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Introducing the ‘Kerala Paradox’
Kerala
The Kerala Paradox
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
HaryanaKarnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fitt
ed
va
lue
s/lit
_n
ew
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values lit_new
Literacy Rates
The Kerala Paradox
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
HaryanaKarnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fitt
ed
va
lue
s/lit
_n
ew
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values lit_new
Literacy Rates
The Kerala Paradox
Infant Mortality
Andhra Pradesh
AssamBihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
20
40
60
80
10
0F
itte
d v
alu
es/
To
tal
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values Total
The Kerala Paradox
Infant Mortality
Andhra Pradesh
AssamBihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
20
40
60
80
10
0F
itte
d v
alu
es/
To
tal
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values Total
So what’s going on?
Theory 1 – Communist Party Rule in Kerala
Theory 1 – Communist Party Rule
• In 1957, the Communist Party of India (CPI) wins elections in Kerala
• Begins to implement policy platform of land reform and policies of social development – i.e. public provision of education and healthcare
Problems
1 - What About West Bengal?
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
HaryanaKarnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fitt
ed
va
lue
s/lit
_n
ew
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values lit_new
Literacy Rates
What About West Bengal?
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
HaryanaKarnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fitt
ed
va
lue
s/lit
_n
ew
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values lit_new
Literacy Rates
What About West Bengal?
Infant Mortality
Andhra Pradesh
AssamBihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
20
40
60
80
10
0F
itte
d v
alu
es/
To
tal
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values Total
What About West Bengal?
Infant Mortality
Andhra Pradesh
AssamBihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
20
40
60
80
10
0F
itte
d v
alu
es/
To
tal
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values Total
2 - Why did Kerala have a Head Start?
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1901 1911 1921 1931 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
(Male) Literacy Rate, Kerala vs. UP Average
1957 – CPI comes into power in Kerala
Problem 3 – do public services explain Kerala’s
social development record?• Despite universal provision, many of the health and
education services consumed are private, not public
• Even though up to 74% of rural households have a public primary health centre in the village, 42% of low standard of living households use the private sector as their main source of treatment
• In Kerala, the private medical sector is still the primary source of health care for up to 64% of households in urban areas and 60% of those in rural areas
• according to the 61st round of National Sample Survey (2004–2005), private per capita spending on education by rural households is twice the national average (41Rs for Kerala, 18Rs for India)
So:
So:1. It is more than just public policy that explains the Kerala paradox, but also something about the structure of Kerala’s society
So:1. It is more than just public policy that explains the Kerala paradox, but also something about the structure of Kerala’s society
2. And that ‘something’ was important before 1957, but goes back further in Kerala’s history.
Theory II:
Subnationalism
Subnationalism
• Kerala has a strong sense of Malayali ‘national’ identity, rooted in a common language (Malayalam), culture, and sense of belonging
• Kerala also has a long history of subnationalist mobilisation, ultimately via the Aikya Kerala (United Kerala) movement
Kathakali
Kalaripayattu
Onam: ‘National Festival of Kerala’
‘National’ Art Forms of Kerala
Myth of Common
Origin
Common Culture
Shared Language
Print Media
NationalConscious
-ness
Anderson (1983)
Connor (1978)
Deutsch (1966)
Geertz (1963)
Gellner (1983)
Hobsbawm (1983)
Renan (1882)
Smith (1989)
Stalin (1954)
Weber (1948)
Subnationalism in Indian States0
50
50
50
5
1940 1960 1980 2000
1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000
Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat
Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh
Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
sub
na
t_p
op
yearGraphs by State
Subnationalism in Indian States0
50
50
50
5
1940 1960 1980 2000
1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000
Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat
Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh
Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
sub
na
t_p
op
yearGraphs by State
Subnationalism
• As a result of a stronger sense of collective identity, the Malayali were prepared to invest more in public goods such as health and education
• Because of this history of collective action and subnational identification, stronger inter-religious and cross-caste community ties were formed, which has ensured greater participation in local democracy and collective monitoring of local schools, hospitals, and other public services
Subnationalist demands made to “promote Malayali welfare”
Minister of Public Health (1970s): “the success of the Family Planning Program lies in viewing it in terms of the national interest”
Chief Minister Achutanandan (2006): “The 50th anniversary of the formation of Kerala is intended for launching various developmental projects in the State … The fifty days of celebrations…would witness unique and the most comprehensive developmental programs in the history of the State”
Subnationalism in Indian States0
50
50
50
5
1940 1960 1980 2000
1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000
Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat
Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh
Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
sub
na
t_p
op
yearGraphs by State
Subnationalism in Indian States0
50
50
50
5
1940 1960 1980 2000
1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000
Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat
Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh
Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
sub
na
t_p
op
yearGraphs by State
The Kerala Paradox
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
HaryanaKarnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fitt
ed
va
lue
s/lit
_n
ew
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values lit_new
Literacy Rates
The Kerala Paradox
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
HaryanaKarnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fitt
ed
va
lue
s/lit
_n
ew
10 20 30 40 50pcGDP
Fitted values lit_new
Literacy Rates
Yet more
theories
Matrilinealism
Matrilinealism
• Kerala has had a matrilineal society since the 11th century practiced especially among the upper caste Nairs.
• The 1891 Census enumerated that close to 56% of families in Kerala were matrilineal: property was inherited by the whole family, not the oldest male
• Extensive development research shows best predictor of child welfare is maternal income and health, not just in India but also in Africa, Latin America, etc.
• In matrilineal societies, women have greater property rights and control over the household budget
• Therefore children are more likely to receive education and basic healthcare, once the possibility to purchase these exists.
• Kerala per capita spending on education by rural households is twice the national average, and private health spending is also high
Missionary activity
Christianity
• Kerala was a major entrepot for the spice trade since the 15th century, with exchange with the Middle East and Europe
• as a result, one of few states where Hindus do not form a clear majority (56%; 24% Muslim and 20% Christian)
• long history of missionary activity, setting up schools and community centers
What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?
What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?
Religious competition and missionary activity
What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?
Religious competition and missionary activity
Missionary groups helped break down the caste system by providing education to the
lower castes
Competition forced other denominations (e.g. Hindus) to change their practices
What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?
Kerala is religiously diverse but ethno-linguistically
homogenous
Very small adivasi population (1.1% compared to 7.5% across India)
Alesina et al (2003) show significant negative cross-country relationship between ethnic
diversity and public goods provision…
…but significant positive relationship between religious diversity and provision of
public goods
Same relationship argued by Putnam (2007) for relationship between ethnic / religious
heterogeneity and social capital
What can Kerala tell us about social development?
Social developmen
t
Public opinion in favor of
provision of social
services
Individual preferences in favor of collective welfare
Formulation of social policy
Implementation of social policy
Sta
te
act
ion
Political elites favor
provision of social
services
Subnationalist
identification
Individual preferences in favor of political
participation
Collective action to
monitor social services
Political participation on
the part of individuals
S
ocie
tal
acti
on
Cognition
Behavior
It’s all very complicated
Religious competitio
n
Private service provision
Gender empowerm
ent
Breakdown of caste system
END