Introduction 1 · Introduction 1 UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary...

Introduction 1

Introduction 1

UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use ofTransboundary Watercourses and International Lakes

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RIVER BASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY AND

WATER MANAGEMENT

By Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev,

Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva,

Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk.

PEOPLE'S DAILY PRESSBEIJING 2013

2

Editor of the original Russian publication Olga K.Kiriliuk (Daursky Biosphere

Reserve)

English version editor and translator Eugene Simonov (Rivers without

Boundaries Coalition)

English language editor Douglas Norlen ( Pacific Environment), Jennie Sutton

(Baikal Environmental Wave)

© Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Vadim and Olga Kiriliuk, Natalia

Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, Eugene Simonov and Tatiana Tkachuk

© STATE BIOSPHERE RESERVE DAURSKY, WWF RUSSIA,

I N T E R N A T I O N A L C OA L I T I O N 《 R I V E R S W I T H O U T

BOUNDARIES》, 2013

Introduction 3

Suggested citation: Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny

Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor

Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk. Adaptation to climate change in the

river basins of Dauria: ecology and water management. The extended

abstract eponymous Russian edition prepared by Eugene Simonov –

Beijing: PEOPLE'S DAILY PRESS, 2013. - 104p, 55ill.

Abstract: This report presents the first results of the Research

and Conservation Program “Influence of Climate Changes on the

Ecosystems of Dauria Ecoregion and Nature-protecting Adaptation”,

which is implemented at Dauria International Protected Area (DIPA).

The report is dedicated to stopping degradation of the natural

ecosystems in Dauria and preserving globally endangered species

under conditions of intensified economic development and periodic

water deficit caused by climatic cycles. The report primarily covers

the Northeast of Dauria Steppe Ecoregion its geography, climate,

ecosystems and their dynamics, anthropogenic impacts on natural

processes, ecological monitoring, protected areas planning and

management, water resources management and threats to aquatic

ecosystems. This publication was funded by WWF Russia and UNECE

Water Convention.

4

图书在版编目（ＣＩＰ）数据

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RIVERBASINS OF DAURIA: ECOLOGY ANDWATER MANAGEMENT/Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk. 编 .-- 北京 : 人民日报出版社 , 2012.12ISBN 978-7-5115-1479-0

Ⅰ . ① A… Ⅱ . ① O… Ⅲ . ①科学技术－环境－文集Ⅳ . ① G222.3-53

中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字 (2012) 第 281894 号

Title: Adaptation To Climate Change In River Basins Of Dauria: Ecology And Water ManagementAuthor: Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Evgeny Egidarev, Olga Kiriliuk, Vadim Kiriliuk, Natalia Kochneva, Victor Obyazov, and Tatiana Tkachuk.Publisher: People’s Daily PressAddress: 2th Jintaixilu Road Chaoyang District BeijingEditor: Chen ZhimingPrice: 32.00（RMB）

ISBN：978-7-5115-1479-0

Introduction 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS:Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 6I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate …………………………… 9II.Conservation and Monitoring …………………………………………… 34III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management ……………………… 43Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………… 90

Appendix ……………………………………………………………………………106

6

Introduction

This report presents the first outcomes of the Programme "The

impact of climate change on ecosystems of Dauria ecoregion

and environmental adaptations to them" and an important part

of it – the “Dauria Going Dry” Pilot Project initiated by Daursky

Biosphere Reserve ( part of Dauria International Protected Area -

DIPA) and WWF-Russia under auspices of the UNECE Convention

on Transboundary Waters and the Ramsar Convention. The key

question that the Project considers is how to prevent destruction of

Daurian natural ecosystems, enhance their resilience and save globally

endangered species in circumstances of intensive economic development

and water deficit caused by periodic climate change. The Programme

collects and analyses scientific information on natural climate-

dependent ecosystems processes, their actual conditions and dynamics

and anthropogenic influence on them. These data are the scientific basis

for environmental-friendly social and economic development in Dauria

Introduction 7

Ecoregion. This report is an abridged translation from Russian of a

collection of research papers published in 2012 by Express Publishing

House, Chita, Russia (Kiriliuk O. editor, 2012). Chapters were

contributed by the core team of researchers including: Oleg Goroshko

(research and monitoring system), Vadim Kiriliuk(research program

and ecosystem dynamics), Tatiana Tkachuk (ecosystem dynamics and

monitoring system), Natalia Kochneva (overview of international law),

Victor Obyazov (climate dynamics and hydrology), Evgeny Egidarev

(water management and cartography), Eugene Simonov ( research

program and water management, executive summary in English), Olga

Kiriliuk (ecosystem dynamics, protected areas network and overall

book editing).This Report edited by Eugene Simonov summarizes key

findings presented in this Russian publication.

