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INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Compiled by Ayesha Malik – KINNAIRD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
Lecture 1
Scientific study of languages and vast scope of understanding the development of humans in
domains of vocalization of comm., history, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and
other allied fields of study as subjects including neutral cognitive sciences.
Micro linguistics Macro linguisticsPragmatics Sociolinguistics
Semantics Psycholinguistics
Syntax stylistics
Phonetics computational linguistics
Phonology Anthropological Linguistics
MICRO LINGUISTICS
1. PHONETICS Study of speech sounds’ production, transmission and reception. VowelsThese require no such efforts. There are :•12 cardinal vowels•8 diphthongs
ConsonantsSimple sounds that can be produced with lips and tongue. i. PLOSIVES – Sounds produced with
an explosion e.g. |p|, |t|, |k|, |b|, |g|, |d|
ii. LABIAL –involves lips e.g. |f|, |v|, |p|, |m|
iii. ALVEOLAR – involves teeth and tongue e.g. |t|
iv. FRICATIVES – Words that use friction e.g f,z, theeta, daa, s, small z, sh, h, v
v. AFFRICATES – Sounds borrowed from 2 different groups and combine together e.g ch, ja
vi. LATERAL – are articulated by means of partial closure of mouth because of an obstacle placed in the middle so that air escapes at, on or both sides. E.g. l, r , j, w
2. PHONOLOGY
Studies manner & usage of sounds Is the arrangement of sounds Is the mental aspects of sounds Is the pattern of sound and sound
types Is made up of phonemes – smallest
unit Includes syllables – onset and rhyme
nucleus coda
3. SYNTAX
Study of grammar and structure of language
Is the bread and butter of L Nourishes the L like a backbone
MORPHOLOGY – Study of morphemes – made up of smallest unit – phonemes
=> MORPHOLOGIST
BOND MORPHEME•Cant exist ion their own•Cant live independently•Need to be associated with each other
e.g. s, es, ed, ing, etc
PREFIX – ImpossibleSUFFIX – ColorfulAFFIX – Words that get attached to other words to give a meaningful word
FREE MORPHEMEThese don’t need helpGive meaning aloneHave their own class
e.g. sunny,. Went, book etc
Text/ discourseSentence
ClausePhraseWord
Morphemephoneme
4. SEMANTICS
Scientific study of meaning1. LITERAL MEANING – dictionary/
lexicon2. GRAMMATICAL MEANING – whether
it’s an adjective or a verb? 3. PRAGMATIC & SOCIAL MEANING – to
say and mean something else
=> Semanticist
5. PRAGMATICS
Study of meaning of words, phrases and full sentences.
Study of use of languagee.g. kind of L used in a situation, speaker, listener, tones, stress, intonation, status of both etc.
MACRO LINGUISTICS
1. STYLISTICS
Scientific study of style in spoken and written text e.g. how we dress up for a particular occasion say funeral, wedding , college etc.
It’s a recurrent and consistent pattern based on special items. Acc to HALLIDAY, stylistics will study the sound, form, structure, language and meaning of a text.
It looks at:
1. TIME PERIOD within a certain text is written e.g. A poem written in Shakespeare’s time or modern century time frame.
2. GENRE – form and type of a text e.g. novel, prose, poetry etc.
=> Literary(literature oriented) and non literary (others) texts.
3APPROACHES USED IN STYLISTICS: DESCRIPTIVE approach – when text is
described ANALYTICAL app – where text is
analyzed in detail INTERPRETATIVE app – trying to
describe ides/ philosophy behind something.
Acc to JACOBSON, parallelism is imp when analyzing a certain text. E.g. the cat sat on the mat. (rhyming)
FOREGROUNDING means ways of looking at a view, also means highlighting area of a certain pattern, also means writing a statement / title or something eye catching.
HEMINGTON always talks about weather known as Weather foregrounding e.g. a newscaster reads title first foregrounding the details.
2. PSCHYOLINGUISTICS
Scientific study of language learning and human mind. It looks at the role of human memory, the outer environ and past experiences in learning a new L or a skill.
There are 3 schools of psycholinguistics:
1. BEHAVIORISM: verbal behaviorconditioned responsetrial and errordrilling & imitationreward & punishment
PSYCHOLINGUISTS1. PABLOV Russian psychologist Studies how to condition responses e.g. you take your
hand off from fire Derived theory of classical conditioning
2. DR WATSONCoined the word behaviorism
3. SKINNER American Considered L learning as conditioned response Gave formula SRRR – Stimulus Response Reward
Reinforcement
2. COGNITIVISM: Innate learning abilityGifted by natureLAD – Language Acquisition Device –
programmed, and equipped.
