 11

16. Universiti Teknologi Melaka 759/22002*377 13

17. Universiti Malaysia Perlis 643/22002*377 11

18. UNIMAP 758/22002*377 13

19. Universiti Malaysia Kelantan 350/22002*377 6

20. UPNM 233/22002*377 4

JUMLAH 377

Source: Date were gathered from www.mohe.gov.my as of 31 December 2016

20. B. Data Collection Procedures

The survey questionnaires will be adapted from previous literature. The questionnaire will be

composed of four (4) major parts; Section 1- Demographic Variables, Section 2- Job

Demands and Resources, Section 3- Religious Personality, Section 4 – Burnou and Section 5

– Job Crafting Behaviour. The respondents will be requested to rate on a scale of 1 (Never)

to 5 (Always) on each of the statements (Likert scale). The online questionnaire comprised 90

questions with drop-down response categories. Technical considerations and the nature of the

Internet as a research tool suggested that it was important to keep the questionnaire as short

as possible. Therefore, the included scales were shortened versions of their originals. Stanton,

Sinar, Balzer, and Smith (2002) encouraged researchers to offer reduced-length versions of

measures and suggested an exhaustive list of strategies to do so. Essentially, Stanton et al.

(2002) recommended that researchers reduce scales on the basis of indices of internal,

external, and judgmental item qualities. In accordance with this recommendation, the

selection of shortened versions was based on psychometric considerations, with the most

reliable (internal item quality) and face-valid items included (judgmental). In addition, the

shortened scales correlated well with originals (external).

Academician’s burnout will be operationalized as exhaustion and disengagement and will be

measured using Oldenburgh Burnout Inventory (OLBI) by Demerouti and Bakker (2007).

Job demand will be operationalized as workload, emotional exhaustion, work-family conflict

and job resources will be operationalized as autonomy, professional development and social

support (Demerouti, Bakker and Mustert, 2001). While religious personality will be

operationalized based on Muslim Religious Personality Index adapted from Krauss (2007)

with pro-social behaviour, ritual behaviour and anti-social behaviour constructs. Last but not

least, the main dependent variables, Job Crafting will be assessed using Job Crafing Scale

http://www.mohe.gov.my/

http://www.mohe.gov.my/


83

adapted from Bakker et al. (2014). Thus, the findings will be expected to contribute on the

JD-R Model with an application of religious factor that leads to one factor of personal

resources towards job crafting behaviour in Malaysian context.

21. C. Limitations

The study will be limited its scope only to Malaysian public universities. Another further

limitation is the study only focuses on academics who currently hold an academics post from

lecturer to professor.

22. D. Implications of the study

Several implications from this study can be considered by academics (for example either

private higher institutions or public higher institutions). These implications can be used by

the institutions to enhance their awareness on the influence of religious personality factor that

may result to different level of burnout among academics.

The findings of this study will also make several implications to the sector of higher

educational sector especially in their policy matters, reward matters and human resource

management.

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PENGARUH BIMBINGAN ROHANI ISLAM TERHADAP KESEHATAN MENTAL

PASIEN SAKIT JIWA MASA REHABILITASI DI RUMAH SAKIT JIWA DR.

AMINO GONDOHUTOMO SEMARANG

Riyan Muhammad Shafii, S.Sos.I Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Salatiga

Email : [email protected]

ABSTRAK

Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kuantitatif yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh

bimbingan rohani Islam terhadap kesehatan mental pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di Rumah Sakit

Jiwa Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang. Populasi pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi yang

berdasarkan jumlah rata-rata yang ada setiap harinya di Rumah Sakit Jiwa dr.Amino Gondohutomo

Semarang ini yaitu 138 pasien, maka peneliti mengambil sampel antara 10-30% yaitu 25% x 138

pasien = 35 pasien. Dalam penelitian ini pengambilan sampel yang digunakan adalah incidental

sampling yaitu pengambilan sampel yang dilakukan semata mata atas dasar kesediaan dan

ketersediaan untuk kemudahan penelitian. Dalam penelitian ini menggunakan metode pengumpulan

data, pertama angket yaitu untuk mengetahui pengaruh bimbingan rohani Islam terhadap kesehatan

mental pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di Rumah Sakit Jiwa Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang.

Kedua observasi dan wawancara yaitu untuk mengetahui bagaimana pelaksanaan bimbingan rohani

Islam yang diberikan rohaniawan kepada pasien. Ketiga dokumentasi yaitu untuk mengetahui

gambaran umum RSJ. Data penelitian yang terkumpul, dianalisa dengan menggunakan teknik analisis

statistik. Pengujian hipotesis penelitian ini menggunakan analisis regresi linier satu prediktor dengan

skor mentah. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: terdapat pengaruh positif bimbingan rohani Islam

terhadap kesehatan mental pasien, ditunjukkan oleh hasil Freg=28,089. Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan

adalah r hitung lebihbesar dari r tabel (28,089 > 0,334), untuk taraf signifikan 5 %, sedangkan taraf

signifikan 1 % adalah 0,430. Karena r hitung > r tabel, maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa hasil dari

perhitungan tersebut adalah signifikan.

Kata kunci : Bimbingan Rohani Islam, Kesehatan Mental


88

I. PENDAHULUAN

Pada zaman globalisasi ini kemajuan teknologi dan informasi semakin

membuat permasalahan manusia semakin kompleks. Kontak sosial yang semakin

longgar dan bebas dapat menjadikan disintegrasi masyarakat dan disintegrasi

perorangan. Kehidupan yang serba materialistis dan individualitas semakin tampak

pada kehidupan manusia disekitar kita. Dengan keadaan seperti itu tentu masalah

yang ditimbulkan tidak hanya masalah kehidupan secara jasmani melainkan

termasuk menjadi masalah kesehatan jiwa seorang individu.

Masalah kejiwaan itu begitu luas, kompleks, mengandung banyak misteri. Dari

itu banyak didapati orang-orang yang mengalami persoalan kejiwaan yang

disebabkan oleh pertentangan yang ada pada dirinya. Pertentangan itu terjadi

karena tidak sanggup menyesuaikan dirinya dengan hidupnya. Pertentangan itu

akan terungkap dengan mengambil bentuk berupa perasaan cemas yang tidak

menentu, menjauh dari masyarakat ramai, tenggelam dalam khayalan untuk

memenuhi apa yang tercapai dalam kenyataan, menderita gangguan jiwa dan lain-

lain. (Darajat, 1973:17).

Gangguan mental pada diri manusia diakibatkan karena tidak terpenuhi

kebutuhan hidupnya baik kebutuhan jasmani maupun rohani. Hubungan

kemanusiaan yang awalnya persahabatan berubah menjadi sebuah kepentingan,

antara satu dengan yang lain saling bersaing untuk memenuhi kebutuhan yang

semakin mengikat. Hidup manusia akhirnya membawa manusia dalam keresahan,

gelisah dan renggang satu sama lain (Darajat, 2001: 4).

Kesehatan mental adalah terwujudnya keserasian yang sungguh-sungguh

antara fungsi-fungsi kejiwaan dan tercapainya penyesuaian diri secara individu

dengan dirinya sendiri dan lingkungannya berdasarkan keimanan dan ketaqwaan,

serta bertujuan untuk mencapai kehidupan yang bermakna dan bahagia di dunia

dan di akhirat. (Bastaman, 2001: 133).

Kondisi mental manusia dalam menjalani hidupnya sangatlah dinamis, ada

kalanya waktu tertentu kondisi mentalnya prima dan pada waktu tertentu pula

kondisi mentalnya dapat menurun. Hal inilah salah satu dapat dilakukan untuk

menjaga mental tetap prima dengan proses bimbingan rohani Islam. Hal ini sesuai

atau selaras dengan konsep WHO bahwa manusia dapat dikatakan sehat yang

holistik atau paripurna yaitu mencakup empat konsep biologis, psikologis, sosial

dan spiritual (Hidayanti, 2003: 51).


89

Bimbingan rohani Islam termasuk dalam konsep spiritual sebagai upaya

mencapai kesehatan manusia secara jasmani dan rohani. Bimbingan rohani Islam

yaitu proses pemberian bantuan terhadap individu agar mampu menyadari akan

eksistensinya sebagai makhluk Allah yang seharusnya hidup selaras dengan

ketentuan dan petunjuk Allah, sehingga dapat mencapai kebahagiaan dunia dan

akhirat. (Faqih, 2001 : 85).

Tentu dalam proses bimbingan rohani Islam berpandangan pada Al Qur’an dan

Al Hadist. Hal ini dapat dilakukan terhadap pasien sakit jiwa khususnya pada masa

rehabilitasi yang keadaan mentalnya mulai tenang setelah mendapatkan perawatan

medis secara intensif di Rumah Sakit Jiwa dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang.

Pasien sakit jiwa inilah yang banyak sekali problem kehidupannya sehingga

menghantarkan pasien tersebut ke rumah sakit jiwa. Masalah-masalah yang

dihadapi sangat komplek baik secara jasmani, rohani, emosi dan lain-lain.

Sehingga ini benar-benar membuat tekanan jiwa pada diri pasien.

Pelayanan bimbingan rohani Islamdi RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semrang

diberikan kepada pasien dengan tujuan meningkatkan kepercayaan diri dan

pengharapan rehabilitasi lewat suara dalam kegiatan spiritual.. Pelayanan

bimbingan rohani Islam merupakan bentuk pelayanan yang diarahkan kepada

pembinaan kerohanian pasien, adapun bentuk pelayanannya berupa ceramah,

diskusi dan teori-teori ibadah. Sedangkan untuk petugas bimbingan rohani

Islamatau rohaniawan yaitu khusus ada pembimbing kerohanian dengan

didampingi pekerja sosial dan perawat.

Berdasarkan latar belakang diatas, maka peneliti tertarik untuk meneliti sejauh

mana pengaruh bimbingan rohani Islam terhadap kesehatan mental pasien sakit

jiwa masa rehabilitasi di rumah sakit jiwa dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang.

Tujuan Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kuantitatif yang bertujuan akan

berusaha menguji secara empiris apakah ada pengaruh bimbingan rohani Islam

terhadap kesehatan mental pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di Rumah Sakit Jiwa

Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang.

II. METODE PENELITIAN

Penelitian ini ada penelitian kuantitatif, karena data-data yang diperoleh

nantinya berupa angka-angka. Dari angka yang diperoleh akan dianalisis lebih

lanjut dalam analisis data. Penelitian menggunakan angket sebagai instrumen


90

untuk mencari data penelitian yang disusun berdasarkan variabel yang akan

diteliti, karena penelitian ilmiah harus didasarkan penelitian yang objektif. Untuk

itu perlu diterapkan metode yang tepat, sebab metode berpengaruh besar terhadap

hasil yang akan dicapai. Dan karena penelitian ini merupakan penelitian

kuantitatif, maka hasilnya dengan menggunakan perhitungan statistik. (Hadi,

2004: 18). Penelitian ini terdiri dari dua variabel yaitu variabel pertama bimbingan

rohani Islam sebagai variabel independen, sedangkan variabel kedua yaitu

kesehatan mental sebagai variabel dependen.

Bimbingan rohani Islam yang dimaksud dalam penelitian ini adalah bimbingan

rohani Islam yaitu proses pemberian bantuan terhadap individu agar mampu

menyadari akan eksistensinya sebagai makhluk Allah yang seharusnya hidup

selaras dengan ketentuan dan petunjuk Allah, sehingga dapat mencapai

kebahagiaan dunia dan akhirat. (Faqih, 2001: 85). Adapun indikator dari

bimbingan rohani Islam dalam penelitian ini yaitu : Frekuensi waktu bimbingan

dilakukan, Frekuensi pembimbing melakukan bimbingan, Frekuensi kemampuan

pembimbing dalam menyampaikan materi, dan Frekuensi tingkat kenyamanan

dalam melakukan bimbingan.

Kesehatan mental yang dimaksud dalam penelitian ini adalah terwujudnya

keserasian yang sungguh-sungguh antara fungsi-fungsi kejiwaan dan tercapainya

penyesuaian diri secara individu dengan dirinya sendiri dan lingkungannya

berdasarkan keimanan dan ketaqwaan, serta bertujuan untuk mencapai kehidupan

yang bermakna dan bahagia di dunia dan di akhirat. (Bastaman, 2001: 133).

Adapun indikator kesehatan mental dalam penelitian ini yaitu : Terhindarnya

seseorang dari gangguan jiwa, Kemampuan seseorang untuk menyesuaikan diri,

Kemampuan dalam mengembangkan dan memanfaatkan segala potensi yang ada,

dan Mempunyai kesanggupan dalam menghadapi problem yang terjadi(Darajat,

1982: 11).

Subjek penelitian yang dimaksud adalah pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di

RSJ dr.Amino Gondohutomo Semarang. Pengambilan sampel pasien masa

rehabilitasi dengan kriteria pertama pasien yang telah mendapatkan bimbingan

rohani Islam, kedua pasien dalam keadaan sadar atau tenang, ketiga pasien yang

berusia antara 17 sampai 60 tahun, keempat pasien dengan pendidikan terakhir

tingkat sekolah dasar (SD). Dengan mengambil sampel dan dengan kriteria

tertentu, hal itu diasumsikanpertama pasien telah mengetahui baik buruknya


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bimbingan rohani Islam, kedua pasien dengan sadar dapat mengisi angket, ketiga

pasien dapat membaca dan mengisi angket dengan benar.

Pengambilan sampel ini didasarkan pada pertimbangan dan acuan umum dari

pengambilan sampel Suharsini Arikunto, yaitu apabila subjek kurang dari 100,

maka populasi diambil semua, dan apabila jumlah subjek lebih dari 100, maka

sampel yang diambil antara 10-15% atau lebih dari populasi yang ada (Arikunto,

2006: 134).

Karena populasi 138 pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi yang berdasarkan

jumlah data pada bulan Juni 2014 di Rumah Sakit Jiwa dr.Amino Gondohutomo

Semarang ini, maka peneliti mengambil sampel antara 10-30% yaitu 25% x 138

pasien = 35 pasien. Dalam penelitian ini pengambilan sampel yang digunakan

adalah incidental sampling yaitu pengambilan sampel yang dilakukan semata mata

atas dasar kesediaan dan ketersediaan untuk kemudahan penelitian.

Metode pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah dengan

angket bimbingan rohani Islam dan kesehatan mental. Dalam hal ini penyusunan

angket menggunakan skala Likert yang terdiri dari lima jawaban yaitu sangat

sesuai (SS), sesuai (S), netral (N), tidak sesuai (TS), sangat tidak sesuai (STS).

Pemberian skornya tergantung dari favorable dan tidaknya suatu item. Skor

bergerak dari nilai lima sampai nilai satu pada jawaban favorable dan satu sampai

lima pada unfavorable.

Untuk memilih item-item yang memiliki validitas dan reliabilitas dilakukan

uji coba. Pengujian validitas terhadap semua item variabel. Pengujian dilakukan

dengan formulasi korelasi product moment dari Pearson dan penghitungannya

menggunakan bantun SPSS versi 16.0 (Wijaya, 2009: 110).Sedangkan Estimasi

reliabilitas dilakukan dengan menggunakan teknik alpha dari Cronbach dan

penghitungannya menggunakan bantuan SPSS 16.0.

Angket bimbingan rohani Islam. Untuk angket bimbingan rohani Islam

menggunakan 40 item pernyataan. 20 item untuk favorable dan 20 item

unfavorable.

Tabel 1


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Blue print angket bimbingan rohani Islam

No Indikator Favorable Unfavorable Jumlah

1 Frekuensi waktu

bimbingan dilakukan

1, 5, 7, 8,12

11, 15, 16,

32, 33

10

2 Frekuensi pembimbing

melakukan bimbingan

2, 6, 21, 22,

30

3, 17, 20,

23, 31

10

3 Frekuensi kemampuan

pembimbing dalam

menyampaikan materi

13, 24, 26,

34, 35

14, 18, 25,

36, 37

10

4 Frekuensi tingkat

kenyamanan dalam

melakukan bimbingan

4, 9, 28,29,

38

10, 19, 27,

39, 40

10

Jumlah 20 20 40

Angket kesehatan mental. Untuk angket kesehatan mental

menggunakan 40 item pernyataan. 20 item untuk favorable dan 20 item

unfavorable.

Tabel 2

Blue print angket kesehatan mental

No Indikator Favorable Unfavorable Jumlah

1 Terhindarnya dari

gangguan jiwa

1, 3, 6, 7,8

9, 11, 12,

32, 33

10

2 Kemampuan seseorang

menyesuaikan diri

4, 5, 14, 15,

23

16, 17, 19,

34, 35

10

3 Kemampuan dalam

mengembangkan

memanfaatkan segala

potensi yang ada

2, 13, 20,

21, 22

10, 18, 24,

25, 36

10

4 Mempunyai

kesanggupan dalam

menghadapi problem

yang terjadi

26, 27, 28,

29, 39

30, 31, 37,

38, 40

10


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Jumlah 20 20 40

Teknik observasi ini, peneliti gunakan untuk mengamati pelaksanaan

bimbingan rohani Islam terhadap pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di RSJ

dr.Amino Gondohutomo Semarang. Wawancara dilakukan dengan petugas

bimbingan rohani Islam atau kepala bagian rehabilitasi selaku pengelola

pelaksanaan bimbingan rohani Islam di RSJ dr.Amino Gondohutomo

Semarang yang ditujukan untuk mengetahui gambaran umum pelaksanaan

bimbingan rohani Islam di RSJ dr.Amino Gondohutomo Semarang serta teknik

dokumentasi digunakan untuk melakukan pencarian data tertulis tentang

gambaran umum RSJ dr.Amino Gondohutomo Semarang.

Dalam menganalisis data yang terkumpul, penulis menggunakan

metode statistik, karena jenis penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian

kuantitatif. Tujuan analisis ini adalah menyederhanakan data kedalam bentuk

yang lebih mudah dibaca dan diinterpretasikan. (Singarimbun, 1989: 263).

Pengujian pengaruh variabel independen terhadap variabel dependen

dalam penelitian ini dengan menggunakan teknik analisis regresi sederhana.

Teknik analisis tersebut dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan program SPSS 16.0.

Berdasarkan pengujian tersebut akan diketahui pengaruh bimbingan rohani

terhadap kesehatan mental.

III. HASIL PENELITIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN

Deskripsi Subjek Penelitian

Subjek pada penelitian ini adalah pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di Rumah

Sakit Jiwa Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang. Tidak seluruh populasi yang

diambil untuk dijadikan subjek penelitian melainkan mengambil sampel pasien

masa rehabilitasi dengan kriteria pertama pasien yang telah mendapatkan

bimbingan rohani Islam, kedua pasien dalam keadaan sadar atau tenang, ketiga

pasien yang berusia antara 17 sampai 60 tahun, keempat pasien dengan pendidikan

terakhir tingkat sekolah dasar (SD). Dengan mengambil sampel dan dengan

kriteria tertentu, hal itu diasumsikanpertama pasien telah mengetahui baik

buruknya bimbingan rohani Islam, kedua pasien dengan sadar dapat mengisi

angket, ketiga pasien dapat membaca dan mengisi angket dengan benar.


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Tabel 3

Tabel Subjek Penelitian Berdasarkan Jenis Kelamin

No Jenis

Kelamin

Jumlah Prosentase

1. Laki-Laki 27 77, 14 %

2. Perempuan 8 22, 86 %

Jumlah 35 100 %

Tabel 4

Tabel Subjek Penelitian Berdasarkan Tingkat Pendidikan

No Tingkat

Pendidikan

Jumlah Prosentase

1. SD / MI 12 34, 30 %

2. SMP / MTs 6 17, 14 %

3. SMA /

SMK / MA

11 31, 42 %

4. Perguruan

Tinggi / PT

6 17, 14 %

Jumlah 35 100 %

Tabel 5

Tabel Subjek Penelitian Berdasarkan Usia

No Usia Jumlah Prosentase

1. 17 – 20

Tahun

5 14, 28 %

2. 21 – 30

Tahun

8 22, 86 %

3. 31 – 40

Tahun

15 42, 86 %

4. 41 – 50

Tahun

6 17, 14 %

5. 51 – 60

Tahun

1 2, 86 %


95

Jumlah 35 100

Dari ketiga tabel diatas telah jelas bahwa dalam mengambil sampel

tidak membeda bedakan responden yang akan diambil, terbukti berdasarkan

jenis kelamin baik laki-laki maupun perempuan ada yang dijadikan sampel,

berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan baik dari SD, SMP, SMA dan Perguruan

Tinggi / PT kesemua tingkatan jenjang pendidikan ada yang dijadikan sampel,

sedangkan berdasarkan usia baik dari usia 17 sampai 60 Tahun juga merata ada

yang dijadikan sampel.

Deskripsi Data Penelitian

Sebelum angket disebarkan kepada responden, terlebih dahulu angket

diujikan kepada pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di RSJ Dr. Amino

Gondohutomo Semarang yang tujuannya untuk mencari item yang berkualitas.

Langkah yang penulis lakukan adalah dengan mencari validitas dan reliabilitas

angket tersebut. Setelah diketahui bagaimana keadaan sebenarnya dari item

tersebut, maka akan diketahui mana item yang baik dan yang mana item yang

sebaiknya diperbaiki atau dibuang. Validitas adalah ukuran yang menunjukkan

tingkatan-tingkatan kevaliditasan atau kesahihan sesuatu instrumen (Arikunto,

2002: 70).

Sedangkan reliabilitas adalah kehandalan alat ukur (reliabilitas) yang

pada dasarnya merupakan indeks yang menunjukkan sejauh mana suatu alat

ukur dapat dipercaya atau diandalkan, apabila pengukuran diulangi dua kali

atau lebih (Singarimbun, 1998: 22).

Uji coba dilakukan terhadap 35 pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di

RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang dengan 80 item pertanyaan, 40

tentang bimbingan rohani Islam dan 40 tentang kesehatan mental. Untuk

mengetahui tingkat validitas dan reliabilitas instrumen angket variabel

bimbingan rohani Islam dan kesehatan mental pasien dilakukan melalui

program SPSS versi 16, dengan hasil sebagai berikut:

Angket tentang bimbingan rohani Islam setelah diadakan uji SPSS,

maka ada 15 data yang tidak valid, yaitu item nomor: 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 18, 21,

23, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38 sedangkan item nomor: 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15,


96

16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40 adalah valid. Jadi

angket tentang bimbingan rohani Islam ada 15 item yang tidak valid dan 25

item yang valid. Dengan demikian 25 item dinyatakan reliabel, karena alpha

lebih besar dari r tabel, yaitu: 0,829 > 0,334.

Tabel 6

Hasil ringkasan uji validitas angket bimbingan rohani Islam

No Variabel Valid Invalid Jumlah

1 Bimbingan

Rohani

Islam

2, 3, 6, 7,

10, 11, 13,

14, 15, 16,

17, 19,20,

22, 25, 26,

27, 28, 33,

34, 35, 36,

37, 39, 40

1, 4, 5,

8, 9,

12, 18,

21, 23,

24, 29,

30, 31,

32, 38

40

Tabel 7

Hasil ringkasan uji reliabilitas angket bimbingan rohani Islam

No Variabel Alpha R tabel Keterangan

1 Bimbingan

Rohani

Islam

0,829

0,334 Reliabel

a > r tabel

Dan angket tentang kesehatan mental setelah diadakan uji SPSS, maka

ada 10 data yang tidak valid, yaitu item nomor: 5, 6, 9, 10, 16, 17, 21, 22, 29,

39, sedangkan item nomor: 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 23,

24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, adalah valid. Jadi

angket tentang kesehatan mental ada 10 item yang tidak valid dan 30 item yang

valid. Dengan demikian 30 item dinyatakan reliabel, karena alpha lebih besar

dari r tabel, yaitu: 0,869 > 0,334.

Tabel 8


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Hasil ringkasan uji validitas angket Kesehatan Mental

No Variabel Valid Invalid Jumlah

1 Kesehatan

Mental

1, 2, 3, 4,

7, 8, 11,

12, 13,

14, 15,

18, 19,20,

23, 24,

25, 26,

27, 28,

30, 31,

32, 33,

34, 35,

36, 37,

38, 40

5, 6, 9,

10, 16,

17, 21,

22, 29,

39

40

Tabel 9

Hasil ringkasan uji reliabilitas angket kesehatan mental

No Variabel Alpha R

tabel

Keterangan

1 Kesehatan

Mental

0,869

0,334 Reliabel

a > r tabel

Hasil uji normalitas dengan menggunakan teknik nonparametrik test

dengan menggunakan SPSS versi 16 dengan koefisien KS-Z untuk variabel

bimbingan rohani Islam: , P > 0,05, dan untuk variabel kesehatan mental: , P >

0,05. Sedangkan hasil uji homogenitas dengan menggunakan teknik compare

means dengan menggunakan SPSS versi 16 dengan koefisien one-way anova

untuk variabel x terhadap y , F = 1,669 p > 0,05. Berdasarkan hasil, p > 0.05

maka variannya adalah homogen.

Hasil Uji Hipotesis

Tabel 10


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Ringkasan Hasil Akhir Analisis Regresi

Model JK RK df F reg

Regression 3190,417 3190,417 1 28,089

Residual 3749,126 113,610 33 -

Total 6939,543 - 34 -

Tabel 11

Taraf Signifikan Hasil Koefisien Freg

N F reg F tabel ( 5% /

1% )

Kesimpulan

35 28,089 0,334 / 0,430 Signifikan

Dalam analisis lanjut akan dibuat semacam interpretasi dari hasil

perhitungan dengan menggunakan rumus regresi linier sederhana satu

prediktor yang telah diproses antara variabel x dan y . Dalam pelaksanaan

langkahnya adalah mengkorelasikan hasil perhitungan reg F dengan data tabel

Ftabel untuk N = 35 pada taraf signifikan 1% = 0,430 maupun pada taraf

signifikan 5% = 0,334. Jika nilai Freg lebih besar dari taraf signifikan 1% atau

pada taraf 5% maka hipotesis penelitian diterima, jika sebaliknya nilai Freg

kurang dari taraf signifikan 1% pada taraf signifikan 5% maka hipotesis

ditolak. Dengan demikian dalam analisis varian garis regresi diperoleh bahwa

harga Freg= 28,089 yang apabila harga Fregini dikonsultasikan dengan tabel

Ftabel taraf signifikan 5% = 0,334 maupun 1% = 0,430 pada N = 35 akan

diperoleh bahwa Freg= 28,089 > taraf signifikan 5% maupun 1% berarti

signifikan.

Pembahasan Hasil Penelitian

Rumah Sakit Jiwa Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang merupakan

salah satu Rumah Sakit Jiwa yang selain memberikan pelayanan medis juga

memberikan pelayanan spiritual bagi pasien, yaitu dalam bentuk bimbingan

rohani Islam. Bimbingan rohani Islam ini merupakan bagian dari unit

rehabilitasi yang bisa pula disebut rehabilitasi spiritual. Bagian kerohanian,


99

terdiri dari dua pegawai, yaitu Muhammad Kayun dan Muhammad Hasim.

Mereka memberikan pelayanan bimbingan rohani Islam secara bergantian

setiap minggunya, sehingga bimbingan ini berjalan dengan efektif, yaitu setiap

minggunya pasti ada pembimbingnya.

Pelaksanaan bimbingan rohani Islam di RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo

Semarang telah terjadwal dengan baik. Sehingga pelaksanaan bimbingan

rohani Islam dapat berjalan dengan efektif. Bimbingan rohani Islam di RSJ Dr.

Amino Gondohutomo Semarang ini dilaksanakan dengan pertemuan dengan

pasien-pasien di ruangan rehabilitasi atau di Masjid dengan memberikan

nasehat-nasehat atau bimbingan, ceramah, dzikir asmaul husna dan tanya

jawab. Adapun nasehat-nasehat, ceramah dan bimbingan yang diberikan oleh

petugas kerohanian kepada pasien diantaranya adalah dianjurkan agar bisa

sabar dan tawakal dalam menghadapi musibah yang sedang menimpanya,

memberikan saran untuk lebih mengucapkan kalimat-kalimat yang berguna,

seperti istighfar, bertasbih, bertahmid, dan bertakbir, memberikan nasehat

kepada pasien agar selalu berdo’a dan berikhtiar. Karena sakit itu pemberian

Allah, maka kita wajib berikhtiar, seperti berobat mencari kesembuhan.

Disamping itu kita harus memohon kepada Allah dengan do’a.

Selanjutnya adalah mengingatkan pasien bahwa untuk selalu dalam keadaan

tenang, tidak gelisah, tidak cemas. Mau mengenali lingkungan dan mampu

mengembangkan potensi yang dimilikinya. Menganjurkan pasien untuk

optimis dan tidak putus asa dalam menghadapi cobaan yang sedang dihadapi.

Dan yang terakhir petugas bimbingan rohani Islam mengajak pasien untuk

saling Tanya jawab dan ditutup dengan doa bersama sama.

Rumah Sakit Islam Sultan Agung Semarang ini tidak hanya

memberikan pelayanan spiritual atau bimbingan rohani Islam saja, tetapi ada

juga bimbingan bagi perawat atau pegawai rumah sakit, yang kegiatannya

dinamakan pengajian yang diselenggarakan di Masjid setiap hari sabtu

minimal satu bulan sekali.. Kegiatan pengajian ini dilaksanakan bertujuan agar

nilai-nilai ajaran Islam dapat terinternalisasi dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.

Sedangkan untuk yang bimbingan rohani Islam bagi pasien dilaksanakan setiap

hari sabtu mulai jam 08.30 sampai selesai.

Selain itu ada juga kegiatan yang serupa dengan bimbingan rohani

Islam yaitu kegiatan berupa diberikan bacaan-bacaan buku-buku yang


100

kaitannya dengan bimbingan rohani Islam. Di dalam kegiatan membaca buku-

buku yang terkait dengan bimbingan rohani Islam terdapat materi-materi yang

disampaikan antara lain teori ibadah sehari hari. Kegiatan yang sudah

tercantum di atas dilakukan hanya bertujuan agar pasien, perawat dan pegawai

yang lain yang ada di Rumah Sakit Jiwa Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang

ini mengetahui dan faham akan nilai-nilai ajaran Islam untuk bekal

dikehidupan mereka sehari-hari maupun dikehidupan mereka kelak serta yang

terpenting khususnya bagi pasien dapat membantu dalam kesembuhan

mentalnya (wawancara dengan Kadis, S.Sos Kepala Unit Rehabilitasi).

Dari hasil analisis data di atas, dapat dikatakan bahwa hipotesis yang

diterima adalah adanya pengaruh bimbingan rohani Islam terhadap kesehatan

mental pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo

Semarang. Bimbingan rohani Islam sangat berpengaruh terhadap kesehatan

mental seseorang. Karena bimbingan rohani Islam merupakan satu upaya

untuk membantu individu dalam mewujudkan dirinya sebagai manusia

seutuhnya agar mencapai kebahagiaan hidup di dunia dan di akhirat.

Sesuai dengan bukunya Faqih (2001) bahwa bimbingan rohani Islam

sangatlah dibutuhkan oleh seseorang yang membutuhkan. Karena bimbingan

rohani Islam bertujuan untuk memberi bantuan kepada individu agar mampu

menghadapi masalah yang sedang dihadapi dengan sabar, tawakal, dan bisa

berserah diri kepada Allah SWT. Oleh karena itu bimbingan rohani Islam

merupakan suatu aktifitas yang hidup dan mengharapkan akan lahir perbaikan-

perbaikan yang sangat didambakan oleh petugas kerohanian dan pasien. Sesuai

dengan fungsi dan tujuan bimbingan rohani Islam yaitu membantu individu

mencegah jangan sampai individu menghadapi suatu masalah atau bisa

menjadi solusi untuk menyelesaikan masalah apabila sedang terjadi atau ada

masalah pada seseorang.

Hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan, bahwa terdapat pengaruh positif

yang signifikan antara bimbingan rohani Islam terhadap kesehatan mental

pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo

Semarang. Karena semakin tinggi intensitas mengikuti bimbingan rohani Islam

maka semakin baik pula kesehatan mental pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di

RSJ Dr. Amini Gondohutomo Semarang. Akhirnya dari uraian di atas dapat

disimpulkan bahwa bimbingan rohani Islam sangatlah berpengaruh terhadap


101

kesehatan mental seseorang, terutama pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di

RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang.

IV. KESIMPULAN

Dari hasil penelitian dan data lapangan yang diberlakukan, maka disini dapat

ditarik suatu kesimpulan, sebagai berikut : Terdapat pengaruh positif signifikan

bimbingan rohani Islam terhadap kesehatan mental pasien sakit jiwa masa

rehabilitasi di RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang, artinya apabila semakin

banyak bimbingan rohani Islam yang diberikan oleh petugas kerohanian kepada

pasien atau semakin tinggi intensitas pasien dalam mengikuti bimbingan rohani

Islam maka semakin banyak pula pengaruh kesehatan mental pada pasien sakit

jiwa masa rehabilitasi di RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo Semarang. Terbukti

dengan hasil korelasi analisis regresi (=28,089) reg F lebih besar dari nilai r yang

ada dalam tabel korelasi product moment dengan angka 0,334 dalam taraf

signifikan 5 % dan 0,430 dalam taraf signifikan 1 % pada N = 35. Dengan

demikian hipotesis yang dikemukakan “Ada pengaruh bimbingan rohani Islam

terhadap pasien sakit jiwa masa rehabilitasi di RSJ Dr. Amino Gondohutomo

Semarang, semakin baik pula kesehatan mental mereka”.

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Psikoterapi Islam. PT Raja Grafindo Persada. Jakarta. 2008

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Azwar, Saifuddin. Metodologi penelitian. Pustaka Pelajar. Yogyakarta. 1997

Bastaman, Jumhana, Hanna. Integrasi Psikologi Dengan Islam Menuju Psikologi Islam.

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Chaplin, J. P. Kamus Lengkap Psikologi. Grafindo Persada. Jakarta. 2002

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www.rs-amino.provjateng.go.id

http://www.rs-amino.provjateng.go.id/


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FAMILY HARDINESS AND CAREGIVER BURDEN

AMONG THE FAMILY OF STROKE PATIENTS

Ika Latifah Damayanti

Libbie Annatagia

Correspondence author: [email protected]

Universitas Islam Indonesia

ABSTRACT

This research aims to examine the correlation between family hardiness and caregiver burden

among the family of stroke patients. The hypothesis of this research is “there is a negative

correlation between family hardiness and caregiver burden among the family of stroke

patients”. The higher the family hardiness score, the lower the caregiver burden score, and

vice versa. Respondents in this research were 36 family member of stroke patients, male and

female, aged over 17 years. This research used Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) and Family

Hardiness Index (FHI). ZBI developed by Zarit (Siegert, Jackson, Tennant, & Turner-Stokes,

2010) and FHI developed by McCubbin & McCubbin (Wiedebusch, McCubbin, Muthny,

2007). Data were analyzed by Spearman product moment. The results showed that there is a

correlation between those two variables, r = -0,472 and p=0,002 (p<0,05), which means that

there is a negative correlation between family hardiness and caregiver burden. From the

results, we could conclude that the hypothesis is being accepted.

Keywords: family hardiness, caregiver burden, stroke

Stroke is a syndrome consisting of symptoms of rapid loss in focal central nervous

system (Ginsberg, 2007), that caused by blockage of blood clots, constriction of blood

vessels, blockage and constriction of blood vessels, or rupture of blood vessels (Feigin, 2006).

The most typical physical stroke symptoms are paralysis, loss of sensation in the face,

difficulty speaking or understanding of speech, difficulty swallowing, and loss of vision

(Feigin, 2006).

Stroke is a major cause of long-term disability so that patients will need help from family,

close friends, or nurses (Aarli, Dua, Janca, & Muscetta, 2006). Stroke patients need caregiver

to help them to perform the daily activities. The family caregiver is often referred to as the

'backbone' of long-term care because most patients are treated by family at home, usually a

spouse, and have an important role in the treatment. (Feinberg & Pilisuk, 1999 dalam Melo,

Maroco, Mendoca, 2011). According to the American Heart Association (Diana, Sukarlan,

Pohan, 2012) caregiver is someone who provides assistance to others who suffer from chronic



105

diseases. Family caregiver is the family member who has the most responsibility for patient’s

care and daily decision making (Melo, dkk, 2011).

Being a caregiver is not easy. Based on interviews on caregiver family, it is known that a

caregiver has some duties, for example: help patient to take a bath, clean the patients urinate,

and wash patient’s dirty clothes. Caregiver do these tasks everyday. Even stroke patients with

severe dysfunction should be given help like a baby. Caregiver becomes troublesome when

the patient is very dependent in doing daily activities. A caregiver said that sometimes he was

in trouble when he had to provide care to patients and do other responsibilities at about the

same time. When caregiver is tired, he will be easy to be angry at other family members.

The research conducted by Hasan, Mohamed, Elnaser, & Sayed (2011) found that burden is

usually experienced by caregiver while they are very busy take care of patients, feel worry

and sad, spend lots of time, energy, and money. From the interview, it is known that a

caregiver said that when he is tired, it is easy for him to get upset. Another caregiver said that

he feel angry when the patient closes his mouth tightly and refuses to eat.

Caregiver burden is defined as the type of stress or tension experienced by the caregiver in

relation to the problems or challenges faced by the caregiver as a result of the status of being a

‘nurse’, so the role as the ‘nurse’ causes discomfort for the caregiver (Zarit, Reever, & Bach-

Peterson, 1980 in Buhse, 2008). Kim, Chang, Rose, & Kim (2011) defined the caregiver

burden as a multidimensional response to the negative judgment and perceived stress resulting

from take care of patient.

Some factors that may affect caregiver burden include responsibility for caring, social and

economic status, disease progression, and perceived stress resulting from take care of patient

(Gonzalez-Salvador et al. 1999, Schulz & Martire 2004, Etters et al. 2008, Carretero et al.

2009 in Kim, et.al, 2011), and family hardiness (Sheppard & Mandleco, 2014).

In Indonesia, people see family as an important part of life. Mangundjaya (2010) found that,

despite the fact that Indonesia is consist of many tribes, most of the tribes are using the

collectivism culture. When someone suffer from stroke, the negative effects are occurred not

only to patients, but also to the family member that has role as a caregiver. Family hardiness

is seen as a family characteristic, defined by a family’s sense of control over life events and

stressors, perception of change as beneficial, active orientation to adapting to stressors, and

confidence that they can endure challenges (McCubbin, McCubbin, & Thompson, 1991).

Families with high hardiness shared caregiving and family task responsibilities, while families


106

with moderate-hardiness lacked collaboration regarding caregiving and family tasks

(Niyomthai, Tonmukayakul, Wonghongkul, Panya,& Chanprasit, 2010).

Based on the description above, researchers assume that there is a correlation between family

hardiness and caregiver burden, so the hypothesis proposed in this study is "There is a

negative relationship between family hardiness and caregiver burden in the family of stroke

patients. The higher the family hardiness, the lower the caregiver burden, and vice versa. The

purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between family hardiness and

caregiver burden in the family of stroke patients.

most patients are treated by family at home, usually a spouse, and have an important role in

the treatment. (Feinberg & Pilisuk, 1999 dalam Melo, Maroco, Mendoca, 2011). According to

the American Heart Association (Diana, Sukarlan, Pohan, 2012) caregiver is someone who

provides assistance to others who suffer from chronic diseases. Family caregiver is the family

member who has the most responsibility for patient’s care and daily decision making (Melo,

dkk, 2011).