The first part of the Report summarizes geography, climate,

biological diversity and ecosystem dynamics of Dauria with emphasis

on rivers and wetlands. The focus of our attention is dynamics of

ecosystems of Dauria under cyclical climate change. The second part

shortly summarizes history and plans for development of protected

areas and a comprehensive ecosystem monitoring network. The third

part of the report starts with general overview of climate adaptation

principles and challenges in Dauria, using the water sector as its focus.

The Argun River basin example is used to exemplify and analyze

potentially unsustainable water resource use at basin-scale. Besides

the basin–wide Argun River example case-studies are presented for

coal industry, interbasin water-transfers, hydropower, gold mining and

border demarcation. Short conclusions are drawn on international policy

8

and technical approaches to solving environmental problems in water

sector in Dauria.

The Project formed partnerships with the Ministry of Natural

Resources of Zabaikalsky Province, International Crane Foundation,

East Asian-Australasian flyway Partnership, Rivers without Boundaries

Coalition, Institute of Natural Resources, Ecology and Cryology of

Russian Academy of Sciences (Siberian Branch), and a number of

Mongolian and Chinese NGOs and researchers. Daursky BR and

WWF provided most of the funding for multi-year work, while some

activities were supported in 2011 from UNDP\GEF “Russian Steppe

Conservation” Project and the Whitley Fund for Nature..

This publication reflects solely the views of its authors. The views,

conclusions, and recommendations are not intended to represent the

views of the conventions' secretariats or other entities supporting the

project.

This publication in 3 languages was made possible due to

collaboration of all Project partners and generous support from

the UNECE Convention on Transboundary Waters. The English

version was prepared by Eugene Simonov, the coordinator of Rivers

without Boundaries Coalition. Please send inquiries to coalition@

riverswithoutboundaries.org

I.Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate 9

I. Dauria Ecoregion: Ecosystems and Climate

Geography and climate. In the last decades considerable climate

change of a global character is taking place. However, at the regional

level it differs considerably from the general global pattern, and has

peculiar features in each region. Even greater differences between

regions are observed in the ecosystems’ reactions to climatic variability,

which to a great extent depend on the natural and economic conditions

of the regions.

One of the regions strongly ecologically dependent on climate

changes is the Daurian steppe (Dauria). Dauria lies in the northern part

of Inner Asia. Most of the Daurian steppe area is situated in North-

East China and the Eastern Mongolia; the Russian part is confined to

Zabaikalsky Province and the Buryat Republic. The area possesses a

very high level of biodiversity for the steppe zone, and it is included

in the Global 200 Ecoregions of the World (Fig.1) as “Dauria Steppe”

which according to WWF covers the Nenjiang River grassland, the

Daurian forest-steppe, the Mongolian-Manchurian steppe, and the

10

Selenge-Orkhon forest-steppe ecoregions. This book is dedicated

primarily to North Eastern Dauria.These grassland areas are united

by geographic location, annual and multi-year rhythms in ecological

factors, and structure and composition of communities (Kiriliuk et

al.2012).

Fig. 1. "Daurian Steppe» Global 200 Ecoregion (№ 96) on the world map

(by Olson et al., 2001)

In terms of freshwater ecosystems, the Eastern Dauria is divided

into 3 principal freshwater ecoregions: Shilka River, Argun River and

Endorheic Basins (Abel et al. 2008) of which Torey Lakes\Ulz River

Basin is the most prominent (see Fig. 2.)

Most of the region lies at 600-800 meters above sea level,

comprises mainly plains and rolling relief, and has an ultra-continental


Fig.