1. David Austen: Believes in problem solving and learning by association
2. Noam Chomsky: believes in mental abilities and mentalist. Humans say they have PLD – Primary Linguistic data –fitted, received & stored
3. Mc Laughlin: Acc to him, interesting experiences help in deep reconstructing and reorganization of learning items
COGNITIVISTS
3. HUMANISM: Given by Carl Rogers.Covers: a. Personality typesb. LTM & STMc. Schema – background knowledged. Emotional temperatures mattere. Group and pair work prove effectivef. Margin for errors
SCHEMA: Plural of schemata Comes from learner’s previous knowledge It is the store house of images, events, languages, past
experiences, stores in human mind. It helps in the following ways:
1. Remembering & retaining things
2. Comprehending and understanding
3. Making guesses
4. Filling in the missed info
5. Coping with new situations
6. Understanding new vocabulary items/ situations
7. If schema gets shattered, the human memory is shattered, and memory is affected and the learner needs to relearn everything right from the beginning
E.g. emotional disaster, sad exp, discouraging attitude, slack of demotivating attitude will shock the learner, slowing down the schema.
LTM & STM – Personality types
•Retains for longer period•Deep rooted•Far reaching•Becomes mechanical – MAL Mechanical Automatic Learning, Given by Mc Laughlin
LTM
•Laid back, lazy, slow•Quick, energetic, speedy•IQ and motivational level matterThere are 14 types, some say 16: 1. Business minded
sharpness2. Idealistic and artistic3. Mathematical and logical4. Philosophical and
conceptual5. Realist and factual6. Innovative thinkers etc
Humanism encourages creativity, free expression, free talent, catharsis, friendly attitude and a sense of +ve competition
Encouragement and motivation is high Fluency and communication is more imp than
grammar and accuracy Independent learning is imp Level of confidence and comfort facilitates the
learner Group dynamics promote tension free learning
3. SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Scientific study of relationship between society and language. It:
1. studies growth and evolution with time.
2. Studies regional differences that affect L
3. Studies individual diff that affect L
4. Studies personal and individual diff
5. Studies dialect and varieties of L
IDIOLECT – personal variety of L DIALECT – regional variety of L REGISTER – Professional variety STANDARD Language – Official
variety NATIONAL Language – common L for
a nation, country, state LINGUA FRANCA – global variety of a
L
4. ANTHROPOLOGICAL LStudies the cultural dimensions, norms,
values and the language use.
Culture has 3 layers to itself: i. The OUTER layer comprises of food,
movies, music, architecture etcii. The MIDDLE layer includes philosophy,
honesty, norms, values, ethicsiii. The INNER layer is the mixture of
above both
Acc to South Asian countries believe more in:
high power distance HPD collectivism C short term planning STM.
Progressive countries believe in: Low power distance LPD Individualism I Long term planning LTP.
5. PHILOSOPHICAL L
GRAMSHY CARTER worked on it.
This branch deals with the study of ideas, philosophies (social, political, economic), concepts, basic recipe of a certain thing.
Strategies of testing the syllogism, debating, arguing, analyzing, looking at the SW of an idea/philosophy that’ll in the wrong run direct:
i. Policy makers
ii. Social reformers
iii. Education planners
iv. Political administrators etc
e.g. study of God, where , how, how and when he came from and further study.
6. ELT
It studies English language teaching, classroom situations and designing new methodologies. Focuses on the role of teacher, principal, subject coordinator, libraries, HRM, hiring and firing of teachers, edu management, making policies and edu plans.
7. COMPUTATIONAL L
This branch gathers spoken and written computational data that:
Lists the main features Sifts the main similarities Prepares a resource pool of linguistic items Looks at grammatical and cultural differences in
the production and grammatical use
METHODS USED FOR TEACHING GMT – Grammar translation method that
involves grammar rules, written exercises, workbooks.
Audio-visual lingual Method – teacher uses recordings, drilling, repetition, practice.
Suggestopaedia, a classroom environ is created through sounds, lights, physical arrangement.
Total Physical Response – it focuses on the physical production eg teacher says ‘open the door’ and the student opens it.
Communicative Methodology – It borrows from humanism, cognitivism and follows an elective approach to teaching and learning of a certain language
DEFINITIONS
Morpheme Compound Analysis Tree diagram Function words Compound sentences Declarative/ Exclamatory/
Interrogative Sentences
PHRASES
Noun phrase Verb phrase Adjective phrase Adverbial phrase Etc
Other concepts
Semantics – Generative semantics + Formal
Pragmatics Association Semiotics Opposites Synonyms Homophones
Lakoff’s idea
logical
shallow
surface
Conceptual/ context
lexicon
Meanings of a
sentence in a
situation
Semantics
1. Generative: No principles distinction/ syntactic processes- 1970s
2. Formal: Meaning of sentences are linked to their true conditions – 1920s – 1930s
E.g. snow is white Snow is green
Prototypes
Classification: Furniture
Table chair
Soft drinks Coke
Drinks: TeaBeverages
Coffee
Grading
Some words can take / be gradedE.g. very hot, hottestDead / alive = some can’t be graded
SENSE RELATIONS
Infer meanings Logical meanings Opposing sense Same sense Metaphorical meaning Symbolic meaning Vague meaning
Pragmatics – Socio use of a language in a situation
Maxims: 1. Quantity 2. Quality3. Relevance4. Mannerism
Basic code of a language
Phonetics & Phonology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Stylistics Morphology
Figures of speech
Onomatopoeia Alliteration Allusion Pun Simile Metaphor
THE END