Being a caregiver is not easy. Based on interviews on caregiver family, it is known that a

caregiver has some duties, for example: help patient to take a bath, clean the patient’s urinate,

and wash patient’s dirty clothes. Caregiver do these tasks everyday. Even stroke patients with

severe dysfunction should be given help like a baby. Caregiver becomes troublesome when

the patient is very dependent in doing daily activities. A caregiver said that sometimes he

were in trouble when he had to provide care to patients and do other responsibilities at about

the same time. When caregiver is tired, he will be easy to be angry at other family members.

The research conducted by Hasan, Mohamed, Elnaser, & Sayed (2011) found that burden is

usually experienced by caregiver while they are very busy take care of patients, feel worry

and sad, spend lots of time, energy, and money. From the interview, it is known that a

caregiver said that when he is tired, it is easy for him to get upset. Another caregiver said that

he feel angry when the patient closes his mouth tightly and refuses to eat.

Caregiver burden is defined as the type of stress or tension experienced by the caregiver in

relation to the problems or challenges faced by the caregiver as a result of the status of being a

‘nurse’, so the role as the ‘nurse’ causes discomfort for the caregiver (Zarit, Reever, & Bach-

Peterson, 1980 in Buhse, 2008). Kim, Chang, Rose, & Kim (2011) defined the caregiver

burden as a multidimensional response to the negative judgment and perceived stress resulting

from take care of patient.


107

Some factors that may affect caregiver burden include responsibility for caring, social and

economic status, disease progression, and perceived stress resulting from take care of patient

(Gonzalez-Salvador et al. 1999, Schulz & Martire 2004, Etters et al. 2008, Carretero et al.

2009 in Kim, et.al, 2011), and family hardiness (Sheppard & Mandleco, 2014).

In Indonesia, people see family as an important part of life. Mangundjaya (2010) found that,

despite the fact that Indonesia is consist of many tribes, most of the tribes are using the

collectivism culture. When someone suffer from stroke, the negative effects are occurred not

only to patients, but also to the family member that has role as a caregiver. Family hardiness

is seen as a family characteristic, defined by a family’s sense of control over life events and

stressors, perception of change as beneficial, active orientation to adapting to stressors, and

confidence that they can endure challenges (McCubbin, McCubbin, & Thompson, 1991).

Families with high hardiness shared caregiving and family task responsibilities, while families

with moderate-hardiness lacked collaboration regarding caregiving and family tasks

(Niyomthai, Tonmukayakul, Wonghongkul, Panya,& Chanprasit, 2010).

Based on the description above, researchers assume that there is a correlation between family

hardiness and caregiver burden, so the hypothesis proposed in this study is "There is a

negative relationship between family hardiness and caregiver burden in the family of stroke

patients. The higher the family hardiness, the lower the caregiver burden, and vice versa. The

purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between family hardiness and

caregiver burden in the family of stroke patients.

METHOD

Respondents

Respondents in this study were family members who became caregiver of stroke

patients: children, spouse, and siblings. Respondents in this study were male and female, with

the minimum age 17 years old.

Data Collection

In this quantitative research, the data were collected from two scales: Zarit Burden

Interview and Family Hadiness Index. Zarit Burden Interview developed by Zarit (Siegert,

Jackson, Tennant, & Turner-Stokes, 2010) and Family Hardiness Index developed by

McCubbin & McCubbin (Wiedebusch, McCubbin, Muthny, 2007). The Caregiver Burden


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scale consist of 22 items. The aspects used include: personal tension, role tension, and guilty

feelings. The Family Hardiness Index consist of 22 items. The aspects used include:

commitment, control, challenge.

Data Analysis

Data analysis in this research using Spearman’s product moment correlation

technique.

RESULTS

Descriptive

There were 36 respondents in this study.

a. Gender

Gender Total Percentage

Male 15 41,67%

Female 21 58,33%

b. Age

Age Total

Below 30 years old 6

30 – 45 years old 10

Above 45 years old 20

c. Relationship between respondents and patients

Relationship Total

Children 13

Spouse 18

Siblings 5

d. Occupation

Occupation Total

Labour 4

Teacher 1

Housewife 5

Employee 12

Student 1

Trader 10

Pensioner 1

Farmer 2

e. Income


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Income Total

Less than Rp 1.000.000 11

1.000.000 - 5.000.000 23

More than 5.000.000 2

Categorization

a. Caregiver burden

Results of the caregiver burden scale scores can be seen in the table below.

Categorization scores on the caregiver burden scale

Score Categorization Frequency Percentage

X < 16,006

16,006 ≤ X ≤ 32,002

32,002 < X ≤ 47,998

47,998 < X ≤ 63,994

X > 63,994

Very low

Low

Medium

High

Very high

21

13

2

0

0

58,33%

36,11%

5,56%

0%

0%

Total 36 100%

Based on the caregiver burden table above, it can be seen that half of the

respondents were in very low category (58,33%). Then, as many as 13 respondents

(36.11%) were in the low category. The remaining 2 respondents (5.56%) were in the

medium category.

b. Family hardiness

Results of the Family Hardiness score categorization can be seen in the table

below:

Categorization score on Family Hardiness Scale

Score Categorization Frequency Persentage

X < 19,2

19,2 ≤ X ≤ 26,4

26,4 < X ≤ 33,6

33,6 < X ≤ 40,8

X > 40,8

Very low

Low

Medium

High

Very high

0

0

9

25

2

0%

0%

25%

69,44%

5,56%

Total 36 100%

Based on the family hardiness table above, it can be seen that two-thirds of the

respondents were in high category (69,44%). Then, as many as 9 respondents (25%)

were in the medium category. The remaining 2 respondents (5.56%) were in the very

high category.


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Hypothesis Testing

Correlations

Total_F

H

Total_CB

Spearman's rho

Total_FH

Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.472**

Sig. (1-tailed) . .002

N 36 36

Total_CB

Correlation Coefficient -.472** 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) .002 .

N 36 36

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).

The hypothesis testing showed that r = -0,472 and p = 0,002 (p < 0,05). Based on

the correlation test results, it can be seen that there was a significant negative relationship

between the family hardiness and caregiver burden, so the hypothesis can be accepted.

Coefficient of determination (r2) = 0.223, it means that the effective contribution of

family hardiness to caregiver burden was 22.3%. Thus, it was found that as many as

22.3% of caregiver burden was influenced by family hardiness, while the rest of 77.7%

was influenced by other variables.

DISCUSSION

This study showed that there was a relationship between family hardiness with

caregiver burden on family who take care of stroke patients (p= 0,002, r: - 0,472). Our result

was in agreement with the previous study which has already reported that family hardiness is

negatively correlated with the caregiver burden. Sheppard and Mandleco (2014) found that

there was a correlation between family hardiness and caregiver burden in a family with the

special need children.

Most of respondents in this research had high family hardiness scores and low

caregiver burden scores. From the interview, we found that many of them think that take care

of the patients was their responsibility as family. Male and female respondents in this study

generally have the same duties in treating patients. Both of them also had a strong

commitment and had a responsibility to take care of the patients.

Olson, DeFrain, & Skogrand (2011) said that family is two persons or more who share

resource, responsibility in decision making, have the same value and purpose, and also

commitment. Therefore, family member should help each other, one of which is helping the

family member who suffers from stroke. In this research, we found that respondents who play

a role as children in family, said that take care of parents who suffer from stroke is a kind of


111

‘returning the favor’ process. They also feel proud because they could take care of their

parents for some years. Meanwhile, caregivers who play a role as spouse in family, said that

they had responsibility as husband or wife. Therefore, they should be together in both good

and bad time. It is because of they have a marriage commitment. Respondents behavior, both

children and spouse of the patients, indicated a strong commitment.

The second aspect is challenge. This aspect also arise in caregivers who become

respondents in this research. Kobasa (Bower, Chant, Chatwin, 1998) said that challenge

include the family capacity to accept new ideas. Niyomthai, Tonmukayakul, Wonghongkul,

Panya, & Chanprasit (2010) found that families with high-hardiness continuously strove to

overcome caregiving hardships and had hope for the stroke member’s long existence. From

the interview, it is known that caregiver who has a high family hardiness score tend to see

their condition as a challenge from God. And they believe that with the challenge there is also

a convenience from God.

The third aspect of family hardiness is control. Kobasa (Bower, et.al, 1998) said that

family control include the conditions under which the feelings experienced are within their

own control, not conditioned by external events. Family caregivers who were able to control

the stressor also had a good problem solving while they had to take care of the patients. Thus,

they tend to had low burden score.

Result showed the determination coefficient (r2) was = 0,223. It means that as much as 22.3%

caregiver burden influenced by family hardiness, while the rest of 77,7% influenced by other

variables. According to research conducted by Morimoto, et al (2003) burden was influenced

by decreased quality of life of caregiver. Caregiver burden can also be affected by family

financial condition (Lai,2012).

CONCLUSION

Conclusion

There is a significant negative correlation between family hardiness and caregiver burden

among the family of stroke patients. The higher the family hardiness score, the lower the

caregiver burden score, and vice versa. From the result, we could conclude that the hypothesis

is being accepted. This research also found that 22.3% caregiver burden influenced by family

hardiness, while the rest of 77,7% influenced by other variables.

Relevance for further research


112

From the results, it is known that there is a correlation between family hardiness and caregiver

burden. Furthermore, it is important to create an intervention to increasing the family

hardiness. This is also an effort to prevent caregiver burden.

Results showed that 22.3% caregiver burden influenced by family hardiness, while the rest of

77,7% influenced by other variables. Further research should examine the correlation among

those variables with caregiver burden.

REFERENCES

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Challenges. Swiss: World Health Organization.

Bower A., Chant D., & Chatwin S. (1998). Hardiness in families with and without a child

with down syndrome. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 5, 2,71-77.

Buhse, M. (2008). Assessment of caregiver burden in families of persons with multiple

sclerosis. The Journal of Neuroscience Nursing.

Diana, A.C., Sukarlan, A.D., & Pohan, L. D. (2012). Hubungan antara caregiver strain dan

kepuasan pernikahan pada istri sebagai spouse caregiver dari penderita stroke. INSAN,

14, 3.

Feigin, V. (2006). Stroke. Jakarta: PT. Bhuana Ilmu Populer.

Ginsberg, L. (2007). Lecture Notes Neurologi Edisi Kedelapan. Jakarta: Erlangga.

Hassan, W.A.N., Mohamed, I.I., Elnaser, A.E.A., & Sayed, N.E. (2011). Burden and coping

strategis in caregivers of schizophrenic patients. Journal of American Science, 7, 5.

Kim, H., Chang, M., Rose, K., & Kim, S. (2011). Predictors of caregiver burden in caregivers

of individuals with dementia. Journal of Advanced Nursing 68(4), 846–855.

Lai, D.W.L. (2012). Effect of financial costs on caregiving burden of family caregivers of

older adults. Sage Open, 1-14.

Mangundjaya, W. L. H. (2010). Is There Cultural Change In The National Cultures Of

Indonesia?, Steering the Cultural Dynamics. Congress of the International Association

for Cross Cultural Psychology , 59-68

McCubbin, M.A., McCubbin, H.I. & Thompson, A.I. (1991). Family Hardiness Index. In H.I.

McCubbin & Thompson, A.I. (Eds.), Family Assessment Inventories for Research and

Practice, 2nd ed (127-136). Madison: University of Wisconsin.

Melo, G., Maroco, J., & de Mendonca, A. (2011). Influence of personality on caregiver’s

burden, depression, and distress related to the BPSD. International Journal of

Geriatric Psychiatry, doi: 10.1002/gps.2677.


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Morimoto, T., Schreiner, A.S., & Asano, H. (2003). Caregiver burden and health-related

quality of life among japanese stroke caregivers. Age and Ageing, 32, 218–223.

Niyomthai, N., Tonmukayakul, O., Wonghongkul, T., Panya, P.,Chanprasit, C. (2010).

Family Strength in Caring for a Stroke Survivor at Home, Int J Nurs Res, 14, 1, 17-31.

Olson, D.H., DeFrain, J., Skogrand, L. (2011). Marriages and Families. New York: McGraw-

Hill.

Sheppard, D. & Mandleco, B. (2014). The influence of family hardiness on caregiver burden

in families with a child with disabilities. Journal of Undergraduate Research.

Siegert, R.J., Jackson, D.M., Tennant, A., & Turner-Stokes, L. (2010). Factor analisys and

rasch analisys of the zarit burden interview for acquired brain injury carer research.

Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 42, 302-309.

Wiedebusch, S., McCubbin, M.A. & Muthny, F.A. (2007). Der family hardiness index in

deutscher adaptation (FHI-D) – ein fragebogen zur erhebung familiärer resilienz.

Prävention und Rehabilitation, 19, 74-80.


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PENGEMBANGAN MEDIA PEMBELAJARAN ANIMASI FISIKA

BERBASIS MOBILE LEARNING ANDROID

Akhmad Haryanto*, Fatma Nailul Muna*, Budiyono Saputro**, dan Arif Billah**

*Mahasiswa Tadris IPA IAIN Salatiga Indonesia

**Dosen Tadris IPA IAIN Salatiga

Email : [email protected]

ABSTRAK

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan media pembelajaran fisika berbentuk

software animasi yang dapat ditanamkan pada operating system Android yang dapat

digunakan sebagai media alternatif dalam proses pembelajaran mandiri siswa. Penelitian dan

pengembangan ini menggunakan pendekatan penelitian (Research and Development). Objek

penelitian ini berupa media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning android.

Hasil penelitian ini adalah (1) need assessment kebutuhan pengembangan media pembelajaran

animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning android dengan total rata-rata 4,88 (sangat butuh). (2)

hasil FGD dan validasi pengembangan media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile

learning android adalah draft media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning

android yang dapat membantu pembelajaran fisika.

Kata Kunci: Media Pembelajaran, Mobile Learning, Android, Fisika

PENDAHULUAN

Perkembangan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi pada era sekarang ini mengakibatkan

derasnya arus informasi di masyarakat, mulai dari anak-anak sampai dewasa, pelajar maupun

pekerja. Kebutuhan masyarakat akan perkakas atau peralatan penyedia teknologi tersebut

terus meningkat. Kepemilikan dan kegunaan perkakas tersebut semakin menjadi “wajib”

mengingat kebutuhan informasi dan komunikasi dalam bermasyarakat. Perkakas yang dipilih

saat ini pada umumnya adalah telepon seluler atau telepon genggam. Masyarakat cenderung

menggunakan telepon genggam sebagai media komunikasi antara satu orang dengan orang

lain yang berada di tempat lain. Kenyataan telah menjadi sebuah fenomena yang sudah lazim

ditengah masyarakat dunia (Stefanus, 2014: 1).

Kemampuan dan teknologi telepon genggam sebagai media komunikasi dan informasipun

terus meningkat dan berinovasi sehingga menjadi layak kita sebut sekarang ini sebagai


115

smartphone. Operating System (OS) pada smartphone-pun bermunculan. Beberapa OS yang

familiar di tengah masyarakat saat ini adalah Android, iOS, Windows Phone, Java ME,

Symbian, BlackBerry, dan Samsung.

Pengguna smartphone di Indonesia mengalami pertumbuhan yang signifikan. Lembaga

riset digital marketing Emarker memperkirakan pada 2018 jumlah pengguna aktif smartphone

di Indonesia akan mencapai lebih dari 100 juta Orang. Dengan jumlah sebesar itu, Indonesia

akan menjadi negara dengan pengguna aktif smartphone terbesar keempat di dunia setelah

China, India, dan Amerika (Wahyudi, 2015).

Dalam dunia pendidikan, teknologi informasi dan komunikasi mendorong penciptaan

inovasi-inovasi dalam pembelajaran yang dapat menjadi solusi untuk memfasilitasi peserta

didik agar dapat belajar dimana saja dan kapan saja tanpa dibatasi ruang dan waktu dengan

mudah dan terjangkau (Rukhiyat, 2014: 108). Hasil penelitian Ruchiyat adalah salah satu

contoh yang membuktikan bahwa penggunaan smartphone terkait pembelajaran dalam dunia

pendidikan memungkinkan adanya “mobile learning”.

Media mobile learning berbasis android merupakan media pembelajaran alternatif yang

memiliki karakteristik unik yakni dapat digunakan dimana saja dan kapan saja, didukung

dengan visualisasi dan animasi yang menarik (Isma, 2015: 470).

Fisika merupakan salah satu cabang ilmu yang mempelajari segala sesuatu tentang

fenomena alam yang bersifat nampak maupun “abstrak” mulai ukuran mikro seperti atom

hingga makro seperti tata surya dan galaksi. Salah satu fenomena yang dipelajari dalam fisika

adalah tentang gerak. Gerak lurus adalah salah satu bagian yang tercakup dalam materi gerak.

Materi gerak lurus membahas hubungan antara beberapa variabel didalamnya seperti

perpindahan, kecepatan, percepatan, dan waktu. Proses pembelajaran gerak lurus pada peserta

didik di sekolah maupun mandiri sangat membutuhkan adanya media yang dapat

memvisualkan ataupun menganimasikan hubungan antara variabel-variabel di atas untuk

memudahkan dalam memahaminya.

Uraian di atas menjadi dasar penulis dalam pengajuan untuk melakukan penelitian

pengembangan media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning android dalam

rangka membantu memudahkan peserta didik dalam pemahaman materi tersebut.

KAJIAN TEORI


116

Media merupakan alat yang harus ada apabila kita ingin memudahkan sesuatu dalam

pekerjaan. Media merupakan alat bantu yang dapat memudahkan pekerjaan. Setiap orang

pasti ingin pekerjaan yang dibuatnya dapat diselesaikan dengan baik dan dengan hasil yang

memuaskan (Nova, 2011: 15).

Media pembelajaran merupakan bagian integral dari proses pendidikan, maka dari itu

media pendidikan merupakan faktor yang sangat penting dalam menentukan keberhasilan

pendidikan. Heinich, dkk (1982) dalam Arsyad (2002: 4) mengemukakan media pembelajaran

merupakan peralatan yang mengantar informasi atau pesan-pesan yang bertujuan instruksional

atau mengandung maksud pengajaran.

Berdasarkan pengertian media pembelajaran diatas, diperoleh bahwa media pembelajaran

yaitu sarana dan prasarana guna membantu penyampaian pelajaran agar lebih mudah dalam

proses pembelajaran demi tercapainya tujuan belajar.

Mobile learning didefinisakan sebagai semua jenis lingkungan belajar dan ruang-ruang

yang memperhitungkan mobilitas tekonologi, mobilitas pelajar dan mobilitas belajar

(Mohamed, 2010: 20). Berdasarkan definisi tersebut, definisi belajar sudah berevolusi

mengikuti perkembangan teknologi sehingga untuk dapat memperoleh pengetahuan, siswa

dapat memperolehnya dimanapun dan kapanpun, tidak lagi hanya berada diruang kelas

(Yudha, 2016: 12).

Mobile learning merupakan dasar dari pembelajaran digital dengan kombinasi yang

efektif dari teknologi komputasi mobile. Media ini membuat peserta didik dapat setiap saat

dan dimana saja dapat dengan mudah mendapatkan informasi pengetahuan (Jiaqi Di, 2012: 1).

Menurut Abdul (2012: 2), terdapat tiga fungsi Mobile Learning dalam kegiatan

pembelajaran di dalam kelas (classroom instruction), yaitu sebagai suplement (tambahan)

yang sifatnya pilihan (opsional), pelengkap (komplemen), atau pengganti (substitusi).

1. Suplemen (tambahan) Mobile Learning berfungsi sebagai suplement (tambahan), yaitu:

peserta didik mempunyai kebebasan memilih, apakah akan memanfaatkan materi Mobile

Learning atau tidak. Dalam hal ini, tidak ada kewajiban/keharusan bagi peserta didik

untuk mengakses materi Mobile Learning. Sekalipun sifatnya opsional, peserta didik yang

memanfaatkannya tentu akan memiliki tambahan pengetahuan atau wawasan.

2. Komplemen (pelengkap) Mobile Learning berfungsi sebagai komplemen (pelengkap),

yaitu: materinya diprogramkan untuk melengkapi materi pembelajaran yang diterima


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peserta didik di dalam kelas. Di sini berarti materi Mobile Learning diprogramkan untuk

menjadi materi reinforcement (penguatan) atau remedial bagi peserta didik di dalam

mengikuti kegiatan pembelajaran konvensional.

3. Substitusi (pengganti) Beberapa perguruan tinggi di negara-negara maju memberikan

beberapa alternatif model kegiatan pembelajaran kepada para peserta didik /siswanya.

Tujuannya agar para peserta didik dapat secara fleksibel mengelola kegiatan

perkuliahannya sesuai dengan waktu dan aktifitas sehari-hari peserta didik. Ada tiga

alternative model kegiatan pembelajaran yang dapat dipilih peserta didik, yaitu:

a. sepenuhnya secara tatap muka (konvensional)

b. sebagian secara tatap muka dan sebagian lagi melalui internet

c. sepenuhnya melalui internet.

Beberapa kelebihan mobile learning dibandingkan dengan pembelajaran lain adalah

(Mohamed, 2012: 34):

1. Akses mudah dimana saja

2. Dukungan pembelajaran jarak jauh

3. Dapat meningkatkan pembelajaran berpusat pada siswa

4. Baik untuk mereview konten pembelajaran

5. Mendukung pembelajaran mandiri siswa

6. Dapat meningkatkan interaksi antara siswa dan guru

7. Mengurangi hambatan komunikasi antara guru dengan siswa

Selain kelebihan diatas, mobile learning juga mempunyai beberapa kekuranngan yaitu

(Yudha, 2016: 15):

1. Perbedaan kecepatan akses internet dibeberapa daerah

2. Dalam penggunaanya harus tetap diawasi agar tidak disalah gunakan selain untuk

belajar.

3. Masih adanya anggapan negative untuk membawa mobile device kedalam ruang kelas.

4. Kurang memuaskannya tampilan dan fasilitas yang terdapat pada mobile device.

5. Sulitnya mengintegrasikan secara efektif mobile learning dengan kurikulum yang ada.

Sistem operasi android sudah berjalan jauh sejak pertama kali memperkenalkan Open

Handset Alliance pada akhir tahun 2007. Android merupakan sistem operasi terbuka yang

secara agresif dipolulerkan oleh Google. Banyak peralatan nirkabel di berbagai negara

menggunakan sistem operasi Android. Peralatan lain seperti tablet, net-book, set-top box

bahkan mobil juga mengadobsi sistem operasi android (Steele & To, 2010: 1).


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Safaat (2012: 1) menjelaskan android adalah sistem operasi untuk perangkat mobile

berbasis linux yang mencakup sistem operasi, middleware dan aplikasi. Android adalah

sebuah sistem operasi untuk smartphone dan tablet (Satyaputra, 2014: 2). Sistem operasi

dapat diilustrasikan sebagai jembatan antara device dan penggunanya, sehingga pengguna

dapat berinteraksi dengan device-nya dan menjalankan aplikasi-aplikasi yang tersedia pada

device (Ditto, 2016: 38).

Android adalah platform terbuka yang memungkinkan pengembang menciptakan aplikasi

mereka. Android di distribusikan dengan dua jenis. Pertama yang mendapat dukungan penuh

dari google atau Google Mail Service (GMS). Kedua adalah yang tidak mendapatkan

dukungan langsung dari google atau Open Handset Distribution(OHD).

Sistem operasi Android bersifat open source sehingga programmer berburu untuk

membuat aplikasi maupun memodifikasi aplikasi android. Setiap programmer mempunyai

peluang yang sama besar untuk bisa mengembangkan aplikasi Android sebab sifatnya yang

open source.

Istiyanto (2013:16) menjelaskan faktor penyebab popularitas aplikasi android antara lain:

1. Faktor kecepatan

Efisiensi aplikasi dalam memberikan data secara tepat sesuai dengan keinginan user.

Aplikasi mobile dibuat sederhana untuk kabutuhan tertentu dan tidak sekompleks aplikasi

untuk PC. Sehingga pengguna dapat dengan mudah dan cepat mengakses data yang ia

butuhkan.

2. Aspek produktivitas

Beragamnya aplikasi yang dipasarkan memudahkan pengguna untuk mengatasi

problem atau masalah yang ia hadapi sehari-hari. Aplikasi mobile saat ini telah

berkembang untuk berbagi keperluan mulai dari sekedar game sampai tutorial untuk

memasak sudah tersedia. Berbagai masalah keseharian kini dapat diatasi dengan mencari

aplikasi yang ada di pasar.

3. Kreatifitas desain

Desain yang ditawarkan mempunyai kemudahan penggunaan (user friendly).

Pengembang juga membuat berbagi penyesuaian sesuai dengan pengguna. Penyesuaian

berdasarkan umur, pendidikan dan kalangan membuat pengguna lebih leluasa dalam

menjalankan aktifitas mobile.

4. Fleksibilitas dan keandalan


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Setiap aplikasi yang dipasarkan hanya diperuntukan untuk keperluan yang spesifik

saja. Keterbatasan inilah yang sering merepotkan pengguna. Namun keterbatasan dari

aplikasi dapat ditutupi dengan mencari aplikasi lain yang sesuai dengan yang dibutuhkan

oleh pengguna.

METODE PENELITIAN

Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah pengembangan dan penelitian (research and

development) yang dipaparkan Sugiono(2009: 409). Tahapan-tahapan penelitian dan

pengembangan terdiri dari analisis kebutuhan, angket responden, pembuatan produk media,

FGD, revisi produk dan validasi. Penelitian ini dibatasi sampai validasi dari para ahli/pakar

dan praktisi. Sehingga penelitian ini baru pada tahap penemuan draft media pembelajaran

animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning android.

Teknik pengumpulan data penelitian ini adalah lembar penilaian produk, angket dan

wawancara. Lembar Penilaian diberikan untuk dosen ahli materi, dosen ahli media dan guru

fisika guna menilai kualitas media pembelajaran fisika yang telah dikembangkan berdasarkan

aspek isi, kreatifitas dan penggunaan. Angket responden diberikan kepada guru untuk

mengetahui bagaimana tanggapan guru terhadap kelayakan media pembelajaran.

HASIL PENELITIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN

1. Need Assesment Media Pembelajaran Animasi Fisika Berbasis Mobile Learning Android

Tabel 1.1 Tabel Analisis Kebutuhan

NO Indikator Responden Rata-rata Skor

1. Potensi materi 5 5

2. Ketertarikan Tampilan 5 5

3. Kemudahan dalam

Penggunaan

5 5

4. Buku panduan

penggunaan

5 4,8

5. Evaluasi pembelajaran

pada software

5 4,6

Guru dalam menjalankan tugas penyampaian pembelajaran di kelas membutuhkan

media. Media pembelajaran yang peneliti tawarkan ini berbasis animasi software android.


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Penelitian dan pengembangan media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning

android ini berdasarkan analisis kebutuhan guru IPA Fisika dilapangan. Adapun hasil analisis

kebutuhan rata-rata adalah 4,88 (sangat butuh), dengan rincian: potensi materi 5 (sangat

butuh), ketertarikan tampilan 5 (sangat butuh), kemudahan dalam penggunaan 5 (sangat

butuh), buku panduan penggunaan 4,8 (sangat butuh), dan evaluasi pembelajaran pada

software 4,6 (sangat butuh).

Analisis kebutuhan tersebut terdiri dari berbagai indikator. Adapun indikator tersebut

adalah potensi materi fisika yang dapat dibuat dalam animasi berbasis software android,

tampilan pada software android, kemudahan dalam penggunaan, buku panduan, dan evaluasi

pembelajaran pada media animasi fisika berbasis software android.

2. Draft Pengembangan Media Pembelajaran Animasi Fisika Berbasis Mobile Learning

Android

Berdasarkan analisis kebutuhan, FGD, dan validasi ahli, peneliti dapat menyusun draft

animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning android. Adapun draft animasi fisika berbasis mobile

learning android adalah sebagai berikut:

Gambar 1.1 Tampilan Menu Awal Aplikasi Media Pembelajaran Fisika

Pada menu awal aplikasi media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile

learning android terdapat 4 tombol yang terdiri dari:


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1. Tombol materi : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan sub materi yang

terdapat dalam aplikasi.

2. Tombol larihan : tombol ini berfungsi untuk menuju tampilan soal yang telah

di muat dalam aplikasi.

3. Tombol info : tombol ini berfungsi untuk menuju tampilan info tentang

pengembang dari aplikasi.

4. Tombol exit : tombol ini berfungsi untuk keluar dari aplikasi.

Gambar 1.2 Tampilan Menu Materi Aplikasi Media Pembelajaran Fisika

Pada menu materi aplikasi media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile


1. Tombol definisi gerak : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan materi

definisi gerak yang terdapat dalam aplikasi.

2. Tombol besaran gerak : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan materi

besaran-besaran pada gerak yang terdapat dalam aplikasi.

3. Tombol gerak lurus : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan materi gerak

lurus yang terdapat dalam aplikasi.

4. Tombol gerak dan gaya : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan materi

hubungan gerak dan yang terdapat dalam aplikasi.


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5. Tombol gerak vertikal : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan materi gerak

vertikal yang terdapat dalam aplikasi.

6. Tombol home : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan menu awal aplikasi.

Gambar 1.3 Tampilan Materi Aplikasi Media Pembelajaran Fisika

Pada menu materi aplikasi media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile


1. Tombol home : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan menu awal aplikasi

2. Tombol next : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan materi yang

selanjutnya.

3. Tombol prev : : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan materi yang

sebelumnya.

Gambar 1.4 Tampilan Latihan Soal pada Aplikasi Media Pembelajaran Fisika


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Pada menu latihan soal aplikasi media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile


1. Tombol home : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju tampilan menu awal aplikasi

2. Tombol next : tombol ini digunakan untuk menuju soal yang selanjutnya.

SIMPULAN

Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan pembahasan yang telah diuraikan, dapat disimpulkan

bahwa media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning android sangat

dibutuhkan oleh guru. Skor analisisis kebutuhan media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis

mobile learning andeoid 4,88(sangat dibutuhkan). Guru sebagai praktisi membutuhkan media

yang dapat membantu memahamkan siswa. Oleh karena itu dengan adanya bahwa media

pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis mobile learning android dapat memenuhi kebutuhan

para guru dalam proses pembelajaran.

Media pembelajaran animasi fisika berbasis software android ini dinyatakan layak untuk

diujikan setelah dilakukan validasi oleh ahli media, ahli materi, dosen dan praktisi. Rincian

tahapan validasi meliputi validasi materi, kelayakan tampilan, dan kemudahan dalam

penggunaan.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA


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Abdul Majid. 2012. Mobile Learning. Bandung: Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia(UPI).

Arsyad, Azhar. 2009. Media Pembelajaran. Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada.

Ditto Rahmawan P. 2016. Pengembangan Game Edukatif Berbasis Android Sebagai Media

Pembelajaran Akuntasi Di Kelas XII IPS SMA Negeri 1 Imogiri Pada Materi Jurnal

Penyesuaian Perusahaan Jasa. Skipsi. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Ekonomi UNY.

Isma Rhamadhani L, dkk. 2015. Pengembangan Media Mobile Learning “Chemondro”

Berbasis Android Sebagai Suplemen Belajar Siswa SMA. Yogyakarta: Prosiding

Seminar Nasional Sains.

Istiyanto, Jazi Eko. 2013. Pemrograman Smartphone Menggunakan SDK Android dan

Hacking Android. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu.

Jiaqi DI, dkk. 2012. The Research in Mobile Learning Bassed on Android Smartphone

Platform Aplications. Prosiding ICCASM 2.

Mohamed, dkk. 2012. Mobile Learning (M- Learning) and Educational Environments.

IJDPS. Vol. 3. No. 4.

Nova Dela I.S. 2011. Pemanfaatan Media Pembelajaran Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan

Berbasis Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) Pada SMP Negeri 5 Semarang.

Skripsi. Semarang: Fakultas Ilmu Sosial UNNES.

Rukhiyat Rizki P, dkk. 2014. Pengembangan Aplikasi Android Untuk Pembelajran Mobile

Learning Pada Pokok Bahasan Alat-alat Optik. Jakarta: Prosiding Seminar Fisika.

Vol. III.

Safaat, Nazrudin. 2012. Pemrogramn Aplikasi Mobile Smartphone dan Tablet PC Berbasis

Android. Bandung: Informatika.

Satyaputra dan Aritonang. 2014. Beginning Android Programming with ADT Budle. Jakarta:

Elex Media Komputindo.

Steele, J., & To, N. 2010. The Android developer's cookbook: building applications with the

Android SDK. Pearson Education.

Stefanus Rodrick J. 2014. Pemanfaatan Smartphone Android Oleh Mahasiswa Ilmu

Komunikasi Dalam Mengakses Informasi Edukatif. Manado: Jurnal Unsrat. Vol.III,

No.1.

Sugiono. 2014. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan: Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D.

Bandung: Alfabeta.

Yudha Irfiantoro. 2016. Pemanfaatan Media Mobile Learnig Berbasis Adobe Integrated

Runtime Untuk Meningkatkan Hasil Belajar Pada Konsep Sistem Pencernaan. Skripsi.

Jakarta: Fakultas Tarbiyah dan Keguruan UIN Syarif Hidayatullah.


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SOLAR SMARTPHONE: A GREENER SOLUTION

1Ar-Rayyan Fikri Fadli Fizari, Irhamna Fikri Fadli Fizari,

*2Fadli Fizari Abu Hassan Asari & 3Azlina Mat Saad

1Darjah 2 Wawasan, Sekolah Tengku Budriah,

02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia. 2Faculty of Business Management,

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perlis Branch, Arau Campus, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia. 3School of Environmental Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis,

Kompleks Pengajian Jejawi 3, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia.

*Corresponding e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

High frequency of usage causes the smartphone battery power to diminish, thus needs a lot of

charging. At the same time, more batteries need to be used and eventually these batteries will

be thrown into the environment without a proper monitoring. Hence, we recommend solar

smartphone, as a greener solution to these two problems. This solar smartphone can be

charged using the solar energy. In addition, energy of the moon, light and fire can be the

alternative sources. All these energies can be absorbed via solar panels, located at the back of

the smartphone. A micro transformer will multiply the solar power, before it is stored in the

battery. This energy-saving process may increase the lifetime of a smartphone. In addition, no

more power bank is needed as it can be charged at any time, automatically or manually. This

saves the environment in terms of materials usage for manufacturing of both batteries and

power banks. Moreover, the cost can be saved through free energy consumption and long-life

batteries. This innovation has won a bronze medal at an international level; besides qualifying

the lead author to receive a young researcher award at a local innovation competition. It is a

hope that this innovation will attract attention from many parties in looking at the importance

of this technology to the environment.

Keywords: solar, smartphone, sustainability, micro transformer, communication


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1.0 INTRODUCTION

High frequency of usages cause the smartphone battery power to diminish thus needs a lot of

charging. Most users will charge at a short period and continue to use it. This can affect the

battery life, as more than 50% of battery damage is caused by insufficient and incorrect

charging (Manbat, 2017). More batteries will be bought and used in replacing the damaged

ones. These lead to an increase in users’ costs.

At the same time, more batteries will be discarded, especially in the landfills. Without proper

and continuous monitoring, corrosion process caused by air and water may pollute our

environment (Clean Up Australia, 2009). In detail, its chemical content may pollute the

groundwater source which ends in the sea. Additionally, it can trigger underground

combustion releasing harmful gases into the air (Kattenburg, 2017).

For that, various ways have been proposed to overcome these two problems. Among them are

energy-saving batteries, long-life batteries, garbage isolation at source and recycling.

However, we need a more comprehensive solution. Not limited to battery saving, it should be

an environmentally friendly product. Thus, we recommend a solar smartphone!

Solar smartphone is an easy, economical and sustainable solution. The idea of using solar for

smartphone is new. The nearest innovations are solar power bank and solar charger, which

requires additional equipment. In addition, more money has to be spent by the consumers in

purchasing this additional equipment.


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2.0 OBJECTIVES

There are three objectives of this solar smartphone:

i) Proposes free of charge energies usage, including the sun, the moon, light and fire.

ii) Saves resources (no need for charger) & reduces waste (fewer batteries used).

iii) Can be used anywhere, including in areas with no electricity source.

3.0 HOW IT WORKS

This process is organized in seven steps in facilitating readers understanding:

i) Several solar panels are located at the back of the smartphone.

ii) The panels absorb energy from light sources like the sun, the moon, lamp and fire.

iii) Micro-scale transformer multiplies the energy gained.

iv) The energy is channeled to the battery via energy ribbon.

v) The energy is then stored in the battery.

vi) Charging is automatically OFF when user starts talking, and resumes once the call is

end. ON/OFF manual button is also available.

vii) Full capacity charging is 2 hours for source from the sun and 4 hours for other sources

(the moon, lamp and fire).

Figure 1.0: Outer part of solar smartphone


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Figure 2.0: Inner part of solar smartphone

Figure 1.0 shows the outer part of the solar smartphone, while Figure 2.0 reflects the inner

part of the solar smartphone.

The major difference between this solar smartphone and the other smartphones lies in the

solar panels and its micro transformer. Solar panels absorb power from light through

photovoltaic processes. Logically, if it can be used to move a car, heating the water for home

use and the alternative energy for electricity, imagine what its impact to a small smartphone.

However, solar panels without micro transformer are inefficient. This applies to Samsung

Blue Earth mobile phone. It can only be used for five minutes even though it has been sunlit

for an hour (Nick, 2015). Keep in mind that this is a regular phone and not a smartphone with

more applications and a complex built-in. For that, high capacity micro transformer is needed

in generating a lot of energy and sustainable capability (Seemingly, 2013).

4.0 DEVELOPMENT

Since the main author is still a standard two student, more time is needed in understanding the

basic concepts of electronics and solar energy. It is likely that this solar smartphone will be

developed starting in standard four and completed in standard six. It will be branded as Ar &


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Ir, inspired by the names of main author siblings, Ar-Rayyan Fikri (Ar) and Irhamna Fikri

(Ir). Please pray for our success in realizing this dream into a reality.

5.0 ACHIEVEMENT

This innovation has been presented at the Young International Innovation Exhibition 2017

(YIIX ’17). As a result, the lead author has brought home a bronze medal (Figure 3.0) and

gained valuable experiences. This unique product attracted attentions from many parties. The

lead author was also awarded the Young Researcher Special Award during the PTSS 2nd

National Innovation Competition (PTSS INNOCOM 2017), as shown in Figure 4.0. The

status of the youngest presenter made it the most visited booth.

Figure 3.0: YIIX ’17 bronze medal


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Figure 4.0: PTSS INNOCOM 2017 Young Researcher Special Award

6.0 CONCLUSION

It is our hope that this solar smartphone will be successfully developed in the near future.

Besides saving energy and money, it is also environmentally friendly. The success of this

product in winning the bronze medal of innovation and being recognized a special award

proves that this product is of high interest and high commercial value. Age is not a hindrance,

while effort and pray are essential foundations for our solar smartphone.


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REFERENCES

Clean Up Australia. (2009). Why are batteries harmful to the environment. Retrieved from

https://www.cleanup.org.au/PDF/au/batteries_final.pdf

Kattenburg, K. (2017). What do batteries do to the environment if not properly recycled?

