International law-3

8/20/2019 International law-3

1/90

Craig

Forcese

Public International Law

3231AUniversity of Ottawa

Faculty of Law

Part III:

Jurisdiction over Peopleand Things


2/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

State Jurisdiction Over People & Things

• Distinction between state jurisiction over territory

!sovereignty over territory" an state jurisiction over

#eo#$e an t%ings

• &overeignty over territory genera$$y 'eans sovereigntyover #eo#$e an t%ings in t%at territory !wit% e(ce#tions

we wi$$ iscuss"

• )ut states 'ay so'eti'es a$so %ave jurisiction over

#eo#$e an t%ings t%at are not in t%eir territory

U&


3/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• Definition of *jurisiction+: jurisiction is a govern'ent,s

#owers to e(ercise aut%ority over t%ings an #ersons

• Prob$e' of jurisiction: #eo#$e an t%ings 'ove between

states an assorte states 'ay %ave a $egiti'ate interestin w%at %a##ens to t%ose #eo#$e an t%ingsU&


4/90

P$atia

Aristan

A$e(enra

&ocran

Lake Critius

Misty

Channel

Sea of

Aristan

Northern Sea

-ore$an

Uto#ivi$$e -ore$an P$astics


5/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• &tarting #oint: S.S. Lotus

• &tates 'ay not e(ercise #ower in t%e territory of

anot%er state

• .%is is t%e notion of *enforce'ent+ jurisiction:

states genera$$y 'ay not enforce t%eir $aws

outsie t%eir territoria$ bounaries

• )ut states 'ay e(ercise jurisiction in t%eir own

territory re$ating to acts t%at ta/e #$ace abroa

• .%is is t%e notion of *#rescri#tive+ jurisiction:

states in so'e instances 'ay e(ten t%e

a##$ication of t%eir $aws an t%e jurisiction of

t%eir courts to #ersons0 #ro#erty an acts outsie

t%eir territory

U&

http://www.comprehost.com/images/shipwreck.gifhttp://www.comprehost.com/images/shipwreck.gif


6/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

State Jurisdiction Over People & Things: nforce!ent Jurisdiction

• Define: &tate,s jurisiction to enforce its ru$es

• &tates c$ear$y %ave t%e jurisiction to enforce t%eir $aws in

t%e one over w%ic% t%ey %ave territoria$ sovereignty

• enera$$y0 it wou$ vio$ate t%e sovereignty of ot%erstates for a state to enforce its ru$es in t%e territory of

anot%er state

• A state w%ose sovereignty is offene in t%is way

wou$ %ave a c$ai' against t%e offening state

• ote0 %owever0 t%at nationa$ courts of 'any states

ta/e t%e view t%at even if t%e accuse was

a##re%ene in t%e territory of anot%er state in

vio$ation of t%at state,s sovereignty0 t%e court is not

e#rive of jurisiction

• E.g.0 United States v. Alvarez-Machain

U&


7/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

State Jurisdiction Over People & Things: Prescriptive Jurisdiction

• Define: A state,s #owers to #ass $aws

• C$ear$y0 states can #ass $aws to regu$ate affairs on t%eir

own territory

• )ut t%ere are instances w%ere state 'ay regu$ate *e(tra4territoria$$y+:

"# vents $onnected to the Territory: circu'stances

w%ere #art0 but not a$$0 of t%e i'#ugne activity ta/es

#$ace on t%e territory !e.g.0 so'eone s%ots a gun

across a borer0 %itting so'eone on t%e territory of

anot%er state"

• U5&5 *effects+ octrine: Unite &tates 'ay regu$ate

w%ere an entire$y overseas action by foreigners

%as a sufficient$y e$eterious effect on t%e Unite

&tates !e.g.0 its 'ar/et#$ace0 in t%e conte(t of anti4

trust $aw"

U&


8/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

%# ationality Principle: a state 'ay #ass a $aw regu$ating

t%e overseas conuct of its own nationa$s

• otion of *nationa$ity+: c$ear$y t%e nationa$ity #rinci#$e

e#ens on an unerstaning of *nationa$ity+

• ationa$ity of Iniviua$s:

• jus soli !birt% of t%e state,s territory"6

• jus sanguinis !nationa$ity by virtue of t%e

nationa$ity of one,s #arents"

• atura$iation: ac7uiring nationa$ity after birt%

• Nottebohm Case: notion of a genuine

factua$ $in/

• Cor#orations:

• Barcelona raction: state in w%ic%

cor#oration incor#orate or %as %ea office

U&



9/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

'# Passive Personality Principle: variant of t%e nationa$ity

#rinci#$e0 but %ere t%e state see/s to regu$ate an act

co''itte abroa by a non4nationa$ in w%ic% t%e victim is a

nationa$

• E.g.! "erman #enal CodeU&



10/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

(# Protective Principle: regu$ation of overseas conuct of

t%e sort t%at jeo#aries t%e state,s /ey interests

• E.g. es#ionage0 counterfeiting0 cons#iracy to vio$ate

i''igration or custo's $aws

U&



11/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

(# )niversal Principle: so'e cri'es so %einous t%at

irres#ective of w%ere t%ey are co''itte0 states 'ay see/

to regu$ate t%e'

• E.g. cri'es against %u'anity0 war cri'es0 certain

terroris' cri'es0 #iracyU&



12/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

• Canaa,s Crimes Against $umanit% and &ar Crimes Act

• Person 'ay be #rosecute for offence if

!a" at t%e ti'e t%e offence is a$$ege to %ave been co''itte0

!i" t%e #erson was a Canaian citien or was e'#$oye by

Canaa in a civi$ian or 'i$itary ca#acity6

!ii" t%e #erson was a citien of a state t%at was engage in

an ar'e conf$ict against Canaa0 or was e'#$oye in

a civi$ian or 'i$itary ca#acity by suc% a state6

!iii" t%e victi' of t%e a$$ege offence was a Canaian

citien6 or

!iv" t%e victi' of t%e a$$ege offence was a citien of a state

t%at was a$$ie wit% Canaa in an ar'e conf$ict6

!b" after t%e ti'e t%e offence is a$$ege to %ave been co''itte0

t%e #erson is #resent in Canaa

U&



13/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

Eichmann case !Israe$i istrict an su#re'e courts"