2. P

rinc

ipal

tran

sbou

ndar

y ri

ver b

asin

s of D

auri

a

12

climate. Low winter temperatures (in the Russian part the average

January temperature is –25 ) result in deep freezing of the soils

and the formation of permafrost pockets. The spring is cold, windy

and dry, while most of the rainfall coincides with the highest annual

temperatures during the second half of summer (Fig. 3). This leads to a

highly intensive cycling of nutrients in the short summer period and, as

a result, to the formation of primarily poor, shallow soils.

In the period 1951 to 2009 the average annual temperature in the

study area increased by 1.9℃ , and in different parts of the study area

the linear trend showed increases from 1.5 up to 2.2 ℃ during 59 years

(Fig.4). It led to an increase of the period with positive temperatures

in the northern part of the Daurian steppe from 165 - 167 to 173 - 179

Fig. 3. Annual distribution of the precipitation in the Onon-Argun inter-

river area

0,0

20,0

40,0

60,0

80,0

100,0

120,0

Jan Feb MarchApr May June July Aug

Sept Oct Nov Dec

Precipitation, mm


Fig.4. Long-term changes in average annual air temperature for the

Onon-Argun inter-river area in the period 1951 – 2009. 1 original

series, 2 linear trend

-5,0 -4,5 -4,0 -3,5 -3,0 -2,5 -2,0 -1,5 -1,0 -0,5 0,0

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year

T,C° 1 2

days. The strongest increase has been registered in February and only

slightly lower in March and April. These three months represent half of

the total increase in average annual temperatures. The lowest figures of

increase are for the period of October – December. Thus the strongest

increase is observed in spring, the least in autumn. For the cold period

of the year (October – April) the rise in average air temperature

amounts to 2.4℃ over 59 years; for the warm period of the year (May –

September) to 1.3℃ .

Long-term changes in precipitation are cyclic, and in South-eastern

Transbaikalia cycles are most vividly apparent within the time span of

a century (Obiazov 1994). From 1955 to 1963 there was a period with

above average precipitation, followed, up to 1982, by a below average

14

period. In 1983 a wet period started again, lasting until 1998. 1999 was

the beginning of a new dry period, that has probably ended by 2012, but

it is still uncertain.

Thus, up to two full cycles in precipitation occurred in the area

over the past 60 years (Fig.5). Apart from these decennia-long cycles

other cycles of another wave length occur in the area, including a 4 –

5 year cycle (Obiazov 1994). Cycles identified are based on classical

statistical methods for analyzing climate change, in particular by the

construction of residual mass curves (Vladimirov 1990).

The inter–annual flow changes in the warm period of the year (May

– September) are strongly determined by the amount of precipitation

in this period. Inter–year changes in precipitation and flow occur

Fig. 5. Long-term flow changes of the Shilka river (1) and precipitation totals

(2) generalized for the Onon-Argun inter-river area (residual mass curves)

-

-

-

-

0

2

4

6

8

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year

Σ (К-1)/С V 1 2


synphasically (Fig.5) and the correlation coefficient between the

observation series of flows of all the rivers in the Shilka basin and the

average total of precipitation exceeds 0.7.

Lake levels also directly depend on precipitation and correlate

with river flows. For instance, Fig.6 shows clear phases in measured

water levels in the Torey lakes. It should be noted that by June 2009

Lake Barun-Torey had completely dried up, while just before its floor

contained only shallow large puddles, which appeared after rains.

Fig. 6. Long-term changes in the level of Lake Barun-Torey

Plant communities. The Central Asian Steppe Sub-Region

of the Eurasian Steppe Region (Lavrenko 1970) has a flora that is

notably different from that of the steppes to the west. The most typical

steppe communities are dominated by feather grass (Stipa krylovii, S.

Level, m asl

593

594

595

596

597

598

599

600

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

years

16

baicalensis) and Leymus chinensis, Artemisia frigida, etc. Shallow salt

lakes with halophytic vegetation around them are also characteristic of

the region. Grass-dominated grassland communities are intermingled

with other vegetation types (wetlands, saline vegetation, forest groves,

bush, etc.) and should be described and preserved only in a broader

landscape context.

In floodplain wetlands (Fig. 8) meadows with grasses (of the genus

Calamagrostis) and tussock sedges (Carex schmidtii and others) prevail

as well as groves of willows (Salix spp), reeds (Phragmites australis)

communities and several species of wild fruit trees (Crataegus sp.,

Padus avium, Malus baccata, etc.) are also common.