Retrieved from http://education.seattlepi.com/batteries-environment-not-properly-

recycled-3916.html

Manbat. (2017). Battery’s performance. Retrieved from http://www.manbat.co.uk/about-

chargers/

Nick, T. (2015). Did you know that Samsung launched the first solar-powered cell phone.pdf.

Retrieved from https://www.phonearena.com/news/Did-you-know-that-Samsung-

launched-the-first-solar-powered-cell-phone_id67493

Seemingly, S. (2013). Cellphone charger has no microtransformer. Retrieved from

https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/53587/cellphone-charger-has-no-

transformer


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MOLLUSCICIDE REMOVAL FROM PADDY FIELD WASTEWATER: A

SUSTAINABLE METHOD

Azlina Mat Saad, Farrah Aini Dahalan, Naimah Ibrahim, & Sara Yasina Yusuf

School of Environmental Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis,

Kompleks Pengajian Jejawi 3, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia

Abstract

Metaldehyde is a polar molluscicide used worldwide to combat pests including slugs and

snails in various planting area such as vegetables and paddy farming. In Malaysia, this

pesticide has been applied to eliminate golden apple snail or locally called siput gondang

emas. The increase in snail population caused the increase in the use of this pesticide. The

existence of this molluscicide in the aquatic environment leads to deterioration of water and

sediment conditions. Furthermore, the polluted water sources such as rivers and streams have

an impact on the end-user mainly humans and animals. For that reason, we proposed to used

biological wastewater treatment to overcome this metaldehyde pollution in paddy field

wastewater. In this biological wastewater treatment, we focused on utilizing aerobic

granulation technology to remove metaldehyde from paddy field wastewater. The aerobic

granular sludge was developed from seed sludge in the bioreactor system particularly

sequencing batch reactor that operated in 8 cycles in 24 hours a day. This technique is

sustainable since no harzardous waste produced from the treatment method.

Keywords: sustainable, economy, biological, golden apple snails, biodegradation

1.0 Introduction

In the agricultural sector, pests have become the main enemy that farmers must handle

(TECA, 2015). Agriculture pests such as insects and mollusks have reduced crop yields and

resulted in losses to farmers (Heong et al., 1995). Pest insects for example, rice planthoppers

have become a phenomenon feared by farmers when it caused severe damage to rice plants in

Asia including Malaysia, India, Japan, and Indonesia (Heong and Hardy, 2009). On the other

hand, Plan et al (2008), reported that golden apple snails (Pomacea canaliculata) are serious

pests of rice in South-East Asia. This snail ate and destroyed young irrigated paddy plant and

decline the yield of paddy (MADA, 2014). For that reason, farmers in paddy cultivation area


133

for instance in Malaysia choose molluscicide, specifically metaldehyde to kill their main

paddy plant enemy, namely golden apple snail as shown in Figure 1. There choose this

molluscicide due to the effectiveness of this compound to eliminate golden apple snails from

their paddy field (Calumpang et al., 1995).

Bristol Water (2012) reported that metaldehyde is an organic molluscicide that is

widely used in farming and landscape management to kill pests such as snails, slugs, and

gastropods. This pesticide is toxic for acute health effects resulting in death is consumed by

non-target animals directly or indirectly and categorized under Class II toxins (WHO, 1996

and PAN UK, 2001).

Figure 1: Golden apple snails in paddy field farming area

1.1 Problem statements

However, immoderate use of these harmful pesticide for a long period to get rid of this

pest has brought serious problems to the environment if not addressed immediately. Figure 2

shows that metaldehyde has been used in paddy field area in Malaysia. The high solubility

properties of this toxin increase the potential for soluble in soil and cause water pollutant.

What's more, this hazardous compound and its degradation product can remain within the

aquatic environment because of the low vapor pressure characteristic (Nabeerasool et al.,

2015). In the aquatic environment of paddy field, this pesticide undergoes bioaccumulation

proses in aquatic freshwater biota such as fish and edible snails. Metaldehyde finally enters

human and animal bodies systems through food chain and affect the health of humans and

animals (EFSA, 2010).

Due to the negative impacts of this pesticides to the environment, human and animals,

various removal method have been applied to eliminate this pesticide from water. Some of the


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removal methods such as phenolic carbons, granules activated carbon, advanced oxidation

and activated carbon have been developed to treat water from this pesticide (Shu et al., 2013).

However, some of this method required lots of money and not so environmental friendly

because of hazardous waste production. Even, usual water treatments using ozone and

chlorine also failed to remove this stubborn pesticide (Marshall, 2013). For the solution, we

choose a sustainable method, namely aerobic granulation technology using sequencing batch

reactor to treat polluted paddy field wastewater.

Figure 2: Metaldehyde has been applied in paddy field area

1.2 Objectives of the study

The aim of this study is to provide a sustainable treatment method to get rid of this

molluscicide from the paddy field wastewater. This study also determine the availability of

aerobic granules to reduce metaldehyde concentration in paddy field wastewater. The

microorganisms in the aerobic granules developed using aerobic granulation technology are

played the most important roles in reducing metaldehyde in the wastewater samples.

Aerobic granulation has been used widely to treat various of wastewater including

pharmaceutical and industrial due to the efficiency of this method to stand shock loading

toxins of organic pollutants. According to Weber et al. (2007), aerobic granules are

surrounded by extracellular polymerase substances (EPS) that protect them from organic

pollutants disturbance. The aerobic granules posses high rates of metobolism and the

metaldehyde


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difference zones inside the granules perform different functions in reducing organic pollutant

to treat wastewater efficiently.

2.0 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Configuration of Bioreactor

A bioreactor is made from acrilic materials. This bioreactor is a cylindrical shape

column with 35 cm in height, 10 cm in diameter and 2.5 L of total volume as shown in Figure

3. The arrangement of equipments such as peristaltic pumps and air pump in the bioreactor

set-up is shown in Figure 4. The operation system known as sequencing batch reactor

contains of four main steps. The step starts with filling process followed by aeration, settle

and ends with withdraw process. Three hours total time is needed to complete a cycle

containing these four steps. Figure 5 explains in details about what happened in each step.

Figure 3: A schematic drawing for bioreactor used in this study


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Figure 4: Bioreactor configuration

Figure 5: Steps involved in sequencing batch reactor system

•The biomass in the bioreactor is let to settle at the bottom of the bioreactor

•The upper part of the biomass in the bioreactor is withdrawn from the reactor

•Oxygen is supplied into the bioreactor from the air pump

• synthetic wastewater is pumped into the bioreactor via tubing by peristaltic pump

Filling

(0.50 hrs)

Aeration

(2.0 hrs)

Settled

(0.42 hrs)

Withdraw

(0.08 hrs)


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2.2 Activated sludge

To start the aerobic granulation process, we need to collect fresh activated sludge from

wastewater treatment nearby. As we can see, at the early stage, activated sludge are irregular

fluffy flocs shape with brown in colour as shown in Figure 6. The activated sludge samples

are tested according to American Standard Method for wastewater (2005) for parameters such

as biomass concentrations, dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH. Then, the activated sludge is

introduced as starter or seed into the bioreactor. Synthetic wastewater containing of acetate

and other substances is provided into the bioreactor to feed the microorganisms (Nor-Anuar,

2008).

Figure 6: Activated sludge sample

2.3 Organic chemicals removal

Parameters such as chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) and

metaldehyde removal have been measured to monitor the efficiency of the aeobic granules in

reducing this organic pollutants from the wastewater. Both parameters are measured using

Standard Method for Wastewater (2005).

A batch experiments is conducted to measure the metaldehyde removal performance

of aerobic granules. A series of metaldehyde concentration is prepared in conical flasks (from

210 to 330 mg/L). Data for this experiment are collected in every three days in two weeks.

The samples collected will be extracted using liquid-liquid extraction method.


138

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Aerobic granules with spherical shape are started to replace activated sludge in the

bioreactor in two weeks. The increase in size of aerobic granules can be seen by naked eyes.

Morphology of the aerobic granules can be seen in details using light microscope with digital

camera. Figure 7 shows the variation in sizes of aerobic granules grown in the bioreactor.

Figure 7: Aerobic granules in bioreactor

After two weeks, this aerobic granules shows high ability in reducing chemical

oxygen demand (COD) as shown in Figure 8. At the same time, the concentration of

ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) in effluent samples decrease after two weeks. The increase in

removal percentage of AN exhibits the abilty of aerobic granules in treated the wastewater as

depicted in Figure 9. For that reason, we believe that this aerobic granules can reduce

metaldehyde concentration in wastewater as they show good removal performance on organic

pollutants such as COD and AN.


139

Figure 8: Removal percentage of chemical oxygen demand

Figure 9: Removal percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen

Figure 10 shows the biomass concentration values in bioreactor. The biomass

concentrations were detected to fluctuate over the time due to the adaptation of bacteria to the

new environment condition in the bioreactor system. Figure 11 shows the detection of

metaldehyde using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in paddy field water in

Arau, Perlis. This metaldehyde detection demonstrate the existence of this pesticide in the

paddy field water. Farmers in this area used this pesticide to kill golden apple snails in their

farming area since this molluscicide exhibits good performance in eliminating golden apple

snails in their paddy area.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

REM

OV

AL

(%)

TIME (DAY)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

REM

OV

AL

(%)

TIME (DAY)


140

Figure 10: Biomass concentration over time

Figure 11 : GC-MS

4.0 Conclusion

This study approaches a sustainable method to reduce the toxicity and effect of this

molluscicide in the water ambient. This aerobic granulation technology is believed to be one

of the alternative that give a big positive impact in treating wastewater worldwide.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0 3 6 9 11 14 17 21 23 25 27 29 30

BIO

MA

S C

ON

CEN

TRA

TIO

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g/L)

TIME (DAY)

MLSS (g/L) MLVSS (g/L)


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5.0 Acknowledgement

Authors would like to thank Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia and

UniMAP for Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) No. 9003-00386 and MyBrain15

(MyPhD) Scholarship.


142

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http://www.bristolwater.co.uk/news/general/.

Calumpang, S. M. F., Medina, M. J. B., Tejada, A. W., & Medina, J. R. (1995).

Environmental impact of two molluscicides: niclosamide and metaldehyde in a rice

paddy ecosystem. Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology, 55(4),

494-501.

De Kreuk, M. K., De Bruin, L. M. M., & Van Loosdrecht, M. C. M. (2005). Aerobic granular

sludge: From idea to pilot plant. Aerobic granular sludge. IWA Publishing, London,

111-124.

EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). 2010. Conclusion on the peer review of the

pesticide risk assessment of the active substance Metaldehyde. EFSA Journal, 8(10),

1-71.

El-Bestawy, E., El-Masry, M.H., & El-Adl, N.E. (2005). The potentiality of free gram-

negative bacteria for removing oil and grease from contaminated industrial effluents.

World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology, 21, 815–822.

Heong, K. L., Teng, P. S., & Moody, K. (1995). Managing rice pests with less

chemicals. GeoJournal, 35(3), 337-349.

Heong, K. L., & Hardy, B. (Eds.). (2009). Planthoppers: new threats to the sustainability of

intensive rice production systems in Asia. Int. Rice Res. Inst.

MADA (Muda Agricultural Development Authority). (2014). Siput gondang emas. Retrieved

August 20, 2015, from http://mada.gov.my/siput-gondang-emas1.

Marshall, J. (2013). Water UK briefing paper on mataldehyde. Retrieved March 12, 2014,

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(2015). Removal of Metaldehyde from water using a novel coupled adsorption and

electrochemical destruction technique. Water, 7(6), 3057-3071.

Nor-Anuar, A. (2008). Development of aerobic granular sludge technology for domestic

wastewater treatment in hot climate. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation. Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia: Skudai.

PAN UK (Pesticide Action Network United Kingdom). (2001). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from

http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/Actives/Metaldeh.htm.

Plan, M. R. R., Saska, I., Cagauan, A. G., & Craik, D. J. (2008). Backbone cyclised peptides

from plants show molluscicidal activity against the rice pest Pomacea canaliculata

(golden apple snail). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 56(13), 5237-5241.

Shu, Z., Bolton, J. R., Belosevic, M., & El Din, M. G. (2013). Photodegradation of emerging

micropollutants using the medium-pressure UV/H 2 O 2 advanced oxidation

process. Water research, 47(8), 2881-2889.

TECA (Technologies and practices for small agricultural producers). (2015). Pest and Disease

Management in Organic Agriculture. Retrieved August 24, 2017 from

http://teca.fao.org/read/8372.

Textile Today (2012). Biological Treatment of Textile Effluents: Best adoptable option results

in cost & environment savings with outstanding treatment efficiency. Retrieved May

12, 2016, from http://www.textiletoday.com.bd/biological-treatment-of-textile-

effluents-best-adoptable-option-results-in-cost-environment-savings-with-

outstanding-treatment-efficiency/

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structure of aerobic granular sewage biofilms. Applied and Environmental

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144

LEARNING GUITAR IN AUGMENTED REALITY

Chan Shu Sean1, Rajermani Thinakaran2

1 Undergraduate student

1 , 2 School of Computing, Nilai University,

No 1, Persiaran Universiti, Putra Nilai, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan.

Corresponding author email: [email protected]

Abstract

A guideline is essential for every beginners in the progress of learning music instruments to

monitor their foundation during earlier times. Without a proper guideline, learners especially

those who self-learned will get frustrated with the uncertainty in their performance. Although

guitar as one of the most notable selflearning music instrument is very attractive to beginners

but it becomes a nuisance where flipping the pages with tablatures along with the chords

while playing it for novice guitarists as they have to stop playing. This project will be

conducted to create a system for learning guitar in augmented reality (AR). AR is a view from

a real time/world environment where the computer generated elements are displayed on the

screen of a device with real wold sensory input such as sound, video or graphics. AR has the

ability to enrich the display content to become more interactive and fun. The main

functionality of the system is to detect user’s fingers position and the fiducial marker for

chord verification by matching the fingers position with the fiducial marker that being

installed on the guitar instrument. Since youngster from the millennium years are familiar

with electronic devices, AR will become a better platform for the environment of self-learning

guitar.

Keywords: augmented reality, guitar application, marker-less tracking, marker-based tracking.

1 INTRODUCTION

There is always a barrier whenever we are learning something unfamiliar. We often

find a solution to break through the barrier and end up with another obstacle with different

level. Guitar as one of the popular-musical instruments for selflearning often accompanied by

very spontaneous learning process. Nevertheless, there is no appropriate or stated procedure to

master a musical instrument outside of the classical repertoire or academic instruction (Green,

2008). Tablature is traditionally used to learn playing guitars, which is quite easy to

understand but again and again looking into the tablature and then playing is distracting. An

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4034341/#B24





145

experiment conducted by Keebler et al. (2014) with six participants without any formal or

informal guitar training. The experiment is to test the result of learning guitar by using the

traditional way, follow diagram and another way which is by using a special guitar Fretlight®,

a built in LED guitar assisted by its learning program that will indicate LED light wherever

the note is expected to be played on the fretboard. The results from the learning process are as

Figure 1.

FIGURE 1: Experiment Result of Scale Accuracy between using Fretlight and Diagram

As we can see, interactive learning by Fretlight® results better in term of scale

accuracy. However not everyone could afford the expensive Fretlight® guitar. Current

technologies using A may assist in lowering the initial struggle involved in learning music by

lowering the difficulties of conventional teaching materials. AR works by augmenting what

we see in the “real world” with additional information, presented digitally. AR enables a user

to see and interact with virtual imagery overlaid on his or her surrounding real environment.

AR systems have three critical characteristics: They integrate real and virtual images,

interactive at real time, and the virtual content is recorded in 3D (Billinghurst et al., 2015).

Several years ago, there has been an argument that viewing AR as a concept rather

than a type of technology would be more fruitful for educators, researchers, and designers

(Wu et al., 2013). The requirements for virtual learning environments have been already well

defined. AR up until now still has not been systematically considered in educational learning

system. Approximately, all educational application requires industrial, instructional and

cognitive features to be conscientiously examined ahead implementation. An instructor’s

conventional delivery can be improved by exploring multimedia content over the Internet,

likewise in an AR environment. Beforehand, the educational system must be clear,


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understandable, straightforward and robust and provide users with precise and concise

information. This will increase the level of students’ understanding and their skills. In

addition, the digitisation of the AR learning material must be carried out correctly so that

every information is precisely and clearly presented to users. The digitisation is commonly an

offline process and consists of various operations, depending on the objective (Shimabuku et

al., 2017).

The primary goal of this project is to design, implement and evaluate interaction

techniques for creating AR in guitar learning system. The motivation for this research comes

from the need for more efficient and instinctive interaction approaches for guitar self-learning

system. AR based education will be more accessible to learners and educators across the

world and it is continuing to be the focus area for creating enhanced value in everyday

interactions.

2 AUGMENTED REALITY

AR consists of fusing of live images with virtual layers of information. The principle

of AR, in which virtual content is extended on the top of a real environment, is not to be

confused with Virtual Reality (VR), where the computer-generated virtual environment is

mostly or totally virtual for people to experience it. There exist two distinct types of AR,

which differ in the way that the virtual layer associated with a given environment is identified:

location-based AR and image-based AR (Cheng and Tsai, 2012). Location based AR

application rely on the spatial environment and the orientation of the device without external

resources such as marker or barcode, to select and display location relevant information. Thus,

location-based AR sometimes refers to marker-less AR. For image-based AR, applications use

image recognition algorithms to trigger the display of relevant content over a recognised

physical pattern which called markers. Therefore, image-based AR also known as

markerbased AR. This article will focus on the combination of markerless and marker-based

AR.

2.2 Benefits of AR in Education

• Education will become more interactive, efficient, effective and simple (Lee, 2012).

• AR system is able to accomplish educational environments which are better in

productivity, contentment, and interactive than previously


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• AR system could provide motivating, entertaining, and engaging environments conducive

for learning.

• AR applications in educational background are appealing, simulating, and interesting for

learners.

2.3 Input and Tracking Devices in AR

Displays, input devices, tracking devices, and processors are commonly the principal

elements for an augmented reality system (Chawla, 2015). Input devices are devices that can

help user input commands to the AR system, such as microphones, cameras and controllers.

Microphones can be used for speech recognition and cameras can be used for hand gesture

detection and recognition. Some AR systems use electronic gloves (Figure 2) or wrist band as

input controller.

FIGURE 2: CaptoGlove: Wearable Gaming, VR, AR, PC & Mobile Controller

Tracking devices in AR system include digital cameras, global navigation satellite

system (GNSS), inertial measurement unit (IMU), solid state compass, wireless modules, etc.

(Lai, 2017). GNSS provides the geographical location of the system, while other wireless

modules like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth can provide relative location in the indoor scene. Besides

tracking, pose estimation is also a crucial part in

AR system, it provides the necessary geometry information for correct projection of virtual

imagery. Failures in pose estimation may cause false projection with the addition of user’s

adverse reaction like dizziness for head-mounted AR system.

3 MARKER BASED METHOD

Computer vision uses markers that are patterns which can be detected with relatively

simple algorithm in a very short time. They are widely used in applications that relative pose


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and position between camera and object are required. Circular and square markers are the

most common types in computer vision, because their geometric property makes them easy to

detect and more robust than other shapes. In this method, a particular target is looked for by

the device. Usually these are small, two-dimensional barcodes known as data-matrix codes or

it’s a 2D image printed on something like a poster (Figure 3). The mark is identified via the

camera by the augmented reality application device, the image is processed, the barcode is

converted into a web address, and a relevant web page is requested by the browser with

additional information (Zheng et al., 2017). Every set of alternative markers or fiducial

markers, as these "added reference points" are called, can be read by the AR systems by

designing them appropriately. Marker-based method generally can be divided into two steps,

marker candidate detection and marker identification.

FIGURE 3: ArUco markers used in OpenCV toolbox

3.1 MARKER CANDIDATE DETECTION

In marker Candidate detection step, algorithms search for the region that matches the

perspective distortion of the marker geometry (Benligiray et al., 2017). For square markers,

this means search for matching quadrilaterals, and for circles this means ellipses. Since most

markers only contain white and black, images are converted into grayscale images. Then

binarization and edge detection are usually used as pre-process to help extract candidate

regions.

3.2 MARKER IDENTIFICATION

For the marker identification step, the perspective distortion of candidate regions are

often removed by homography transform. Depending on the way that markers are encoded,


149

there are several ways to identify markers. Correlation-based markers are corresponded with

reference grids. This kind of markers can be identified by calculating the correlation

coefficient (Garrido- Jurado et al., 2016). For digitalcode-based markers, marker ID can be

directly read from the marker. Usually the marker ID is made of binary digits. There are

various methods for encrypting the marker, few separate the marker into square sub regions,

few use triangles indicating at several angles, and few use encryption methods based on

fourier transform alike. While for the topology-based markers, marker identification depends

on topological adjacency. Region adjacency graph is computed using the binary image.

Topologybased markers are robust to geometry distortions, but the topology itself can be

changed by occlusion.

3.3 MARKER DETECTION AND TRACKING

Since the main purpose for augmented reality is to enhance the reality with virtual

content, it is important to make sure that virtual objects are correctly registered to the real

scene. This can help users view the virtual content as part of the real world. Accurate

registration can be retrieved by estimating the pose of the camera or user’s view point. The

registration process usually consists of two parts:

• Fiducial marker (Figure 4) or feature points are detected, using marker based

methods or maker-less methods.

• Estimates the pose and map 3D virtual objects through proper projective

geometry (Zheng et al., 2017).

FIGURE 4: (a) Fiducial marker samples

Figure 5 shows the process of marker detection and tracking. There are three stages include:

• The first stage – Pre-processing


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Image frame is captured and undergo image processing which in this case – grey

scaling stage.

• The second stage – Detection

The system detects key points based on gradient changes, from the key points, feature

is extracted to matches the key points from original image’s key points.

• The third stage – Tracking

If the marker is found, it continues to execute, else, read again the image from the

input.

FIGURE 5: Marker Detection and Tracking (Tun, W.N. et al., 2017)

4 MAKER-LESS METHOD

Maker-less method is based on the feature extraction and recognition in the real world.

It may be less accurate than marker-based method, but it does not need any marker to be

placed ahead. It assists the AR system spots the view in a more natural way. In the feature

extraction step, the goal is to find areas of interest in input image that can be served as unique

and reliable markers. There are lots of feature detection and extraction algorithms based on

different single or combination of features, such as edges, corners, blobs, ridges. For example,

corner-based detectors focus on the rapid change of image gradients, using the first or second

derivative of gradients along different directions (Wang et al., 2016).


151

After features are recognized, a small image patch around the significance point (or

area) will be extracted using particular feature extraction algorithm and feature descriptors

will be provoked. Feature descriptors are important for the following feature matching part.

Since relative position between camera and the object is always changing, it is necessary to

use descriptors that are invariant to scale and rotation, such as Scale-Invariant Feature

Transform (SIFT) and Speeded-Up Robust Features (SURF). In order to achieve rotation

invariant, the direction of dominant gradient in the feature point region usually serves as the

main direction.

Then feature descriptors are computed in scale-space to achieve scale invariant.

Not like marker-based methods, in which markers have their own ID, markerless

methods find corresponding point by feature matching process. Firstly, a distance function

that compares features is defined. Then, for a given feature in image A, use the distance

function to test all the features in image B. The one with minimum distance can be considered

as the corresponding feature point. There are many kinds of distance functions, like Sum of

Squared Difference (SSD), Sum of Absolute Difference (SAD), etc. Besides the exhaustive

search method that mentioned above, there are many other search methods using different

searching strategy. For example, Flann-based matcher uses a fast approximate nearest

neighbour search algorithm.

To improve the matching result, false matches can be removed by certain filter

algorithms. One popular method is using the random sample consensus (RANSAC) method.

RANSAC estimates the homography transform matrix between matched feature points, using

only part of the feature points. Then it calculates the reprojection error of feature points using

current homography transform matrix and mark inliers and outliers. After several loops, the

algorithm picks the transformation that has most number of inliers and remove the outliers.

The final homography matrix is generated by using least-square method with inliers.

4.1 MARKER-LESS TRACKING

This tracking method works by using scanning algorithms and feature detection

systems. Say, we want to find the information about some object, we can simply point our

phone at it and have some kind of feature-detection or pattern identification systems try to


152

recognize it. Specific scanning algorithms are used to identify it. It creates or projects a virtual

grid on the image caught by our camera. The

GPS already locates the approximate location of our phone or the device we are using. And to

pinpoint the exact location, the automatic scan finds several anchor points and binds a virtual

model to it. The marker less technology has a lot of benefits including that the real life object

can act as a marker by itself and there is no expense of building or designing markers on the

objects. We don’t have to make distinctive optical identifiers. The physical objects have the

digital images projected directly upon them. This is known as projection mapping and can be

used to quite remarkable effects (Agrawal & Patel, 2017).

5 COMPARISON OF AR MARKERS

The relationship between development in image recognition technology and AR-

capable devices are correspond. As a result, most implementations of markerbased AR

recognise objects using computer vision algorithms (Vogt and Shingles, 2013). There are

three types of AR markers: Fiducial marker, Quick-response (QR) Code and Natural Marker.

QR Code is a 2D barcode generated for an internet based link while natural marker is object-

based marker. Among these markers, Fiducial marker is the most popular among AR markers

due to it easy implementation. Below (Table 1) is the comparison of markers:

TABLE 1: Comparison of AR Markers (Gomes Jr. et al., 2017)

6 POSE ESTIMATION

In order to place a virtual object in 3D, we need to know the relative pose between the

object and the camera (or user’s view point). Then we can calculate the object’s

corresponding 2D projection from user’s view. The general equation of such transformation

is:

x=K[R|t]X


153

where X is a point in 3D space, x is the 2D projection of X on image plane, K is the camera

intrinsic matrix, and [R|t]is the extrinsic matrix (rotation and translation) (Marchand et al.,

2016). Camera matrix K can be obtained by camera calibration, or we can use the structure

from motion method mentioned above. Then, with the location of detected markers of feature

points, pose [R|t] can be computed using simple least square method. Once the pose is

estimated, virtual objects can be easily projected to the 2D image plane.

7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The system will be implement by using several tools such as computer with webcam,

fiducial marker paper, and a normal guitar with 6 strings. The fiducial marker paper will be

stick on the guitar and place directly in front of the webcam. The system will allow the

webcam to capture the image and perform the methodology as will be mentioned after this.

7.1 DESCRIPTION OF METHODOLOGY

FIGURE 6: Stages of chord and finger detection

The following are the description for each stage of research method.


154

Stage 1: Image input

Image is captured by camera as input.

Stage 2: Marker-based detection technique Step 1,

read fiducial marker into system.

Step 2, extract the feature or the marker.

Stage 3: Capture fingering position (figure 7) Step

1, identify the hand.

Step 2, outline the finger positions.

Step 3, from fingers, draw out ellipse.

Step 4, locate fingertip.

Step 5, track the fingertips of the hand posture.

Stage 4: Compare marker input (e.g. C chord) and finger position on the strings.

Stage 5: Output

Indicate users whether they are playing it correctly.

In stage 3, fingertips are detected using a curvature-based algorithm on the contour of

a user's hand (Figure 7). The candidate fingertip point is outlined by the high curvature value.

Each fingertips are accurately located by fitting an ellipse on it. Five fingertips are identified

and controlled based on the post of a thumb so that the fingertips are used as point

correspondences for a camera pose estimation algorithm (Lee & Hollerer, 2009).

FIGURE 7: Stage 3 example (Huidong, 2016)

8 CONCLUSION

This paper summarizes the steps taken in designing a prototype system for teaching

the basics of guitar to beginner level students, by using functionality of an implemented


155

augmented reality interface toolkit. The interactive AR scenarios demonstrate the potentials of

learning and training through natural human-computer interaction techniques supporting

learners to enjoy an entertainment and interactive music guide. Another advantage of this

approach is that it is generic and can be easily extended and adapted to other areas of music.

Currently the framework provides visual information to potential learners but could not

perform a comprehensive sound-simulation nor provide real-time feedback. The correction of

the auditory information can be performed using Digital Signal Processing (DSP) filters and

the suggested information must be provided to the learner in real time.

Unlike other AR interfaces, this trial is specifically concentrate on multimedia

augmentation and interaction techniques for learning guitar. In the future, all the learning

scenarios which are currently fixed in the system will be stored in a database system so that

users can access it from anywhere. Undoubtedly, AR interfaces are capable of exploiting a

number of different approaches and can provide unique solutions for many potential

commercial applications. In the coming years, AR learning systems will provide automatic

feedback for actions or situations that are otherwise impossible to achieve. However, to

increase the usefulness of learning applications more sophisticated teaching environments

must be designed to provide a complete and powerful solution to modern education.


156

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IMPLEMENTASI PROGAM GERAKAN GEMAR SEDEKAH (GREGED) DI SD

MUHAMMADIYAH (PLUS) KOTA SALATIGA, JAWA TENGAH, INDONESIA

Danang Setiawan, S.Pd.I

Progam Magister Pendidikan Guru Madrasah Ibtidaiyah, Institut Agama Islam Negeri

Salatiga, Jawa Tengah, Indonesia

Email:[email protected]

ABSTRAK

Pendidikan di Indonesia lebih berorientasi pada penanaman pengetahuan saja. Sehingga

dalam, prakteknya peserta didik tidak dapat mengamalkan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.

Kondisi ini belum terwujud disebabkan tidak adanya progam pendidikan untuk membentuk

kecerdasan emosional. Fenomena dan fakta tersebut, menyebabkan banyak pihak

menyimpulkan pentingnya peran pendidikan karakter secara intensif sebagai esensi

pengembangan kecerdasan emosional melalui progam Gerakan Gemar Sedekah (GREGED).

Progam ini menunjukkan pembiasaan berbagi dari siswa, oleh siswa, uktuk siswa.

Penyalurannya diberikan ke peserta didik yang miskin, yatim-piatu, siswa yang terkena

musibah, masyarakat miskin di sekitar sekolah. Sedekah merupakan ibadah sosial merupakan

ibadah yang mempunyai efek langsung dengan konteks kehidupan masyarakat sekitar. Makna

sedekah tidak hanya fokus menggunakan harta untuk hal-hal yang baik. Namun terdapat

makna sosial yang hendak menyelamatkan kehidupan orang miskin, anak yatim, para

pengemis, pemulung dan peminta-minta. Sedekah berarti bentuk sikap kita untuk

membentengi diri dari kefakiran. Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk menjawab permasalahan:

(1) Bagaimana pendidikan gerakan gemar sedekah (GREGED) di SD Muhammadiyah (Plus)

kota Salatiga? (2) Bagaimana program gerakan gemar sedekah (GREGED) dalam perspektif

psikologi? Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan penelitian kualitatif. Jenis penelitian

kualitatif yang digunakan adalah penelitian deskriptif. Untuk memperoleh data program

GREGED yang valid, dalam penelitian ini diperlukan pengumpulan data dengan

menggunakan tiga metode yaitu observasi, wawancara, dokumentasi. Tujuan penelitian

deskriptif dalam penelitian ini adalah mendeskripsikan program gerakan gemar sedekah

(GREGED) di SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) kota Salatiga. Hasil penelitian ini dengan

bersedekah masing-masing siswa akan muncul kepedulian sosial. Desain pendidikan karakter

seperti ini berfungsi sebagai wahana sistemik pengembangan kecerdasan emosional yang

membekali peserta didik dengan kompetensi kecerdasan plus karakter.

Kata Kunci: sedekah, pendidikan karakter, kecerdasan emosional.

PENDAHULUAN

Undang-undang No. 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional

menjelaskan bahwa Pendidikan nasional berfungsi mengembangkan kemampuan dan

membentuk watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam rangka

mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, bertujuan untuk berkembangnya potensi peserta

didik agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha

Esa, berakhlak mulia, cakap, kreatif, mandiri, dan menjadi warga negara yang

demokratis serta bertanggungjawab” (Pasal 3 Undang-undang No. 20 Tahun 2003).

Dari kutipan rumusan fungsi dan tujuan pendidikan nasional yang tertulis dalam

Undang-undang tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, secara jelas menekankan bahwa titik


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berat tujuan Pendidikan Nasional adalah pendidikan karakter, pendidikan moral, manusia

yang susila, bertanggung jawab, dan demokratis, di samping cakap (cerdas) adalah wujud

manusia yang bermoral, manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha

Esa, yang berbudi luhur, yang berkepribadian, mantap dan mandiri, dan memiliki rasa

tanggung jawab, jelas adalah wujud dari pribadi yang bermoral.

Pertanyaannya adalah mengapa sistem pendidikan yang dirancang untuk melahirkan

manusia Indonesia yang bermoral dan berkarakter sampai dipandang oleh sementara pihak

sebagai mengabaikan pendidikan moral? Di pihak lain, ada yang memandang bahwa

pendidikan nasional sampai batas tertentu telah mampu membina otak. Dalam kaitan ini

penulis berpandangan bahwa penyelenggaraan pendidikan nasional yang dirancang untuk

mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa masih jauh dari terwujud.22

Wujud dari upaya mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, pendidikan Islam turut andil

dalam hal ini. Peraturan Menteri Agama No. 2 Tahun 2008 menjelaskan bahwa pembelajaran

Fiqih diarahkan untuk mengantarkan peserta didik agar dapat memahami pokok-pokok

hukum Islam dan tata cara pelaksanaannya untuk diaplikasikan dalam kehidupan sehingga

menjadi muslim yang selalu taat menjalankan syariat Islam secara sempurna. Dalam hal ini

jelas Peraturan Menteri Agama tersebut telah mengamanatkan untuk membekali peserta didik

agar dapat melaksanakan dan mengamalkan ketentuan hukum Islam dengan benar dalam

melaksanakan ibadah kepada Allah dan ibadah sosial. Pengamalan tersebut diharapkan

menumbuhkan ketaatan menjalankan hukum Islam, disiplin dan tanggung jawab sosial yang

tinggi dalam kehidupan pribadi maupun sosial.

Kehidupan sosial memang erat kaitannya dengan hubungan sesama manusia.

Seringkali adanya ketimpangan sosial antara kalangan masyarakat kaya dan miskin.

Kesenjangan yang terlalu lebar berpotensi untuk terjadinya kekacauan sosial. Belakangan ini,

masyarakat kurang peduli terhadap lingkungan. Kebanyakan harta yang dimiliki seolah-olah

tidak ada campur tangan Allah, dianggap jerih payah sendiri, sehingga mereka acuh tak acuh,

hidup individualistik. Untuk merespon dan membentuk jiwa yang peduli maka perlu dilatih

sedekah sejak di bangku Sekolah. Oleh karena itu, untuk merespon dan membentuk jiwa yang

peduli, pendidikan Islam salah satu solusinya. Pendidikan Islam adalah suatu usaha untuk

membina dan mengasuh peserta didik agar senantiasa dapat memahami ajaran Islam secara

menyeluruh lalu menghayati tujuan yang pada akhirnya dapat mengamalkan serta menjadikan

22Komaruddin Hidayat, dkk., Mereka Bicara Pendidikan Islam, (Jakarta: Rajawali Press, 2009) hlm. 84-85.


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Islam sebagai pandangan hidup.23 Dijelaskan bahwa pendidikan Islam adalah usaha sadar

untuk menyiapkan peserta didik meyakini, memahami, menghayati, mengamalkan Agama

Islam melalui kegiatan bimbingan, pengajaran dan latihan dengan memperhatikan tuntutan

untuk menghormati Agama lain dalam hubungan kerukunan antar umat beragama dalam

masyarakat untuk mewujudkan persatuan Nasional.24

Realitasnya pendidikan Islam yang dilakukan di sebagian sekolah negeri dan swasta

lebih berorientasi pada penanaman pengetahuan saja. Sehingga dalam prakteknya peserta

didik tidak dapat mengamalkan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Hal seperti ini tentunya tidak

sejalan dengan pendidikan Islam yang dimaksud di atas. Belum terwujudnya pendidikan

Islam yang sempurna karena disebabkan tidak adanya program pembentuk jiwa peduli.

Idealnya dasar pendidikan Islam adalah Al-Qur’an dan sunah Nabi. Adapun pokok-

pokok pendidikan yang harus diberikan kepada anak (kurikulumnya)tidak lain adalah ajaran

Islam itu sendiri. Ajaran Islam secara garis besar dapat dikelompokkan menjadi tiga, yakni

aqidah, ibadah dan akhlak.25 Ketiga unsur tersebut diajarkan saling berkaitan erat, mengisi

dan melengkapi. Aspek akidah menekankan pada kemampuan memahami dan

mempertahankan keimanan yang benar. Aspek akhlak menekankan pada pembiasaan untuk

melaksanakan akhlak terpuji dan menjauhi akhlak tercela dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Aspek

fikih menekankan pada kemampuan cara melaksanakan ibadah dan muamalah yang baik dan

benar. Tentunya akan lebih mudah dalam membentuk peserta didik yang peduli sosial.

Dalam membentuk kepedulian sosial tentunya ditunjang program sekolah yang

membina dan mengasuh peserta didik sesuai pendidikan Islam di atas. Salah satu solusi

pendidikan Islam untuk mewujudkannya adalah melalui program sedekah. Sedekah sebagai

fungsi sosial adalah untuk menghasilkan solusi dari berbagai problem sosial kemasyarakatan,

khususnya ketidakadilan ekonomi. Dari permasalahan di atas menunjukkan bahwa pihak

sekolah dalam mendidik anak untuk membiasakan bersedekah menggunakan proses

penyaluran sedekah dari siswa, oleh siswa dan untuk siswa. Penyalurannya diberikan ke

peserta didik yang miskin, anak yatim piatu, siswa yang terkena musibah bencana alam dan

lain-lain. Dengan bersedekah, masing-masing siswa akan tersadar dan membangkitkan

23Abdul Majid dan Dian Andani, PAI Berbasis Kompetensi: Konsep dan Implementasi Kurikulum,

(Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya, 2004), hlm. 130.

24Muhaimin dkk, Paradigma Pendidikan Islam: Upaya mengaktifkan PAI di Sekolah, (Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya, 2002), hlm.75-76.

25Mansur, Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini dalam Islam, (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2005),hlm.115.


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motivasi bahwa dengan bersedekah dapat membantu orang lain yang sedang berada dalam

himpitan kesulitan ekonomi. Karena sedekah merupakan ibadah sosial merupakan ibadah

yang mempunyai efek langsung dengan konteks kehidupan masyarakat sekitar. Makna




membentengi diri dari kefakiran.

Sedekah itu indah dan tidak membuat jatuh miskin. Apalagi jika sedekah yang

dilakukan didasari oleh keridhoan Allah SWT. Sedekah walaupun kecil tetapi amat berharga

di sisi Allah SWT. Orang yang bakhil dan kikir dengan tidak menyedekahkan sebagian

hartanya akan merugi di dunia dan akhirat karena tidak ada keberkahan. Jadi, sejatinya orang

yang bersedekah adalah untuk kepentingan dirinya. Sebab, menginfakkan (belanjakan) harta

akan memperoleh berkah, dan sebaliknya menahannya adalah celaka.