• 8ic%'ann a##re%ene in Argentina an s#irite to Israe$

• Pro'#te f$urry of i#$o'atic #rotest fro' Argentina

• Israe$i court %e$ t%at t%e i$$ega$ity of t%e 'eans by w%ic%t%e accuse was wit%in its territoria$ jurisiction not 'ateria$

• Israe$i court %e$ t%at jurisiction to #rosecute 8ic%'ann for

acts t%at %a ta/en #$ace in 8uro#e e(iste uner

so'et%ing rese'b$ing a #rotective #rinci#$e an a$so uner

t%e universa$ #rinci#$e

*ot on$y o a$$ t%e cri'es attribute to t%e a##e$$ant bear aninternationa$ c%aracter0 but t%eir %ar'fu$ an 'urerous

effects were so e'bracing an wies#rea as to s%a/e t%e

internationa$ co''unity to its very founations5 .%e &tate of

Israe$ t%erefore was entit$e0 #ursuant to t%e #rinci#$e of

universa$ jurisiction555to try t%e a##e$$ant5+

U&

State Jurisdiction Over People & Things: *a!ple

http://www.shoa.de/pictures/p_adolf_eichmann2.jpghttp://www.shoa.de/pictures/p_adolf_eichmann2.jpg


14/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

Uner t%is %eaing0 we wi$$ iscuss t%ree broa areas in w%ic%

state jurisiction is constraine by internationa$ $aw0 even on

t%eir own territory:

• Constraints on w%at a state can o to foreigners

• Constraints on t%e jurisiction states can %ave over foreigni#$o'ats

• Constraints on t%e jurisiction states can %ave over ot%er

states

U&

State Jurisdiction Over People & Things: Li!its on State Jurisdiction


15/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

• $onstraints on what a state can do to foreigners

• foreign nationa$s 'ust co'#$y wit% t%e state,s $aws

• but internationa$ $aw e'ans t%at t%e state e(ten to

t%ese foreign nationa$s certain basic stanars of #ro#ertreat'ent:

15 states %ave to accor foreigners %u'an rig%ts0 'uc%

as t%ey %ave to accor t%eir own nationa$s %u'an

rig%ts

25 internationa$ $aw accors e(tra s#ecia$ rig%ts toforeigners setting a basic f$oor be$ow w%ic% treat'ent

cannot fa$$:

• Co'#eting conce#ts of *nationa$ treat'ent+ an

*'ini'u' treat'ent+

U&



16/90

P bli I t ti l L


17/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• Conce#t of *'ini'u' treat'ent+:

• Inc$ues t%e conce#t of *enia$ of justice+

• injury consisting of0 or resu$ting fro'0 enia$ ofaccess to courts0 or enia$ of #roceura$ fairness

an ue #rocess in re$ation to juicia$

#roceeings0 w%et%er cri'ina$ or civi$5

U&


P bli I t ti l L


18/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• 8(#ro#riation:

• it is consiere a vio$ation of internationa$ $aw for a

state to ta/e t%e #ro#erty of a nationa$ of anot%er statet%at

!a" is not for a #ub$ic #ur#ose0 or

!b" is iscri'inatory0 or

!c" is not acco'#anie by #rovision for just

co'#ensation

U&


P bli I t ti l L


19/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• 8(#ro#riation:

• Deve$o#ing country conce#t of *econo'ic se$f4

eter'ination+: C%arter of 8cono'ic ig%ts anDuties of &tates:

every state %as t%e rig%t *to nationa$ie0

e(#ro#riate or transfer owners%i# of foreign

#ro#erty0 in w%ic% case a##ro#riate co'#ensation

s%ou$ be #ai by t%e &tate ao#ting suc%

'easures0 ta'ing into account its relevant la(s

and regulations and all circumstances that the

State considers )ertinent 5 In any case w%ere t%e

7uestion of co'#ensation gives rise to a

controversy0 it s%a$$ be sett$e uner the domestic

la( o* the nationalizing State and b% its

tribunals555+

U&


P bli I t ti l L


20/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• 8(#ro#riation:

• Deve$o#ing country a##roac% rejecte by ca#ita$

e(#orting nations0 w%ic% %ave insiste t%at t%etraitiona$ ru$es re'ain custo'ary internationa$ $aw

• -uc% of t%is ebate #robab$y su#ersee by t%e

#ro$iferation of )i$atera$ Invest'ent .reaties

U&




21/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• Protecting Dua$ ationa$s

• DFAI. .rave$ Avisory:

Canaians wit% Iranian nationa$ity s%ou$ beaware t%at un$i/e Canaa0 Iran oes not recognie

ua$ nationa$ity5 Dua$ nationa$s %ave to enter Iran

using t%eir Iranian #ass#orts5 .%e Canaian

8'bassy;s abi$ity to assist ua$ nationa$s is very

$i'ite5 atura$ie Canaians w%o are Iranian by

birt% s%ou$ be aware t%at t%e Iranian aut%orities

cou$ ta/e an interest in t%e' for reasons re$ate

to #o$itics0 security0 #ro#erty0 or #rofessiona$

bac/groun5

U&


-s5


22/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law



• 1>3? 9ague Convention on Conf$ict of ationa$ity @aws

• Artic$e : states 'ay not affor i#$o'atic#rotection to one of its nationa$s against a state

w%ose nationa$ity suc% a #erson a$so #ossesses

U&




23/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law



• )ut note:

• Bery few 'e'bers to t%e 9ague Convention

• Probab$y s%ou$ not be regare as custo'ary:

• 8'ergence of t%e Nottebohm conce#t: 'aybe

genuine $in/ to Canaa entit$ing Canaa to

raise 'ini'u' treat'ent

• 8'ergence of %u'an rig%ts $aw: 'aybe erga

omnes #rotection irres#ective of nationa$ity

U&




24/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

• $onstraints on what states can do to foreign diplo!ats

• Bita$ #art of custo'ary internationa$ $aw0 coifie by t%e

Bienna Convention on Di#$o'atic e$ations

• %o is covere: Artic$e 1 of t%e Convention onDi#$o'atic e$ations efines a i#$o'atic agent as

t%e %ea of a i#$o'atic 'ission or a 'e'ber of t%e

i#$o'atic staff of t%e 'ission

• %at is covere: i''unity !invio$abi$ity"E

15 fro' t%e e(ercise by t%e %ost state of jurisiction to #ass$aws in re$ation to acts or o'issions in t%e e(ercise of

t%e agent;s officia$ functions

25 fro' arrest0 etention0 cri'ina$ #rocess0 an0 in genera$0

civi$ #rocess in t%e receiving !%ost" state

• 9ost states 'ay resort to ec$aring i#$o'at )ersona

non grata

U&




25/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

• $onstraints on +urisdiction states can have over other states

• Usua$$y an issue in juicia$ #roceeings in one state

• Si!ple definition: sovereign i''unity state i''unity

'eans t%at a state cannot be subject to anot%er state,senforce'ent jurisiction

• ,ationale: U& &u#re'e Court in he Schooner E+change:

i''unity is roote in t%e #erfect e7ua$ity an abso$ute

ine#enence of sovereigns5

U&




26/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• Types:

• ,atione )ersonae: state i''unity t%at e(ists by reason

of t%e #erson concerne

• i''unity e(ists to certain /ey re#resentatives of t%estate t%e foreign 'inister0 t%e %ea of govern'ent

or state etc5 so $ong as t%ey %o$ office

• ,atione materiae state i''unity t%at e(ists by reason

of t%e 'atter concerne

• 'atter is i''une because it is a 'atter inti'ate$yconnecte to a foreign state

• #rob$e' of eciing w%en is a subject 'atter so

ientifie wit% t%e state it s%ou$ be i''une

• -oern a##roac% is to eny t%is i''unity in

co''ercia$ 'atters

U&




27/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law


• Proble! of i!!unity vs# hu!an rights:

• ,atione materiae e(a'#$e: #inochet case

• t%e 'ajority conc$ue t%at t%e i''unity of a for'er

%ea of state #ersists on$y wit% res#ect to acts#erfor'e in t%e e(ercise of t%e functions of %ea of

state0 t%at is officia$ acts0 w%et%er at %o'e or

abroa

• 7uestion of w%et%er an act can be officia$ w%ere it

vio$ates internationa$ $aw !e.g.! #ro%ibition againsttorture"

• At t%e en of t%e ay0 t%e 'ajority of t%e @aw

@ors foun t%at torture cannot constitute an

officia$ act of a %ea of state !at $east w%ere t%e

state %a ratifie t%e .orture Convention"

U&




28/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law



• ,atione )ersonae e(a'#$e: Belgium v. Congo case

• investigating juge of t%e )russe$s tribunal de

)remire instance issue an internationa$arrest warrant in absentia against

-r5 Abu$aye Geroia o'basi0 c%arging %i'0

as #er#etrator or co4#er#etrator0 wit% offences

constituting grave breac%es of t%e eneva

Conventions of 1>>

• Accuse t%en foreign 'inister of Congo

U&



29/90



30/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law




• ICJ:

• in internationa$ $aw0 i#$o'atic an consu$ar

agents0 certain %o$ers of %ig%4ran/ing office in

a &tate0 suc% as t%e 9ea of &tate0 9ea of

overn'ent an -inister for Foreign Affairs0

enjoy i''unities fro' jurisiction in ot%er

&tates0 bot% civi$ an cri'ina$• a -inister for Foreign Affairs w%en abroa

enjoys fu$$ i''unity fro' cri'ina$ jurisiction

an invio$abi$ity

U&




31/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law




• ICJ:

• uner custo'ary internationa$ $aw0 t%ere is no

e(ce#tion to t%e ru$e accoring i''unity fro'

cri'ina$ jurisiction an invio$abi$ity to

incu'bent -inisters for Foreign Affairs0 w%ere

t%ey are sus#ecte of %aving co''itte war

cri'es or cri'es against %u'anity• )ut i''unity fro' jurisiction enjoye by

incu'bent -inisters for Foreign Affairs oes

not 'ean t%at t%ey enjoy i'#unity in res#ect of

any cri'es t%ey 'ig%t %ave co''itte0

irres#ective of t%eir gravity

U&




32/90

Craig

Forcese


3231)University of Ottawa

Faculty of Law

• 9u'an rig%ts are a constraint on state jurisiction

• 9u'an rig%ts 'ust be viewe as re#resenting a brea/ fro' t%e

statecentric 'oe$ of internationa$ $aw

U&

-u!an ,ights: Introduction



33/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

• &tarting #oint for iscussion:

• Cou$ begin we$$ bac/ in %istory

• )ut rea$ evo$ution of internationa$ %u'an rig%ts $aw is a

#rouct of t%e &econ or$ ar

U&

-u!an ,ights: Introduction



34/90

Craig

Forcese



Faculty of Law

• 9u'an ig%ts in t%e U C%arter

• Artic$e 1!3" of t%e C%arter $ists as one of t%e #ur#oses of t%e

U *#ro'oting an encouraging res#ect for %u'an rig%ts

an funa'enta$ freeo's for a$$ wit%out istinctions as to

race0 se(0 $anguage or re$igion+

• Artic$e KK0 for its #art0 s#ecifies t%at in orer to create stabi$ity

an we$$4being for t%e frien$y re$ations of nations0 t%e U wi$$

#ro'ote *universa$ res#ect for0 an observance of0 %u'an

rig%ts an funa'enta$ freeo's for a$$ wit%out istinction as

to race0 se(0 $anguage or re$igion+

• Artic$e KL says t%at *a$$ 'e'bers #$ege t%e'se$ves to ta/e joint an se#arate action in co4o#eration wit% t%e