Fig. 7. Changes in area of Lake Barun-Torey (left) and Lake Zun-Torey

(right) from 2001 to 2009


The bottoms of small depressions and shores of salt and brackish

lakes are occupied by salines. Patches of small salines are also spread

in steppe areas. Their vegetation is dominated by annual chenopods

(Suaeda corniculata, Kochia densiflora, Atriplex sibirica, A. patens,

etc.), perennials such as Artemisia anetifolia and A. laciniata, and the

dwarf shrub Kalidium foliatum. In big depressions they are surrounded

by meadows with Puccinellia spp., Hordeum brevisubulatum, Leymus

chinensis and Iris lactea and also L. chinensis steppes. Communities

of the large tussock grass Achnatherum splendens are common in

depressions and may also fringe lower slopes of steppe hills, where

ground water is shallow. Achnatherum steppes usually include some

Fig. 8. Floodplain meadow of Hui River, Hulunbeier.

18

halophytic species (Limonium aureum, Saussurea amara, Iris lactea).

As the pattern of vegetation types mentioned closely depends

on small differences in relief and some related habitat conditions,

fluctuations in climate considerably affect the temporal and spatial

diversity of vegetation , changing distribution and species composition

of plant communities over time in a cyclic manner.

Principal wetlands of Eastern Dauria

Argun River Floodplain. Argun (Erguna, Hailaer in Chinese) River

is the largest watercourse in Dauria Steppe, with globally significant

network of wetlands. For 940 kilometers it serves as Sino-Russian

borderline, and the westernmost part has at least 200 000 ha of wide

floodplain rich in biodiversity.

Hui and Moergol River Floodplains (approx 70 000 ha). These are

small tributaries of Argun River system in Hulunbeier Prefecture of Inner

Mongolia in China, which possesses large floodplain wetlands with reed

beds known as breeding areas for significant numbers of endangered

cranes and geese.

Dalai Lake and Ulan Lake. The shallow Dalai (Hulun) Lake in

Hulunbeier Prefecture receives waters of Kherlen and Wuershun (Orxon)

rivers coming from Mongolia and is connected to Argun River. The

750000 ha Ramsar site is a complex of lakes, rivers, marshes, shrublands,

grasslands and reed beds typical of arid steppe wetlands, stretching

north-south from the Russian to the Mongolian border. The lakes are

important breeding, molting, and stopover sites for waterbirds including

endangered geese.

Buir Lake (61500 ha) shared by Mongolia and China is fed by


Fig.9. Largest wetlands of Eastern Dauria.

Khalkh River, with headwaters in China. This river forks at 104000 ha

Mongolia Ramsar site and supplies water to Buir Lake and Dalai Lake

via Wuershun River. The lake is an important breeding, molting, and

stopover site for waterbirds including endangered geese.

Torey Lakes and Ulz River. Endorheic Ulz River coming from

Mongolia into Russia terminates into 3 large lakes of the Torey

depression. The basin has many globally important biodiversity

features and is protected by Daursky (172 500 ha) and Mongol Daguur

(210000ha) Biosphere reserves, both listed as Ramsar wetlands.

20

Influence of climate cycles on habitats. The Dauria Steppe’s

natural climate cycle, with a span of 25-40 years, is the major force

shaping regional ecosystems and peoples’ lifestyles. Climate changes in

the Daurian eco-region, especially humidification cycles and continuing

warming, cause habitat alteration and even habitat disappearance.

The most intensive changes occur in wetlands, which are important

intrazonal biotopes of the steppe zone. In dry phases of the cycles all

small rivers and most of the springs and up to 90 – 98 % of the lakes

dry up. Such large rivers as the Kherlen, the Onon, and the Hailaer/

Argun lose most of their tributaries and also become shallow. At that

time the levels of Lakes Dalai, Buir, and Khukh also fall considerably.