Penerapan program sedekah di SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga. Sebagaimana

dikutip dari artikel berikut ini:

“SIDOMUKTI – Sejumlah siswa SD Muhammadiyah Plus Salatiga yang menjadi anggota

dokter kecil sekolah, menggalang dana bantuan bagi korban banjir. Kegiatan selama beberapa

hari tersebut diperoleh dari menyisihkan uang saku setiap siswa. Aksi sosial siswa sebagai

bentuk kepedulian terhadap sesama tersebut, mampu mengumpulkan uang senilai Rp

4.006.500. Dana tersebut kemudian akan disalurkan kepada korban banjir yang berada di

wilayah Kudus, Demak, Jepara, dan sekitarnya. Penyalurannya melalui Pimpinan Daerah Mu-

hammadiyah (PDM) wilayah setempat. Kepala Sekolah SD Muhammadiyah Plus, Sutomo,

MAg didampingi Suharwono, SPd.I selaku pembimbing keislaman dan kemuhammadiyahan

mengatakan, program tersebut merupakan bagian dari pendidikan sosial (kecerdasan sosial)

dan melatih anak agar berempati terhadap bencana yang terjadi. Sekaligus melatih anak me-

laksanakan pendidikan agama dengan praktik langsung dalam bentuk infaq/shadaqah.’’

Diharapkan nantinya siswa memiliki empati yang tinggi dan mampu berinisiatif, untuk

membantu warga yang membutuhkan bila terjadi bencana,’’ jelas Sutomo, kemarin.”26

SD Muhammadiyah yang dulunya HIS Muhammadiyah merupakan amal usaha

monumental sebagai cikal bakal perkembangan Muhammadiyah di Salatiga. Tempo dulu

sekolah ini telah melahirkan banyak kader. Pada tahun 2002 PDM (Pimpinan Daerah

Muhammadiyah) bersama para mantan pimpinan mengadakan rapat untuk mengambil

keputusan di antara dua pilihan iaitu ditutup atau dikembangkan secara revolusioner dengan

mengubahnya menjadi SD Unggulan, dengan segala konsekuensi pendanaannya. Kebijakan

26Sdmpsalatiga.sch.id, diakses 8 September 2014, pukul 10.00 WIB.


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jatuh pada pilihan kedua, yang selanjutnya dibentuk Tim Pengembang Pendidikan

Muhammadiyah (Desember 2002), terdiri dari para tokoh Muhammadiyah dan pakar

pendidikan, yang diketuai oleh Achmadi. Dari kerja tim kemudian diputuskan SD

Muhammadiyah tersebut menjadi SD Muhammadiyah Plus.

SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga menjadi lokasi penelitian, dikarenakan

pertama sekolah ini telah menjadi sekolah unggulan di kota Salatiga dengan visi “Pusat

keunggulan dibidang IPTEK dan IMTAQ”. Dan memiliki jargon “Anak Cerdas Berakhlak

Mulia“. Kedua kegiatan pembelajaran menggunakan kurikulum yang memadukan kurikulum

Dinas Pendidikan, Kementerian Agama, dan Pesantren Modern. Pengembangan diri melalui

ekstrakurikuler dan intrakurikuler dengan pembelajaran Fun Learning. Ketiga Sekolah ini

memiliki program Gerakan Gemar Sedekah (GREGED) yang diteliti.

Berdasarkan latar belakang di atas, maka peneliti tertarik untuk meneliti implementasi

program gerakan gemar sedekah di SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga.

METODE PENELITIAN

Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif, yakni penelitian yang bertujuan untuk

memahami fenomena yang terjadi pada subyek penelitian, seperti perilaku, persepsi, motivasi,

tindakan, dll., secara menyeluruh dan dengan cara deskripsi.27

Penelitian ini dapat dikatakan sebagai penelitian dengan teknis analisis deskriptif

karena dalam melakukan penelitian tidak menggunakan angka-angka statistik, melainkan

penelitian yang berangkat dari fakta-fakta dan peristiwa yang konkret, baik alamiah maupun

rekayasa. Penelitian deskriptif dalam pendidikan dan kurikulum pengajaran merupakan hal

yang cukup penting. Karena di dalamnya mendeskripsikan fenomena kegiatan pendidikan,

seperti pembelajaran dan lain-lain.28 Penelitian ini juga disebut penelitian survei, merupakan

metode formal untuk memperoleh informasi yang ditempuh dengan penyebaran angket atau

wawancara secara pribadi serta dengan observasi terhadap subyek penelitian. Penelitian ini

kurang mengendalikan kontrol proses penelitiannya, tidak seperti eksperimen, tetapi biasanya

dapat membuat kesimpulan umum yang tinggi daya generalisasinya.29 Penelitian survei tidak

27Lexy J. Moleong, Metode Penelitian Kualitatif, (Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakaeya, 2009), Cet. Ke-26,

hlm. 6.

28Nana Syaoidih, Metode Penelitian Pendidikan, (Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya, 2010), Cet. Ke-6, hlm. 72.

29Tatang M. Amirin, Menyusun Rencana Penelitian, (Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 1990), Cet. II, hlm.111.


163

hanya digunakan untuk melukiskan kondisi yang ada, tetapi juga untuk membandingkan

keadaan tersebut dengan kriteria yang telah ditetapkan atau menilai keefektifan program.30

Fokus Penelitian

Dalam mempertajam penelitian ini, peneliti menetapkan batasan masalah yang disebut

dengan fokus penelitian, yang berisi pokok masalah yang masih bersifat umum. Spradley

dalam Sugiyono menyatakan bahwa “A focused refer to a single cultural domain or a few

related domains” maksudnya adalah bahwa fokus penelitian merupakan domain tunggal atau

beberapa domain yang terkait dari situasi sosial. Dalam penelitian kualitatif, gejala itu bersifat

holistik (menyeluruh, tidak dapat dipisah-pisahkan), tetapi keseluruhan situasi sosial yang

diteliti meliputi aspek tempat (places), pelaku (actor) dan aktivitas (activity) yang berinteraksi

secara sinergis.31 Sesuai dengan rumusan masalah dan tujuan penelitian, maka yang menjadi

fokus dalam penelitian ini adalah Implementasi program gerakan gemar sedekah (GREGED)

dalam peningkatan sikap kepedulian sosial siswa. Kehidupan sosial memang erat kaitannya

dengan hubungan sesama manusia. Seringkali adanya ketimpangan sosial antara kalangan

masyarakat kaya dan miskin. Kesenjangan yang terlalu lebar berpotensi untuk terjadinya

kekacauan sosial. Belakangan ini, masyarakat kurang peduli terhadap lingkungan.

Kebanyakan harta yang dimiliki seolah-olah tidak ada campur tangan Allah, dianggap jerih

payah sendiri, sehingga mereka acuh tak acuh, hidup individualistic. Dalam membentuk

kepedulian sosial tentunya ditunjang program sekolah yang membina dan mengasuh peserta

didik sesuai pendidikan Islam di atas. Salah satu solusi pendidikan Islam untuk

mewujudkannya adalah melalui program gerakan gemar sedekah yang akan diteliti.

Sumber Data

Penelitian implementasi gerakan gemar sedekah (GREGED) pasti membutuhkan data

untuk menulis tulisan ini. Penulis mencoba memakai sumber data, yakni data yang diperoleh

dari sumber-sumber terkait, yaitu sumber yang memuat informasi atau data tersebut adalah

wawancara dengan kepala sekolah SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) kota Salatiga, guru kelas dan

guru pembimbing, orang tua, siswa dan buku-buku yang ada kaitannya dengan skripsi ini.

30Donald Ary, dkk., Pengantar Penelitan dalam Pendidikan, terj. Arief Furchan, (Yogyakarta: Pustaka

Pelajar, 2007), Cet. ke-3, hlm. 457.

31Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian Pendidikan: Pendekatan, Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D,(Bandung: Alfabeta, 2006), hlm. 283-284.


164

Dalam pengujian keabsahan data, metode penelitian kualitatif menggunakan istilah

yang berbeda dengan penelitian kuantitatif. Jadi uji keabsahan data dalam penelitian kualitatif

meliputi uji credibility (validitas interval), transferability (validitas eksternal), dependability

(reliabilitas), dan conformability (obyektivitas).

Sebelum data dianalisis, diperlukan verifikasi terhadap data yang telah terkumpul.

Verifikasi tersebut dilakukan dengan metode triangulasi. Metode triangulasi yaitu teknik

pemeriksaan keabsahan data dengan cara memanfaatkan sesuatu yang lain di luar data yang

terkumpul. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengecek atau membandingkan keabsahan data tersebut.

Setelah itu, data yang sudah terkumpul dan terseleksi dianalisis agar ditemukan makna dibalik

data tersebut.

Denzin, sebagaimana dikutip oleh Sudarwan Danim menjelaskan ada empat jenis

triangulasi, yaitu triangulasi sumber (sources triangulation), triangulasi metode (methods

triangulation), triangulasi peneliti (investigators triangulation) dan triangulasi teori (theory

triangulation).32Dari keempat jenis triangulasi tersebut, triangulasi yang digunakan dalam

penelitian ini yaitu triangulasi sumber dan metode.

Setelah data diverifikasi, barulah data tersebut dianalisis. Adapun analisis dalam

penelitian ini menggunakan analisis deskriptif, yakni menganalisis secara kritis segala

fenomena yang ditemui di lapangan sehingga menghasilkan simpulan penelitian yang

obyektif. Analisis tersebut menggunakan metode induktif.

Dalam penelitian ini, analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis induktif atau

generalisasi. Pendekatan induktif dimaksudkan untuk membantu pemahaman tentang

pemaknaan dalam data yang rumit melalui pengembangan tema-tema yang diikhtisarkan dari

data kasar.33Langkah-langkahnya yaitu menganalisis secara rinci segala fenomena yang

terjadi di lapangan. Dari fakta-fakta khusus yang telah terkumpul, kemudian dilakukan

generalisasi dengan menginduk atau merujuk pada kerangka teoritik yang telah disajikan.

Implementasi Program Gerakan Gemar Sedekah butuh dikaji secara mendalam. Oleh

karena itu peneliti mencoba menganalisis penelitian ini dengan memakai analisa kualitatif

deskriptif yang akan lebih menjadikan valid dalam penulisan skripsi. Analisis ini mengandung

32SudarwanDanim, Menjadi Peneliti Kualitatif: Ancangan Metodologi, Presentasi, dan Publikasi Hasil Penelitian untuk Mahasiswa dan Peneliti Pemula Bidang Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial, Pendidikan, dan Humaniora, (Bandung: Pustaka Setia 2002), hlm. 195.

33Lexy J. Moloeng, Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, (Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya, 2009), hlm. 298.


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dua tahap proses analisis data yakni : pertama adalah analisis yang dilakukan terhadap data

yang berupa kata-kata tertulis atau lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang dapat

diamati.34Kedua adalah analisis yang bermaksud untuk memuat deskripsi mengenai situasi-

situasi atau kejadian-kejadian yang telah dianalisis awal pada tahap pertama. Dari dua proses

analisis data ini akan ditemukan satu titik akhir yang merupakan kesimpulan dari penelitian

ini.

HASIL PENELITIAN

Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh penulis dalam jurnal ini adalah berbentuk deskriptif

kualitatif, yakni penelitian dengan cara memaparkan dalam bentuk kualitatif terhadap obyek

yang didasarkan pada kenyataan dan fakta-fakta yang tampak pada obyek tersebut. Sehingga

untuk menganalisis data yang telah dikumpulkan digunakan bentuk analisis deskriptif

kualitatif yaitu menganalisis data dengan berpijak pada fenomena-fenomena yang kemudian

dikaitkan dengan teori atau pendapat yang telah ada.

Dalam membentuk kepedulian sosial tentunya ditunjang program sekolah yang

membina dan mengasuh peserta didik sesuai pendidikan Islam di atas. Salah satu solusi

pendidikan Islam untuk mewujudkannya adalah melalui program sedekah. Sedekah sebagai

fungsi sosial adalah untuk menghasilkan solusi dari berbagai problem sosial kemasyarakatan,

khususnya ketidakadilan ekonomi. Dari permasalahan di atas menunjukkan bahwa pihak

sekolah dalam mendidik anak untuk membiasakan bersedekah menggunakan proses

penyaluran sedekah dari siswa, oleh siswa dan untuk siswa. Penyalurannya diberikan ke

peserta didik yang miskin, anak yatim piatu, siswa yang terkena musibah bencana alam dan

lain-lain. Dengan bersedekah, masing-masing siswa akan tersadar dan membangkitkan

motivasi bahwa dengan bersedekah dapat membantu orang lain yang sedang berada dalam

himpitan kesulitan ekonomi. Karena sedekah merupakan ibadah sosial merupakan ibadah

yang mempunyai efek langsung dengan konteks kehidupan masyarakat sekitar. Makna




membentengi diri dari kefakiran.35

34Lexy J. Moloeng, Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, hlm. 4.

35Hasil wawancara dengan wakil kepala sekolah bapak Ainul Huri, S.Pd.I, pada Senin, 30 Maret 2015


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Sedekah itu indah dan tidak membuat jatuh miskin. Apalagi jika sedekah yang

dilakukan didasari oleh keridhoan Allah SWT. Sedekah walaupun kecil tetapi amat berharga

di sisi Allah SWT. Orang yang bakhil dan kikir dengan tidak menyedekahkan sebagian

hartanya akan merugi di dunia dan akhirat karena tidak ada keberkahan. Jadi, sejatinya orang

yang bersedekah adalah untuk kepentingan dirinya. Sebab, menginfakkan (belanjakan) harta

akan memperoleh berkah, dan sebaliknya menahannya adalah celaka.

Ruang lingkup pembelajaran materi fiqih Ibadah di Madrasah terdiri dari: shalat, puasa, zakat,

dan lain sebagainya. Selain diwajibkan atas pelaksanaan shalat, zakat, umat Islam dianjurkan

bersedekah dan infaq. Infaq adalah membelanjakan sebagian harta untuk jalan kebaikan,

misalnya untuk pembangunan masjid, madrasah, perbaikan jalan, penciptaan lingkungan yang

bersih dan lain-lain. Sedangkan sedekah artinya memberikan bantuan atau pertolongan berupa

barang (harta) atau yang lain tanpa mengharap imbalan dan hanya mengharapkan ridha Allah

SWT. Bersedekah dapat diwujudkan dalam berbagai bentuk, baik materi maupun yang

bersifat non materi. Misalnya, berupa sumbangan pikiran, tenaga, atau perkataan berupa saran

dan nasihat yang baik. Menurut para fuqaha (ahli fiqih) sedekah dalam pengertian di atas

disebut sedekah secara spontan dan sukarela.36

Tentunya program ini mendukung sesanti(slogan) “AKU ANAK CERDAS BERAKHLAK

MULIA”, kata AKU dimaksudkan sebagai penyadaran akan potensi diri dan motivasi diri

sendiri; ANAK CERDAS adalah modal kreatifitas dan kemampuan memecahkan masalah;

BERAKHLAK MULIA adalah kunci sukses dan hidup bermakna. Untuk mewujudkan sesanti

tersebut, diadakan program GREGED untuk siswa kelas VI dibantu guru pendamping yang

profesional serta silaturahmi yang intens antara orang tua dan sekolah, karena keterpaduan

sikap dan pandangan antara keduanya merupakan kunci keberhasilan pendidikan.37

PEMBAHASAN

Dasar Program GREGED

GREGED ini berangkat dari surat al-Ma’un yang berarti barang-barang yang berguna.

Termasuk golongan surat-surat Makkiyyah. Surat al-Ma’un diturunkan sesudah surat al-

Takatsur (bermegah-megahan), yakni surat ke 16 dan sebelum al-Kafirun (surat ke 18). Nama

al Ma'un diambil dari kata al Ma'un yang terdapat pada akhir ayat. Secara etimologi, al-

36Amirulloh Syarbini, The Miracle of Ibadah, (Bandung: Fajar Media, 2011), hal. 110.

37Hasil wawancara dengan wali kelas VI Al-Kindi ibu Oktaviana Safitri, S.Pd, pada Senin, 30 Maret 2015.


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Ma’un berarti banyak harta, berguna dan bermanfaat, kebaikan dan ketaatan, dan zakat.

Menurut Muhammad Asad kata "al-Ma'un" berdasarkan berbagai tafsir klasik dapat dipahami

sebagai "comprises the small items needed for one's daily use, as well as the occasional acts

of kindness consisting in helping out one's fellow-men with such item. In its wider sense, it

denotes "aid" or "assistance" in any difficulty" (...kata "al-Ma'un" mencakup hal-hal kecil

yang diperlukan orang dalam penggunaan sehari-hari, juga perbuatan kebaikan berupa

pemberian bantuan kepada sesama manusia dalam hal-hal kecil. Dalam maknanya yang lebih

luas, kata al-Maun berarti "bantuan" atau "pertolongan" dalam setiap kesulitan).38

Program ini mengaplikasikan isi kandungan dari surat al-Ma’un. Program tersebut

merupakan bagian dari pendidikan sosial (kecerdasan sosial) dan melatih anak agar berempati

terhadap bencana yang terjadi. Sekaligus melatih anak melaksanakan pendidikan agama

dengan praktik langsung dalam bentuk infaq/shadaqah. Diharapkan nantinya siswa memiliki

empati yang tinggi dan mampu berinisiatif, untuk membantu warga yang membutuhkan bila

terjadi bencana. Serta yang menjadi landasan ada visi dan misi dari SD Muhammadiyah

(Plus) kota Salatiga.39

Anak adalah titipan Tuhan yang sangat berharga. Kewajiban pendidik adalah mendidik

anak sebaik-baiknya dalam hal melatih gemar sedekah. Sedekah adalah amalan yang bisa

merubah perilaku yang melakukan dan juga kehidupan yang menerimanya. Sedekah bisa

berdampak besar bagi kehidupan yang melakukannya, sikap empati, rasa menolong, positive

thinking, ketulusan dan keikhlasan.

Tujuan Program GREGED

Pada penelitian ini, program non-akademik yang diteliti adalah GREGED yang

memiliki tujuan:

Membangun kecerdasan emosi anak

Sedekah diberikan pada hal-hal yang bersifat sosial, seperti membantu korban bencana

alam, memberikan santunan kepada anak yatim, memberikan bantuan kepada anak kurang

mampu untuk sekolah, dan kegiatan sosial lainnya. Menjalin hubungan sosial dengan orang

38Muhammad Asad, The Message of the Qur’an, hal .102

39Hasil wawancara dengan kepala sekolah bapak Sutomo, M.Ag, pada Senin, 30 Maret 2015.


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lain adalah sifat hakiki dimiliki manusia sebagai makhluk sosial yang merupakan komponen

dari kecerdasan emosional.40

Membangun kecerdasan spiritual anak

Ketika siswa mampu memiliki kemampuan sosial, mampu menghadapi dan

memanfaatkan penderitaan, rasa sakit, memiliki visi dan prinsip nilai, serta memiliki

komitmen dan bertindak penuh tanggung jawab serta menaruh perhatian pada kepentingan

orang lain. Ini artinya, siswa memiliki pemahaman tentang tujuan hidup akan memunculkan

kecerdasan spiritual.41

Langkah Pelaksanaan Program GREGED

Gerakan Gemar Sedekah (GREGED) merupakan gerakan penggalangan dana yang

dilakukan oleh siswa - siswi kelas VI SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga yang

dilakukan setiap hari sebesar 500 rupiah. Dana ini digunakan untuk membantu korban

bencana alam dan kegiatan sosial. Dalam program ini siswa dilibatkan secara langsung, dari

proses pengumpulan sampai penyaluran dana yang dibimbing oleh wali kelas. Program ini

dimulai sejak tahun 2011, sebelumnya nama program ini adalah GJL (Gerakan Jum’at Lima

Ratus). Kemudian berubah nama menjadi GREGED (Gerakan Gemar Sedekah). Adapun

langkah pelaksanaan program GREGED sebagai berikut:

Siswa kelas VI yang dibagi menjadi 3 kelas yaitu VI Al-Kindi wali kelas ibu Dwi

Wuryandari, S.Pd., VI Al-Farabi wali kelas ibu Oktaviana Safitri, S.Pd., VI Al-Rumi wali

kelas ibu Puji Lestari, S.Pd dan ketua koordinasi kelas VI adalah bapak Rifa Asqowi, S.Pd.I

yang mengatur mengenai kegiatan akademik ataupun non akademik kelas VI selama 1 tahun.

Adapun kegiatan akademik dan non akademik terlampir pada lampiran penelitian ini.

Pihak sekolah sebelum penyelenggaraan program GREGED telah melaksanakan dialog

interaktif wali murid, dan disepakati setiap hari siswa kelas VI menyisakan uang sakunya Rp.

500,00. Itu artinya setiap siswa mampu mengumpulkan setiap minggunya Rp.500,00 X 6 hari

= Rp. 3.000,00. Dan selama sebulan setiap siswa mampu mengumpulkan uang Rp. 3.000,00

X 4 minggu = Rp. 12.000,00. Sedangkan siswa kelas VI berjumlah 73 yang dibagi 3 kelas.

40Hasil wawancara dengan koordinator tim guru kelas VI bapak Rifa Asqowi, S.Pd.I , pada Senin, 30

Maret 2015.

41Monty P. Satiadarma, Fidelis E. Waruwu, Mendidik Kecerdasan, (Jakarta: Pustaka Populer Obor, 2003), hlm. 45-46.


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Sehingga setiap bulannya siswa kelas VI mampu mengumpulkan uang sedekah sebesar Rp.

12.000,00 X 73 siswa = Rp. 876.000,00. Siswa mengumpulkan uang sedekah ke wali kelas VI

masing-masing dan wali kelas akan mengumpulkan ke koordinator kelas VI bapak Rifa

Asqowi, S.Pd.I yang akan menyalurkan uang sedekah dengan melibatkan siswa kelas VI di

lapangan. Terhitung mulai bulan Agustus 2014 hingga Maret 2015 siswa kelas VI telah

mengumpulkan Rp. 876.000,00 X 8 bulan = Rp. 7.008.000,00 yang disalurkan dalam

kegiatan-kegiatan GREGED sebagai berikut :

a. Pemberian beasiswa untuk siswa yang kurang mampu, anak yatim, dan dhuafa yang

diserahkan di masjid Togaten Pasar Sapi Salatiga sekitar SD Muhammadiyah (Plus)

Kota Salatiga pada bulan Ramadhan tahun 2014 lalu.

b. Aksi sosial siswa sebagai bentuk kepedulian terhadap sesama tersebut, mampu me-

ngumpulkan uang senilai Rp 4.000.000, 00. Dana tersebut kemudian akan disalurkan

kepada korban banjir yang berada di wilayah Kudus, Demak, Jepara, dan sekitarnya.

Penyalurannya melalui Pimpinan Daerah Muhammadiyah (PDM) wilayah setempat

tahun 2014 lalu.

c. Hari Kamis tanggal 17 Oktober 2014 anak-anak kelas VI SD Muhammadiyah Plus

Kota Salatiga mengisi kegiatan jeda semester dengan berkunjung ke Dinas Perkebunan

Pembibitan tepatnya di daerah Noborejo. Setelah selesai belajar tentang bercocok

tanam lalu anak-anak kelas VI melanjutkan perjalanan menuju desa Ngronggo. Di sana

anak-anak kelas VI menyerahkan bantuan air bersih kepada warga Ngronggo yang

memang sangat membutuhkan air bersih.42

Siswa terlibat aktif dalam proses GREGED mulai dari pengumpulan, penyaluran uang

sedekah, dan terlibat langsung dalam proses pemberian uang sedekah yang dikumpulkan

melalui GREGED.

GREGED kegiatan di luar kelas yang sangat bermanfaat bagi siswa kelas VI SD

Muhammadiyah (Plus) Salatiga, siswa mempunyai motivasi untuk bersedekah dalam

berlomba-lomba dalam melakukan kebaikan. Dan siswa memiliki empati yang tinggi saat

berada di lokasi penyaluran uang sedekah. Siswa juga merasakan rasa syukur kepada Allah

42Hasil wawancara dengan bapak Rifa Asqowi, S.Pd.I, pada hari Selasa, 31 Maret 2015.


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SWT, karena siswa kelas VI lebih beruntung dapat bersekolah dan menikmati pendidikan

unggulan di Salatiga.43

Problematika dalam Program GREGED

Dari hasil observasi dan wawancara dengan tim guru kelas VI tidak ada problem yang

serius dalam menjalankan program GREGED ini. Karena program ini sudah disetujui dari

pihak sekolah dengan orang tua siswa dan melibatkan siswa sekaligus dalam sosialisasi

program akademik dan non akademik yang dilakukan di awal tahun ajaran baru. Tentunya

pihak orang tua mampu bekerja sama untuk mewujudkan program ini. Karena gerakan

GREGED ini merupakan gerakan pengumpulan dana dengan menyisihkan uang saku dari

siswa. Hal ini diperkuat dari pernyataan salah satu tim guru kelas VI Oktaviana Safitri, S.Pd

sebagai berikut:

Selama pengumpulan uang sedekah berjalan dengan baik, karena memang orangtua siswa

mendukung penuh program ini. Siswa kami sangat antusias ketika pengumpulan uang.

Apalagi ketika proses perhitungan dan penyaluran dana yang langsung terjun ke masyarakat,

siswa sangat antusias dan menunjukkan sikap empati yang membuat kami tim guru kelas VI

khususnya bangga. Mudah-mudahan tujuan dari program GREGED ini yaitu membentuk

kecerdasan emotional dan spiritual akan terbentuk melalui proses yang dilalui siswa kami. Ini

berpengaruh sekali dalam semangat siswa dalam membantu sesama, dan memunculkan rasa

bersyukur kepada Allah, karena ternyata siswa kami lebih beruntung memiliki ekonomi yang

mampu.44

Sedekah sebagai upaya untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi seseorang yang

merasakan dengan cara lain dan gagal. Upaya menyelesaikan dengan sedekah ini merupakan

upaya mengajak manusia untuk peduli dengan orang lain serta mengajak untuk ber-amar

ma`ruf sehingga kemudian strategi sedekah digunakan untuk mencapai tujuan dakwah.

Manfaat dari sedekah yang dikembangkan dalam program GREGED bisa dirasakan oleh

banyak masyarakat luas. Dana sedekah di alokasikan ke berbagai bidang, yaitu: bidang

pendidikan, kesehatan, pengembangan dakwah Islam, serta diberikan kepada yang

memerlukan bantuan seperti fakir miskin, korban bencana alam dll.

43Hasil wawancara ketua kelas VI Al-Khindi Zulfikar, pada hari Selasa, 31 Maret 2015.

44Hasil wawancara dengan wali kelas VI Al-Farabi ibu Oktaviana Safitri, S.Pd, pada hari Selasa, 31 Maret 2015.


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Seseorang bersedekah karena memang harus bersedekah. Sedekah adalah ketetapan

agama. Maqamsedekah itu sama halnya dengan maqam sholat, puasa, zakat, haji, membaca

al-Quran dll. Tujuannya adalah untuk mendekatkan diri kepada Allah SWT, bukan untuk

mendapatkan keutamaan-keutamaan atau keajaiban-keajaiban sedekah.

Semua bentuk sedekah yang ditafsirkan diatas selalu diikuti dengan keikhlasan yang

mendalam, sehingga apa yang dilakukan mendapatkan tempat yang terpuji disisi Allah SWT.

Sedekah dapat dilihat dari banyak versi dan semuanya berpangkal dari pemberian sesuatu

kepada orang lain. Tujuan ibadah dalam Islam bukanlah menyembah, tetapi mendekatkan diri

kepada Tuhan, agar dengan demikian roh manusia senantiasa diingatkan kepada halhal yang

bersih lagi suci, sehingga akhirnya rasa kesucian seseorang menjadi kuat dan tajam. Roh yang

suci membawa kepada budi pekerti baik dan luhur, oleh karena itu ibadah disamping

merupakan latihan spiritual, juga merupakan latihan moral. Demikian juga dengan sedekah

yang mempunyai arti sangat luas ia mencakupi senyuman kepada manusia, seruan kepada

perbuatan baik dan larangan dari berbuat jahat, memberi petunjuk kepada manusia,

menjauhkan duri dari jalan, memberi air yang ada digayung kepada orang yang berhajat dan

menuntun orang yang lemah penglihatannya.45

Masyarakat muslim adalah masyarakat yang memiliki ciri secara organis dinamis, kuat

dasar-dasar teori serta dasar-dasar organisatorisnya, kuat ikatan hubungannya, dan kepaduan

jalinannya. Prinsip teorinya bersumber dari syahadat, yang berarti tidaklah ada suatu gerakan

yang terjadi dan dijadikan, kecuali yang bersumber dari Allah SWT. Setiap pribadi bergerak

dalam dinamika kehidupan tuntunan sistem-NYA yang dicontohkan Rasulullah SAW.

Masyarakat muslim juga mendasarkan dinamikanya pada etika berprestasi kerja. Setiap orang

diharuskan bekerja dan berkelana di muka bumi dalam rangka mencari rezeki dan karunia-

NYA. Islam memberikan spirit, motivasi, dan pemikiran-pemikiran praktis guna mendorong

gairah kerja dan berusaha, yang tidak melalaikan shalat, zakat, dan zikir kepada-Nya.

Program Gerakan Gemar Sedekah di SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga melibatkan

unsur sekolah diantaranya Sutomo, M.Ag selaku kepala sekolah, wakil kepala sekolah (Ainul

Huri, S.Pd.I, kepala tata usaha (Triyono, S.Pd.I), Kaur Kurikulum (Marijo, S.Pd.I), Kaur

Sapras (Buhtari, S.Pd.I), serta team guru kelas VI Rifa Asqowi, S.Pd.I, Dwi Wuryandari,

45Nasution, Harun Nasution, Islam Ditinjau Dari Berbagai Aspeknya Jilid 1, (Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia

(UI-press), 1985),hlm. 34.


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S.Pd, Oktaviana Safitri, S.Pd, Puji Lestari, M.Pd dan orang tua siswa yang turut mendukung

program GREGED.

GREGED merupakan gerakan penggalangan dana yang dilakukan oleh siswa-siswi kelas

6 SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga yang dilakukan setiap hari Jum’at sebesar 500

rupiah. Dana ini digunakan untuk membantu korban bencana alam dan kegiatan sosial. Dalam

program ini siswa dilibatkan secara langsung, dari proses pengumpulan sampai penyaluran

dana yang dibimbing oleh walikelas. Program ini dimulai sejak tahun 2011, sebelumnya nama

program ini adalah GJL (Gerakan Jum’at Lima Ratus). Kemudian berubah nama menjadi

GREGED (Gerakan Gemar Sedekah), program tersebut merupakan bagian dari pendidikan

sosial (kecerdasan sosial) dan melatih anak agar berempati terhadap bencana yang terjadi.

Sekaligus melatih anak melaksanakan pendidikan agama dengan praktik langsung dalam

bentuk infaq/shadaqah dan diharapkan nantinya siswa memiliki empati yang tinggi dan

mampu berinisiatif, untuk membantu warga yang membutuhkan bila terjadi bencana.

Sebagaimana data telah dikutip pada pelaksanaan program.

Dalam sedekah ada makna sosial yang hendak menyelamatkan kehidupan orang miskin,

anak yatim, para pengemis, pemulung dan peminta-minta. Maka, agar orang yang nasibnya

kurang beruntung bisa hidup layak, orang yang mampu dituntun untuk bersikap dermawan

dan mau membantu yang kurang beruntung. Siswa SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga

dari hasil observasi sebagian besar merupakan siswa mampu, untuk itu perilaku sedekah yang

memunculkan empati akan meruntuhkan kesenjangan sosial yang dialami siswa di

lingkungannya dan akan mendekatkan diri siswa dengan masyarakat. Sebab, sedekah

merepresentasikan adanya kepedulian dan keinginan untuk terus menjalin komunikasi.

Sedekah dalam fungsi ini bisa ditafsirkan sebagai alat komunikasi dan perekat hubungan

sosial.

Kedamaian dan ketentraman adalah dambaan setiap orang. Dengan gemar bersedekah,

menyambung tali persaudaraan/ bersilaturahmi kedamaian dan ketentraman hidup akan bisa

didapatkan. Sebagaimana penjelasan pada BAB. II, terdapat nilai-nilai sosial yang

terkandung. Penulis dapat menyimpulkan diimplementasikan nilai-nilai sedekah dalam

pendidikan bisa dilakukan cara sebagai berikut:

Penanaman dasar-dasar kejiwaan yang mulia, ketakwaan, ukhuwah islamiyah, kasih

sayang, mementingkan orang lain daripada diri sendiri, memaafkan, berani karena benar.

Pemeliharaan hak orang lain. Membiasakan anak untuk menghargai dan menghormati hak-


173

hak orang di luar dirinya, seperti hak terhadap orang tua, hak terhadap teman, hak terhadap

tetangga, hak terhadap guru, hak terhadap orang yang lebih dewasa. Tujuan yang ingin

dicapai adalah kecerdasan emotional dan spiritual setiap siswa menjadi lebih sempurna dan

bermakna, sehingga masyarakat tumbuh di atas dasar saling menolong, produktivitas,

keterikatan yang kuat, akhlaq yang luhur, serta saling mencintai. Anak dibiasakan sejak dini

untuk menjalankan etika sosial secara umum, dibentuk atas dasar-dasar pendidikan yang

sebenarnya. Tujuannya, bila sudah dewasa dan dapat menangkap inti segala masalah, ia dapat

bergaul dengan sesamanya di tengah-tengah masyarakat dengan kebaikan yang empatik,

dengan cinta yang utuh, dan budi pekerti yang luhur.

KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN

Berdasarkan penelitian yang telah dilakukan, maka dapat diambil kesimpulan bahwa

implementasi program gerakan gemar sedekah (GREGED) di SD Muhammadiyah (Plus) kota

Salatiga merupakan gerakan penggalangan dana yang dilakukan oleh siswa-siswi kelas VI SD

Muhammadiyah (Plus) Kota Salatiga yang dilakukan setiap hari sebesar 500 rupiah. Dana ini

digunakan untuk membantu korban bencana alam dan kegiatan sosial. Dalam program ini

siswa dilibatkan secara langsung, dari proses pengumpulan sampai penyaluran dana yang

dibimbing oleh wali kelas. Program ini dimulai sejak tahun 2011, sebelumnya nama program

ini adalah GJL (Gerakan Jum’at Lima Ratus). Kemudian berubah nama menjadi GREGED

(Gerakan Gemar Sedekah).

GREGED merupakan bagian dari pendidikan sosial (kecerdasan sosial) dan melatih anak

agar berempati terhadap bencana yang terjadi. Sekaligus melatih anak melaksanakan

pendidikan agama dengan praktik langsung dalam bentuk infaq/shadaqah dan diharapkan

nantinya siswa memiliki empati yang tinggi dan mampu berinisiatif, untuk membantu warga

yang membutuhkan bila terjadi bencana. GREGED dalam perspektif psikologi yang akan

memunculkan kecerdasan emosional dan spiritual.


174

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Oktober 2014, Pukul 18.00 WIB

Sdmpsalatiga.sch.id, diakses 8 September 2014, pukul 10.00 WIB.


177

THE ROLE OF CUSTOMERS’ CULTURAL VALUES IN DEVELOPING E-

LOYALTY

(EMPIRICAL STUDY ON BSM KUDUS BRANCH)

Ekawati Rahayu Ningsih

STAIN KUDUS

JL. Conge Ngembalrejo Po Box 51 Kudus

[email protected].

Abstract

Objective of the study this paper is to discuss result of the study which examines

effects of customers’ cultural values in developing e-loyalty (Elektronik Loyalty) in

globalization era and integrative model which based on Relationship Marketing theory

(Morgan dan Hunt, 1994). These customers’ cultural values include personal relationship,

long-term relationship, credibility among organizations (Hofstede, 1991), and English

capability (Tetiwat dan Huff, 2003). Design/ Methodology/ Approach in this study is using

triangulation approach consisted of survey on 17 customers, interview with manager, and

instrument data processing of 200 respondents based on Structural Equation Modeling

(SEM), its result shows that there is significant relation among customers’ cultural values in

developing e-loyalty of sharia banking especially in BSM Kudus Branch. Knowledge

provided in this paper is expected to be able to help bank manager in handling issues of

decreasing customers’ e-loyalty of sharia banking by cultural approach.

Keywords: Cultural Value, Customer, e-loyalty, Relationship Marketing


178

1. INTRODUCTION

This study is motivated by the existence of phenomenon and gap between theoritical

claim and practice of sharia banking in reality. The phenomenon in reality shows that after

appearing globalizatioon era, society’s need toward advancement of information technology

especially in banking is greater. Therefore, a developed country, such as Indonesia, has a high

expectation to adopt that advancement of information technology to create satisfaction and

customer loyalty in the context of relationship marketing. There are many benefits got from

applying modern information technology (Humphrey et al 2003;. Kraemer et al, 2002; Pare

2002, 2003 and Tregurtha Vink 2002), among of them are to build long-term relationship

between customer and banking.

However, empirical study shows that developed country, such as Indonesia, has a low

adoption level of information technology (Wahid dan Iswari, 2007). This is effected by many

things, they are cultural values of society which are inappropriate or less support to adoption

and development of information technology (Vatanasakdakul, 2007). It will give bad effect on

satisfaction and customer loyalty level. In interation process of culture and globalization, on

one side gives a chance to sharia banking to access global market and advancement of

information technology (such as: internet banking, sms banking e-loyalty) which can possibly

make sharia banking to broaden its products and distribution channel of service. On the other

hand, globalization on products and services to customers throughout the world can not be

equalized because there are cultural difference, geopolitics, and many more which finally

affect some differences significantly in taking decision, habit, and their long-term relationship

with company.

In term of cognitive, the meaning of culture is “collective programming from one’s

thinking which differ between member of one group and anoher” (Hofstede, 1991). Culture

consists of mindset (Kluckhohn, 1954). It is viewed as a system set of gathering meaning

(Shweder & LeVine, 1984) and as an effort of dividing knowledge structure which leads to

decreasing variability in individual interpretation toward stimulus (Erez & Earley, 1993).

Because implementation of cultural content is very selective and adaptive, a differently

ecological environment will make cultural modification also different (Berry, 1979,

Kagitcibasi & Berry, 1989). Culture will form basic values and norms from its members.

They will be divided and transmitted from one generation to another through social learning,

modelling process and observation, and also effect from action itself (Bandura, 1986).

Vitkauskaite (2009) stated that interaction of internet will not be optimal if design

system used is inappropriate with user perception. Noted that customers from many countries


179

use different interface, graphic template, and their attitude in e-commerce is also different.

Thus, if a company is intended to have bussiness in global market should consider the effects

of cultural values and know every change of its in marketing communication. Knowledge

about this cultural specification is important, especially in marketing campaign, to affect

decision, satisfaction, and customer loyalty. Moreover, this knowledge should be arranged

well and adjusted to job analysis (Marcus, 2004).

Related to e-loyalty, some literatures are intended to broaden the meaning of loyalty to

strengthen relationship marketing theory. Loyalty has been identified as antecedent of

competitive strategy, customer retention, and getting long-term profitability of company

(Gronroos, 1996; Gummesson, 1994; Krisdayanti, et al, 2012;. Morgan & Hunt, 1994;

Nguyen & Liem, 2012). That proportion is called valid because customer loyalty, actually, is

the greatest asset of company (Berry & Parasuraman, 1991; Ehigie, 2006; Abdullateef,

Mohktar & Yusoff, 2010), thus the purpose of every bussines is to make and mantain

customers by creating loyalty (Maiyaki & Mokhtar, 2012). Coming from basic thought about

that loyalty, e-loyalty is diveloped, according to Anderson and Srinivasan (2003) in Hur et al

(2011) is beneficial attitude for customers to an e-business system which is potential to cause

an action of buying repeatedly. Meanwhile, Hur et al (2011) defines e loyalty as intention of

customers to visit website again with or without online transaction.