Organiation for t%e ac%ieve'ent of t%e #ur#oses set fort%+

in Artic$e KK

U&

-u!an ,ights



35/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• &ignificance of %u'an rig%ts in t%e U C%arter:

• First0 C%arter internationa$ie %u'an rig%ts

• &econ0 t%e U C%arter %u'an rig%ts #rovisions %ave

#rovie $ega$ aut%ority to t%e U to engage in a'assive #roject of efining an refining w%at e(act$y

t%ese %u'an rig%ts are

• .%ir0 over t%e years0 t%e re7uire'ent i'#ose on

'e'ber state to *#ro'ote+ internationa$ %u'an rig%ts

%as ta/en on so'e bite an 'eaning

U&

-u!an ,ights



36/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• C%arter4base %u'an rig%ts boies:

U&

-u!an ,ights

Pre42??L &tructure

8CO&OC

Co''ission on 9u'an ig%ts

&ub4Co''ission on t%e Pro'otion an Protection of 9u'an ig%ts

Co''ission on t%e &tatus of o'an

&ecretary4enera$

9ig% Co''issioner for 9u'an ig%ts



37/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law

• Universa$ Dec$aration of 9u'an ig%ts

• U Co''ission on 9u'an ig%ts was as/e to raft an

internationa$ bi$$ of %u'an rig%ts

• Conc$ue it was 'ore e(#eient to begin wit% a non4

bining ec$aration

• John -u!phrey draft: rew on two traitions: t%e

Ang$o4A'erican4Frenc% iniviua$ rig%ts conce#ts

an t%e 'ore recent socia$ist an socia$4e'ocratic

conce#ts

• $assin draft: e$egant re4wor/ing of t%e 9u'#%rey

raft

U&

-u!an ,ights

Public International LawU i it f Ott


38/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• Bote u#on by t%e enera$ Asse'b$y

• Introuce by C%ar$es -a$i/0 @ebanon

• 8ac% state cou$ recognie its contribution or t%e

inf$uence of its cu$ture in t%e fina$ raft

• M votes in favour0 M abstentions !a$'ost a$$ fro' &oviet

b$oc countries an a$so &aui Arabia an &out% Africa"

U&

-u!an ,ights



39/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• $ontent: Co'#are to a #ortico by Cassin

U&

-u!an ,ights

u$e of @aw

Prea!ble

P$ace in t%e U syste'

Freeo'0 justice N #eace

Articles 1 & 2: Dignity, freedom, equality,

solidarity and non-discrimination

.rt# '/""

0Individual

,ights1

.rt# "%/"2

0,ights in

civil and

political

society1

.rt# "3/%"

0,ights in

the polity1

.rt# %% / %2

0econo!ic4

social and

cultural

rights1

.rt# %3/'5: Infor! the

docu!ent as a whole



40/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• &tatus of t%e UD9:

• ever intene as bining

• )ut %as ta/en on $ega$ significance as !in w%o$e or in

#art":

• Custo'ary internationa$ $aw

• .%e aut%oritative inter#retation of state %u'an

rig%ts ob$igations uner t%e U C%arter

U&

-u!an ,ights



41/90

Craig

Forcese

3231University of Ottawa

Faculty of Law

• .%e Internationa$ Covenants

• .%e Internationa$ Covenant on Civi$ an Po$itica$ ig%ts an

t%e Internationa$ Covenant on 8cono'ic0 &ocia$ an Cu$tura$

ig%ts were bot% o#ene for signature in 1>LL an ca'e into

force in 1>L

U&

-u!an ,ights



42/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law

• .%e Internationa$ Covenants

• The proble! of reservations: t%ere are 'any reservations

to bot% Conventions

• Artic$e 1> of t%e Bienna Convention on treaties a$$ows

reservations t%at are not inconsistent wit% t%e object or

#ur#ose of t%e treaty

• U 9u'an ig%ts Co''ittee !w%ic% we,$$ ta$/ about"

%as trie to efine w%at t%is 'eans5

U&

-u!an ,ights


43/90

Public International LawUniversity of Ottawa


44/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law

• .%e Internationa$ Covenants• $ovenant on $ivil and Political ,ights:

• Inc$ues 'ore rig%ts t%an foun in t%e UD9 an

#rovies greater s#ecificity on t%e rig%ts t%at it oes

u#$icate

• Artic$e 2 s#e$$s out state ob$igations: state is to res#ect

an ensure to a$$ iniviua$s wit%in its territory an

subject to its jurisiction t%e rig%ts recognie in t%e

covenant wit%out iscri'inatory istinction

• 9u'an ig%ts Co''ittee %as eve$o#e guie$ines

on t%e inter#retation of Artic$e 2

• 8nvisages Artic$e 2 %aving bot% a negative an

#ositive ob$igation:

• Negative: refrain fro' vio$ating rig%ts

• #ositive: #ro'ote an #rotect t%e rig%ts in t%e

o'estic arena

U&

-u!an ,ights



45/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• Inc$ues *erogation+ #rovision in Artic$e :

H8(ce#t as ot%erwise #rovie Hin ti'e of #ub$ic e'ergency

w%ic% t%reatens t%e $ife of t%e nation an t%e e(istence of

w%ic% is officia$$y #roc$ai'e0 t%e &tates Parties to t%e

#resent Covenant 'ay ta/e 'easures erogating fro' t%eir

ob$igations uner t%e #resent Covenant to t%e e(tent strict$y

re7uire by t%e e(igencies of t%e situation0 #rovie t%at

suc% 'easures are not inconsistent wit% t%eir ot%er

ob$igations uner internationa$ $aw an o not invo$veiscri'ination so$e$y on t%e groun of race0 co$our0 se(0