Each water body has its own drying and filling dynamics depending

on its depth, volume, hydrogeology and location. Giant Dalai Lake

at maximum covers 2300 sq. km., but sometimes becomes a chain of

shallow pools. “Pulsating” water bodies provide higher but uneven

biological productivity than stable ones. The alternation of the wet and

dry phases as well as the diversity in water bodies creates a dynamic

mosaic of habitats and triggers migration and changes in species

populations. In 1999 Torey lakes yielded thousand tons of fish, and

in 2011 the meadow at Barun-Torey Lake bottom was a pasture for

Mongolian Gazelle（Procapra gutturosa）. River floodplains have

much more frequent flooding events and thus preserve more stable

habitat in times of drought. Once in 30 years in the wettest phase

thousands of ephemeral lakes scattered throughout the steppe provide

the most productive habitat for birds and semi-aquatic species, however,


several most stable wetlands serve as life-support systems for wildlife

and humans through all phases of climate cycles.

In Lake Barun-Torey the saline flats that formed after drying

up gradually are getting overgrown and turning into a meadow and

steppe. The lake depression, devoid of water (551 km2 in 1999), instead

of being an aquatic ecosystem inhabited by aquatic organisms and

organisms that live near water, including thousands of tons of fish,

became part of the terrestrial ecosystem. Presently, it harbors animals

that are absolutely not associated with water, for example, Mongolian

gerbils and gazelles. Disappearance of water sources in steppes makes

steppe habitats unsuitable for animal species that are dependent on

water. Following disappearance of the lakes, or their substantial

shallowing and salinization, near-water macrophytes also degrade, in

particular reeds (Phragmites australis), and shrubs wither. The same

occurs in the drying rivers. Thus, tall shore and floodplain vegetation

turns into meadow and steppe habitats. Islands and spits of the lakes

that were nesting areas for loads of waterfowl and near-water birds,

including colonial ones (on the Torey lakes alone in wet periods there

were up to 17 islands inhabited by bird colonies), cease to be such and

lose their significance.

We studied vegetation dynamics along a fixed transect between

the Torey lakes in the Daursky Biosphere Reserve during 2002 – 2010

(Tkachuk & Zhukova 2010). The transect is about 4 km long, and

includes steppe, halophytic meadows, pioneer halophytic vegetation and

dense stands of hydrophytes (Phragmites australis and Bolboschoenus

planiculmis). The lowest, recently dried-up parts of the transect carry

22

halophytic pioneer vegetation with patches of hydrophytes. The 1st

lake terrace and lake shores, which became dry 2 - 4 years ago, support

halophytic meadows, and the highest part of the transect, on the 2nd

and 3rd terraces, steppe vegetation. The vegetation belts are much wider

at the Barun-Torey depression than at that of Zun-Torey. Vegetation

dynamics along this transect over 9 years is illustrated in (Fig. 10). The

main trends are the area increase of all vegetation types together and the

disappearance of the shore line vegetation. The strong increase of pioneer

vegetation and hydrophytes in 2004 is caused by the rapid retreat of the

shore-line and connected elongation of the transect. The hydrophytes

later decrease as the ground water level falls. Halophytic meadows

increase from year to year, especially since 2005. This sudden increase

comes with a lag of one year behind that of the pioneer vegetation. The

increase in steppe vegetation is insignificant.

Fig. 10. Change of different vegetation types in the monitored transect in

the period 2002 – 2010.

0500

10001500200025003000350040004500

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

m

Steppe Halophytic meadow Pioneer vegetation Hydrophytes


Fig. 11. Geese migrating through smoke from burning grass above Argun

River floodplain. Starotsurukhaitui-Heishantou border crossing. Photo by

Guo Yumin

The dynamic successional vegetation pattern between the Torey

lakes (as well as at other drying lakes) is similar to that of other salty

steppe lakes in Inner Asia (Vostokova 1983; Fengjun 2010), though

some details are typical for the Daurian steppe region.

In the beginning of dry periods tall herbaceous vegetation,

including floodplain vegetation, disappears faster due to the increasing

intensity of wild fires (Fig.11). Thus, in 1996 - 1997 50 – 70 % of the

steppes and floodplains burned. Large tussock grasses and bushes re-

grow slowly after fires. Increasing evaporation on burnt areas in dry

periods contributes to further drying of floodplains, and the level of

groundwater falls as well. Therefore, restoration of the lake’s level and

24

of the river’s flow with the start of a wet phase slows down.

It is extremely difficult to assess whether all these changes are

due to natural factors or not, as considerable parts of the steppes of the

Daurian ecoregion are under severe grazing pressure. Numbers of free-

grazing livestock, though subject to regulation by natural factors, are

also artificially maintained at high levels by humans, and this harms the

ecosystems.