Besides those backgounds above, this study is conducted to solve the gap, either

theory or gap of the previous study. Theory gap raises because there is not a clear consensus

(multifacet) between the previous researcher about how to measure the effects of all practices

of Relationship Marketing (Guo, Duff dan Hair, 2008). On the other hand, study gap raises

because some opinions state that satisfaction and loyalty variables can be affected by culture

(Hofstede, 2001: Guo dan Duff, 2007; Vatanasakdakul, Ramburuth, D’ambra 2010).

Nevertheless, Avery, Baradwaj, Singer (2008) pointed that not all of factors from those, only

culture, Hofstede (1991), affects understanding, satisfaction, loyalty, and taking attributes

from varioous designs of certain web bank online situs. Therefore, this study will re-examine

the effects of cultural values as well as those which were conducted by Vatanasakdakul,

Ramburuth, D’ambra (2010). It is like what was suggested by Webster (1992) and Achrol

(1997) that the next researchers review and re-analyze deeply about design and practice of

Relationship Marketing on banking bussiness to create customer loyalty from different culture

background, especially in developed countries such as Indonesia.

The important objectives of this study are first, to solve theory gap by developing and

strengthening basic theory of Marketing Relationship, especially on bussiness of sharia


180

banking. Second, shaping theoritically basic strategy to build e-loyalty by knowing what

kinds of customers’ cultural values which really affect on improving relation quality between

sharia banking and customers. This study intends to show that there is interdependence among

variables in building customer e-loyalty.

Suggestion from Cáceres and Paparoidamis (2005) to the next researchers, to notice

the difference of customers from various social background and is used as meaasurement

variable which affects customers’ loyalty in giving service. It is also firmed by Webster

(1992) and Achrol (1997) who state that cultural difference can cause the high or low level of

customer loyalty.

According to background, an identified gap, objective of the study and suggestion of

the previous researcher, this study is conducted to solve the gap by reviewing theory abd basic

concept of Relationship Marketing and identifying customers’ cultural values which affect e-

loyalty on sharia banking as well as done by Savanik, John and Prem (2010) to build

conceptual framework and aim to unite various relational variables which are related in

literature of marketing relationship. Then, it is conducted investigation empirically for the

formulated model. Because the objective of this study is investigating theoritical-basis model,

so this study uses an analysis technique of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). This SEM

usage is also expected to solve the gap either theory or an identifieed gap of the stdy.

2. Theoritical Review

2.1 Cultural Values

This study is more directed to how individuals and Indonesian cultural values have an

adaptive perspective and attitude toward the development of information technology to

support banking loyalty programs. Why culture is the focus of discussion, because culture

includes various setting of social behavior and interaction. This setting that causes

anthropologists and researcher succeed to develop several cultural models that illustrate the

differences between cultures with each other. Hewett et al. (2006) stated that national culture

is an important factor in maintaining long-term relationships between customers and

companies.

One of the most widely quoted anthropologists is Geert Hofstede (1980, 1983, and

1984). Hofstede successfully undertook cultural studies from 1970 to 1980 on IBM

companies, in 72 national subsidiaries, 38 jobs, 20 languages, and 116,000 individuals. Based

on these studies, Hofstede identifies four cultural dimensions consisting of dimensions:

individualism vs. collectivism, avoidance of uncertainty, masculinity, and distance of power.


181

This understanding has dominated the literature in the last two decades (Geletkanycz, 1997;

Hickson, 1996; Vitell et al, 1993).

Power Distance is the level of public acceptance of uneven distribution in a power.

The power distance scores in Indonesian society are very high at 78 compared to the Thai

state is 64 (Hofstede, 2016). Hofstede claims that high-powered countries have centralized

and hierarchical political structures, developed with status differences, while low-power

countries consider individuals as normal and status differences among them are not very

strong.

The fundamental issue of Individualism vs. collectivism is the degree of individual

dependence in society. In a collectivist culture the interests of the group take precedence over

the interests of the individual, on the contrary in the individualist culture, the interests of the

individual are greater than the interests of the group. So in a cultured society of high

collectivism, the feeling of dependence on each individual is very high. Indonesia has a low

individualism score is 14, indicating that Indonesia is cultured by high collectivism.

The culture of masculinity vs. femininity is related to the effort of separating

traditional gender roles or not doing it. In a masculine culture the role of gender is more

detached than that of feminism and manifests itself through the tenacity, competitiveness,

violence and femininity of the home-oriented, the children, the parents and the tenderness.

The cultural score of masculinity for Indonesia is 46, this shows the characteristic of

Indonesian culture is lower than Malaysia with score 50.

The culture of avoidance of uncertainty is the cultural dimension that addresses its role

in accepting uncertainty. Individuals in a society whose avoidance of high uncertainty seek to

avoid personal risk, they are more opposed to innovation and respect for rules. Indonesia's

uncertainty avoidance score is 48, which means that Indonesians have an awareness of the

low uncertainty situation. Ravichandran (2001) argues that innovation and the adoption of

complex technologies always involve a certain degree of risk. In the diffusion process,

innovators are more willing to take risks and they are more tolerant of risk than other groups.

A long-term orientation culture describes how people behave when faced with present

and future challenges. Character of society with long-term orientation more maintain stability,

prudence, make long-term agreement and have tremendous value. Countries in Asia are more

focused on wise behavior compared to Western countries whose focus is more focused on

finding their own truth. The long-term orientation score of Indonesia is 62, indicating that

Indonesia has a pragmatic culture. In a pragmatic culture, people believe that the truth


182

depends on the situation, context and time. Society shows its ability to adapt more easily to

rapidly changing situations. People have a tendency to save and invest for the future.

Differences in the results of cultural suitability research (Culture + IT adaptation)

started from the influence of each national culture's ability in adapting to the progress of

information technology. In general, cultural studies (Harvey, 1997, Straub, 1994, Watson,

Teck and Raman, 1994) and IT adoption suggest Hofstede's work relevance for IT adoption.

Other studies have also examined the implications of national culture for certain technologies

such as SPKK, E-mail, and fax, etc., but the analysis is usually limited in one particular

country, and cannot be generalized to other countries (Vatanasakdakul, D'ambra, Ramburuth,

2010). Therefore it is necessary further research in this field.

Because there are differences in the level of acceptance of each culture towards the

advancement of banking information technology, the cultural values used as independent

variables as ever done by (Vatanasakdakul, D'ambra, Ramburuth, 2010) are as follows:

personal relationship, long relationship Length, inter-organizational trust (Hofstede, 1991),

and English ability (Tetiwat and Huff, 2003).

2.2 E loyalty

In the marketing literature, loyalty has been widely recognized as the most important

(Oliver, 1999; Samuelsen and Sandvik, 1997; Howard and Sheth, 1969). Reichheld (1996)

studied the positive effect of profits when having loyal customers. Aaker (1991) also

discusses loyalty programs very important, especially with regard to brand equity. Fornell and

Wernerfelt (1987) note that customer retention costs substantially, can reduce customer

acquisition rates.

E-loyalty is an extension of the concept of conventional loyalty applied on line (Ghane

et al, 2011). E-loyalty is the intention to visit the website again with or without the occurrence

of online transactions (Hur et al, 2011). Therefore, because the company website is non

ecommerce which means not serving the transaction, in this study e-loyalty is measured by

using three of four indicators without including action that is: cognitive, affective and

conative with each indicator is preference, positive attitude and revisit (Hur et al, 2011).

Based on the various opinions above, if on the understanding of customer loyalty

explained about how loyal customers means to make repeat purchases in e-loyalty. This

repeat purchase turns into a repeat visit. This visit may mean customer interest in the

company, or the potential to make a purchase or transaction.


183

3. Conceptual Framework Model and Hypothesis

From the understanding of the cultural values and e-loyalty above, the conceptual

scheme and the hypothesis proposed in this study are as follows:

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework Model and Hypothesis

National Culture Relationship Marketing

H1

H2

H3

H4

Source: Hofstede (1991), Teliwat and Huff (2003), Morgan and Hunt (1994)

From the above conceptual framework, the Researcher proposed a hypothesis to be

tested in this study as follows:

H1 : There is effect of customer relationships on e-loyalty of sharia banking

H2 : There is effect of long-term customer relationship orientation on e-loyalty of sharia

banking

H3 : There is effect of trust between organizations from customers on e-loyalty of sharia

banking

H4 : There is effect of the customer’s English ability on e-loyalty of sharia banking

4. Methodology of The Study

The research design adopted in this study uses a triangulation approach that includes a

combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. A preliminary survey was conducted

on 17 sharia bank customers to ensure the development of e-loyalty, the key word for the

sharia bank and the third step was a questionnaire customer in 200 respondents as BSM bank

customers taken by accidental sampling. Table descriptions of the respondents is as follows

Long-term

Relationship

Credibility among

Organizations

e-loyalty

Personal Relationship

English Capability


184

Table 1. Description of Respondents

Variable Category Frequency Persentage

Status Government Institution 17 8,5%

Private 74 37%

individual 109 54,5%

Total 200 100%

The duration of relationship

with bank

0-1 year 67 33,5%

1-5 years 117 58,5%

5-10 years 16 8%

10 years above - 0%

Total 200 100%

Gender Male 112 56%

Female 88 44%

Total 200 100%

Age of respondent 20-40 years 129 64,5%

41-60 years 60 30%

61 years above 11 5,5%

Total 200 100%

Source: Research Data (2015)

Based on the type of electronic banking transactions ever conducted, from 200

respondents obtained data in the following table 4.2:

Table 2. Types of Electronic Transactions of Sharia Banking Ever Been Conducted

Types of

Electronic

Transaction of

Sharia Banking

Total of

Respondents

N = 200

Precentage

Giro 108 54%

Saving Account 187 93,5%

Deposit Account 84 42%

Transfer/RTGS 183 91,5%

Other services 105 52,5%

Source: Research Data (2015)

Researcher takes research setting in Bank Syariah Mandiri (BSM) Branch Kudus and

Pati. Each measured by using five question items. Measurement of variables uses Likert scale

ladder 5 points with the following criteria:

- 1: strongly disagree

- 2: disagree

- 3: neutral

- 4: agree

- 5: strongly agree

After all the data is complete, the next step testing the validity and reliability of the

instrument using Confirmatory Factor Analysis with the aid programs AMOS 6. Loading


185

factor. As the result, each culture item is valid because of loading factor> 0, 50. While the

results of reliability testing of all instruments in say reliable because CR> 0.6.

5. Result and Discussion

5.1. Hypotesis Testing

5.1.1 Analysis of Appropiate Model (Goodness of Fit Model)

Evaluation of goodness-of-fit value of the proposed research model shows that in

the CMIN column, the default model is 2764,995 and the result P column is 0.072 or

above 0.05. In table CMIN / DF the result of 2.406 or show more than 2. So it can be said

the model is fit. RMR, GFI, shows the default model of 0.920. Because the result is

above 0.9 then it is said to be fit. Overall measurement of goodness of fit indicates that

the model proposed in this research is acceptable. Whereas In the Baseline Comparison

table, the TLI column, Rho2 of 0.988 and the CFI column of 0.989. Because the result is

above or more than 0.9 then the result is good. The result is not too sensitive to the

sample. In the RMSEA table, the result is 0.016 because the result is less than 0.08 then it

says the result has been fulfilled

Table 3: Result of Goodness-of-Fit Model

Goodness of fit indices Cut off Value Result Model Evaluation

Chi-Square (2) Expected small 1980,709 -------------

Significance Probability (p) 0,05 0,054 Good

CMIN/DF 2,0 1,053 Good

GFI 0,9 0,791 Marginal

AGFI 0,9 0,762 Marginal

TLI 0,9 0,988 Good

CFI 0,9 0,989 Good

RMSEA 0,08 0,016 Good

Source: The processed primary data (2015)

5.1.2 Analysis of Line Coefficient

The test results indicate that several lines analyzed have significant relationship,

that is seen from the level of significance (p) hypothesis test <5%. This analysis also

shows there are 4 direct line influences. For direct influence, which has the greatest

influence is the influence of long-term orientation relationship on e-loyalty, which is

4,146. This indicates that long-term orientation relationships have a greater direct effect

on e-loyalty than other cultural values.

5.2. Hypothesis Discussion


186

Test results using SEM, seen in table 2 as follows

Table 4. Result of Hypothesis Testing

Esti

Mate S.E. C.R. P Note

e-loyalty

<--- Personal Relationship

.160 .056 2.874 .004 Significant

e-loyalty

<--- Long-term Orientation

.251 .061 4.146 *** Significant

e-loyalty

<--- Credibility .250 .069 3.646 *** Significant

e-

loyalty <---

English

Capability .204 .086 2.379 .017 Significant

Source: The processed primary data (2015)

Based on the calculation result in Table 2, got the value of C.R customer relationship

of 2.874 with significance level 0,008 or p <0,05. The result shows that hypothesis 1 is

supported, it means statistically it can be concluded that the better personal relationship

between customer and sharia banking, it will have positive effect on e-loyalty. If the sharia

bank has an account manager specializing in customer needs based on electronic banking

(such as internet banking, ATM machine, sms banking, RTGS and others), it can be assured

that customers will keep their loyalty. The results of this study support the theory Hofstede

(1991) and Morgan & Hunt (1994). So also supports the research findings of Vatanasakdakul,

D'ambra, Ramburuth (2010) on the cultural values of Thailand.

Hypothesis 2 is supported with CR value of long-term orientation relationship of

4,146 with significance level 0.0008 or p <0, 05 explain statistically that customer motivation

to establish long-term oriented relationship with sharia bank have significant effect on e-

loyalty. This result is in accordance with Hofstede's (1991) and supports the research findings

of Vatanasakdakul research, D'ambra, Ramburuth (2010)

Hypothesis 3 is supported with the value of C.R customer confidence on the banks of

3,646 with a significance level of 0.0008 or p <0.05 describes statistically that the variable of

customer confidence significantly affects the e-loyalty of sharia banking. These results are

consistent with the theory of Hofstede (1991) and support the research findings of

Vatanasakdakul, D'Ambra, Ramburuth (2010)

Hypothesis 4 is supported with the C.R value of English adaptability of 2,379 with a

significance level of 0.0008 or p <0.05 describes statistically that the ability to adapt using

English has a significant effect on e-loyalty of syari'ah banking. These results are consistent

with the theory Tetiwat and Huff (2003) and support the research findings of

Vatanasakdakul, D'Ambra, Ramburuth (2010)

6. CONCLUSION


187

From the result of testing hypothesis as has been explained above, we can conclude

that Indonesian customers’ cultural values based on Hofstede theory (1991), especially

motivation to build long-term-oriented relationship, affect greater on e-loyalty of sharia

bankimg. A society which has long-term perspective tends to emphasize future relation. In

this case, bank should mantain quality of its electronic service so customers will be more

satisfied, credible, and committed to sustain the relatioonship.

As we can see on the result of hypothesis testing 3, customers’ cultural values based

on Hofstede theory (1991), especially mantaining credibility on bank, affect as the second

after long-term orientation. As well as statement of Hofstede (1991) which stated that the real

condition of Indonesia culture which is collective culture tends to keep credibility and

integrity of one to another so finally it leads to loyalty.

In personal relationship significantly affects 2.874, it is caused on service of electronic

banking, role of human service is smaller than machine service. Banking officers only work to

control service and maintenance behind the scene. Nonetheless, personal relationship still has

significant effect because it can be separated from Indonesia background which is

characterized by collective culture and emphasized on personal relationship. dari belakang

layar.

Meanwhile, english capability affects significantly small that is 2,379, it is because

foreign language capability has been taught since elementary school so when facing web

design or electronic service which uses english does not become problem to keep continuing

e-loyalty relationship of sharia banking. Nevertheless, it is better for bank to provide foreign

language facilities, not only english, to broaden service for all users throughout the world.

7. Study Limitation and Suggestion for The Next Researchers

This study has some limitations which can be reviewed by the next researchers, they

are:

a. Time allotment in the study is only 4,5 months, thus it affects yjr data depth which

should be got during survey. Therefore, the next researchers are suggested to

conduct longitudinal study.

b. Broaden the review of cultural values of Hofstede (1991), such as power distance,

masculinity-feminity, also avoid uncertainty and investigate its effect on e-loyalty

of sharia banking. Reminding that measuring cultural values is really affected.


188

c. Re-review the findings of this study on other study objects beyond sharia banking,

such as government institution, MLM, or private company


189

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Perea, Anna & Michael Slater (1999). "Power Distance and Collectivist/Individualist

Strategies in Alcohol Warnings: Effects by Gender and Ethnicity," Journal of Health

Communication, 4,295-310.

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Vatanasakdakul, S., D’ambra, J., Ramburuth, P. (2010). IT Doesn’t Fit! The Influence of

Culture on B2B in Thailand. Journal of Global Information Technology Management,

Vol 13.3

Zeithaml. A.V, Berry.L.L, and Parasuraman. (1990). Communication and Control Process in

the Delivary of Service Quality, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 52: 35-48.

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Journal of Brand Management, 11 (5) 388-402.


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AUTOBIOGRAPHY

1. Name : Ekawati Rahayu Ningsih, SH, MM.

2. Place and Date of Birth: Blora, January 9th, 1974

3. Position : Head of Lektor /IVa

4. Office Address : Jl. Conge Ngembalrejo Kotak Pos 51 Kudus

5. Phone/Fax/E-mail : (0291) 438818 Fax. 441613

6. Education Background : Master Degree of Marketing Management

7. Experiences in managing periodically scientific publication:

a. Chief Editor of Addin Journal (2013 - now)

b. Chief Editor of Iqtishadia Journal (2007 - 2013)

c. Editor Team of Iqtishadia Journal (2013 - now)

d. Managing Editor of Empirik Journal (2013 - now)

e. Editor Team of QIJIS Journal (2014 - now)

8. Languages : Indonesia and English (active)

9. List of Publication during last 3 years:

a. Pengaruh Kualitas Pelayanan B2B Perbankan syari’ah Dan Cultural Fit Pada Kepuasan,

Loyalitas Dan Rekomendasi Positif (Iqtishadia Journal Vol 9 (1) 2016)

b. AnalisisPotensi Penerima Kualitas Alumni Program Studi Ekonomi Syari’ah STAIN

KUDUS Ditinjau Dari Perspektif Stakeholder (Research Journal Vol 9 (1) 2015)

c. Mainstreaming Isu Disabilitas Di Masyarakat Dalam Kegiatan Penelitian Maupun

Pengabdian Pada Masyarakat Di STAIN KUDUS ( Research Journal Vol 8 (1)2014)

d. Pendekatan Cultural Fit Dalam Meningkatkan Motivasi Wirausaha Mahasiswa (Studi

Kasus: Kelompok Usaha Bersama (KUB) Mahasiswa STAIN Kudus)Badan Penerbit

Universitas Muria Kudus (UMK Proceeding 2014)

Thus, this biography is made truly and considerably.

Kudus, Agustus 26th, 2017

Ekawati Rahayu Ningsih, SH, MM.


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RAPOR KURIKULUM (2013) TINGKAT MADRASAH IBTIDAIYAH BERBASIS WEB

Endah Tri Fatmawati, Pascasarjana IAIN Salatiga, [email protected]

Abstrak

Salah satu masalah yang ada dalam kurikulum 2013 adalah pembuatan rapor/penilaian akhir

belajar anak. Berdasarkan permasalahan yang terjadi, peneliti melakukan penelitian yang

bertujuan untuk mengembangkan aplikasi sistem penilaian akhir rapor kurikulum 2013 yang

lebih menarik, dengan desain yang efisien dan mampu mempermudah dalam pembuatannya.

Metode penelitian ini adalah penelitian pengembangan (Research and Development).

Pengumpulan data menggunakan teknik dokumentasi, wawancara dan kuesioner. Objek

penelitian ini adalah aplikasi SPARKS dengan menggunakan bahasa pemrograman PHP dan

didukung database MySQL. Variabel yang menjadi tolok ukur adalah kelayakan produk.

Penelitian ini menghasilkan aplikasi SPARKS dengan susunan format : A) Sikap; B)

Pengetahuan dan keterampilan (khusus angka); C) Ekstrakurikuluer; D) Saran-saran; E) Tinggi

dan berat badan; F) Kondisi kesehatan; G) Prestasi; H) Ketidakhadiran; I) Deskripsi pengetahuan

dan keterampilan. Yang paling utama adalah kelayakan aplikasi SPARKS ini diuji berdasarkan :

(1) Penilaian ahli teknologi yang dinilai berdasarkan 3 aspek yaitu kaidah media, tata laksana,

dan kaidah software mendapatkan skor 88,64 atau termasuk “sangat layak” digunakan; (2)

Penilaian ahli pendidikan dinilai berdasarkan relevansi media kurikulum 2013 mendapatkan

93,75 atau termasuk” sangat baik” untuk digunakan. (3) Penilaian uji coba lapangan dinilai

berdasarkan 4 aspek yaitu kaidah media, tata laksana, kaidah software, dan relevansi media

dibagi menjadi 2 yaitu uji coba terbatas menghasilkan skor 88,89 termasuk “sangat layak” dan

uji coba diperluas menghasilkan 87,93 termasuk “sangat layak” digunakan.

Kata kunci : Aplikasi SPARKS, Website

Abstract

One of the problem that appeared in 2013 curriculum is making a raport/student’s final

assessment. Based on the problem, observer did an observation which aimed to develop

application system of student’s final assessment in 2013 curriculum which was more interesting,

by using an afficient design and it was able to make it easier. The procedure of data analysis is

Reseach and Development. The data collection used documentation, interview and questioner.

The object of observation is SPARKS application by using language programmer PHP an it was

supported by database MySQL. The variable measured was the feasibility of the product. The

observation produced SPARKS application and has the generic structure below : A)Attitude;

B)Skill and Knowledge (for the number); C)Extracurricular; D)Suggestions; E)Heigh and

Weight; F) Health Condition; G)Achievement; H)Absence; I) Skill and Knowledge Description.

The most important thing was feasibility of SPARKS application which was tested based on : (1)

Assessment of technology expert which was assessed based on 3 aspects such as the principle of



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media, the system of quality and principle of sofware which gained 88,64 score or included

“very suitable” to be used. (2) Assessment of Education expert which was assessed based on

relevance of curriculum 2013 media which gained 93,75 or included “very good” to be used. (3)

Assessment of field trial which was assessed based on 4 aspects such as principle of media, the

system of quality, principle of sofware and relevance of media which was divided into 2 such as

limitation trial which gained 88,89 score included “very suitable” and expanding trial which

gained 87,93 score included “very suitable” to be used.

Keywords : SPARKS Application, Website

PENDAHULUAN

Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam kurikulum 2013, yakni pendekatan scientific. Pendekatan

adalah konsep dasar yang mewadahi. menginspirasi. menguatkan dan melatari pemikiran tentang

bagaimana metode pembelajaran diterapkan berdasarkan teori tertentu.46 Pendekatan ini lebih

menekankan pada pembelajaran yang mengaktifkan siswa. Pendekatan ini dilaksanakan dengan

melibatkan tiga model pembelajaran diantaranya adalah problem based learning, project based

learning dan discovery learning. Ketiga model ini akan menunjang how to do yang dielu-elukan

dalam kurikulum 2013. Dalam penerapan metode ilmiah terdapat aktivitas yang dapat

diobservasi seperti mengamati, menanya, mencoba, menalar dan mengkomunikasikan.47

Pemerintah melalui dinas pendidikan sering mengadakan diklat bagi guru mengenai

implementasi Kurikulum 2013. Tetapi kebingungan guru dalam sistem penilaian dan rapor

menjadi keluhan yang banyak dirasakan guru. Dalam implementasi Kurikulum 2013 siswa tidak

hanya dinilai berdasarkan kemampuan akademiknya saja, tetapi juga dari sikap serta

keterampilan, seperti yang tertuang dalam Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan

46 Hamruni, Strategi Pembelajaran, Yogyakarta: Insan Madani, 2012, 6 47 Kemendikbud, Pendekatan, Jenis dan Metode Penelitian Pendidikan, Jakarta: T.P, 2013, 208.


194

Republik Indonesia Nomor 53 Tahun 2015 tentang Penilaian Hasil Belajar oleh Pendidik dan

Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Pendidikan Menengah Pasal 1 yang berbunyi :

“Penilaian Hasil Belajar oleh Pendidik adalah proses pengumpulan informasi/data

tentang capaian pembelajaran peserta didik dalam aspek sikap. aspek pengetahuan. dan

aspek keterampilan yang dilakukan secara terencana dan sistematis yang dilakukan untuk

memantau proses. kemajuan belajar. dan perbaikan hasil belajar melalui penugasan dan

evaluasi hasil belajar”48

Pada tahun 2014-2015 pemerintah sudah mendistribusikan contoh raport berupa file

dalam bentuk ms-word atau ms-excel. Pada kenyataannya banyak guru yang masih mengeluh

kurang praktisnya menggunakan file raport tersebut. Beberapa guru yang penulis temui,

menyatakan bahwa mereka masih menggunakan cara manual dalam inputing data yang akhirnya

menjadi sebuah rapor. Padahal aspek penilaian yang dituliskan tidaklah sedikit, banyak yang

harus dimasukkan yaitu aspek sikap secara deskripsi yang meliputi sikap spiritual dan sosial,

kemudian untuk aspek pengetahuan dan ketrampilan tidak hanya deskripsi saja melainkan juga

ada nilai dan predikat dari rata-rata hasil belajar selama satu semester.

Guru-guru harus lembur untuk pengerjaan rapor, bahkan yang menjadikan kabar yang

kurang baik yaitu Salatiga menunda pembagian rapor pada tahun 2015 dikarenakan sebagian

besar Sekolah Dasar belum selesai dalam pengerjaan rapor sesuai tanggal ketentuan. Dengan

berkembangnya zaman yang segala sesuatu menggunakan internet. Sehingga penulis melakukan

penelitian dengan judul “Pengembangan Aplikasi SPARKS (Sistem Penilaian Akhir Rapor

Kurikulum 2013) Tingkat Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Berbasis WEB”.

48Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia Nomor 53 Tahun 2015 tentang Penilaian

Hasil Belajar oleh Pendidik dan Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Pendidikan Menengah Pasal 1


195

Penelitian dengan topik sistem aplikasi rapor berbasis web yang hampir sama sudah

dilakukan oleh Tony Kurniawan dkk dengan judul perancangan pengolahan nilai rapor berbasis

web (studi kasus pada SMA Kebon Dalem)49 yang menghasilkan sebuah sistem pengolahan nilai

rapor berbasis web yang dapat mempercepat proses perhitungan, pengarsipan nilai, dan

pembuatan laporan. Ulfah Rahmawati dkk dengan judul Aplikasi Berbasis WEB Pengolahan

Nilai Akademik (Studi Kasus: SMP Negeri 34 Bandung)50 menghasilkan aplikasi yang

memberikan fasilitas kepada guru mata pelajaran untuk melakukan input nilai siswa, selain itu

jurnal penelitian sejenis yaitu dilakukan oleh Nursahid dkk menghasilkan kesimpulan bahwa

komputerisasi dapat mempermudah proses dalam kegiatan penelitian hasil belajar siswa yang

dikerjakan oleh bapak atau ibu guru pengajar terutama dalam penghitungan nilai. waktu rekap

nilai. serta pembuatan laporan.51

Berdasarkan pernyataan Scott W. Bonham dkk menyatakan bahkan akhir-akhir ini

banyak yang sudah melakukan tes dan penilaian yang berbasis website.52 Perbedaan penelitian-

penelitian di atas dengan penelitian ini adalah bahwa peneliatian lain membuat software dengan

daftar menu yang meliputi banyak hal. Sedangkan dalam penelitian ini hanya terkonsentrasi pada

pembuatan rapor kurikulum 2013 tingkat madrasah ibtidaiyah yang dilakukan dalam pembuatan

menggunakan PHP dan database MyQSL dengan fitur dan menu yang dibutuhkan dalam format

49 Tony Kurniawan dkk, ”Perancangan Sistem Pengolahan Nilai Rapor Berbasis WEB (Studi Kasus pada

SMA Kebon Dalem)”, Jurnal Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, Volume 4, Nomor 2 (Agustus 2013), 1-6. 50 Ulfah Rahmawati, dkk, Aplikasi Berbasis WEB Pengolahan Nilai Akademik (Studi Kasus SMP Negeri 34

Bandung), Jurnal eproc 16.06.516, Bandung: 2016, 1-7. 51 Nursahid, dkk, “Pembangunan Sistem Informasi Penilaian Hasil Belajar Siswa Sekolah Menengah Atas

(SMA) negeri 2 Rembang Berbasis Web”, IJNS-Indonesia Journal on Networking and Security, Volume 4, No.2-2015-ijns.org, 1-10.

52 Scot W Bonham, Aaron Titus, Robert J Beichner, Larry Martin, “Education Research using web-based Assesment System”, Computing in Education, (Vol 2000), 1.


196

rapor saja sehingga lebih cepat dan mudah dalam pembuatannya serta lebih efisien dalam hasil

output rapor.

METODOLOGI

Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah penelitian pengembangan (Research and

Development). Menurut Sugiyono, metode research and development merupakan proses atau

metode yang digunakan untuk memvalidasi dan mengembangkan produk.53

Dengan definisi tersebut maka penelitian dan pengembangan merupakan metode

penelitian yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan produk tertentu dan menguji keefektifan produk

tersebut. Untuk level meneliti dan menguji untuk menciptakan produk yang belum ada tersebut,

langkah-langkah yang dilakukan mengacu langkah-langkah R&D model Sugiyono yang

disederhanakan dan digambarkan sebagai berikut :

53 Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian dan Pengembangan : Research and Development/ R&D,

Bandung :Alfabeta, 2015, 28.

Potensi

dan

Masalah

Studi

Literatur Rancangan

Produk Pengumpulan

Informasi

Uji coba lapangan

Utama / Uji coba

diperluas

Revisi

Produk 1

Uji coba

terbatas

Diseminasi dan

Implementasi

Revisi

Produk 2

Pembuatan

produk

Revisi

desain

Validasi

Desain

Analisis

Analisis

data

Analis

is

data


197

Gambar 2.1 Posisi analisis data dalam penelitian dan pengembangan level

menciptakan produk baru.54

Berdasarkan prosedur penelitian yang ditempuh dan langkah-langkah di atas, analisis

data penulisan dilakukan pada tiga tahapan yaitu setelah validasi desain, setelah uji coba

terbatas dan setelah ujicoba lapangan.

1. Langkah-langkah Penelitian

Berdasarkan langkah-langkah yang dikemukakan Sugiyono di atas. maka prosedur yang

dilakukan dalam membangun aplikasi sistem rapor adalah :

a. Identifikasi potensi dan masalah

Identifikasi masalah dalam penelitian ini yaitu mengidentifikasi potensi dan

masalah yang dialami oleh para guru terkait dengan pembuatan rapor kurikulum

2013 yang masih manual.

b. Analisis kebutuhan dan pengumpulan data

Dalam pengembangan perangkat lunak dimulai dengan analisis kebutuhan

pengguna. Analisis ini secara formal disajikan dalam sebuah laporan kebutuhan

sistem yang merupakan dasar memilik abatar berbagai alternatif yang ada.55

54 Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian dan Pengembangan : Research and Development/R&D, Bandung : Alfabeta,

2015, 48. 55 James A, Hall. Sistem Informasi Akuntansi Edisi 4, penerjemah Dewi Fitriasari dan Deny Kwary Arnos,

Jakarta : Salemba Empat, 2007, 356.


198

Sedangkan pengumpulam data dalam tahap ini selain dilakukan dengan

melakukan wawancara langsung terhadap pengawas, kepala sekolah dan guru-guru

kurikulum 2013.

c. Perancangan desain produk

Kegiatan pada tahap ini adalah perancangan isi dari aplikasi sistem rapor. Langkah-

langkah yang dilakukan tahap desain produk adalah :

1) Perancangan pemodelan aplikasi sistem rapor

2) Pemodelan (Modelling) sesungguhnya digunakan untuk penyederhanaan

permasalahan.56 Adapun tujuan pemodelan (dalam rangka pengembangan

sistem/perangkat lunak aplikasi) adalah sebagai sarana visualisasi dokumentasi

yang bermanfaat untuk menelaah perilaku sistem yang akan dikembangkan.

Dalam pemodelan sistem ini, penulis menggunakan use case ( user berinteraksi

dengan sebuah sistem), activity diagram ( perilaku prosedural dan pararel) dan

sequnce diagram (proses interaksi).

3) Perancangan database

Database adalah sekumpulan data yang terdiri dari satu atau lebih tabel

yang saling berhubungan.57 Database ini berfungsi untuk menyimpan sejumlah

data yang diinput dan sekaligus nantinya akan dibutuhkan sebagai informasi

bagi pengguna. Pembuatan database dalam perancangan aplikasi ini

menggunakan MySQL. MySQL (My Structured Query Language) adalah

56 Adi Nugroho, Rekayasa Perangkat Lunak Menggunakan UML dan Java, Yogyakarta : Andi Offset, 2009, 5. 57 Agnes Heni Triyuliana (ed), Aplikasi Manajemen Database Pendidikan Berbasis Web dengan PHP dan

MySQL, Yogyakarta : Andi Offset, 2005, 2.


199

sebuah program pembuat dan pengelola database atau yang sering disebut

dengan DBMS (Database Management System).58

4) Perancangan desain antarmuka

Perancangan desain adalah kegiatan membuat tampilan aplikasi yang

direncanakan. Desain antar muka menjadi penting sebagai tampilan dari sistem

yang dirancang. Dalam perancangan sistem informasi ini, desain antar muka

dibuat dengan menggunakan aplikasi macromedia dreamweaver dan dibantu

dengan adobe photoshop sebagai pengolah image yang menjadi bagian desain

antarmuka.

d. Validasi desain

Validasi dilakukan sebelum melakukan uji coba produk di lapangan.59Validasi

desain merupakan tahapan pengujian rancangan sistem oleh pakar. Di dalam

kegiatan ini desain yang telah direncanakan oleh peneliti diajukan kepada pakar

untuk mendapatkan penilaian dan masukan.

e. Revisi desain dan analisis data 1

Data dan masukan dari para ahli kemudian dianalisis untuk memperbaiki

desain yang dirancang sebelumnya. Dalam tahapan ini penulis melakukan analisis

data yang telah didapatkan berupa penilaian dan masukan para pakar. Hasil analisis

58 Bunafit Nugroho, Latihan Membuat Aplikasi PHP dan MySQL dengan Dreamweaver, Yogyakarta : Gava

Media, 2008, 91. 59 Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif dan R&D, Bandung : Alfabeta, 2008, 409.


200

data selanjutnya digunakan untuk melakukan revisi desain sebelumnya sehingga

didapatkan desain yang lebih baik.60

f. Pembuatan produk

Berdasarkan desain produk yang telah direvisi tersebut, penulis tuangkan

dalam tahapan pembuatan produk. Dalam tahap ini penulis sebagai perancang

produk menuangkan desain-desain yang telah direvisi sehingga menjadi produk yang

siap digunakan.

g. Ujicoba terbatas

Dalam tahap ini, produk yang telah selesai dikerjakan diujikan pada kelompok

kecil pengguna. Tahap ini disebut juga dengan tahapan pengujian Alpha Testing,

yaitu pengujian yang dilakukan oleh pengguna dibawah bimbingan tim pengembang.

Dalam tes ini pengguna menguji perangkat lunak pada platform pengembangan dan

menunjukkan kesalahan untuk koreksi.61

h. Revisi produk dan analisis data 2

Hasil dari Alpha Testing dalam tahapan pengujian terbatas dianalisis untuk

mendapatkan data kelayakan produk. Dalam analisis tersebut, peneliti melakukan

revisi produk sebelumnya.

i. Final produk

60 Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif dan R&D, ... 409. 61 Bharat Bhushan Argawal dan Sumit Prakash Tayal, Software Engineering, New Delhi Laxmi Publication (P)

Ltd, 2007,140.


201

Hasil pengujian analisis dalam tahap pengujian terbatas digunakan sebagai

perbaikan terakhir. Kritik dan saran dari responden menjadi dasar perbaikan ini.

Setelah perbaikan ulang, jadilah produk akhir sistem informasi.

j. Ujicoba lapangan

Uji coba lapangan dilakukan untuk mendapatkan gambaran mengenai kualitas

produk akhir yang telah dihasilkan.

2. Objek Penelitian

Objek yang diteliti pada penelitian ini adalah sistem aplikasi rapor berbasis web

dengan menggunakan bahasa pemrograman PHP dan didukung database MySQL.

3. Definisi Operasional Variabel

Variabel yang menjadi tolok ukur adalah kelayakan produk.

4. Subjek Penelitian

Suharsimi Arikunto mendefinisikan populasi sebagai semua subjek penelitian.62

Subjek penelitian terkait dengan data merupakan sumber informasi untuk dianalisis

sehingga didapatkan hasil penelitian yang representatif.63

5. Teknik Pengumpulan Data

Pengumpulan data dalam penelitian dan pengembangan ini menggunakan teknik

dokumentasi, wawancara dan kuesioner.

62 Suharsimi Arikunto, Prosedur Penelitian : Suatu Pendekatan dan Praktek, Jakarta : Rineka Cipta, 1998,

115. 63 Zulfikar dan I Nyoman Budiantara, Manajemen Riset dengan Pendekatan Komputasi Statistika,

Yogyakarta : Deepublish, 2014, 88.


202

a. Dokumentasi

Teknik dokumentasi adalah teknik mencari data mengenai hal-hal atau

variabel yang berupa catatan. transkip. buku. surat kabar. majalah. prasasti. notulen.

dan sebagainya.64

b. Wawancara

Menurut Sugiyono mengutip pendapat Esterberg menjelaskan yang disebut

dengan wawancara adalah pertemuan dua orang untuk bertukar informasi dan ide

melalui tanya jawab, sehingga dapat dikonstruksikan makna dalam suatu topik

tertentu.65

Hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat Sugiyono yang menyatakan bahwa wawancara

dengan teknik semistructured interview, diharapkan dapat ditemukan permasalahan

lebih terbuka, dimana pihak yang diajak wawancara diminta pendapat dan ide-

idenya.66

c. Kuesioner

Sugiyono mengutip pendapat Creswell menyatakan :

“Questionnaires are dorms used in a survey design that participant in a

study complete and return to teh researcher. (Kuesioner merupakan teknik

pengumpulan data dimana partisipan/responden mengisi pertanyaan atau

pernyataan kemudian setelah diisi dengan lengkap mengembalikan

kepeada peneliti).”67

64 Suharsimi Arikunto, Prosedur Penelitian : Suatu Pendekatan dan Praktek, Jakarta : Rineka Cipta, 1998,

236. 65 Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian dan Pengembangan : Research and Development/ R&D, Bandung :Alfabeta,

2015, 241-231. 66 Sugiyono. Metode Penelitian dan Pengembangan, ... 233. 67 Sugiyono. Metode Penelitian dan Pengembangan, ... 216.


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Teknik kuesioner ini diambil untuk melakukan pengambilan data atas

kelayakan sistem yang telah dibuat.

6. Instrumen Penelitian

Instrumen penelitian adalah alat untuk mengumpulkan data, tanpa alat tersebut

tidak mungkin data dapat diambil.68 Instrumen penelitian selalu terkait dengan metode

pengumpulan data, maka instrumen yang digunakan antara lain berbentuk pedoman

wawancara dan kuesioner.