$anguage0 re$igion or socia$ origin5

• A$so0 sufficient notification 'ust be given to t%e ot%er

state #arties

U&

-u!an ,ights



46/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• &o'e rig%ts in t%e Covenant are se$f4$i'iting:

e.g. Art5 1M 44 Freeo' to 'anifest one;s re$igion or

be$iefs 'ay be subject on$y to suc% $i'itations as

are #rescribe by $aw an are necessary to #rotect

#ub$ic safety0 orer0 %ea$t%0 or 'ora$s or t%e

funa'enta$ rig%ts an freeo's of ot%ers5

• Abuse of $i'itations on rig%ts is contro$$e so'ew%at by

Art5 K:

ot%ing in t%e #resent Covenant 'ay be inter#rete

as i'#$ying for any &tate0 grou# or #erson any rig%t

to engage in any activity or #erfor' any act ai'e

at t%e estruction of any of t%e rig%ts an freeo's

recognie %erein or at t%eir $i'itation to a greater

e(tent t%an is #rovie for in t%e #resent Covenant5

U&

-u!an ,ights



47/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• .reaty4base boy create by t%e Covenant: U

9u'an ig%ts Co''ittee

• 1M 'e'bers0 serving in t%eir individual ca)acities

• 9as t%e fo$$owing functions:

• A'inisters t%e re#orting syste' uner Art5 ?

• Oversees any inter4state co'#$aint uner Art5 1

an 2

U&

-u!an ,ights



48/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• U 9u'an ig%ts Co''ittee %as t%e fo$$owing

functions:

• Oversees iniviua$ co'#$aints uner t%e O#tiona$

Protoco$:

15 Deter'ines a'issibi$ity uner Art5 20 3 an K:

for instance0 co'#$ainant 'ust e(%aust $oca$

re'eies an t%e 'atter 'ust not be subject to

anot%er internationa$ investigation an it 'ust

not be anony'ous

25 Assess'ent of 'erits

U&

-u!an ,ights



49/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law



functions: :


Protoco$

• @ega$ status of *views+ uner t%e O#tiona$

Protoco$: Co''ittee %as #ointe to Artic$e 2!3"

of t%e ICCP to suggest t%at its eter'inations

%ave so'e sort of $ega$ significance:

8ac% &tate Party to t%e #resent Covenant unerta/es:

!a" .o ensure t%at any #erson w%ose rig%ts or freeo's as %erein recognie are

vio$ate s%a$$ %ave an effective re'ey6

!b" .o ensure t%at any #erson c$ai'ing suc% a re'ey s%a$$ %ave %is rig%t t%ereto

eter'ine by co'#etent juicia$0 a'inistrative or $egis$ative aut%orities6

!c" .o ensure t%at t%e co'#etent aut%orities s%a$$ enforce suc% re'eies w%en

grante5

U&

-u!an ,ights



50/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law



functions:


Protoco$

• @ega$ status of *views+ uner t%e O#tiona$

Protoco$: Co''ittee %as #ointe to Artic$e 2!3"

of t%e ICCP to suggest t%at its eter'inations

%ave so'e sort of $ega$ significance:

e.g.! / )earing in 'in t%at E t%e &tate #arty %as recognie t%e co'#etence of t%e

Co''ittee to eter'ine w%et%er t%ere %as been a vio$ation of t%e Covenant or not

an t%at0 #ursuant to artic$e 2 of t%e Covenant0 t%e &tate #arty %as unerta/en to

ensure to a$$ iniviua$s wit%in its territory an subject to its jurisiction t%e rig%ts

recognie in t%e Covenant an to #rovie an effective an enforceab$e re'ey in

cases w%ere a vio$ation %as been estab$is%e0 t%e Co''ittee wis%es to receive

fro' t%e &tate #arty0 wit%in >? ays0 infor'ation about t%e 'easures ta/en to give

effect to t%e Co''ittee;s Biews5+

U&

-u!an ,ights



51/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law

• .%e Internationa$ Covenants• $ovenant on cono!ic4 Social and $ultural ,ights:

• Content: 'ore etai$e co'#i$ation of econo'ic0 socia$

an cu$tura$ rig%ts foun in t%e UD9

• Artic$e 20 s#e$$ing out state ob$igations0 is $ess robust

t%an t%e e7uiva$ent Artic$e 2 in t%e Covenant on Civi$ an

Po$itica$ ig%ts

• eac% state #arty #ro'ises to *unerta/e ste#s E to

t%e 'a(i'u' of its avai$ab$e resources0 wit% t%e

view to ac%ieving #rogressive$y t%e fu$$ rea$iation of

t%e rig%ts recognie+ in t%e Covenant by a$$*a##ro#riate 'eans0 inc$uing #articu$ar$y t%e

ao#tion of $egis$ative 'easures+

• Co''ittee on 8cono'ic0 &ocia$ an Cu$tura$ ig%ts

insists t%at t%ere is at $east t%e re7uire'ent to ta/e

ste#s

U&

-u!an ,ights



52/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law

• .%e Internationa$ Covenants• $ovenant on cono!ic4 Social and $ultural ,ights:

• )oy create for t%e Covenant: Co''ittee on

8cono'ic0 &ocia$ an Cu$tura$ ig%ts

• eviews re#orts on 'easures t%at state #arties

%ave ao#te to i'#$e'ent t%e rig%ts

• 9owever0 t%ere is no inter4state or iniviua$

co'#$aint 'ec%anis'0 as t%ere is uner t%e

Covenant on Civi$ an Po$itica$ ig%ts !t%oug% an

o#tiona$ #rotoco$ is uner iscussion"

U&

-u!an ,ights



53/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law

• e,ve ta$/e about t%e ifficu$ties in state enforce'ent via

cri'ina$ #ena$ties against overseas %u'an rig%ts abusers

• e,ve ta$/e about t%e fai$ings of t%e ICJ

• e,ve iscusse t%e wea/ U treaty an C%arter4base %u'anrig%ts boy enforce'ent 'ec%anis's