With the beginning of a wet phase rivers and lakes fill with water,

and this process goes much faster than drying. Then ground vegetation,

growing densely in river beds and on lake floors, is flooded and rots.

The processes of destruction of large amounts of organic matter with

simultaneous re-filling and warming up of the water in the shallow

basins give a sharp rise in the reproduction of plants and animals of all

trophic levels. In the steppe zone many intra-zonal aquatic and near-

water habitats with rich foraging bases re-appear. The foraging capacity

of the steppe biotopes sharply increases, many water sources appear,

and shelter conditions improve. In the most humid part of the steppe

zone the area with bush and tree vegetation starts increasing.

On the whole, the habitats of the Daurian eco-region are subject

to cyclic changes with wide amplitudes. Accordingly, the amount

of biomass of living organisms differs many-fold between dry and

wet phases. Thus, food supply and other conditions for life and

reproduction differ. During the dry phase, which is the most critical

for many vertebrate species, a few habitat refugia remain, e.g. large

rivers and river floodplains, lakes that don’t dry up, southern slopes

of hills with outcrops of rocks and ravines in the north of the steppe


zone and northern in the south of it. In the unbroken landscapes of the

steppe such relatively favorable habitats depend on variation in local

conditions.

The high dynamics in habitats in the Daurian eco-region are

accompanied by strong leaps in biological productivity, and these

support the high biodiversity of the Daurian steppes, including the

abundance of many mammal and bird species.

Fauna and climate.

The animal world of Dauria is diverse. There are species here

whose main distribution area is much farther to the east, west or south

(Japanese or Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis)(see Fig. 12).

Manchurian zokor (Myospalax psilurus epsilanus), Mongolian gerbil

Fig. 12. Red-crowned Crane in reeds of the Argun River floodplain (Photo:

Oleg Goroshko)

26

(Meriones unguiculatus), Common crane (Grus grus), etc.). Among

the endemics of Dauria are Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa)

(up to 90 % of the world population of the species live here), Daurian

hedgehog (Mesechinus dauuricus), Daurian souslik (Spermophilus

dauricus), Mongolian lark (Melanocorypha mongolica) and others.

Fish fauna, adapted to climate cycles, is comprised of more than 60

species, three of which are believed to be endemic to Dauria, and giant

Kaluga Sturgeon (Huso davhuricus)(Fig.13) is likely migrating to the

Mongolian border all the way from the Pacific Ocean. A peculiar feature

of the animal world is its variety of bird species determined by the

narrowing of the global migration routes of birds in the Dalainor-Torey

depression (Goroshko, 2009). The number of transitory migrants in the

region’s bird fauna is not less than 45 %. More than 40 bird species

registered here are listed in the Red List of IUCN and many more in

Fig.13 Endemic Kaluga

Sturgeon still inhabits

Shilka River (Photo by

Yu.Dunsky)


national Red Data Books of Russia, Mongolia, and China.

Climate change influences vertebrate animals both through

transformation of habitats and directly. A convincing example of

indirect impact is the drying up and shallowing of water basins and

courses, which are the natural habitat for aquatic animals and the

main habitat for animals that live near water. In such cases aquatic

organisms, including fish, die completely (Fig.14.) or survive in near-

dormant regenerative stages, including larvae and roe at remaining

survival stations. Also the Prussian Carp (Carassius auratus gibelio)

can preserve its vitality for some time after the water basin has dried up

by burying itself in the silt. In the Ulz river basin, where in fact no fish

Fig. 14. Dead fish on the Torey lakes shore in the dry period of climate

cycle

28

is left due to drying, carp remain so far only in Lake Khukh-Nor – the

deepest reservoir of the basin.

Changes in depth and mineralization of the water of the lakes and

rivers also lead to the loss of suitable nesting sites, including islands,

and changes in the availability of foraging items. This actually caused

considerable changes in the composition of waterfowl and near-water

birds nesting at the Torey lakes (Fig.15).