7. Analisis Data

Tahap analisis data dalam sebuah penelitian pada umumnya dilakukan setelah

proses pengumpulan data selesai dilakukan. Di dalam penelitian pengembangan yang

penulis lakukan. Analisis data dilakukan tiga kali mengacu pada tahapan-tahapan

perancangan sistem informasi yang dilakukan.

68 Sugiyono. Metode Penelitian dan Pengembangan ..., 156.


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HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Problematika yang Dihadapi Guru dalam Pembuatan Penilaian Akhir Rapor Kurikulum

2013 Tingkat Madrasah Ibtidaiyah

Penerapan kurikulum 2013 yang dimulai pada tahun pelajaran 2013/2014 mengalami pro dan

kontra dari berbagai kalangan pendidikan. Tidak hanya di kalangan pelaku pendidikan ternyata

masyarakat pada umumnya juga ikut berpendapat tentang kurikulum baru tersebut. Terutama

dari orangtua siswa yang sekolah anaknya melaksanakan kurikulum 2013.

Bagi guru selaku orang yang melaksanakan kurikulum 2013 lebih mengeluhkan rapor

kurikulum 2013 yang sangatlah lama dalam pembuatannya. Guru mengolah semua rata-rata nilai

dari semua kompetensi dasar yang nantinya akan diletakkan pada kolom nilai. Dari nilai akhir

tersebut kemudian dirubah atau dikelompokkan sesuai dengan predikatnya tergantung dengan

KKM setiap sekolah.

Akan tetapi didalam kurikulum 2013 guru harus memiliki rincian setiap anak dengan

rata-rata setiap kompetensi dasar, sehingga guru bisa menuliskan deskripsi tertinggi sampai

terendah kompetensi dasar yang dimiliki anak dalam satu semester, dikarenakan setiap anak

pastilah berbeda kelebihan dan kekurangannya.

Sehingga bagi guru, pembuatan rapor sangatlah lama. Walaupun pada tahun pelajaran

2014/2015 pihak pemerintah telah memberikan sosialisasi tentang pembuatan rapor dan

memberikan aplikasi untuk pengolahan nilai dan rapor, nyatanya aplikasi tersebut tidak berjalan

dengan baik. Melalui kelompok kerja guru, aplikasi tersebut banyak dikeluhkan guru karena

setelah memasukkan semua data dan nilai, tiba-tiba aplikasi tersebut mengalami eror dan data-


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data semua hilang, padahal telah disimpan sebelumnya. Dari hal tersebut, guru-guru kemudian

mengulangi pembuatan rapor dengan cara manual (mengetik), sehingga waktu yang dibutuhkan

semakin lama.

Sedangkan pendapat kepala sekolah pelaksana kurikulum 2013 yaitu pembuatan rapor

kurikulum 2013 memang membuat para guru bekerja keras dalam pembuatannya, tetapi sebagai

guru pelaksana kurikulum 2013 tidak boleh sering terkejut dikarenakan rapor kurikulum 2013

akan selalu berubah.

Berdasarkan pendapat beberapa pengawas sekolah mengenai rapor kurikulum 2013

menyatakan bahwa, untuk format rapor akan selalu mengalami perbaikan setiap waktunya agar

lebih sempurna. Sampai tahun 2016/2017 sudah mengalami perbaikan-perbaikan dibandingkan

pada awal dilaksankannya kurikulum 2013. Tetapi memang disadari bahwa format yang tersusun

pada aspek pengetahuan dan keterampilan terlalu sempit apabila muatan pelajaran, nilai, predikat

dan deskripsi dijadikan satu, apalagi pengetahuan dan keterampilan digabung, sehingga margin

pada deskripsi tidak rapi sehingga terlihat kurang baik.

Senada dengan pendapat orangtua siswa yang anaknya bersekolah di sekolahan berbasis

kurikulum 2013, mengatakan bahwa rapor kurikulum 2013 terlalu banyak lembarnya. Setelah

melakukan beberapa wawancara kepada orangtua siswa, ternyata kebanyakan orang tua hanya

melihat nilainya saja dibawah KKM atau tidak tanpa membaca deskripsinya, karena mereka

kurang paham akan deskripsinya dan malas membaca tulisan yang terlalu panjang.

Sedangkan berdasarkan pendapat masyarakat dari berbagai macam profesi yang melihat

rapor kurikulum 2013 menyatakan bahwa bentuk rapor kurang bagus karena berbentuk lembaran


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serta banyak. Sebagai orang awam ketika membaca deskripsi, ya hanya sekedar membaca saja

tanpa memahami, yang dilihat hanyalah nilai yang tertera dalam rapor tersebut.

Pengembangan Aplikasi SPARKS (Sistem Penilaian Akhir Rapor Kurikulum 2013)

Tingkat Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Berbasis WEB

Kekurangan Rapor Kurikulum 2013

Berdasarkan pengamatan yang dilakukan peneliti selama hampir 4 tahun terakhir sejak

dimulainya kurikulum 2013, banyak problem yang terjadi dalam penilaian dan pembuatan rapor.

Dari awal tahun pelajaran 2013/2014 pembuatan rapor dilakukan secara manual, artinya guru

mengetik sendiri capaian setiap anak di program word ataupun exel. Dari pemerintah hanya

memberikan format-format yang harus dibuat, jadi guru secara mandiri mengedit atau bahkan

membuat sendiri.

Pada tahun 2015 pemerintah memberikan aplikasi penilaian yang sudah otomatis

terhubung dengan rapor, tetapi kenyataan yang terjadi di lapangan guru-guru tidak

menggunakannya dikarenakan pernyataan-pernyataan guru yang menyebutkan bahwa aplikasi

tiba-tiba “eror” dan “blank” pada saat memasukkan nilai sehingga data-data hilang. Sehingga

aplikasi dari pemerintah terbilang kurang efisien diterapkan pada sekolah dasar/madrasah

ibtidaiyah dan guru-guru kembali secara manual dalam pembuatan rapor.

Seiring dengan aplikasi yang kurang efisien, kritik-kritikpun disampaikan guru kepada

pemangku kebijakan terutama Dinas yang menangani tentang kurikulum 2013 pada saat

kelompok kerja guru (KKG) kurikulum 2013 ataupun saat ada pelatihan kurikulum 2013 dari

LPMP (Lembaga Pengendali Mutu Pendidikan). Seharusnya guru dimudahkan dalam penilaian


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dan pembuatan rapor karena guru sudah disibukkan dalam mengajar serta berbagai macam

administrasi yang harus dikerjakan dalam penerapan kurikulum 2013.

Sampai tahun 2016 aplikasi tersebut belum ada perubahan yang siginifikan, masih ada

kekurangan-kekurangan dalam pendeskripsian yang tidak sesuai dengan harapan, sehingga guru

harus membuat ulang, karena setiap anak memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan dalam masing-

masing kompetensi dasar yang berbeda-beda tidak bisa disamakan semuanya. Dalam aplikasi

tersebut hampir semua deskripsi keluar sama, sehingga saat pengecekan ulang oleh guru harus

merubah deskripsi secara manual. Walaupun kita sadari dalam proses pembuatan aplikasi seperti

itu memang membutuhkan waktu yang tidak sebentar. Tetapi dalam kurun waktu hampir 5 tahun

berjalan penerapan kurikulum 2013 seharusnya sudah tidak mengalami kendala yang berarti.

Sehingga pembuatan rapor bisa berjalan lancar sesuai jadwal yang ditentukan tanpa guru harus

lembur berhari-hari dalam pembuatannya.

Kelebihan Rapor Kurikulum 2013

Ketika ada kekurangan yang terlihat pada rapor kurikulum 2013, pastinya juga ada

kelebihannya. Rapor kurikulum 2013 secara konten sangatlah bagus, karena didalam rapor

tersebut kita bisa melihat kemampuan anak tidak hanya berdasarkan pengetahuannya saja,

melainkan ketrampilan bahkan sikapnya. Dengan adanya seperti itu, sekarang kita bisa melihat

kelebihan kemampuan anak dari 3 aspek, yaitu sikap, pengetahuan dan keterampilan. Mungkin

kemampuan anak yang satu dan yang lainnya berbeda, maka dari itu dengan adanya rapor

kurikulum 2013 ini bisa mengetahui setiap potensi anak. Ada anak yang lebih dalam


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pengetahuannya, ada anak yang unggul dalam keterampilannya, bahkan mungkin pada sikapnya.

Sehingga kita bisa menilai anak tidak berdasarkan pengetahuannya saja.

Pengembangan Aplikasi SPARKS (Sistem Penilaian Akhir Rapor Kurikulum 2013)

Tingkat Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Berbasis WEB.

Berawal dari berbagai masalah yang terjadi mengenai rapor kurikulum 2013 yang telah

dideskripsikan di atas, peneliti mencurigai bahwasannya untuk aplikasi dari pemerintah sering

terjadi eror dan kurang efien yang dilihat dari formatnya dikarenakan tergabung dengan penilaian

yang terlalu banyak komponen, maka peneliti membuat inovasi untuk rapor kurikulum 2013 agar

lebih mudah dan memiliki bentuk format yang diminati oleh banyak orang.

Rapor yang digagas oleh peneliti dengan nama “SPARKS” yaitu sistem penilaian akhir

rapor kurikulum 2013 ini dibuat lebih praktis. Kelebihan aplikasi ini khusus dibuat untuk rapor,

sehingga lebih konsen ke satu sistem saja. Dengan pemanfaatan sarana internet yang setiap hari,

setiap saat digunakan oleh banyak orang, terutama guru-guru yang sekarang dituntut untuk

pemanfaatan internet dalam pengembangan bahan ajar maupun metode-metode. Peneliti

memanfaatkan WEB dalam aplikasi ini. Aplikasi ini dalam sistem memasukkan data bisa

diupload dari exel untuk segi kepraktisannya karena nilai-nilai harian selama satu semester

biasanya dalam bentuk exel. Tetapi jangan khawatir, aplikasi ini juga dibuat dengan cara manual

atau ketik langsung ke aplikasi, sehingga guru yang mengolah nilai dengan menulis di buku

penilaian atau tidak menggunakan program exel juga bisa dengan mudah input data dalam sistem

ini.


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Selain guru kelas, guru muatan pelajaran diberi akses juga untuk memasukkan data ke

dalam aplikasi sehingga tidak terlalu membebani guru kelas. Jadi guru yang mengajar muatan

pelajaran yang mereka ampu disetiap kelasnya bisa langsung memasukkan ke aplikasi ini dari

akunnya masing-masing. Guru kelas hanya memasukkan nilai yang diampu saja. Tetapi selain itu

guru kelas juga diberi akses untuk melihat semua input data dari guru muatan pelajaran, sehingga

guru bisa mengetahui siapa saja yang sudah lengkap dan yang belum dalam input data. Format

rapor dari aplikasi ini tentunya di desain setelah peneliti melakukan pengamatan dan mencari

alternatif format rapor yang terbaik, yang dilihat dari segi efisiensi dan yang terpenting

bermanfaat untuk semuanya.

Format rapor yang dihasilkan dari aplikasi ini mengalami perubahan dari raport

sebelumnya yang terlihat pada lembar setelah cover dan identitas sekolah. Pada lembar tersebut

terdapat tabel penilaian sikap yang terbagi ke dalam 2 kolom yaitu kolom aspek dan kolom

deskripsi. Kolom aspek terdiri dari sikap spiritual dan sikap sosial. Deskripsi menjelaskan

kalimat positif, yang berisi perkembangan sikap atau perilaku siswa berisi perkembangan

sikap/perilaku siswa yang sangat baik dan/atau baik dan yang mulai/sedang berkembang

berdasarkan kumpulan hasil observasi (catatan) selama satu semester.

Pada lembar selanjutnya, penilaian pengetahuan dan keterampilan di bagi menjadi 2 tabel

yang berbeda yaitu 1) penilaian pengetahuan dan keterampilan untuk kolom KKM, Nilai dan

Predikat; 2) penilaian pengetahuan dan keterampilan untuk deskripsi. Tetapi untuk tabel yang

kedua mengenai deskripsi pengetahuan dan keterampilan diberikan pada lembar tersendiri.

Sehingga sesuai dengan asumsi masyarakat yang menyatakan bahwa saat melihat rapor


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kurikulum 2013 yang dilihat hanya nilai angka saja. Menjadikan peneliti membuat format tabel

dibagi menjadi seperti diatas sehingga struktur kurikulum mengenai kurikulum 2013 tetap ada,

namun hanya peletakan atau penempatannya yang berubah demi efisiensi dari format tersebut.

Bentuk tampilan dari rapor juga menjadi lebih rajin karena deskripsi yang panjang sudah

dipisahkan ke dalam tabel sendiri sehingga lebih rapi jika dilihat.

Sehingga susunan komponen pada rapor SPARKS yaitu : A) Sikap; B) Pengetahuan dan

keterampilan (khusus angka); C) Ekstrakurikuluer; D) Saran-saran; E) Tinggi dan berat badan; F)

Kondisi kesehatan; G) Prestasi; H) Ketidakhadiran; I) Deskripsi pengetahuan dan keterampilan.

Kelayakan Pengembangan Aplikasi SPARKS (Sistem Penilaian Akhir Rapor Kurikulum

2013) Tingkat Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Berbasis WEB.

Kelebihan Sistem Aplikasi SPARKS

Kelebihan SPARKS yaitu (1) hasil output atau printout dari rapor kurikulum 2013 yang

dilihat dari segi tampilan lebih efisien sesuai yang diinginkan masyarakat tetapi tidak

menghilangkan unsur kurikulum yang ada di dalamnya; (2) selain itu kelebihan dari sistem

aplikasi ini sangatlah kompleks mulai dari cara pembuatan yang dimudahkan karena aplikasi ini

khusus untuk rapor saja tanpa adanya gabungan dari aplikasi lainnya; (3) menu yang ada di

aplikasi ini dibuat mudah sesuai dengan komponen yang ada di rapor saja; (4) guru bisa

mengakses aplikasi ini dengan memasukkan akun masing-masing; (5) aplikasi ini menyediakan

menu untuk guru memasukkan data nilai dan deskripsi menggunakan cara upload data ataupun


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manual mengetik pada kolom yang sudah disediakan; (6) data nilai bisa disimpan dalam bentuk

pdf atau exel untuk pengadministrasian guru.

Kekurangan Sistem Aplikasi SPARKS

Kekurangan aplikasi SPARKS ini yaitu akan mengalami kendala jika berada di daerah

yang tidak memiliki fasilitas internet yang memadahi, aplikasi ini harus dibuat offline dulu,

padahal aplikasi ini berdasarkan web berjalan di atas server, sehingga membutuhkan database.

Selain itu lembar untuk pindah sekolah ataupun lembar lulus belum ada, sehingga ke depannya

bisa dijadikan pengembangan selanjutnya.

Hasil Uji Kelayakan Aplikasi oleh Pakar

Dalam uji kelayakan SPARKS ini ada 2 pakar yang menilai yaitu dari segi ilmu teknologi

dan dari segi pendidikan kurikulum 2013. Pakar ilmu teknologi dalam aplikasi SPARKS ini Dr.

Sri Yulianto Joko Prasetyo, S.Si, M.Kom. Sedangkan untuk pakar pendidikan kurikulum 2013

yaitu Tri Maryani, M.Pd.

Berdasarkan hasil uji pakar teknologi untuk aplikasi SPARKS (sistem penilaian akhir

rapor kurikulum 2013) yang dilakukan oleh Dr. Sri Yulianto Joko Prasetyo, S.Si, M.Kom.

menyatakan bahwa aplikasi SPARKS ini sudah baik, berjalan sesuai dengan fungsinya, fitur

sangat lengkap sesuai dengan kebutuhan, secara umum sudah memenuhi kebutuhan. Untuk

penggunaan aplikasi SPARKS (sistem penilaian akhir rapor kurikulum 2013) secara baik harus

belajar secara mendalam melalui pelatihan-pelatihan lanjutan.


212

Berdasarkan rincian butir-butir pertanyaan kuesioner dapat diketahui bahwa Skor

Maksimum Ideal (SMI) dari uji pakar teknologi adalah 88. Kemudian skor-skor mentah setelah

diubah (dikonversi) menjadi nilai standar dengan menggunakan standar mutlak (penilaian

beracuan kriterium). Dengan menggunakan rumus 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =𝑆𝑘𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎ℎ

𝑆𝑘𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑥 100, sehingga

menghasilkan 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =78

88𝑥 100 = 88, 64. Sedangkan apabila dirinci setiap aspeknya menjadi

seperti berikut : (1) Kaidah Media 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =31

36𝑥 100 = 86,11; (2) Tata Laksana 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =

14

16𝑥 100 = 87,50; (3) Kaidah Software 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =

33

36𝑥 100 = 91,67.

Dari segi pendidikan kurikulum 2013, aplikasi SPARKS (sistem penilaian akhir rapor

kurikulum 2013) sangat baik apabila di aplikasikan didunia pendidikan karena sesuai dengan apa

yang menjadi kebutuhan utama. Format yang diciptakan sangat efisien karena memang untuk

tampilan yang berkembang sesuai dengan apa yang dikehendaki beberapa pihak, baik itu guru

maupun orangtua siswa yang melihat. Aplikasi SPARKS (sistem penilaian akhir rapor kurikulum

2013) ini menghasilkan ouput yang sangat menarik, baru, dan sesuai kebutuhan tetapi tidak

mengurangi komponen struktur atau pedoman dalam rapor yang ada di kurikulum 2013. Semua

komponen ada, sesuai dengan rapor sebelumnya, hanya saja formatnya yang dirubah lebih

efisien. Saran dari beliau yaitu sebaiknya dimenu ditambahkan simbol tutwuri/kemendikbud

karena panduan penilaian kurikulum 2013 diterbitkan oleh Direktorat Pendidikan Dasar dan

Menengah, serta bisa di tambahkan lembar pindah sekolah jika memungkinkan agar lebih baik.

Kesimpulan untuk aplikasi SPARKS (sistem penilaian akhir rapor kurikulum 2013) ini sangatlah

bagus diaplikasikan di pendidikan.


213


Maksimum Ideal (SMI) dari uji pakar pendidikan adalah 32. Kemudian skor-skor mentah setelah



𝑆𝑘𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑥 100, sehingga

relevansi media menghasilkan 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =30

32𝑥 100 = 93,75.

Hasil Uji Lapangan

Uji coba terbatas

Berdasarkan uji coba lapangan mengenai aplikasi SPARKS (sistem penilaian akhir rapor

kurikulum 2013) di MI Ma’arif Pulutan yang dilaksanakan oleh 6 guru pengampu kelas yang

sudah melaksanakan kurikulum 2013 menyatakan bahwa aplikasi ini sangatlah ringan

dikarenakan aplikasi ini dikhususkan hanya untuk rapor kurikulum 2013 saja tanpa digabung

yang lainnya. Untuk masuk ke dalam aplikasi ini sangat mudah, dengan memasukkan username

dan password masing-masing guru kemudian kita sudah bisa mengakses aplikasi tersebut. Untuk

menu pada aplikasi sangat singkat, komponen sesuai dengan kebutuhan rapor saja. Cara input

data nilai sangat dimudahkan, ada 2 cara yaitu secara upload data dari file exel atau bisa secara

manual. Selain itu ketika ada masalah, kita bisa ngedit dengan mudah. Data yang sudah lengkap

bisa disimpan dalam bentuk pdf atau exel untuk administrasi guru. Untuk akses guru kelas

memiliki kelebihan tambahan, bisa mengetahui data yang sudah masuk lengkap maupun yang

belum masuk, sehingga guru bisa mengingatkan guru yang belum menginput data.


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Sedangkan untuk hasil output rapor sudah baik, disamping rapor lebih singkat, tidak

berlembar-lembar banyaknya halaman. Rapor ini juga memperlihatkan bagian tabel yang hanya

dicantumkan kkm, nilai dan predikat, sehingga sekali melihat rapor ini menjadikan orang

tertarik. Sedangkangkan deskripsi tetap ada tetapi hanya peletakannya saja yang dipisah untuk

memeperlihatkan tampilan yang baik.


Maksimum Ideal (SMI) dari uji coba terbatas adalah 120. Kemudian skor-skor mentah setelah



𝑆𝑘𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑥 100, dengan 6

orang responden sehingga menghasilkan 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =640

6 𝑥 120𝑥 100 = 88, 89, dengan rincian sebagai

berikut :

NO Skor Mentah Nilai

1. 109 109

120𝑥 100 = 90,83

2. 103 103

120𝑥 100 = 85,83

3. 103 103

120𝑥 100 = 85,83

4. 106 106

120𝑥 100 = 88,33

5. 110 110

120𝑥 100 = 91,67

6. 109 109

120𝑥 100 = 90,83

Uji coba diperluas


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Uji coba diperluas kali ini diluar ruang lingkup MI Ma’arif Pulutan. Uji coba ini

dilakukan oleh 21 dari berbagai instansi, yang bertujuan untuk menunjukkan aplikasi SPARKS

kepada guru, pengamat pendidikan, bahkan masyarakat yang berkecimpung dalam bidang

pendidikan dan mengerti tentang kurikulum 2013.


Maksimum Ideal (SMI) dari uji coba diperluas adalah 120. Kemudian skor-skor mentah setelah



𝑆𝑘𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑥 100, dengan 21

orang responden sehingga menghasilkan 𝑁𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑖 =2216

21 𝑥 120𝑥 100 = 87, 93, dengan rincian sebagai

berikut :

NO Skor Mentah Nilai

1. 104 104

120𝑥 100 = 86,67

2. 102 102

120𝑥 100 = 85,00

3. 104 104

120𝑥 100 = 86,67

4. 101 101

120𝑥 100 = 84,17

5. 109 109

120𝑥 100 = 91,67

6. 101 101

120𝑥 100 = 84,17

7. 103 103

120𝑥 100 = 85,83

8. 102 102

120𝑥 100 = 85,00


216

9. 110 110

120𝑥 100 = 90,83

10. 102 102

120𝑥 100 = 85,00

11. 112 112

120𝑥 100 = 93,33

12. 109 109

120𝑥 100 = 90,83

13. 102 102

120𝑥 100 = 85,00

14. 102 102

120𝑥 100 = 85,00

15. 111 111

120𝑥 100 = 92,50

16. 109 109

120𝑥 100 = 90,83

17. 108 108

120𝑥 100 = 90,00

18. 106 106

120𝑥 100 = 88,33

19. 109 109

120𝑥 100 = 90,83

20. 102 102

120𝑥 100 = 85,00

21. 108 108

120𝑥 100 = 90,00

SIMPULAN

Problem yang dialami oleh para guru dan pihak pendidikan terkait dengan rapor kurikulum 2013

yang selalu menyusahkan yaitu proses saat membuat rapor yang rumit dan hasil dari printout

rapor juga kurang baik. Sehingga penelitian ini menghasilkan jawaban dari problematika yang

terjadi yaitu aplikasi SPARKS dengan urutan sistematika rapor : A) Sikap; B) Pengetahuan dan


217

keterampilan (khusus angka); C) Ekstrakurikuluer; D) Saran-saran; E) Tinggi dan berat badan; F)

Kondisi kesehatan; G) Prestasi; H) Ketidakhadiran; I) Deskripsi pengetahuan dan keterampilan.

Aplikasi ini sudah dilakukan uji kelayakan dari penilaian ahli teknologi dinilai

berdasarkan 3 aspek yaitu kaidah media, tata laksana, dan kaidah software mendapatkan skor

88,64 atau termasuk “sangat layak” digunakan. Kemudian penilaian ahli pendidikan dinilai

berdasarkan relevansi media kurikulum 2013 mendapatkan 93,75 atau termasuk” sangat baik”

untuk digunakan. Serta penilaian uji coba lapangan dinilai berdasarkan 4 aspek yaitu kaidah

media, tata laksana, kaidah software, dan relevansi media dibagi menjadi 2 yaitu uji coba

terbatas menghasilkan skor 88,89 termasuk “sangat layak” dan uji coba diperluas menghasilkan

87,93 termasuk “sangat layak” digunakan.

Aplikasi ini perlu dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai keefektifan penggunaan

aplikasi SPARKS (sistem penilaian aplikasi rapor kurikulum 2013). Selain itu aplikasi ini juga

bisa dilakukan tindak lanjut untuk mengembangkan format rapor kurikulum 2013 yang lebih

baik.


218

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Adi Nugroho. Rekayasa Perangkat Lunak Menggunakan UML dan Java. Yogyakarta : Andi

Offset, 2009.

Agnes Heni Triyuliana (ed). Aplikasi Manajemen Database Pendidikan Berbasis Web dengan

PHP dan MySQL. Yogyakarta : Andi Offset, 2005.

Bharat Bhushan Argawal dan Sumit Prakash Tayal. Software Engineering. New Delhi Laxmi

Publication (P) Ltd, 2007.

Bunafit Nugroho. Latihan Membuat Aplikasi PHP dan MySQL dengan Dreamweaver.

Yogyakarta : Gava Media, 2008.

Hamruni. Strategi Pembelajaran. Yogyakarta: Insan Madani, 2012.

James A. Hall. Sistem Informasi Akuntansi Edisi 4. penerjemah Dewi Fitriasari dan Deny Kwary

Arnos. Jakarta: Salemba Empat, 2007.

Kemendikbud. Pendekatan. Jenis dan Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Jakarta: T.P, 2013.

Nursahid. dkk. “Pembangunan Sistem Informasi Penilaian Hasil Belajar Siswa Sekolah

Menengah Atas (SMA) negeri 2 Rembang Berbasis Web”. IJNS-Indonesia Journal on

Networking and Security. Volume 4. No.2-2015-ijns.org.

Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia Nomor 53 Tahun 2015

tentang Penilaian Hasil Belajar oleh Pendidik dan Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Pendidikan

Menengah Pasal 1

Scot W Bonham. Aaron Titus. Robert J Beichner. Larry Martin. “Education Research using web-

based Assesment System”. Computing in Education, (Vol 2000).


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Sugiyono. Metode Penelitian dan Pengembangan : Research and Development/ R&D. Bandung

:Alfabeta, 2015.

Sugiyono. Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif. Kualitatif dan R&D. Bandung : Alfabeta, 2008.

Suharsimi Arikunto. Prosedur Penelitian : Suatu Pendekatan dan Praktek. Jakarta : Rineka

Cipta, 1998.

Suharsimi Arikunto. Prosedur Penelitian : Suatu Pendekatan dan Praktek. Jakarta : Rineka

Cipta. 1998, 236.

Tony Kurniawan dkk. ”Perancangan Sistem Pengolahan Nilai Rapor Berbasis WEB (Studi

Kasus pada SMA Kebon Dalem)”. Jurnal Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi. Volume 4.

Nomor 2 (Agustus 2013).

Ulfah Rahmawati. dkk. Aplikasi Berbasis WEB Pengolahan Nilai Akademik (Studi Kasus SMP

Negeri 34 Bandung). Jurnal eproc 16.06.516. Bandung, 2016.

Zulfikar dan I Nyoman Budiantara. Manajemen Riset dengan Pendekatan Komputasi Statistika.

Yogyakarta : Deepublish, 2014.


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INTERNATIONAL TERTIARY ENROLMENTS IN MALAYSIA:

TWO PROPOSED VARIABLES FOR MACRO ANALYSIS

*1Fadli Fizari Abu Hassan Asari & 2Suriyani Muhamad

1Faculty of Business Management,

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perlis Branch, Arau Campus, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia. 2School of Social and Economic Development,

Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia.

*Corresponding e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Higher education industry promises substantial economic returns. Hence, more countries are

interested in exporting this commodity to international market, including Malaysia. Various

plans have been drawn up and steps have been taken in realizing this dream. In measuring the

achievement, monitoring is a must. Analysis on international demand for Malaysian higher

education is one of them. Hence, this paper analyses selected literatures in producing a solid

empirical basis. Also proposed, are two macro variables that are capable in replacing the initial

base in this field of study. It is a hope that this paper provides an idea on empirical macro-

researches in exploring international demand for higher education in Malaysia.

Keywords: higher education, international student, student movement, Malaysia

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Higher education is a sustainable economic growth engine. With an estimated growth of 8% per

year, it is expected that 8.3 million students will be existed in 2020 (Hearps, 2016). This

opportunity is equally taken by Malaysia. Malaysia, which was ranked at the 11th (Nga, 2009),

has now risen to the 9th position, as a major destination country for international students, as

highlighted in "Malaysia di ranking (Malaysia ranked)," (2015). More importantly, Malaysia has

set a target of 200,000 international enrolments in 2020, in becoming the sixth largest country in

the global higher education market (ICEF, 2012). Hence, various steps have been taken including

establishment of the higher education ministry, provision of long-term plans and official reports,


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improvements at the institutional level and development of more public and private institutions

of higher learning in Malaysia.

At the same time, there is a continuous need in monitoring the progress through on-going

researches. For example, studies on international demand for Malaysian higher education. For

the record, numerous empirical studies have been made in exploring this type of demand,

beginning as early as 2003. However, most are limited to micro data collection and primary data

analysis. Hence, more macro-studies which focus on direct impact of macro variables on demand

in Malaysian higher education need to be done. For this reason, this paper lists relevant literature

studies that are suitable for the macro field. Beginning with studies on local demand, this paper

will later discuss international demand on the Malaysian higher education. This paper also

recommends two suitable macro variables that can be applied to empirical models in studying

this trans-border education.

3.0 DEMAND FOR MALAYSIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

A study by Sidin, Hussin, & Soon (2003) was probably the first in analysing the tertiary

enrolments by locals in Malaysian higher education institutions. Questionnaires were answered

by 210 local respondents from four PbHEIs and four PrHEIs in Klang Valley. These resulted in

significance of three hypotheses involving academic qualifications, institutional environment and

student characteristics. In Munisamy, Jaafar, & Nagaraj (2014), two separate conclusions have

been achieved. Development of career and personal were the reasons for furthering studies,

while university reputation and employability were the pulling factors in choosing the higher

education institutions.

Earlier, Tin, Ismail, Othman, & Sulaiman (2012) came with a new idea of sampling by

choosing households. Male respondents were two third of the samples, while almost half of them

with secondary education background and the highest portion earned monthly income of


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RM1,001 – RM2,500. These conditions reflected when financial aid was the biggest

consideration as compared to others. Jaafar (2016) revealed that the motivations of furthering

studies were varied for different genders and different programs, in term of intrinsic and extrinsic

factors. Out of six main factors, only two were common for respondents from various faculties;

namely learning and employability.

In measuring the foreign demand for Malaysian tertiary education, Padlee, Kamaruddin, &

Baharun (2010) and Baharun, Awang, & Padlee (2011) emphasized on the importance of

facilities and customer focus. Customer focus for example, was in a significant range of 1% to

5% for four different sample sets. For facilities, it was more significant for African students than

the majority of Asian students. For Migin, Falahat, Yajid, & Khatibi (2015), academic

reputation, program and facilities, all were significant at 1%. Meanwhile, the low cost of higher

education in Malaysia as compared to other traditional countries, has made it less significant.

Foo, Ismail, & Lim (2016) took a different approach by comparing between two different

motives. It was concluded that consumptive motive was more motivating than investment

motive in enrolling more postgraduate students in Malaysia. Specifically, this motive was

represented by four different items, where university environment had the greatest marginal

impact. For a specific study in northern Malaysia, seven hypotheses had been listed. However,

only four were not rejected. At the same time, all these variables succeeded in representing

nearly 50% of the total variation of the study by Yusuf, Ghazali, & Abdullah (2017).

There were also studies that placed qualitative as a basis. Rahman & Islam (2016) was an

instance. Six indicators had been used where three of them referred to the characteristics of the

students, two associated with the institution and the latter related to Malaysia's attraction as host

country. Rapid development of international branch campuses in Malaysia attracted Zamberi

Ahmad & Buchanan (2016). The pull factor was the basis of this study, which was heavily


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influenced by the country's positive image and the reputation of a tertiary institution. Malaysia's

strengths in demographic and geographic areas were also emphasized.

4.0 THE PROPOSED MACRO VARIABLES

The earliest study in estimating demand for higher education was initiated by Campbell and

Siegel (1967). The undergraduate aggregate enrolment data was used as a sample in studying the

demand for higher education in the US for the period of 1919-1964. Income linked in a positive

way with the enrolments, while price worked negatively. This study was inspired by human

capital investment theory, discussed thoroughly in Schultz (1961) and Becker (1964). Schultz

(1961) for example, highlighted that formal education (including the tertiary level) as one of five

requirements in improving human capabilities. At the same time, there is a need for higher

education in avoiding the recurrence of a vicious cycle of poverty as stressed out by Childress,

Hand, Pullins, Rutherford, & Tye (2017).

In general, the study by Campbell & Siegel (1967) becomes a benchmark for the majority

of studies in this field. Their success in explaining 87% of the total demand by using only two

independent variables is amazing. However, the analysis is limited to local students. The reality

today, the presence of international students has become a phenomenon and is now one of the

most awaited economy commodities. Hence, in taking this study as a base, two macro variables

are proposed. In replacing 'income', per capita income is proposed. In order to replace the price,

the holistic concept of cost is needed. Hence, the exchange rate is proposed in illustrating the

burden that has to be paid by every international student.

4.1 Per Capita Income

A paper by Agarwal (1983), was based on the theory of migration where better educational

opportunities is one of migration factors (Sjaastad, 1962). The per capita income (calculated


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based on Gross Domestic Product over population), was used in capturing macro factors,

determined by the home country rather than the student itself. In other words, a person's

tendency to pursue overseas studies was directly proportional to the country's wealth. The same

idea was agreed upon by Lee & Tan (1984). Per capita income positively influenced the massive

flow of tertiary students, from developing countries to developed countries.

Naidoo (2007) proposed three possible reasons for the flow of foreign students to the UK,

namely social/cultural, economic and political. In measuring the economic reason, per capita

income was explored. In addition to the positive relationship with the flow, there was no

significant difference between high and medium income countries. Hence, in attracting more

students to the UK, the focus should be given equally to all potential countries. This model was

then augmented in Chadee & Naidoo (2009). It was concluded that four (Malaysia, Singapore,

South Korea and Thailand) out of seven countries experienced significant impacts. Additional

change in per capita income boosted up number of their students to the UK.

In the African continent, more students went overseas, especially to North America,

Europe and the same continental countries (Kritz, 2015). Per capita income of the home country

was used in the four different models. All models successfully recorded significant positive

relationships. Furthermore, the elasticity values were in line with the outbound rate. Something

that reverses happened in Germany. The home country per capita income was inversely related

to the international student enrolments there (Bessey, 2012). Based on six different individual

regressions and a panel data analysis, negative relationships at weak significant rates were

recorded. This can be expected, as Germany offers free education to its international students

(Matthews, 2017).

Perkins & Neumayer (2011) however used per capita income for both origin and

destination countries. Increase in the per capita income of the destination country, attracted more

international enrolments. At the same time, reduction in per capita income for the country of


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origin forced more locals to foreign countries. Dozens of countries were the samples. Yang &

Wang (2016) however restricted the service exporting countries to only six European countries.

The results obtained differ completely from what was reported in Perkins & Neumayer (2011).

The influx of international students in these six countries was inversely proportional to their per

capita income, while per capita income in the home country reacted the other way.

Still using per capita income for both countries, different approach however was used in

Whei (2013). Gap between the per capita income of the original country and the destination

country was made as one of the independent variables. As a result, migration of students from

developing countries to developed countries was more influenced by this factor, than the students

from the same developed region. The same idea was applied in Ramos & Royuela (2017). Per

capita income gap between Spain and country of destination entered the model, in positive way.

This caused an increase in migration of graduates from Spain to other countries, especially those

who took semi-technical courses at higher institutions throughout Spain.

In combining both per capita incomes, a ratio was used as shown in Dreher & Poutvaara

(2011). In detail, GDP per capita of the home country was placed at the top, while GDP per

capita of the USA was put at the bottom. As a result, half of the six models built, have shown a

significant negative correlation between this variable with international student enrolments in the

US. Not limited to actual per capita income, use of disposable income per capita was

recommended in Brown, McClary, & Bellingar (2012). The main purpose of this study was to

analyse the demand for higher education in Florida. Though both cohorts received a positive

impact from rise in disposable income per capita, the impact was experienced more by Florida

students.

In addition to per capita income, GDP itself is used in explaining the economic capability

of respective country. Mcmahon (1992) for example, divided her samples into four categories;

high-income, middle income, low-income and oil producing developing countries, based on


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Gross National Product (GNP) per capita. However, in measuring the economic strength of home

countries and host country (the USA), the GDP was used. In Zheng (2014), three types of GDP

counted, i.e. total, growth and per capita. The results were mixed as the per capita income

recorded a negative relationship with tertiary flows, the economic growth made a positive result,

while the total GDP was less significant, as reported. .

In a different view, Gross National Product (GNP) per capita was proposed as an economy

proxy by Cummings (1984). It was hypothesized that the GNP per capita was able in explaining

total outbound among the Asian students. This may give advantage for oil exporting countries in

sending their students abroad. This pattern may then be followed by newly industrialized

countries (NICs) which experienced a dynamic growth rate at that time. In 2000s, data set from

the 64 most active countries in student exchange was analysed by Chen & Barnett (2000). One

of the key findings was a positive correlation that increased over time, for the period of 1985-

1995, between GNP per capita and international enrolments.

4.2 Exchange Rate

Naidoo (2007) recommended the use of exchange rate in measuring student enrolments in

the United Kingdom. This selection was based on its extensive use in studies on international

trade. Since higher education is also a commodity of trade, this factor must be taken into

account. In the same study, the exchange rate was one of the items under economic reason that

catalysed the trans-border higher education. The same concept was later applied in Chadee &

Naidoo (2009). Of the six home-country samples, four of them were highly sensitive to exchange

rate, in a reverse proportion. The four were significant at the 1% significance level.

However, two different situations were reported in Zheng (2014). Tertiary students from

developed countries were unaware of the UK pound sterling fluctuation. On the other hand,

students from developing countries argued that currency rate affected their presence in the UK.


227

Not limited to international student enrolments, exchange rate was also used in assessing the

amount of student visa applied in the UK (Jena & Reilly, 2013). Given all the samples were from

developing countries, once again the exchange rate became an important parameter. An

appreciation in home country currency increased its citizens’ financial capacity. Thus, allowed

them to apply for more student visas in the UK.

For students from China in the UK, they were differentiated by financial aid reform

(Machin & Murphy, 2014). For pre-reform students, they were not influenced by the

Yuan/Pound Sterling ratio as they were sponsored by the Chinese government. Instead, students

in post-reforms were more affected, as most of them were self-sponsored. The same burden was

felt by those who came from other developing countries. A huge difference between the Iranian

Rial and the US Dollar, forced some of the students to change their direction to other European

countries such as Italy (Holden, 2017). Students of short-term courses and exchange programs

also faced the similar problem.

In Lee (2015), exchange rate was the main reason why Malaysian parents were more

willing to send their children to study only in the final year in the UK. For them, over-

exchanging cost restricted the study duration of franchise programme in the UK. More extreme,

the exchange rate was a major priority in determining the choice of place of study, as

emphasized in Verbik & Lasanowski (2007). Despite being the top choice, the high rates of UK

Pound Sterling and US Dollar provided a nuisance to potential students, especially from Africa

and Southeast Asia. This caused them to move to other English speaking destination countries

(MESDC) such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand (Hearps, 2016).