• In re'ainer of course we wi$$ $oo/ at internationa$ cri'ina$ $aw0

state res#onsibi$ity an t%e $awfu$ use of force

• .oay0 wis% to iscuss

• Internationa$ cri'ina$ $aw

• &tate res#onsibi$ity

U&

,e!edies: ,esponding to 6iolations



54/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law

"# Substantive Issues

• e,ve iscusse certain internationa$ cri'es a$reay: genocie0

torture

• e,ve 'entione war cri'es an cri'es against %u'anityU&

International $ri!inal Law



55/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• ar Cri'es: tie to t%e conce#t of *$aws of war+ an internationa$

%u'anitarian $aw

• eneva Conventions of t%e 1>>:

• eneva Convention for t%e A'e$ioration of t%e Conition of t%e

oune an &ic/ -e'bers of Ar'e Forces in t%e Fie$

• eneva Convention for t%e A'e$ioration of t%e Conition of

oune0 &ic/ an &%i#wrec/e -e'bers of Ar'e Forces at

&ea • eneva Convention re$ative to t%e .reat'ent of Prisoners of

ar

• eneva Convention re$ative to t%e Protection of Civi$ian

Persons in t%e .i'e of ar

U&




56/90

Craig

Forcese


Faculty of Law


• ar Cri'es: tie to t%e conce#t of *$aws of war+ an internationa$

%u'anitarian $aw

• Protoco$s Aitiona$ to t%e eneva Conventions:

• Protoco$ I: ea$s wit% t%e #rotection of victi's of

internationa$ ar'e conf$ict

• Protoco$ II: ea$s wit% non4internationa$ ar'e conf$icts

• A 'ore co'#re%ensive series of #rotections t%anare foun in Co''on Artic$e 3 of t%e eneva

Conventions

• A##$ies w%ere t%e issient forces e(ercise enoug%

contro$ of t%e state,s territory to enab$e t%e' to carry

out sustaine an concerte 'i$itary o#erations

U&




57/90

Craig

Forcese

3231Ay

Faculty of Law


• *Cri'es Against 9u'anity+

• 8(#ression $i/e$y originates in ussian0 Frenc%0 )ritis%

Dec$aration on Otto'an 'assacre of Ar'enians in 1>1K:

*In view of t%ese cri'es of .ur/ey against %u'anity an

civi$iation0 t%e A$$ie govern'ents announce #ub$ic$y E

t%at t%ey wi$$ %o$ #ersona$$y res#onsib$e Hfor t%ese

cri'es a$$ 'e'bers of t%e Otto'an overn'ent an

t%ose of t%eir agents w%o are i'#$icate in suc%'assacres5+

• Cri'es against %u'anity were first estab$is%e as a true

category in internationa$ $aw by t%e 1>K @onon C%arter

w%ic% #rovie for t%e ure'berg .ribuna$ !ure'berg

C%arter"

U&




58/90

Craig

Forcese

3231Ay

Faculty of Law

% Procedural Issues: fforts to $reate an International

$ri!inal $ourt

U&


• 8n of t%e Co$ ar an %u'anitarian crises in

Gugos$avia an wana• eso$ution M?M estab$is%e t%e ad hoc tribuna$ for

t%e for'er Gugos$avia

• uner statute of tribuna$0 jurisiction over over

iniviua$s accuse of cri'es against %u'anity0

genocie0 vio$ations of t%e $aws an custo's of

war an grave breac%es of t%e eneva

Conventions of 1>>

• concurrent jurisiction wit% nationa$ courts



59/90

Craig

Forcese

3231Ay

Faculty of Law


$ri!inal $ourt

U&



Gugos$avia an wana• eso$ution >KK estab$is%e t%e ad hoc tribuna$ for wana

• uner statute of tribuna$0 'anate is to #rosecute

#ersons res#onsib$e for serious vio$ations of

internationa$ %u'anitarian $aw co''itte in t%e territory

of wana an wanan citiens res#onsib$e for suc%

vio$ations co''itte in t%e territory of neig%bouring

states5



60/90

Craig

Forcese

3231Ay

Faculty of Law


$ri!inal $ourt

U&



Gugos$avia an wana• eso$ution >KK estab$is%e t%e ad hoc tribuna$ for wana

• efine as acts of genocie0 cri'es against %u'anity

an breac%es of Artic$e 3 of t%e eneva Conventions

an t%e 1> Protoco$ II governing non4internationa$

conf$icts



61/90

Craig

Forcese

3231Ay

Faculty of Law


$ri!inal $ourt

U&


• enewe efforts to create an internationa$ cri'ina$ court

9istorica$ .i'e$ine

"737: Unite

ations

enera$

Asse'b$y

re7uest to

t%e

Internationa$@aw

Co''ission

"77(:

Internationa$

@aw

Co''issionco'#$etes

its wor/ on

t%e raft

&tatute

"778: t%e A

9oc Co''ittee

on t%e

8stab$is%'ent ofan Internationa$

Cri'ina$ Court

'eets twice

"779/73: Pre#aratory

Co''ittee on t%e

8stab$is%'ent of an

Internationa$ Cri'ina$Court to #re#are a

wie$y acce#tab$e

conso$iate raft

te(t

"773:

o'e

i#$o'atic

conferenceto ao#t

fina$ te(t



62/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

Statute of ,o!e

U&


• egotiating Issues:

• Controversy over Jurisiction an Cri'es

• if broa cri'es0 states wante narrow jurisiction anvice versa

• Different grou#ings of states:

• *@i/e4-ine rou#+ genera$$y favoure a strong

an ine#enent court

• Per'anent -e'bers of t%e &ecurity Counci$ !e(ce#tU=" a strong ro$e for t%e &ecurity Counci$ an t%e

e(c$usion of nuc$ear wea#ons

• A caco#%ony of ot%er #ositions



63/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

Statute of ,o!e

U&


• Content:

• .%ree broa #rinci#$es:

15 Co'#$e'entarity

25 On$y t%e 'ost serious of cri'es

35 8ffort to efine cri'es in a fas%ion consistent wit%

custo'ary internationa$ $aw




64/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

Statute of ,o!e

U&


• Content:

• Part 2: Jurisiction0 A'issibi$ity an A##$icab$e @aw

• Jurisiction 44 t%e court 'ay e(ercise jurisictionwit% res#ect to t%e cri'es $iste in t%e statute0 if t%e

state of t%e territory w%ere t%e cri'e was co''itte

is a 'e'ber or t%e state of nationa$ity of t%e

accuse is a 'e'ber !Artic$e 12"

• rouns for ina'issibi$ity e.g. t%e case is being

investigate or #rosecute by a state t%at %as jurisiction over it !Artic$e 1"




65/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

Statute of ,o!e

U&


• Content:

• Part 2: Jurisiction0 A'issibi$ity an A##$icab$e @aw

• Cri'es

• enocie

• Cri'es Against 9u'anity

• ar Cri'es




66/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&

State ,esponsibility

• =ee# in 'in fact4scenario:

• -s5 =ae'i is /i$$e by Iranian officia$s




67/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&

,ecap: State ,esponsibility

• efinition: state res#onsibi$ity is t%e boy of $aw

governing t%e $ega$ conse7uences of a state,s breac% of

its internationa$ ob$igations

• .raitiona$$y0 %a a narrow focus on vio$ations

ste''ing fro' injuries to a$iens• Internationa$ @aw Co''ission,s wor/ %as %a a

ifferent0 broaer focus since at $east t%e 1>L?s

• &tate res#onsibi$ity re$ates to t%e breac% of

any internationa$ ob$igation




68/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• Uner$ying #re'ises:

15 .%e breac% of an internationa$ ob$igation gives rise

to a new set of $ega$ uties an rig%ts

• *seconary+ internationa$ ru$es f$owing fro' t%e

breac% of *#ri'ary+ ru$es

25 .%e *seconary+ internationa$ ru$es are intentiona$$y

genera$ in t%eir c%aracter

• &u##ose to enco'#ass a$$ ty#es ofinternationa$ ob$igations

• 9owever0 note t%at #articu$ar treaty

regi'es 'ay estab$is% t%eir own

*seconary+ ru$es !e5g50 trae $aw"


69/90



F lt f L


70/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:

• Attribution: w%en e(act$y s%ou$ a state be

%e$ res#onsib$e for conuct actua$$y

co''itte by %u'an beings

• Artic$e : actions of state organs wi$$ be

i'#ute to t%e state

• Artic$e !2" efines a state organ to

inc$ue any #erson or entity %aving

t%at status uner a state;s interna$ $aw



F lt f L


71/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:




• Artic$e K: .%e conuct of a #erson or

entity w%ic% is not an organ of t%e &tate

uner artic$e but w%ic% is em)o(ered b%

the la( o* that State to e+ercise elements

o* the governmental authorit% s%a$$ beconsiere an act of t%e &tate uner

internationa$ $aw0 #rovie t%e #erson or

entity is acting in t%at ca#acity in t%e

#articu$ar instance5



F lt f L


72/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:




• Artic$e M: .%e conuct of a #erson or

grou# of #ersons s%a$$ be consiere an

act of a &tate uner internationa$ $aw if t%e

#erson or grou# of #ersons is in fact

acting on the instructions o*! or under thedirection or control o*! that State in

carr%ing out the conduct 5



F lt f L


73/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:




• Artic$e >: .%e conuct of a #erson or

grou# of #ersons s%a$$ be consiere an

act of a &tate uner internationa$ $aw if t%e

#erson or grou# of #ersons is in fact

e+ercising elements o* the governmentalauthorit% in the absence or de*ault o* the

o**icial authorities an in circu'stances

suc% as to ca$$ for t%e e(ercise of t%ose

e$e'ents of aut%ority5



Fac lt of La


74/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:




• Artic$e 1?: &tate res#onsibi$ity attributab$e

w%ere re$ate to actions of an

insurrectiona$ 'ove'ent t%at beco'es

t%e new govern'ent



Faculty of Law


75/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:




• Artic$e 11: Conuct w%ic% is not

attributab$e to a &tate uner t%e #receing

artic$es s%a$$ nevert%e$ess be consiere

an act of t%at &tate uner internationa$ $aw

if an to t%e e(tent t%at the Stateac'no(ledges and ado)ts the conduct in

0uestion as its o(n5



Faculty of Law


76/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:

• Conse0uences

15 ig%ts of Injure &tates:a5 ig%t to invo/e res#onsibi$ity

• Art5 2: A &tate is entit$e as an injure &tate to invo/e t%e res#onsibi$ity of

anot%er &tate if t%e ob$igation breac%e is owe to:

!a" .%at &tate iniviua$$y6 or

!b" A grou# of &tates inc$uing t%at &tate0 or t%e internationa$

co''unity as a w%o$e0 an t%e breac% of t%e ob$igation:

!i" ecia$$y affects t%at &tate6 or

!ii" Is of suc% a c%aracter as raica$$y to c%ange t%e

#osition of a$$ t%e ot%er &tates to w%ic% t%e ob$igation is

owe wit% res#ect to t%e furt%er #erfor'ance of t%e

ob$igation5



Faculty of Law


77/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:

• Conse0uences


• )ut note Art5 M:

Any &tate ot%er t%an an injure &tate is entit$e to invo/e t%e

res#onsibi$ity of anot%er &tate E if: E

b5 .%e ob$igation breac%e is owe to t%e internationa$

co''unity as a w%o$e5



Faculty of Law


78/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:

• Conse0uences


• ote e(%austion of $oca$ re'eies

re7uire'ent in Art5


79/90



Faculty of Law


80/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• IL$ raft 0%55"1

• =ey features:

• Conse0uences

25 Duties of vio$ating states• Cessation an non4re#etition !Art5 3?"

• e#aration !Art5 31":

15 estitution !Art5 3K"

25 Co'#ensation !Art5 3L"

35 &atisfaction !Art5 3"



Faculty of Law


81/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&


• -ypotheticals:

15 Is t%ere a vio$ation of internationa$ $awR

25 Is state res#onsibi$ity triggereR

15 ee vio$ation of internationa$ ob$igation

25 -ust be attributab$e to state

35 %at are t%e $ega$ conse7uencesR

15 ig%ts of t%e injure state

15 Can it es#ouse t%e c$ai'R

• Bicti' a nationa$R

• Are $oca$ re'eies e(%austeR

25 Counter'easures

25 Duties of vio$ating state

• Cessation0 re#arations



Faculty of Law


82/90

Craig

Forcese

3231AFaculty of Law

U&

)se of Force

• &tarting #oint: U C%arter

• Artic$e 2!" #rovies:

A$$ -e'bers s%a$$ refrain in t%eir internationa$

re$ations fro' t%e t%reat or use of force against t%e

territoria$ integrity or #o$itica$ ine#enence of anystate0 or in any ot%er 'anner inconsistent wit% t%e

Pur#oses of t%e Unite ations5

• Artic$e K1 inicates:

ot%ing in t%e #resent C%arter s%a$$ i'#air t%e

in%erent rig%t of iniviua$ or co$$ective se$f4efence

if an ar'e attac/ occurs against a -e'ber of t%e

Unite ations0 unti$ t%e &ecurity Counci$ %as ta/en

t%e 'easures necessary to 'aintain internationa$

#eace an security5 E



Faculty of Law


83/90

Craig

Forcese

Faculty of Law

U&

)se of Force

• Put toget%er0 C%arter #rovies t%at if a state uses force

against anot%er state wit%in t%e 'eaning of Artic$e 2!"0

it is un$awfu$ un$ess

!1" it is an e(ercise of t%at state;s Artic$e K1 rig%t of

se$f4efense or!2" un$ess it is aut%orie by t%e &ecurity Counci$

uner its C%a#ter BII aut%ority



Faculty of Law


84/90

Craig

Forcese

Faculty of Law

U&

)se of Force

• Self/efence

• ecessity0 #ro#ortiona$ity an i''eiacy

• Necessit% : use of force 'ust be necessary for

eit%er iniviua$ or co$$ective se$f4efence

• #ro)ortionalit% : a state;s use of force be

#ro#ortiona$ in intensity an 'agnitue to w%at

is reasonab$y necessary to #ro'#t$y secure

se$f4efense

• 1mmediac% : conteste issue

• Artic$e K1: *if an ar'e attac/ occurs+

• -ay a$$ow at $east antici#atory se$f4

efence

• Does not fit *#re4e'#tive+ se$f4

efence



Faculty of Law


85/90

Craig

Forcese

Faculty of Law

U&

)se of Force

• -u!anitarian Intervention

• Bery ifficu$t to fit into *se$f4efence+0 es#ecia$$y in

=osovo conte(t

• Cou$ %u'anitarian intervention be viewe as

outsie of Artic$e 2!": oes not affect *territoria$integrity+ or *#o$itica$ ine#enence+

• ot #ersuasive argu'ent

• -any internationa$ sc%o$ars argue for an in%erent0

custo'ary internationa$ octrine of %u'anitarian

intervention in res#onse to wies#rea %u'an

rig%ts vio$ations w%ere t%e U fai$s to ta/e effective

action

• Ot%er internationa$ sc%o$ars argue t%at any suc%

rig%t is su#ersee by t%e C%arter



Faculty of Law


86/90

Craig

Forcese

Faculty of Law

U&

)se of Force

• -u!anitarian Intervention

• &o w%at o we oR

• Articu$ate a c$ear ru$e on %u'anitarian

intervention0 constraining t%e #ros#ects of

abuseR

• efor' t%e U to 'a/e sure it actua$$y oes

its jobR



Faculty of Law


87/90

Craig

Forcese

Faculty of Law

15 %at o we 'ean by internationa$ $awR

• @aw of nations

• A universa$ ru$e of $awR

• Internationa$ $aw,s stabi$iing vs5 nor'ative #ur#ose

25 &ources of Internationa$ @aw

15 Internationa$ conventions

25 Internationa$ custo'

35 enera$ #rinci#$es of $aw recognie by civi$ie

nations

5 Juicia$ ecisions an t%e teac%ings of t%e 'ost

%ig%$y 7ua$ifie #ub$icists

35 ece#tion of Internationa$ @aw

,eview



Faculty of Law


88/90

Craig

Forcese

acu ty o a

5 &ubjects of Internationa$ @aw

• &tates:

15 A #er'anent #o#u$ation

25 A efine territory

35 A govern'ent

5 A ca#acity to enter into re$ations wit% ot%erstates

• Internationa$ organiations



Faculty of Law


89/90

Craig

Forcese

y

K5 &tate Jurisiction Over .erritory !$an0 oceans0 s#ace0

#o$ar regions"15 .erritory co'#rising t%e state• Pri'ary tit$e: iscovery an now effective

occu#ation of terra nullius• &econary tit$e: #rescri#tion0 con7uest0

renunciation0 abanon'ent

• Conce#t of se$f4eter'ination• Conce#t of uti )ossidetis• &overeignty over water: in$an water an

t%en oceans !interna$ waters vs5 territoria$

sea"• A$so iscusse ocean waters over

w%ic% a state %as so'e $i'ite'easure of sovereignty: contiguous

one0 88


90/90

Craig

y

L5 &tate Jurisiction Over Peo#$e an Actions

15 8nforce'ent Jurisiction25 Prescri#tive Jurisiction

15 8vents connecte to territory6

25 ationa$ity #rinci#$e !cou#$e wit% a iscussion

of t%e internationa$ $aw on *nationa$ity"6

35 Passive #ersona$ity #rinci#$e6

5 Protective #rinci#$eK5 Universa$ #rinci#$e

35 @i'itations on Jurisiction

15 Di#$o'atic i''unity

25 &tate i''unity

5 9u'an ig%ts

M5 es#oning to Bio$ations of Internationa$ @aw• Internationa$ Cri'ina$ @aw• &tate res#onsibi$ity• Use of Force

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