Issues related to exchange rate were not limited to the UK and the US markets. The

exchange rate was examined as the pulling factor for higher education in Australia and New

Zealand (Abbott & Ali, 2009). It was concluded that exchange rate was less sensitive to Asian

students. This was great news as the majority of their foreign students came from this region. In


228

Lawrence & Yoon (2016), a reasonable value of the New Zealand Dollar successfully attracted

tertiary students from OECD countries such as South Korea. This explained why group of

students from this country was the fourth largest contributor to international student enrolments

in New Zealand, as highlighted in the same study.

In Canada, more local parents complained about expensive local tuition fees (Liu, 2016).

This did not happen to parents of Chinese students although Renminbi's exchange rate against

Canadian Dollar was up to five times higher. The nature of Chinese people who love to save for

the purpose of education of children is the key to this ability. In India, a major depreciation in

Indian Rupee against the world's major currencies, led to a drop of 20% in demand for foreign

education. Additionally, with limited local educational opportunities, this undermined the human

capital development in India. Sadly, financial loans received in local currency no more sufficient,

in which forced students to work part-time.

The exchange rate recorded an average value of 4.19 as compared to the full-scale-six in

Padlee, Kamaruddin, & Baharun (2010). Nevertheless, it was ranked at 12th out of the 20

indicators studied in determining the reasons why Malaysia was the preferred destination for

higher education. Though it had an impact on the selection, entry requirement and medium of

instruction were more important. At the same time, Malaysian students abroad, for example in

Australia increased due to depreciation in the host county currency (Ilieva & Goh, 2011).

Simultaneously, Australia's lower dollar value as compared to US dollar and UK pound sterling,

partially explained why this country was a top choice for Malaysians.

The economic downturn in 1997 changed the landscape of Malaysia's higher education.

The fall of Malaysian Ringgit against the US dollar prevents more students overseas.

Alternatively, more local students continued their studies at private institutions of higher learning

(Aziz & Abdullah, 2014). The rise in world's major currencies like the UK pound sterling forced

the Malaysian government to change its approach. Through one of its agencies, outstanding


229

students were asked to choose non-tradition countries such as Norway, Sweden and Spain

(Yahaya, 2014). In comparison, the costs incurred in sponsoring a student in the UK, were able

to sponsor up to two or three students in Sweden.

5.0 CONCLUSION

This paper presents relevant literatures in reviewing the international demand for higher

education in Malaysia. At the same time, two macro variables, namely GNI per capita and

exchange rate have been proposed. GNI per capita represents the element of income required by

a student in continuing study at the tertiary level. Meanwhile, the exchange rate is an indicator of

the burden they must incur during the study period. Thus, it is hoped that this paper will be

useful to those who are interested in expanding this field of study; from a macro perspective.

International student movement is an interesting topic and needs to be explored continuously in

studying its impact on the economy of a country.


230

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COLLECTIVE-INTEGRATIVE IJTIHAD:

AN ATTEMPT OF DEVELOPING CONTEXTUAL FIQH MU’AMALAH

AS THE FOUNDATION OF SHARI’A BUSINESS PRODUCT

DEVELOPMENT

AUTHOR: IMAM MUSTOFA, SHI., M.S.I.

INSTITUT AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (IAIN) METRO, LAMPUNG, INDONESIA

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL SCIENCES AND

HUMANITIES 2017 (ICOSAH 2017)

1st

OF NOVEMBER 2017

OPEN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA, NEGERI SEMBILAN LEARNING

CENTRE

COLLECTIVE-INTEGRATIVE IJTIHAD:

AN ATTEMPT OF DEVELOPING CONTEXTUAL FIQH MU’AMALAH AS THE

FOUNDATION OF SHARI’A BUSINESS PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT


235

Imam Mustofa

Correspondence Author: [email protected]

Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Metro, Lampung, Indonesia

Abstrak

Hukum Islam, termasuk hukum ekonomi Islam atau fiqh mu’amalah, tidak selalu dapat

menjawab problem mu’amalah kontemporer di era modern. Tulisan ini memaparkan urgensi ijtihad

kolektif-integratif untuk membentuk fiqh mu’amalah kontekstual yang relevan dengan perkembangan

zaman dan sesuai dengan maqa>s}id syari>a’h>. Tulisan ini juga menjelaskan konsep dasar, perangkat

dan model ijtihad kontemporer serta mendeskripsikan bentuk pola konstruk, teknis dan operasionalnya

untuk memproduk fiqh mu’amalah kontekstual sebagi landasan hukum Islam pengembangan produk

Lembaga Bisnis Syai’ah. Tulisan ini merupakan hasil penelitian kepustakaan yang bersifat kualitatif.

Pengumpulan data melalui dokumentasi. Data yang bersifat kualitatif, setelah dikumpulkan kemudian

dianalisis dengan metode deskriptif-analitis. Teknik analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini

adalah content analisys (analisis isi) dengan paradigma kritis. Sementara pendekatan yang digunakan

dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan us}u>l fiqh. Dari hasil pembahasan diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa

saat ini perlu dilakukan ijtihad secara intens untuk memproduk fiqh mu’amalah yang kontekstual. Ijtihad

untuk membangun konstruk landasan hukum ekonomi syari’ah harus sistematis, terarah, aplicbale dan

kontekstual. Ijtihad untuk membangun konstruk landasan hukum ekonomi syari’ah harus sistematis,

terarah, applicbale dan kontekstual. Ijtihad dilakukan dengan melibatkan berbagai pakar dari berbagai

latar belakang ilmu dengan menggunakan model istis{lah{i> serta mensinergikan metode us}u>l fiqh

klasik dengan metode ilmiah modern. Dengan demikian maka produk hukum yang dihasilkan benar-benar

dapat menjawab problem hukum mu’amalah modern, khususnya terkait dengan produk Lembaga Bisnis

Syai’ah, sehingga membawa kemashlahatan bagi umat.

Kata kunci: ijtihad kolektif-integratif, fiqh mu’amalah kontekstual, istis}la>h{i>, maqa>s}id al-syari>a’h

dan produk Lembaga Bisnis Syai’ah.

Abstract

Islamic law, including the law of economy or Islamic or fiqh mu'amalah is not always able to

answer contemporary problem of mu'amalah in the modern era. This paper presents the integrative and

collective ijtihad of the contextual and relevant issues of fiqh mu'amalah. This paper also describes the

basic concepts, instruments and models of contemporary ijtihad and reveals the the patterns of invalid

constructs, technical and operational excellence to produce a contextual fiqh mu'amalah as an Islamic

legal basis to develop Syari'ah-based Business institution. This paper is the result of a qualitative library

research. The Data was collected through the documentation. The Data was qualitative and was

analyzed with descriptive-analytical methods. Data analysis techniques used in this research is content

analysis and critical paradigms. While the approach used in this study is the approach us} u > l fiqh. The

result of the analysis shows that nowadays the ijtihad to produce a contextual fiqh mu’amalah is greatly

needed.. Ijtihad to build the economic foundation of Shariah economy should be systematic, directional,


236

and contextual and applicable Ijtihad is done by involving a wide range of experts from different

background disciplines by using models of istis {lah {i > and synergize the methods us} u > l fiqh classics

with modern scientific methods. Thus the resulting legal products can really answer the legal problem of

the modern, particularly mu'amalah associated with Business Agencies Syai'ah products, so take

kemashlahatan for the people.

Keywords: collective and integrative ijtihad, contextual fiqh mu'amalah, istis}la>h{i>, maqa > s}id al-

syari>a'h, and Syari'ah Business Institution’s products.

A. INTRODUCTION

Globalization with its products has a significant impact on economic activities, both

micro and macro. Economic activity as one of the most important aspects in human life develops

quite dynamic and so fast. The development of economic activity, especially banking activities

are accelerating along with the times, especially with the development of tools and devices of

communication and information. This makes the economic activities more varied and more

intense. Creative development of transaction and product model get much higher.

The globalization process is expected to accelerate in the future, Colin Rose as cited by

Nur Kholish said that the world is changing at an unprecedented pace. The lives of people,

including their legal and economic lives, are becoming increasingly complex.69 Legal issues in

various aspects that had never been imagined emerged, in this globalization era emerged and

developed rapidly. Yet the revelation will not come down again because the Messenger of Allah

as the last apostle has died and the Quran has graduated. While not all contemporary legal issues

that arise in the era of globalization are answered explicitly by the verses of the Qur’an and the

hadith of the Prophet Muhammad.70

The Muslim community, as part of the global community, is not free from the impact of

globalization with the development of its products.71 Increasingly various and intense economic

69 Nur Kholish, Urgensi Ijtihad Akademik dalam Menjawab Problematika Muamalah Kontemporer, dalam

Jurnal ALMAWARID, (Yogyakarta: Fakultas Ilmu Agama Islam, Edisi XIV tahun 2005, p. 180. 70 (Hasan al-Turabi>, Qad}a>ya> al-Tajdi>d, (Khartum: Ma’had al-Buhus| wa al-Dirasa>t al-Ijtima>i’yah,

1990), pp. 50-51. 71 Regarding the changing times and their effect on the life of Muslims, Abdullah Saeed explains.......The

epoch making changes in the world over the past 150 years have affected muslims as well as non muslim and


237

activity, on the one hand, provides an opportunity for Muslims to play an active role, especially

in the economic field, and on the one hand a challenge. Can Islamic economies compete and

answer economic problems in the global era? Because of all the activities of Muslims, especially

important activities such as in economic activities, Muslims are bound by the divine (ilahiyah)

norms contained in Islamic teachings that are derived from fiqh. In the context of economic

activity, these norms are fiqh mu'amalah.72 That is, facing the development and intensity of

economic activity in this global era, Islamic economy is not only required to accelerate, but also

must stick to the divine norm in form of fiqh mu'amalah that becomes the basis of the legality of

these activities. So, on the one hand, Sharia Business Unit products are required to accelerate

with the development of conventional economic activities, or even a pioneer of economic

development. On the other hand there are demands, the development of such products must

adhere to the aspect of legality or legitimacy of Islamic law.

Islamic law will not be able to deal with and answer the problems and challenges,

especially in the modern world, except for the harmonization of text with the context, between

the text and the development of the times and socio-cultural society. Muttahari states:

“A legal system cannot meet the challenges of time and location unless it is in full

harmony with the human intellect (‘aql); the human primordial nature (fitrah); human

rights; and human physical, mental, psychological, and spiritual needs of the individuals

and society. Ibelieve that the Islamic legal system is able to meet these challenges provided

Islamic legal thought and approaches are reconstructed and revised according to new

challenges and requirements. This is how the Islamic legal system can and may keep its

dynamic character in the future as it has done in the past.”73

altered significantly how we see the world. These changes are enormous: Globalization, Migration, Scientific & technological revolutions, Space exploration, Archaeological discoveries, Evolution and genetics, Public education and literacy, Increased understanding of the dignity of human person, Greater interfaith interaction, The emergence of nation-states (and the concept of equal citizenship) and Gender equality. (Further read Abdullah Saeed, Interpreting the Qur’an: Towards a contemporary Approach, [New York NY: Routledge, 2006], p. 2).

72 Contemporary Fiqih Mu'amalah at least includes two main activities, namely, first, ahkam Mu'awadat, which is mu'amalah done with the aim to seek profit, exchange goods with value or goods with services and so on such as buying and selling, rental, shirkah and so on. Secondly, al-Ahkam al-Tabarru'at, ie mu'malah with the aim of charity or good deeds, such as grants, wakaf, testament and so forth. (Read more on Kholid bin ‘Ali, al-Mu’amala>h al-Ma>liyah al-Ma>liyah al-Mu’a>si}rah, [Madinah: Tp, 2005], p. 3).

73 Cited by A. Ezzati, Islamic Law and the Challanges of Modern Time, Journal of Sharia’a Islamic Studies, (Wembley, London: Islamic College , 2010), p. 48.


238

The most fundamental problems of Islamic law, including Islamic economic law, are

the many contemporary problems that are not answered by Islamic law because of the ineffective

and intense process of harmonizing and contextualizing Islamic law through ijtihad.74 This

problem is almost uniform in Islamic law as a whole, in family law (al-Ahwal al-Shakhshiyyah,75

Islamic criminal law (Fiqh al-Jinayah)76, Islamic political law (Fiqh al-Siayasah)77, inheritance

law (Fiqh al-Mawarits)78, not least in the field of Economic law such as wakaf (Fiqh al-Waqf) 79

and Fiqh Mu'alah.

The number of contemporary problems that arise, especially in the field of Islamic

economic law, should not be confronted with the norms and rules contained in the text or

religious texts. Contemporary problems must be sought through the ijtihad activity. Ijtihad as the

product of human reasoning against revelation on the one hand, and social reality on the other

hand, has shown the elasticity and dynamics of fiqh.80 Ushul fiqh and fiqh should have evolved in

the face of the reality of modern life.81 Economic problems and activities that do not yet have

clear and comprehensive legal basis should be sought through integrative collective ijtihad.

74 The fact that the law must be found is also related to the changes and development of human

civilization. Often there are many events that are not clearly addressed in the text. This is in accordance with the expression of the jurists, al-nusus mutanahiyah wa al-waqa'i ghair mutanahiyah. (Fikriya Najitama, Ijtihad Umar Bin Khathab and Its Influence on the Study of Sociological Islamic Law, [Paper not published]). (Read Muhammad Iqbal, Pembangunan Kembali Alam Pikiran Islam, terj. Osman Raliby, (Jakarta: Bulan Bintang, 1983), p. 204).

75 Problems in the field of marriage law are, for example, about the legality of marriage or divorce via teleconference or even through social networking on the internet such as Facebook, Twiter, Yahoo Massanger or other social networking.

76 Issues in the field of fiqh al-jinayah among others about the relevance and legality in Muslim countries. How the relevance of hand law law to proven corruptors is one such example.

77 The example of Issues in fiqh siyasah legitimate are about the relevance of democratic systems with Islamic politics, how assurances plurality of beliefs and Human Rights in the perspective of fiqh siyasah.

78 Issues in fiqh al-mawa> ris, such as how the law of inheritance of Islam can accommodate the inheritance of children of adultery that is determined as a child lawful according to positive law.

79 Problems and areas of fiq al-waqf for example how the law of cash waqf, move unproductive wakaf land and so on.

80 Juhaya S. Praja, “Aspek Sosiologi dalam Pembaharuan Fiqh di Indonesia” in Noor Ahmad, et al, Epistmologi Syara’; Mencari Format Baru Fiqh Indonesia, (Jakarta: Walisongo Press, 2000), p. 119.

81 Hasan al-Turabi>, Fiqh Demokratis; dari Tradisionalisme Kolektif Menuju Modernisme Populis, (Bandung: Arasy, 2003), p. 50. Hasan Al-Turabi is one of the Muslim intellectuals who voiced the urgency of reform of Fiqh and Ushul al-Fiqh, other figures are Abdul Hamid Abu Sulayman, Muhammad Shahrur, Muhammad Arkoun and Fazlur Rahman (Nirwan Syarfin. “Konstruksi Epistemologi Islam: Telaah Bidang Fiqih dan Ushul Fiqih” dalam


239

Sharia financial institutions have various forms, namely: syariah bank, syariah

financing bank (BPRS), shari’a insurance(Takaful), sharia financing company, syariah capital

market, Sharia pawnshare, sharia pension fund, Baitul Mal wat Tamwil (BMT) capital market

shariah, zakat amil institutions and waqf institutions.82 Of the various business institutions, the

most intensive product development is in sharia banking. Sharia banking products are broadly

distributed products, product collection and service products. Fund distribution products consist

of profit sharing agreement, sale and purchase and qard hasan. A profit-sharing agreement that

includes musyarakah and mudarabah. While the sale and purchase agreement covers

murabahah, bai 'al-salam, bai' al-istisna', ijarah and ijarah wa iqtina. While the fundraising

product is wadiah, savings account, general investment account and special investment account.

The product of service consists of rahn, wakalah, kafalah, hawalah, ju'alah and sharf. 83

The development of bank and financial products and activities in sharia banks is

basically supervised by the Sharia Supervisory Board (DPS) in order not to deviate from the

provisions of sharia. In this context, even contemporary fiqh mu'a can be a reference for

members of the DPS.

Moreover, collective-integrative ijtihad is not only in the context of answering the

problems that have arisen, but in order to provide a complete foundation and building of

epistemological structure, thus becoming the foundation of Islamic legal framework in the

development of Islamic economy through the development and innovation of products services

and financial syar'i. The development of the times and the progress of science should increase the

ISLAMIA, (Jakarta: Institut for the Study Islamic Thought and Civilization (INSIST) dan Penerbit Khairul Bayan, Vol. II No. 5/ April-Juni 2005), pp. 45-46.

82Further read M. Nur Rianto, al Arif, Lembaga Keuangan Syariah: Suatu Kajian Teoritis Praktis, (Bandung: Pustaka Setia, 2012).

83 Muhamad Nadratuzzaman Hosen, et.al, Lembaga Bisnis Syariah, (Jakarta: pkaes publishing, 2008), p. 9-14. See Muhamad Nadratuzzaman Hosen dan Adji Waluyo Pariatno, Perbankan Syariah, (Jakarta: pkaes publishing, 2008), p. 32-52. Muhamad Nadratuzzaman Hosen dan Sunarwin Kartika Setiati, Tuntunan Praktis Menggunakan Jasa Perbankan Syariah, (Jakarta: pkaes publishing, 2008), 45-113.


240

motivation for doing ijtihad, this will bring the progress of Muslims, not only on Islamic law but

on other aspects.84

This paper is intended to provide a review of the importance of ijtihad collective

integrative or fresh ijtihad85 in the heresy of fiqh mu'amalah to provide a clear legality in the

perspective of Islamic law. This collective-integrative intent is carried out with a variety of

approaches, not just the fiqih approach, but also using social, political, and economic approaches.

This discussion is important for several reasons, firstly, to open the horizon to think that the

changing times with all its products have implications for the social life of the community,

including the development of the system and economic activities with all its products. This

certainly requires a comprehensive answer from the perspective of Islamic law or fiqh. Second, it

provides an understanding that integrative collective ijtihad does not mean ijtihad which sees

only the reality of social context and situations without the basis of religious or texts. An

integrative collective ijtihad must be grounded in text by dialogue with the context of the times

and situations and social realities.86 Third, to inspire and motivate intellectuals and ulama to

always do contextual and actual ijtihad, as their intellectual responsibility to solve the problems

that arise in the midst of people's life, especially problems in the field of Islamic economic law to

provide legality of product development services and sharia finance.

84 Muslims must learn from past experiences. In the medieval century, At the time of advancement of

Islamic culture, science developed rapidly which gave birth to scientists and imams of schools spread throughout the region, so that in the next development came the sense of fanaticism of the school, which tends to bring down the spirit of ijtihad, kejumudan and ketertutupan ijtihad . This condition has implications for the difference in the law because of the variety of schools they use.. (Jumni Nelli, Perkembangan Hukum Islam pada Masa Turki Usmani, Jurnal Hukum Islam, Vol VI, No. 4 Desember 2006, p. 439).

85 Fresh Ijtihad is a term proposed by Abdullah Saeed (Lihat Abdullah Saeed, Islamic Thought An Introduction, [London and New York: Routledge, 2006], hlm. 150.151), sementara ijtihad Kontemporer (al-ijtihad al-Mu’a>s}ir) adalah istilah yang digunakan Yu>suf Qarad}a>wi> dan Ahmad Bu’u>d. Lihat Yu>suf Qarad}a>wi>, al-Ijtiha>d fi> al-Syari>'ah al-Isla>miyah ma'a Naz}ara>t tah}li>liyah fi> al-Ijtiha>d al-Mu'a>s}ir, (www.al-mostafa.com)/ (Kuwait: Da>r al-Qalam li al-Nasr wa al-Tauzi>', cet. III, 1999), lihat juga Aḥmad Bu'u>d, al-Ijtiha>d baina Ḥaqa>iq al-Ta>ri>kh wa Mut}a>lliba>t al-Wa>qi', (Kairo: Da>r al-Sala>m, 2005).

86 Imam Mustofa, Ijtihad Kontemporer sebagai Upaya Pembaruan Hukum Keluarga di Indonesia, dalam al-Mana>hij Jurnal Kajian Hukum Islam, (Purwokerto: APIS dan Jurusan Syariah STAIN Purwokerto 2013), Vol VIII, No. 2 Juli 2013, p. 208.

http://www.al-mostafa.com)/

http://www.al-mostafa.com)/


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B. THE URGENCY OF COLLECTIVE-INTEGRATIVE IJTIHAD IN THE FIELD

OF FIQH MU’AMALAH

In principle, Islam provides opportunities and freedom to its people to innovate and be

creative in mu'amalah and develop economic activities. This can be seen from the rule of ushul

fiqh which is very famous and agreed by scholars of four schools:

ل في الأمعاملت صأ 87الباحة حتى يدل دليأل على خلفه الأ"The basic law of mu'amalah is permissible, until there is a proposition that forbids it"

In line with the above rule, Fakhruddin 'Uthman bin' Ali al-Zaila'iin the Tabyin al-

Haqaiq says:

بار أنه مأأذون له ب خأ ترط فيه الأ رر عنأ الأعباد فل يشأ ل في الأمعاملت دفأعا للض صأ لأ الأ

فاته ح تأ تصر تفى بظاهر حاله فإذا ثبت أنه مأأذون له بظاهر حاله صح هر خلف يكأ تى يظأ

.88ذلك

"Mu'amalah is basically to dispel the damage for mankind, it is not required the existence

of the proposition which permits it, but it is enough to see the phisics only, when visible

it is allowed, then it means that, until there is an excuse that annulled, or prohibition

against it."

Mu'amalah is more activity at the level of human relationships with other humans are

different from pure worship which is a pure vertical relationship with God. Mu'amalah as social

activities more loosely to be developed through innovation of transactions and products, then

reasonable if al-Syathibi says:

رى الشيء فإنا وجدنا الشارع قاصدا لمصالح العباد والحكام العادية تدور معه حيثما دار فت“

الواحد يمنع في حال ال تكون فيه مصلحة فإذا كان فيه مصلحة جاز كالدرهم بالدرهم إلى أجل

87 Syaikh Abdurrahma>n bin Na>s}ir As Sa'di>, al-Qawa>’id wal Us}u>l, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-

Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), I/204. The dalil is surat al-Maidah ayat 1, al-Isra’ ayat 34, al-An’a>m ayat 145, al-Nisa’ ayat 29, dan hadis|:

رما من

اس ج

م الن

ظع أته إن

لل مسأ

ج أم من ر

حم ف ر

حم ي

ء ل ي

ش نل ع

سأ

(Abu Walid al-Bajdi>, al-Muntaqa> Syarh} al-Muwa>t}t}a>’, [Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005], III/276).

88 Fakhruddin 'Utsman bin 'Ali al-Zaila'i, Tabyi>n al-Daqa>iq Syarh Knzul Daqa>iq, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), XV/383. Pernyataan tersebut selaras dengan pernyataan Imam al-Syauka>ni> “Mu’malah pada dasarnya adalah untuk menghalau kemadharatan bagi manusia” (Imam al-Syauka>ni>, Fathul Qadi>r, [Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005], XXI/141).

http://read.kitabklasik.net/2010/10/tabyin-al-haqaiq-syarah-kanz-al-daqaiq.html


242

يمتنع في المبايعة ويجوز في القرض وبيع الرطب باليابس يمتنع حيث يكون مجرد غرر وربا

.”89من غير مصلحة ويجوز إذا كان فيه مصلحة راجحة

The implication of freedom in mu'amalah is freedom in product development

innovation. Although there is legitimacy in the development of mu'amalah, the steps of

developing the transaction and product model in the Islamic economic context must still have a

clear legal basis and basis from the fiqh perspective. This legal basis is required for the

development of Islamic economics with all its products do not grow wild and out of the Islamic

Codidor or even contrary to the principles of sharia economy that is thick with the ilahiyah moral

nuances.90

The most important goal in Islamic economics is to avoid injustice in the acquisition

and distribution of material resources in order to give human satisfaction to enable humans to

carry out their responsibilities to God and society.91 Islamic economics not only put forward the

humanity dimension, but also the divine dimension. Therefore all economic activities must

adhere to the rule of Islamic law. In this context, an collective-integrative ijtihad can be used as a

reference and legal reference in the development of contemporary muamalah.

Yusuf al-Qaradawi in the book of al-Ijtihad fi al-Shari 'ah al-Islamiyah asserted that

there are two domains that are quite open and urgent to do ijtihad in the modern era to find

answers and legal basis. First, in the realm of economic and business activities (al-Majal al-Mali

wa al-Iqtisadi, both in the field of science and health (al-Majal al-'Imiwa al-Tibbi).92 Regarding

to the first field or domain (economic and business sphere) or contemporary mu'amalah, al-

Qaradlawi explains:

89 Abu> Ish}a>q al-Sya>t}bi>, al-Muwafaqa>t fi> Us}u>l al-Fiqh, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-

Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), II/305. 90 Islamic economics is held to hold on to divine morals, then in Islamic Economics apply the principles

of divinity. According to Sayed Nawab Haider Naqvi principles in Islamic economics there are five, namely the principle of divinity (ilahiyyat / unity), the principle of equilibrium (equiblirium), the principle of freedom, the principle of responsibility, the principle of truth. Read Sayed Nawab Haider Naqvi, Etika dan Imu Ekonomi: Suatu Sintesis Islami, (Bandung: Mizan, 1993), p. 77-82.

91 M. Husein Sawit, as cited Juandi, Maqa>sid al-Syari>’ah: Sebuah Tinjauan dari Sudut Ilmu Ekonomi Islam, dalam Istinba>t} Jurnal Hukum, (Metro: Jurursan Syari’ah STAIN Jurai Siwo Metro, Volume 9, Nomor 1 Mei 2012), p. 37.

92 Yu>suf Qarad}a>wi> al-Ijtiha>d fi> al-Syari>'ah ..., p. 57.


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لم والمال االقتصاد ميدان في جديدة ومؤسسات وأعمال بأشكال حفل قد هذا عصرنا أن فالشك“

المتعددة بصورها الحديثة كالشركات وذلك بها عهد إلينا العصور ألقرب بل أسالفنا يكن

:تأمين المتعددة بأنواعه كالتأمين المختلفة مجاالتها وفي ٬وغيرها والتوصية المساهمة كشركات

وزراعي وصناعي عقاري من المختلفة بأنواعها والبنوك .الخ..الممتلكات على وتأمين الحياة على

وصرف وتحويل وقروض( وودائع ٬ جار حساب من :الكثيرة وأعمالها الخ..واستثماري وتجاري

يحرم أو يحل قد مما ذلك وغير كمبياالت خصم) و ٬ ضمان خطابات وإصدار اعتمادات وفتح ٬

شبيه وبعضها ٬ المائة في مائة جديد المعامالت هذه من كثير وإن .البنوك معامالت من

هذه في الحكم ما وجديد. ترى قديم من مركب وبعضها ٬ منها قريب أو ٬ قديمة بمعامالت

والتحريم الرفض وهو الطرق أسهل إلى العلم أهل بعض يسارع ربما والمؤسسات؟ المعامالت

سفيان اإلمام قال وقد .الدين من وتنفير المسلمين على تعسير من فيه ما هذا وفي ٬ والتشديد

فتح آخرون يحاول وقد! أحد كل فيحسنه التشديد أما ٬ ثقة من الرخصة الفقه إنما :بحق الثوري

وبدعوى ٬ حينا المصلحة بدعوى مباح واقع هو ما وكل ٬ جديد لكل مصراعيه على الباب

لكل تبحث أن على تحرص ثالثة وفئة آخر. حينا متكلفة واهية وبتخريجات ٬ حينا الضرورة

أساسه على وتكيف ٬ وقفه على لتخرج ٬ والمصنفات الكتب تضمنته قديم نظير عن جديدة معاملة

الجديدة والمؤسسات األعمال هذه تخضع أن كله هذا من وأولى.مرفوضة معاملة فهي وإال ٬

ضوء في بها الالئق الحكم الستنباط وسعهم الفقه أهل يستفرغ وأن ٬ والدراسةالمتأنية الجاد للبحث

المجتهد عمل وهنا ٬ االجتهاد مجال فهذا ٬ التحريم أو باإلباحة الحكم كان سواء ٬ الشرعية األدلة

”93حقا. "There is no doubt that in the present era there have been various models of economic and financial

institution activity that did not exist in the previous era. Form of modern companies with various

variants, such as companies engaged in the field of stock or capital markets, limited liability companies

and so on. There are insurance companies with various variants, such as life insurance, property

insurance and so on. Various kinds of banking with various products, industry, trade, investment and

the like. Various banking activities ranging from deposits, borrowings, transfers, foreign exchange,

credit opening, stock issuance, securities, bonds, discounts on bill notes and various activities and other

banking products that are not yet legal, halal or haram. There are several variants of existing banking

products that are 100% new or previously unknown, some are similar to or similar to the previous

model, there is also a modification of the transaction model and conventional products with new

models. Does anyone know the legal transactions and the financial companies? Some people take

shortcuts by rejecting and forbidding them. If such a step is taken, it will make it difficult for Muslims

and distances religion from such economic activities. Whereas Imam al-Tsauri once said 'In fact, fiqh is

a dispensation of difficulties' While on the other hand there are people who take shortcuts by placing

religion, accommodating all models of banking activities with all its products being punished lawfully

and allowed for reasons of piety or emergency reasons . There is a third group that deals with

contemporary mu'amalah models with the old theory contained in books or classic books to search for

and find conformity to their lans and, if no match is found and foundation, then the mu'amalah model is

mu'amalah should be rejected. The wisest step is to discuss models of financial transactions and

financial products and models of contemporary mu'amalah diligently and profoundly, the fiqh experts

exert all their ability to do istinbat relevant laws under the auspices of syar'i arguments. The

problematic is the domain to implement itjihad which will produce objective legal product with

93 Ibid., pp. 57-58.


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scientific approach, either for forbidden, justifying or allowing. Such activity is really a mujtahid

activity."

Further al-Qaradlawi gives critical questions about precious paper or stocks that are the

cornerstone of the economy in today's era. Does such valuable paper have provisions such as

conventional money? Zakat like zakat gold and silver? How in the context of prohibited usury?

Does the paper apply the conditions of usury as gold and silver? In the context of the obligation

of zakat, is the obligatory obligatory zakat, while in the context of ribawi, does not apply to it

usury? Or vice versa, apply the provisions of ribawi but does not apply zakat obligations? This is

only a small part of contemporary mu'amalah legal problems, there are many other issues that

require answers from the perspective of law and the legality of halalism or prohibition,

especially in the field of mu'amalah banking, insurance and zakat-zakat wealth in today's

contemporary era.

Fiqh, especially fiqh mu'amalah has long been undeveloped, whereas economic and

financial activity developed significantly. Therefore Fiqh mu'amalah contemporary is needed to

answer and solve various problems mu'amalah contemporary. Related to this Umar Chapra

states:

“Fiqhi verdicts related to the financial system have remained dormant for more than two

centuries, over which period the conventional financial system has made tremendous advances.

Revival of the Islamic financial system is, therefore, taking place in an environment which is

entirely different from that of the classical fuqaha>’. Even though a great deal of progress has

been made over the last two decades in facing the new challenges, there are still certain crucial

issues that remain unresolved. This is but natural because the issues are difficult and require an

expertise in both the fiqh and the complexities of modern finance, which is not easy to find.

However, since, it may not even be possible to prepare an agreed legal framework and capital

adequacy standards for Islamic banks until a consensus or near-consensus has been reached on

these fundamental fiqhi issues, they need the special attention of the fuqaha>’. This may not

necessarily lead to a change in the classical verdicts. There will, nevertheless, be a satisfaction

that, in spite of taking into account the changed realities, it was not considered desirable to

change the age-old verdicts because of the strong rationale behind them. In that case it would be

necessary for the fuqaha> and financial experts to join their hands to find practical Shari>‘ah

compatible solutions for the problems faced by Islamic financial institutions. In the absence of

such solutions, the risks faced by banks may be higher and the need for capital greater. Capital


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standards which are significantly higher than those for conventional banks may reduce the

profitability of these banks and make them less competitive.”94

Contemporary Islamic economic law issues are not only about the legal status of

transactions and modern financial services and products, but also on the obligations of zakat for

corporations or legal entities of new financial institutions and commodities. Zakat legal entity

became one of the points that became the theme of discussion and study among contemporary

scholars. In this case Habib Ahmed explains:

“There are diverse opinions and views on the zakat ability of some other new

items/entities. The new items of wealth and income that have been discussed by

contemporary scholars include stocks and shares of companies, economic enterprises that

are either wholly or partly owned by the government, mineral resources, including

petroleum and income from the services sector business. The latter type of business are

normally labor intensive no or very little capital and inventory investments (like travel

agencies, law firms and real estate agents). Another contemporary economic reality is the

existence of legal entities/person or other than natural person.” 95

Departing from the above, it is clear that the urgency of collective-integrative ijtihad

with various approaches to answering contemporary matters from a legal perspective. Although

some contemporary issues have been discussed by earlier scholars, the cases and conditions are

not exactly identical, so there is a need for further review.96 Not only that, a very urgent need not

only on the level of reform of Islamic legal thought, but concrete steps and methods.97

Collective-integrative ijtihad collectively carried out by involving various circles,

especially the economists, sociologists, anthropologists, and certainly Islamic jurists or

mujtahids. Ijtihad is done collectively done with various approaches are expected to produce the

right rule of law and can answer the substance of contemporary mu'amalah problem.

94 Umar Chapra and Thariqul Khan, Regulation and Supervision of Islamic Bank, (Jeddah: The Islamic

Development Bank, 2000), p. 71. 95 Habib Ahmed, Role of Zakah and Afqaf in Poverty Alleviation, (Jeddah: Islamic Develovment Bank,

2004), p. 36. 96 Frank E. Vogel dan Samuel L. Heyes, Islamic Law and Finance, (London: Kluwer Law International,

1998), pp. 25-28. 97 Saiful Jazil, Qat’}i> Z}anni> dalam Perspektif Ibrahim Husen, in Jurnal al-‘Ada>lah, (Jember, STAIN

Jember Press, Volume 11, Nomor 1, April 2008), p. 79.


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C. THE BASIC CONCEPTS, MODELS DAN INSTRUMENTS OF COLLECTIVE-

INTEGRATIVE IJTIHAD

1. Basic Concept of Collective-Integrative Ijtihad

Ijtihad etymologically means exerting ability.98 Exerting all ability to get something.99

Abu Zakariya al-Ansari mentions that etymologically ijtihad (اجتهاد) is wazan ifti'al (افتعال) of al-

juhdu, ie exert all efforts to get out of trouble.100 Meanwhile, in terms of ijtihad terminology in

the work of classical scholars in general can be deduced as an attempt to exert all the ability of

science to get a conclusion, knowledge, or prejudice about a law from the actions of the mukallaf

(proficient law). Meanwhile, according to contemporary scholars, ijtihad is a concept that also

contains methodological, methodical and functional implications. Fazlur Rahman, for example,

defines ijtihad as an attempt to understand the meaning of a text or precedent in the past that

contains a rule, and to change the rule by extending or limiting or modifying it in other ways

such that a new situation can be included in it.101 According to Abdullah Ahmed An-Na'im, the

use of ijtihad in the general sense is relevant to the interpretation of the Qur'an and al-Sunnah.

When a principle or rule of shari'ah is based on the general meaning or the widespread

implications of a text of the Qur'an and the Sunnah is different from the direct rule of clear and

detailed text, the text and principles of shari'ah should be linked through legal reasoning.102

Referring to the explanation above, then collective-integrative ijtihad can be interpreted

as an effort made by several people collectively who have the feasibility and scientific

competence to get the formulation of the right law by synergizing the method of ushul fiqh with

scientific method and using various discipline based on legal sources by considering the social

98 Rawwas Qal'ah Jie, Mu’jam Lug}ah al-Fuqaha>’, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r

al-S|a>ni>, 2005), I/43. 99 Ibnu Manz}ur, Lisan al-‘Arab, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005),

III/133. 100 Zakariya bin Muhammad bin Zakariya al-Ans}a>ri>, G}aya>h al-Wus}u<l fi Syarh} Lubb al-Us}u>l,

(Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), I/164. Zakariya bin Muhammad bin Zakariya al-Ans}a>ri>, al-H}udu>d al-Ani>fah wal al-Ta’a>ri>f al-Daqi>qah, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), I/164; Muh}ammad Abdul Ra’u>f al-Mana>wi>, al-Ta’a>ri>f, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), I/35.

101 Lihat Fazlur Rahman, Islam, (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1997), p. 8. 102 See Abdullah Ahmad An-Na’im, Dekonstruksi Syari’ah, (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2004), p. 45.


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reality103 and the context of time and situation to achieve the benefit. This ijtihad is not only done

by a person, but collectively, because it uses various perspectives and approaches.104

2. Ijtihad Model

Ijtihad in today's modern era has several types. Yusuf al-Qaradawi offers three

alternatives in implementing ijtihad in the present contemporary era, ie ijtihad intiqa'i, ijtihad

insyai,105 and ijtihad integration between the two. ijtihad intiqa'i is to choose an opinion from

some of the strongest opinions contained in Islamic jurisprudence which is full of fatwas and

legal decisions. While ijtihad is taking the conclusion of the law from an issue that has not been

raised by the previous scholars. The third bid is to integrate ijtihad intiqa'i and insya'i, choosing

the opinions of previous scholars considered more relevant and strong, then in that opinion plus

the new ijtihad elements.106 On another occasion, Qardhawi describes three models of ijtihad in

the contemporary era, namely Taqnin (legislation), fatwas and al-bahs.107

Meanwhile, the other contemprary ulama, Wahbah al-Zuhaili in his book al-Fiqh al-

Islami wa Adillatuh states:

إذا وقعت حادثة جديدة، أو أراد إنسان استخالص رأي راجح من بين آراء األئمة، استجمع “

العالم المجتهد كل ما يتصل بنواحي الموضوع من لغة وآيات قرآنية وأحاديث نبوية وأقاويل

السلف وأوجه القياس الممكنة، أي ال بد من توافر شروط االجتهاد في تلك الحادثة، ثم ينظر

تعصب لمذهب معين على النحو التالي: ينظر أوال في نصوص كتاب هللا تعالى، فيها بدون

فإن وجد فيه نصا أو ظاهرا، تمسك به، وحكم في الحادثة بمقتضاه. فإن لم يجد فيه ذلك، نظر

في السنة، فإن وجد فيها خبرا أو سنة عملية أو تقريرية، أخذ بها، ثم ينظر في إجماع العلماء،

103 Social reality becomes one of the factors of difference of method and pattern of ijtihad ulama

madhzhab and the result. Imam Syafi'i for example, at first when in Hijaz and Iraq has issued the results of his ijtihad which he often called qaul qadim. Qaul qadim is influenced by the socio-cultural conditions of the land of Hijaz and Iraq. Then when he moved to Egypt, he found that the socio-cultural realities of Egyptian society differed from that of Hijaz and Iraq, since Egypt was influenced by European and Roman cultures. So he issued a new ijtihad commonly called qaul jadid. (Further read Ahmad Nahrawi Abdus Salam al-Indunisi, Ensiklopedia Imam Syafi’i, (Jakarta: Hikmah, 2008), pp. 381-384.

104 Imam Mustofa, Ijtihad Kontemporer sebagai ..., p. 210. 105 Yu>suf Qarad}a>wi>, al-Ijtiha>d fi> al-Syari>'ah...., p. 68-70. 106 Ibid., hlm. 53-54. 107 Further read Yusuf Qaradawi, al-Ijtiha>d fi> al-Syari>'ah..., p. 88-91.


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اس، ثم في الرأي الموافق لروح التشريع اإلسالمي. وهكذا تتحدد طريقة االجتهاد ثم في القي

إما باألخذ من ظواهر النصوص إذا انطبقت على الواقعة ، أو بأخذ الحكم من معقول النص

أي بالقياس،أو بتنزيل الوقائع على القواعد العامة المستنبطة من األدلة المتفرقة في القرآن

”108ان والمصالح المرسلة والعرف وسد الذرائع إلخ.والسنة كاالستحس

Based on the above phrase, it can be understood that a method of ijtihad (legal

reasoning) itself can generally be divided into three models, firstly, through legal reasoning

which depart from all activities related to language studies (semantics). This method is directed

against sharia texts in the form of Al-Quran and Hadith to know how the two sources refers to

the laws of fiqh it means. Secondly, the qiyasi (analogy) pattern, that is, attempts to establish

Islamic law which is not specifically contained in the text by way of analyzing it with the legal

cases contained in the nash because of the similarity of the law. 109 Third, the pattern Istislahi,

which is a method of legal reasoning that collects general passages to create universal principles

to protect or bring about the benefit. Istislah or al-Maslahah al-Mursalah is a benefit of goodness

or benefit judged by logical reasoning and in accordance with the purpose of syara ', but there is

no indication in nash that supports or reduces it.110 The development of Fiqh Mu'amalah

Contemporary by using the istislahi model aims to achieve the benefit in the life of a society by

108 Wah}bah al-Zuḥaili>, al-Fiqh al-Isla>mi> wa Adillatuh, (Beirut: Dar Al-Fikr, 2005), I /114. 109 Regarding with the definition of Qiyas, further read Muh}ammad bin Ah}mad bin Abi Sahal al-

Sarkhasi>, Us}u>l al-Sarkhasi>, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), II/174. Abu. H}usain al-Bas}ri>, al-Mu’tamad fi> Us}u>l Fiqh, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), II/443. ‘Ali> bin Muhammad al-Bazdawi> al-Hanafi>, Us}ul al-Bazdawi>, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), I/248.

110 As far as the difference of opinion among scholars in the matter of the blessings of the mas} lah ah mursalah, then in this case can be put forward several different views: (Muhammad Roy, Philosophy of Law al-Tufi and Dynamism of Islamic Law (Yogyakarta: Pondok Pesantren UII, 2007), pp. 58-59). First, Mas} lah} ah mursalah can not be a legal argument (h} ujjah) absolutely in Islamic law. This opinion is held by Sya> fi'i> yah, H} anafiyah, Z} ahiriyah, and Shi'i. The Syafi'i and Hanafi schools did not include mas} lah mursalah into the hierarchy of their madhhab teachings. See Manna> 'al-Qat} a> n, al-Tasyri>' wa al-Fiqh fi al-Isla> m; Ta> ri> khan wa Manha> jan, cet. V, (Cairo: Maktabah Wahbah, 2001), p. 331-376. Second, Mas} lah} ah Mursalah can be made hujjah absolutely. This opinion is held by Ima> m Ma> lik and Ima> m H} aramain, also some scholars of H} ana> blades like Sulaima> n al-T} u> fi>. The opinion of Imam Ma> lik is also quoted and followed by Fakhruddin al-Ra> zi>. See Fakhruddi> n al-Ra> zi>, al-Mah} s} u> l fi Ilm al-Us} u> l, (Beirut: Da> r al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyah, 1999), II / 501 . Also read Ali Hasballah, Us} u> al-Tasyri> 'al-Isla> mi>, (Cairo: Da> r al-Fikr al-'Arabi>, 1997, pp. 151). Thirdly, Maslah} ah Mursalah can be hujjah in Islamic law as long as it fulfills three conditions, that is d} aru> riya> t, qat'iya> t, and kulliya> t. This opinion is held by al-Ghazali. (Abu Hamid al-Ghaza> li>, al-Mustas} fa>, [Beirut: Da> r al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyah, 1993], pp. 181).


249

combining the size of nash or text with a view of logic or reason.111 The integration of the two

aims to achieve the benefit that is not wild, apart from the corridor syara' and only use the

consideration of reason and social reality alone. In addition, the integration of and reason is done

so that ijtihad is not only dogmatically textual without the use of realistic and practical

considerations of benefit.

Based on the above exposure, the most appropriate model used for integrative

collective ijtihad (jama'i) in order to produce contemporary mq'eh fiqh is the third method, ie the

istislahi model. This model is used by friends, tabi'in, and imam mazhab in every time and time.

This method seeks to realize authenticity and modernity at once. The model also brings together

two things: first, sticking to the passage, and secondly, maintaining and reconciling the facets of

benefit and necessity after making a deep understanding of naṣ and explaining its illat.112 This

model can be accepted syari 'as well as reason, because first, this model keep everything that has

been fixed in the shari'ah; secondly, it takes into consideration the developmental demands on

the basis of maslahah mursalah, including the general 'urf', as a form of practicing the spirit of

shari'ah without "bumping into"

111 Maslahat as the method continues to develop, until in the end now conical into two big trends. First,

the deep trend of using the maslahat method is tied to the 'rule of the game' as it has always been practiced by salaf scholars. By following the first trend of thinking, the use of maslahah as a method of legislation as Islamic law can be guaranteed from the development of the 'wild', because he is fenced by various rules of the game. The biggest problem is the rule of the game offered by this model is still too abstract, in the sense, too general so not so clear and multi interpretative. This will certainly provide a great space for subjectivism. In addition, the 'rules of the game' offered by him is also unlikely to be played by the recognized or not-recognized Indonesian scholars much of the knowledge of fiqh from the ushul fiqih as well as the original sources of Islamic law. The 'rules of the game' offered by this first trend may only be played by 'international caliber' scholars, or else in a collective ijtiha (djama’i). The argument is very simple, for how can they test whether a maslahat contradicts or not with maqas} id, book, sunnah, or ijma ', while their knowledge is more to' jurisprudence '-that their knowledge of the Qur'an and Sunnah is not possible all the knowledge of scholars who sparked this 'rule of the game'. Ultimately, under these circumstances, existing 'rules of the game' cannot be followed properly and keep the development opportunities out of the fence. Second, the deep trend of using the maslahat method tends to be more free. The second method does not make clear and clear 'rules of the game'. The determination of the returns to the 'sense of justice', 'general opinion', 'merit', and the like, will obviously be very subjective. Justice according to the A is not necessarily fair according to B. It is not always appropriate according to C. So on, until there is no clear limit again about what is maslahat, what is fair, and what is commonly desired

112 Mukhtar Zamzami, Pembaruan Hukum, Makalah tidak diterbitkan, Jakarta, 12 Agustus 2010, hlm. 6.

Bagian ini pada dasarnya sudah penulis kutip di tulisan Ijtihad Kontemporer ..., hlm. 211.


250

3. The Instrument of Ijtihad

The instrument of ijtihad is the science and experience possessed by Mujtahid,

individually or collectively. Collective-integrative Ijtihad not only requires the device, but also

requires other tools that can be used to support the activities of ijtihad. This device may be a

relevant modern technological device, such as a telecommunications device or an information

technology tool.

The most important ijtihad device is the various sciences that must be mastered by

mujtahid. A Mujtahid dominates (1) Nas} ṣ al-Quran and al-Sunnah, (2) Issues of ijma '(3)

Arabic, (4) Ushul Fiqh Science, (5) Nasakh and mansukh.113 While al-Syatibi as "Father of

maslahat" requires two things: (1) Can understand the purpose of the Shari'a perfectly, (2) Can

dig a law on the basis of the understanding of a Mujtahid.114

The scientific instrument that the author thinks is quite relevant to the collective-

integrative ijtihad activity is the ijtihad device offered by Yusuf al-Qaradawi. According to him a

mujtahid must meet the criteria: (1) Mastering the Quran and related sciences, (2) Mastering al-

Sunnah and related science, (3) Mastering Arabic, (4) Mastering the problems of Ijma'. This

requirement according to al-Qaradawi is applicable to Mujtahid Muthlaq.115 Moreover, according

to Yusuf Qardhawi, a mujtahid must know the sciences of humanities, know civilization in his

time in the field of health, chemistry and sports. This is so that the result of ijtihad is relevant.116

More firmly, Ahmad Bu'ud explains the ijtihad device in the First Contemporary era,

Fiqh al-Nassi and the things related to it. The first thing done by a mujtahid when conducting

ijtihad is to find the foundation of the legal arguments contained in al-Quran and al-Sunah. To

achieve the benefit of the people and the accuracy of ijtihad, cooperation is required of all

components related to the problem, so that the legal product becomes strong and wise. In

addition, some rules in understanding the text that must be possessed by a Mujtahid among them;

(1) Having capability in Arabic knowledge, (2) Knowing the reason for the descent of a verse or

113 Muh}ammad al-Syauka>ni>, Irsya>d Al-Fuh}u>l..., II: 94-103. 114 Abu> Ish}a>q al-Sya>t}ibi>, al-Muwa>faqa>t..., IV: 105. 115 Yusuf Qarad}a>wi>, al-Ijtiha>d fi> al-Syari>’ah , pp. 7-28. 116 Imam Mustofa, Ijtihad Kontemporer ..., p. 212.


251

hadith (asbab al-nuzul wa al-wurud), (3) knowing the purpose or purpose of the descending

verse (Maqashid al-Shari'ah).

Secondly, the fiqh of reality (al-fiqh al-waqi'i), is a deep and integral understanding of

an object or reality faced by man in the realm of his life. The things that include fiqh al-waqi 'are:

(2) Understanding and knowing the natural influences that arise in the surrounding environment,

especially the geographical conditions of the particular region in which the mujtahid live and

live. (2) To know the social condition of society and its transformation in various forms which

have social attachment, that is everything related between one person to another whatever kind

of relationship, whether in religion, culture, economy, politics or military. (3) In addition to

understanding the social reality that surrounds a problem, a mujtahid is also required to study the

human psychological conditions surrounding it.117

Third, collective ijtihad (jama'i). Ijtihad in the contemporary era can only be done by

realizing collective ijtiha (ijtihad jamai), except when circumstances are really urgent. The

existence of an institution or institution that accommodates the mujtahid from various fields of

science, is absolutely necessary in this contemporary era.118

Ijtihad jama'i is a new trend that is essentially almost the same as ijma ', in this case B.

Schabler as quoted by Illias Bantekas said:

“Currently, there is a new trend of thinking about the procedures for instituting Ijtihad

, as well as for ways in which it can secure legitimacy. Th is is known as Ijtihad jama’i, or

‘group ijtiha’. Th is characterised in its substance on a collective decision by a group of Muslim

scholars, as opposed to a contemporary individual opinion that may lack legitimacy, and which

is opposed or confl icts with a ruling by a scholar of the classic period of Islam. Obviously, a

collective decision by respected scholars is easier to accept, although it may appear prima facie

that collective ijtihad is nothing more than a disguised version of ijma’ The diff erence between

the two, however, is obvious; whereas ijma῾requires the agreement ofmost of the scholars of its

time, group ijtihad only needs the agreement of a group of scholars. Th e difference, therefore, is

principally of a quantitative nature, but this flexibility is also the measure of its success, if any.119

117 Further read Aḥmad Bu'u>d, al-Ijtiha>d baina ..., translated by Baradikal, Ijtihad Kontemporer dan

Usaha Keras Kontekstualisasi Syariat Islam, in http://baradikal.multiply.com/journal/item, accessed on 13 January 2013.

118 Ibid. 119 Illias Bantakes, The Disunity of Islamic Criminal Law and the Modern Role of Ijtiha>d, International

Criminal law Review 9, (London: Martinus Nijhoff Publisher, 2009), hlm. 658.

http://baradikal.multiply.com/journal/item


252

Regarding with the collective-integrative ijtihad, al-Qaradawi states:

يضم علمي مجمع صورة في جماعيا اجتهادا عصرنا في االجتهاد يكون أن وينبغي

والضغوط المؤثرات كل عن بعيدا وحرية شجاعة في أحكامه ويصدر ٬ العالية الفقهية الكفايات

أمام الطريق ينير الذي فهو ٬ الفردي االجتهاد عن غنى ال هذا ومع ٬ والسياسية االجتماعية

عملية إن بل ٬مخدومة أصيلة وبحوث ٬ عميقة دراسات من يقدم بما ٬ الجماعي االجتهاد

.120شيء كل قبل فردية عملية ذاتها حد في االجتهاد

In addition to the various scholars mentioned above, in the context of collective-

integrative ijtihad in the fiqh mu'amalah is contemporary, it takes a variety of other sciences,

especially those related to the fields of economics, management banking and related sciences. It

also required the social sciences of humaniroa, such as sociology, anthropology, history, politics

and also required the science of modern science.

A mujtahid must have multi-talent to the surrounding environment (microcosm and

microcosmic), human individuals and their customs, sociological conditions and domestic and

foreign politics so as not to be conservative exclusively on something new.121 According to

Syamsuddin, a mujtahid must master various sciences, and not only the science of the text, but

also the social sciences of humanities, such as history.122 Among the mujtahid jamai there must

be master of the science of sociology and anthropology and the most important is the mastery of

modern science, so that the resulting ijtihad is really relevant and answer the contemporary

issue.123

Various scientific tools as described above can be simplified by a scheme that

synergizes with methodological tools and operational tools of integrative collective ijtihad in the

field of fiqih mu'amalah as follows:

120 Yu>suf al-Qarad}a>wi>, al-Ijtiha>d fi> al-Syari>'ah., h. 63. 121 Lihat Muḥammad bin Ibrahi>m, al-Ijtiha>d wa al-'Urf , (Kairo: Da>r al-sala>m, 2009), pp. 40. 122 Muḥammad Mahdi Syamsuddi>n, al-Ijtiha>d wa al-Tajdi>d fi> al-Fiqhi> al-Isla>mi>, (Beirut: al-

Dauliyah al-Muassasah, tt), pp. 42-44. 123 Imam Mustofa, Ijtihad Kontemporer ..., pp. 213.


253

Figure 1: The synergistic scheme between methodological instrument and operational instrument of

collective-integrative ijtihad in the field of contemporary fiqh mu’amalah

The elaboration above is related to the instrument of knowledge, meanwhile the relation

with ijtihad methodology, collective-integrative isnot enough only by implementing classic ushul

fiqh method, but also it should be combined with modern method:

Figure 2: The synergistic scheme between our classical method of ushul fiqh and the modern

scientific method of collective-integrative ijtihad activity to produce contemporary fiqh mu'amalah

Based on the two schemes above, ijtihad is done in an integrative manner. Integrative

ijtihad by combining and synergizing various fields of science. Ijtihad is carried out by various

Operational Instruments

1. Economic sciences and the

related knowledge

2. Management sciences and

related knowledge

3. Knowledge about banking

4. Fiscal and monetary

5. Sociology

6. Anthropology

7. Ilmu psikologi

8. Sejarah kebudayaan dan

peradaban

9. Ilmu politik

Sains modern

10 Ilmu lain yang relevan

Methodological Instruments

1. Arabic Language proficiency

2. Al-Quran proficiency and

related knowledge

3. Al-Hadith proficiency and

related knowledge

4. Permasalahan ijma’

5. Pengetahuan tentang Maqas}id

al-Syari>’ah

6. Pemahaman Us}u>l Fiqh

THE INSTRUMENTS OF COLLECTIVE-

INTEGRATIVE IJTIHAD TO PRODDUCE

CONTEMPORARY FIQH MU’AMALAH

KONTEMPORER

Contemporary scientific method

Collective-Integrative

Ijtihad

Contemporary Fiqh

Mu’amalah

Classic Ushul Fiqh method


254

approaches, not only through the normative juridical approach through fiqh, using the classical

method of fiqh, but also through contemporary scientific approaches and methods, especially the

economic approach. This is done so that the product ijtihad can produce fiqih mu'amalah which

is completely compatible with the needs of economic development. Integrative Ijtihad requires

the cooperation of various experts from various backgrounds of science. Thus integrative ijtihad

is done collectively with full seriousness to mobilize their respective knowledge. It will be easier

to produce contextual laws. Especially now the media and devices to explore knowledge and

knowledge is quite representative. So it is natural that al-Suyuthi states:

االجتهاد في هذا الزمان أسهل منه في الزمن األول ألن اآلالت من األحاديث وغيرها قد دونت

.124وسهل مراجعتها بخالف الزمن األول فلم يكن فيه شيء من آالت االجتهاد مدون

D. INTEGRATIVE-COLLECTIVE IJTIHAD AS AN ATTEMPT TO BUILD BASIC

CONSTRUCTS OF CONTEXTUAL FIQIH MU’AMALAH

1. Ijtihad to realize maslahah sebagai Maqashid asy-syari‘ah

Ijitihad as an activity to find the law of any problem the method used, basically is in

order to realize maqashid asy-syari 'ah (aim of syaria Islam) 125, that is the realization of the

124 Imam al-Suyu>t}i>, Tqrir al-Istina>d fi> Tafsi>r al-Ijtiha>d, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah

al-Is}da>r al-S|a>ni>, 2005), I/3. 125 There are different classes of opinion about the determination of maqasid al-syari 'ah especially

relating to the worldly mashlahat associated with naṣh: First, the group that only holds the}} and takes the dhahiriyah and does not see to a goodness implied in the nas} s} it. Such is the presence of the Zahiriyah, the group that rejects qiyas. They say "There is no piety but that is brought in syara '." Second, groups seeking to find maslahat from naṣ to know illa> t-illat nash, their aims and objectives. This group makes qiyas all that there is maslahat to naṣ that contain maslahat it. It's just that they do not appreciate mashlahat unless there is syahid (testimony). So the maslahat they intend is only the maslahat witnessed by a or the proposition. And this is what they made illat qiyas. Third, the group that sets every mashlahat that enter into the kind of maslahat set by syara '. So although not witnessed by a certain proposition but maslahat it is taken and held as an independent proposition and they call Maslah Mursalah ah. (Al-Shatibi, al-I'tisam (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyah, Tt), II / .307). In the case of the determination of mashlahat, the circles of us} uliyyun agree to refer to the Quran, Hadith, Ijma 'and qiyas. Among the scholars who hold such views, among others, Izzuddin Abdussalam said that mashlahat can not be known except with syara '. If mashlahat is unclear then it must be sought through the Quran, al-Sunnah, Ijma 'Qiyas. ('Izzuddi> n' Abdul 'Aziz, "Qawa> id al-Ahkam fi Masalih al-Anam" [Beirut: Da> r al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyah, tt] p. 11). Al-Ghazali explicitly says "Maqa> s} id al-Shari> ah can only be exposed through the understanding of al-kitab al-hadis and concensus ulama. (Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, al-Mustasfa, p 179).


255

benefit. Maqashid asy-syari'ah in the form of goodness (maslahat) and dispels this is the ultimate

goal of Islamic Shari'a.126 Religion is a means to create goodness for humans on earth. In

connection with this, Ibn al-Qoyyim, in his book I'lam al-Muwaqqi'i n says that the shari'a is

based on the principle of wisdom and goodness man in the world and the hereafter. This

goodness is others in the form of universal values of shari'a such as justice, compassion, unity,

tolerance, peace and so forth.

إن الشريعة مبناها وأساسها الحكم ومصالح العباد في المعاش والمعاد، وهي عدل كلها، ومصالح

127كلها، ورحمة كلها، وحكمة كلها.Maqashid asy-syari'ah is the main goal of the establishment of Islamic law that is to

create goodness for mankind.128 Maslahah is a term that can be most popular when talking about

Islamic law.129 Maslahah here means jalbul manfa'ah wa daf'ul mafsadah (attracting benefit and

denying harm).130 However, the existence of maslahah as an inseparable part of Islamic law still

presents many polemics and disagreements among scholars', both since ushul fiqh still in the

days of companions, the time of the imam of the schools, contemporary at this time.

126 Maqasid al-Syari’ah consists of three level. Daruriyat (essential needs), hajiyat (primary needs), and

tahsiniyat (luxury needs). These principles are deduced to the issues to be solved. Abdul Wahha>b Khalla>f, Ilmu Us}u>l Al-Fiqh, (Beirut: Da>r al-kutub al-ilmiyah, 2007), pp. 160-164). 127 Ibnul Qoyyim al-Jauziyah, I’lam al-Muwaqqi’in, (Digital Library, al-Maktabah al-Sya>milah al-Is}da>r

al-S|a>ni>, 2005), III/14. 128 Abu Ishaq al-Syatibi, al-Muwafaqa>t ..., IV/106. 129 Etymologically maslahah similar to the word manfaah, both size and meaning. The word mashlahah

is masdar which means the word al-salah as the word manfa'ah which means al-naf '. The word mashlahah is a mufrad form of the word masaf, as the author of al-'Arab's oral author describes everything that benefits both by bringing in something useful and by rejecting something harmful. While in terminology maslahah is the benefit that became the goal of Shari 'for his servants. Manfat in the sense of a favor or that bring pleasure. (Ramadan al-Buti, Dawabit} al-Mas} lah> ah fi al-Shari'ah al-Isla> miyah, [Beirut: Muassasah al-Risalah, 1986] , 23); ('Izzuddin' Abdul 'Aziz, Qowaid al-Ahkam fi Mashalih al-Anam, [Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyah, Tt. P.7-8). The term Maslahlah Mursalah is popular with the term al-Istis} lah} or al-Istidla> l al-mursal. Despite having a fundamental similarity, that is to get goodness with the exit of a law of a particular case, in the definition of the three terms are not essentially different. Istishlah is in language is demanding a goodness (talabul al-islah). Whereas in term, istislah is defined as "a method of taking law against an event which has no basis both from nas and ijma 'ulama in order to realize a convincing goodness although there is no certain guarantee of syar". More complete, read: Abdul Azis Abdul Rahman ibn Ali Rabi'ah, Adillah al-Tasyri ': al-Mukhtalif fial-Ihtijaj bihaal-Qiyas, al-Istsan, al-Istislah, al-Istishab, Jami'ah al imam ibn Su'ud al Islami, no publisher, 1986], pp. 221-222).

130 Hasbi Ash-Shiddiqy, Falsafah Hukum Islam, (Semarang: Pustaka Rizki Putra, 2001), pp. 171-182.


256

According to Imam al-Syatibi, a mujtahid should not apply the law he has exalted from

the Qur'an or Sunna as it is. He is obliged to give consideration based on the circumstances

surrounding the object of the law. If the law resulting from ijtihad is not suitable for the object of

the law because the application of the law brings harm, then the Mujtahid must find another law

that is more appropriate, so that the harm can be eliminated and the benefit can be achieved. This

theory is known as nazariyyah i'tibar al-ma'al. 131 Al-Syatibi also explicitly says that God's

ultimate purpose of establishing His laws is to realize the welfare of human life, both in the

world and in the hereafter. Therefore, taklif in the field of law should lead to and realize the

realization of the objectives of the law.132

Imam al-Qarafi, one of the Maliki adherents in his book al-Ih} ka> m asserted that the

rule that the fiqh and fatwas should pay attention to is the development that takes place from day

to day, taking into account traditions and customs, with time and the place. In line with al-Qarafi,

Yusuf Qaradlawi in his book Sharia'tul Islam Shalihah lith- Thatbiq fi Kulli Zaman wa Makan

also explained that between the law -the result of ijtihad there is a law on which the temporal

basis of existence, which may change according to the changing of time and circumstances,

means that there must be an amendment to the law that accompanies it.133

The theory of maslahah (istislah) itself is often used in collective-integrative ijtihad, as

is often used by liberal Muslims if it is restored to the concept of dawabit al-maslahah that

Ramad expressed an al-Buti must meet five criteria: (1) Prioritize the aim of the syara '; (2) Not

contrary to the Qur’an; (3) Not contrary to al-Sunnah; (4) Not contrary to the principle of qiyas;

(5) Taking into account the more important (big) benefits. Meanwhile, al-Syatibi limiting

dlawabit al-maslahah (maslahah criteria) into two. First, maslahat it is absolute and not

131 Yusdani, “Ijtihad Dan Nazariyyah I'tibar Al-Ma'al”, cited dari www.yusdani.com, accessed 21 Oktober

2007. 132 Abu Ish}a>q al-Sya>t}ibi, al-Muwafaqat Fi Usul Al-Syariat, Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyah, 2003, II/4. 133 Yu>suf al-Qarad}a>wi>, Pedoman Bernegara dalam Perspektif Islam, (Jakarta Timur: Pustaka Al-

Kautsar, 1999), pp. 256-260.


257

subjective. Second, goodness (maslahat) is universal (kulliyah) and not contrary to some juziyat

it.134

The journey of maslahat in the modern era, tends to establish maslahat as a method that

can be used as a basis to overcome the rigor of Islamic law, and support the Islamic law that is

adaptive to change. Therefore, maslahat is often an infinite value that is often made as the basis

for arguing contemporary legal solutions. Even in the hands of Najmuddin al-Tufi, maslahat

made the strongest foundation (hujjah) which can independently be the basis of law. 135

Mashlahah which is the goal of Islamic law (Maqashid al-Shari'ah) here is intended as

a blade of analysis or glasses to read the reality and the phenomena that occur around us. 136 The

above mashlahat theory must be a collective-integrative act.

2. Collective-Integrative Ijtihad: Building the Basic Constructs of Law of Product

Development of Syai’a Business

Business activities and products issued by Sharia Business Institution, especially sharia

banking are basically supervised by DPS selected by National Sharia Council (DSN). To not

deviate from the value of sharia, this supervision has been determined by the Islamic Shariah

whose application has been issued through the Fatwa MUI. Each syariah bank is required to have

at least three DPS to oversee its business activities.137

DPS itself is the person chosen by the MUI with the following provisions: having

akhlaqul karimah, have the competence of expertise in the field of muamalah and knowledge in

the field of banking and or finance in general, have a commitment to develop finance based on

sharia, have the feasibility of sharia supervisors as evidenced by certification letter from

DSN.138

134 Asmuni, “Penalaran Induktif Syatibi dan Perumusan al-Maqosid Menuju Ijtihad yang Dinamis”, cited

from www.yusdani.com. Accessed 21 Oktober 2007. 135 Abdul Azis Dahlan (ed.), Ensiklopedi Hukum Islam, (Jakarta: PT. Ichtiar Baru Van Hoeve, 2001, hlm.

1147, article “maslahat”. 136 Yudian Wahyudi, Ushulul Fikih Versus Hermeneutika: Membaca Islam dari Kanada dan Amerika,

(Yogyakarta: Pesantren Nawesea Press, 2007), p. 48. 137 Muhamad Nadratuzzaman Hosen, et.al, Bank-ku Syariah, (Jakarta: pkaes publishing, 2008), p. 10. 138 Ibid., p. 11.


258

The task of DPS in sharia banking is to conduct periodic supervision on the LKS under

its supervision, to propose the proposed LKS development to the head of the concerned

institution and to the DSN, to report on the product development and operational of the LKS

supervised to the DSN at least 2) times within 1 (one) budget year, and formulate issues that

require discussion of DSN. Thus it is expected that Sharia Business Institution can really

maintain the trust of the people to manage their funds in the way of getting blessings and

blessings from Allah SWT. Collective-integrative ijtihad of legal products in the form of fiqh

mu'amalah contemporary can be a guide for members of DPS in order to carry out such

supervision can run optimally and in accordance with the foundation and legality of Islamic law.

The author offers constructive thinking in collective-integrative ijtihad to produce contemporary

fiqh muamalah as follows:

Figure 3: The Proposed Framework Scheme of Construct Formation of Law Foundation of Syaria

Business Product Development in Era Modern

The scheme above can be explained as follows:

The change and development of

contemporary finance activities

- Nash (Al-Quran and al-Sunnah)

- The rule of ushuliyyah

- The rule of fiqhiyyah

Collective-

Integrative Ijtihad

Contemporary Fiqh

mu’amalah

Goodness

Dawabit Fiqhiyah


259

First, the texts in the form of verses of the Qur'an and al-Sunnah associated with the

economic law contain the values of morality as spirit (ruh) to create goodness for human life,

both as individuals and social beings. Nash applies to mankind (Muslims) universally, not

limited space and time. That is, changing times will not be able to change the rules that exist in

the naṣh, and the spirit to create goodness always stick with the nash.139 Nash deals with the

changes and the development of phenomena and problems along with the times. It is worth the

effort of the competent person (mujtahid) to communicate the text with the change, so that the

goodness becoming its soul will always be compatible with the changing times.140

Nash's verse and al-Sunnah are still global. The mutaqaddimin scholars have essentially

derived Nash's ijmali (global) in the general rules set forth in our usuliyyah.141 The rules of

usuliyyah are the rules of usul fiqh which are still globally applicable to all parts and objects.

This rule can be used as a mujtahid in doing istinbath law, although the rule is also still global.

More specifically, the fiqh scholars detail the rules of usuliyyah in the form of more specific

fiqhiyyah rules. The rules of fiqhiyyah are the fiqh principles of a global nature that are arranged

in the form of a brief phrase that covers and oversees the laws of syar'i in general.142 According

to the author, the rules of usuliyyah basically can also be a foundation in the development of fiqh

mu'amalah, if there is no nash a firm or offensive an economic activity. Even some scholars,

such as Najmuddin al-Tufi make the rule of usuliyyah as an independent proposition (al-Adillah

al-Mustaqillah) to establish the worldly benefit.

Second, change and development. Islamic law basically develops interrelated with other

disciplines, with history, influenced by other sciences such as ethics, theology, philosophy and

139In the treasury of Islamic religious thought, especially in the Uṣul Fiqh approach, it is known that the

term al-Sawabit (things that are believed or considered "fixed", unchanged) wa al-Mutaghayyirât (things that are believed or considered "fickle", not fixed). Some call it "al-Tsabit" wa "al-Mutah} awwil". (Adonis as quoted by M. Amin Abdullah, Reactualization of Islam that 'Progress' Muhammadiyah Strategic Agenda Amid Contemporary Religious Movement, Paper presented in Ramadlan Study Center Muhammadiyah 1432 H, Muhammadiyah University Campus Yogyakarta, 7 Ramadlan / August 2011, 3)

140 Imam Mustofa, Ijtihad Kontemporer ..., p. 214. 141 Further read Shahih bin Ganim al-Sadlan, al-Qawaid al-Fiqhiyyah al-Kubra>, (Riyad: Tp. 1417 H), p 21. 142 Read Muhammad al-Zarqa>, Syarh} al-Qawa>’id al-Fiqhiyyah, (Damaskus: Da>r al-Qalam, Cet. II,

1989), p. 43.


260

logic, not least the humanities.143 Therefore, changes in change and development on other

aspects should have received feedback from Islamic law.

Socio-cultural changes in society due to the development of the times bring significant

influence on community behavior and cause new phenomena in their lives. These changes and

developments are sunnatullah.144 Progress in the most tangible economic context is the

emergence of various types and types of transactions and the development of modern services

and financial products. Such developments are a logical consequence of the invention in other

fields, such as the invention of devices and communications and information media. Developing

phenomena such as the development of transactions and services and financial products are not

always regulated and covered by the text, therefore ijtihad is necessary.

Third, collective-integrative ijtihad, a business of various circles who have sufficient

scientific competence to communicate and contextualize texts or texts related to economic law

with the development of the times with all its products. As a means of assisting the

contextualization of texts, scholars have made the rules, both the rules of usuliyyah, as well as

the rules of fiqhiyyah. These collective-integrative intentions are carried out with the models,

methods, approaches and tools described in the above sub-chapters, to achieve and create the

benefit, only the benefit achieved does not conflict with the nash itself.

Fifth, contemporary Fiqh Mu'amalah, is the result of ijtihad by departing from nash and

its spirit to uphold moral norms and guidance related to sharia economic law. Norms and

morality are then standardized in a binding and applicable legal rule to develop the products of

the Sharia Business Institutions in the modern era. It must therefore accommodate the culture

and plurality of the local community. In addition, this contemporary Fiqh should accommodate

the demands of human values or aspects of humanity and the development of the global

economy.

Sixth, goodness becomes the purpose of the text of the Qur’an and al-Sunnah. The law

must be able to create goodness for humans, whether goodness will be achieved through a

143 Ahmed E. Souaiaia, The Sociological Inheritance Priveleged Parlance & Unearned Rights, Disertasi di

Universitas Washington, (ProQuestInformation and Learning Company, 2002), p. 190. 144 Imam Mustofa, Ijtihad Kontemporer ..., p. 214.


261

definite calculation, as well as with a strong assumption145. This goodness will be created with

contemporary ijtihad activities that result in the rule of law that is actual and contextual. 146

Construction of the above can be realized collectively and will be more effectively

structured in an institution that specifically provides a fatwa or legal foundation of Islamic

economic activity in the modern era. Basically there are already institutions that have given

special attention and produce contemporary mu'amalah fiqh as a legal foundation for Islamic

financial products namely Islamic Research and Training Institute of Islamic Development Bank

and Center for Resarch in Islamic Economic King Abdul Aziz University. These two institutions

have recorded the results of economic law studies in the form of monographs. However, the

institution's legal products have not been maximally accessed and are limited to three languages,

Arabic, English and French.147

Institutions that are very possible to produce contemporary fiqh muamalah in Indonesia

according to the authors is the MUI working together National Sharia Council. Both of these

institutions must involve more experts from various fields of science in order to maximally

prepare for contemporary fiqh muamalah.

The above constructions when implemented by DSN, will produce contemporary fiqh

mu'amalah as the foundation of the development of Islamic banking and finance products based

on rules and basic principles that include rules and principles of syar'iyyah (al-qawa'id wa al-

Mabadi 'al-Syar'iyyah), the rules and basics of banking (al-qawa' id wa al-Mabadi 'al-

Masrifiyyah), rules and economic foundations (al-qawa' id wa al-Mabadi 'al-Iqtisadiyyah) and

the rules and foundations of society and civilization (al-qawa'id wa al-Mabadi 'al-Ijtima'yyah wa

al-Saqafah) 148. Ijtihad must produce sharia economic laws that can facilitate Muslims in

developing transactions, service products and sharia finance. The benefit which is not only in

harmony and realization of maqashid al-syari’ah in the economic context, that is hifzal-mal

145 According to 'Izzuddîn bin Abdussalam establishing or maintaining goodness based on strong

assumptions or prejudices justified in Islamic law (Izzuddi n ibn Abdussalam, Qawa' idul Ahkam ..., II / 18). 146 Imam Mustofa, Ijtihad Kontemporer ..., p. 214. 147 Habib Ahmed, (ed.), Theoritical Foundation of Islamics Economics, (Jeddah: The Islamic Development

Bank, 2002), p. 63. 148 Abdul Hamid Abdul Fatta>h} al-Magribi, al-Ida>rah al-Istiratijiyyah fi al-Bunuk al-Isla>miyyah,(Jeddah:

al-Bunk al-Islamili al-Tanmiyyah, 2004), pp. 281-289.


262

(wealth protect), but also realize maqashid al-syariah others, namely hifz ad-din, hifzan-nafs, hifz

an-nasl, and hifz al-'aql.

E. CONCLUSION

The variety of economic activities and products of Sharia financial institutions that

emerged in the modern era and there is no provision of fiqh comprehensively in need of answers

and legality of Islamic fiqh. Therefore, efforts should be made to fulfill and prepare a

comprehensive and relevant Islamic legal product, through collective-integrative ijtihad.

Collective-integrative Ijtihad done in order to meet and prepare fiqih mu'amalah which can be

used as legal foundation of product development of sharia financial institution. Collective-

integrative Ijtihad needs to be done so that the development of Islamic economics, especially

related to transactions and products of financial institutions are not constrained by the legality of

fiqih.

Collective-integrative Ijtihad is done in order to produce dawabith and fiqh mu'amalah

done integrally. Integrative Ijtihad is ijtihad by combining and synergizing various fields of

science. This integrative Ijtihad requires the cooperation of various experts from various

scientific backgrounds. Ijtihad is also carried out by various approaches, not only through the

normative juridical approach through fiqh, by the classical method of ushul fiqh, but also through

contemporary scientific approaches and methods, especially the economic approach. While the

model used is model istisahi. These collective-integrative collectives are carried out collectively

by experts from different fields of science incorporated in an institution. This is done so that the

product ijtihad can produce fiqih mu'amalah which is completely compatible with the needs of

economic development. Produce fiqh mu'amalah a contextual that can realize the benefit for

Muslims in various fields, especially in the economic field.


263

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ABOUT THE WRITER

mam Mustofa, born in Pringsewu, April 12, 1982. Since attending primary school in

Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Hidayatul Mubtadiin Srikaton Village, Adiluwih Sub-district, Pringsewu

Regency, the writer also studied at Pondok Pesantren Hidayatul Mubtadiin (PPHM) founded and

raised by his father, KH. Rohani Uthman. After graduating from Madrasah Ibtidaiyah (1995), the

writer continued his education at Madrasah Tsanawiyah al-Hidayah in Tunggul Pawenang

Village with scholarship from al-Hidayah Foundation, while also nyantri at PPHM until finished

in 1998. That same year he continued his education to Madrasah Aliyah Religious Negeri

(MAKN) Bandar Lampung, graduated in 2001 with a scholarship from the Ministry of Religious

Affairs and Islamic Development Bank (IDB). Strata 1 Education was pursued at the Faculty of

Islamic Studies of the Islamic University of Indonesia (FIAI-UII) Yogyakarta with a scholarship

from UII Waqf Board graduated in 2005. In 2006 the writer continued his Strata 2 education at

Postgraduate Program of State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta took the Family

Law Concentration Department Islamic law, graduated 2008 with a scholarship from the

Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia. During the education of Strata 1 to

Strata 2, the writer nyantri in Pondok Pesantren Mahasiswa Unggulan Universitas Islam

Indonesia Yogyakarta. In 2006 the author was appointed a lecturer of Islamic Law at the Faculty

of Law University of Pekalongan, Central Java. Since 2009 he was appointed Lecturer at the

State Islamic High School of Jurai Siwo Metro, Lampung.


268

During his time as a student of FIAI UII, the writer was active in the Student Press

Institute (LPM) Pillar of Democracy, and was also active as the Editorial Secretary of Millah

Journal of Religious Studies Master of Islamic Studies UII until 2008. That same year he became

Chief Editor of Al-Mustawa Journal Directorate of Education and Islamic Religion Development

until 2009. The year 2007 was active as Trainer at Directorate of Islamic Religious University

Development and Development (DPPAI-UII) until 2009. In 2008, Husband of Imroatul

Munawaroh became research assistant at Center for Local Law Development Studies CLDS)

Faculty of Law UII until 2009. The author is active in writing articles in various journals of

Islamic Studies in Indonesia. To date, more than 25 articles have been published in various

national journals, whether or not they have been cultivated. Around 75 articles are published in

newspapers, both locally and nationally. While actively conducting research and writing, starting

in 2011, the father of Mahera Mumtazatul Mushthava served as secretary of Center for Research

and Community Service (P3M) STAIN Jurai Siwo Metro. It is also active in scientific periodical

publishing, becoming editorial secretary of AKADEMIKA Journal of Islamic Thought, editorial

secretary of TAPIS Journal of Scientific Research and editorial secretary of Nizham Jurnal

Pascasarjana STAIN Jurai Siwo Metro.


269

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