With transformation of the lake ecosystem numbers of individuals

change at even higher rates than species composition, including the

numbers of the very rare Relict Gull (Larus relictus), for which low-

water periods in the filling stage are more favorable. Great Cormorants

(Phalacrocorax carbo), whose numbers on the Torey lakes reached a

maximum of more than 2,200 in 2001 (Tkachenko & Obyazov 2003),

Fig. 15. Change in species composition of the nesting fauna for the main

groups of waterfowl and near-water birds at the Torey lakes in the period

1994 – 2009

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

num

ber o

f spe

cies

1994 1998 2000 2003 2005 2008 2009

LariCharadriiGruiformesAnseriformesCiconiiformesPelecaniformesPodicipediformes


had stopped nesting altogether by 2010. This was due first to the dying

of fish (2006 - 2007) and then to the disappearance of the last island.

After that cormorants spread without forming large colonies over

the vast area of forest-steppe and southern taiga, up to Baikal where

they hadn’t been seen for some decades. With the disappearance of

islands and the impoverishment of forage availability at the Torey

lakes other colonial birds have stopped nesting too: Gray Heron (Ardea

cinerea), Herring Gull (Larus cachinnans), Caspian Tern (Hydropogne

caspia), Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Black-capped

Avocet (Recuvirostra avosetta), White-winged Tern (Chelidonias

leucopterus, Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), the rare Little Gull (Larus

minutus), Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) and Whiskered Tern

(Chelidonias hybrida).

During the wet phases millions of waterfowl pass through the

Daurian steppes using thousands of forage-rich lakes for resting and

feeding before rushing across the taiga to the tundra. But as the lakes

dry up the broad steppe zone becomes almost insurmountable for

waterfowl, and their migration routes change. The total numbers of all

ducks in 9 steppe districts of Zabaikalsky Krai decreased 59-fold from

1999 to 2009, which is caused by the shift of migration routes to the

east, to the foothills of the Great Hingan, and to the west, to the Hentii

region (Goroshko 2011). These ridges stretch far south and, thanks to

their rivers, provide waterfowl with suitable conditions for a stop-over

during their migration. It makes the flight across dry steppe and desert

shorter.

With the rivers and lakes drying up almost all White-naped Cranes

30

(Grus vipio) have moved from the steppe to the forest-steppe for

nesting. Total numbers of nesting White-naped Cranes during the last

dry cycle fell sharply (Fig.16), which led to a general reduction of the

western population of the species.

During dry periods the distribution areas and patterns of many

mammal species changes considerably. The home range of the Raccoon

Dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) very strongly so. This species

expanded to the eastern part of the Daurian steppes in the middle of the

20th century having moved from the east (Peshkov 1967). By 1999, the

Raccoon Dog, though preferring rivers and lakes, was common almost

everywhere and occupied meadow steppe, forest and shrub habitats in

Fig.16. Change in percentage of breeding White-naped Cranes (Grus vipio)

in the region in 1999 - 2007 (Goroshko O., unpublished data)

Percentage of breeding birds

0102030405060

1999 2000 2001 2007

years

%


the Russian and adjacent parts of the eco-region. At the Torey lakes its

numbers amounted to some thousands. By 2008 there were no dogs left

there. On the whole their numbers and distribution in this part of Dauria

reduced very drastically and the Raccoon Dog now only inhabits the

floodplains of large rivers, such as the Onon and the Argun. Moreover,

its population density in survival stations has not increased.

The most important limiting factor for many non-migrating and

non-hibernating animals is the (height of the) snow cover. Areas with

a continuous snow cover of 20 or more cm thick, and areas with a firm

Fig.17. Southern limit of the range of the Siberian Roe Deer (Capreolus

pygargus) in 1996 and in 2007

32

and ice-encrusted snow cover of 10 - 12 cm thick, are uninhabitable for

most steppe species.

The Siberian Roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) penetrated deep

into the steppe zone in wet periods, and depending on the availability

of water it occurred not only in insular forests, groves and floodplains,

e.g. along the Ulz River, but also in hilly herbaceous steppes with

willow-scrub in depressions. By 2007 - 2008 the limits of its range

had moved up to 100 km to the north (Fig. 17). Similarly, following

the disappearance of habitat fragments with trees and shrubs, as well

as shallow waters with Phragmites and Salix, the southern limits of

Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Red Deer (Сervus elaphus), Eurasian Lynx

(Lynx lynx) and Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus) have noticeably shifted

northward.

Summary of region’s peculiarities• An important peculiarity of the region is that the amount of

endemic natural communities in Dauria, which have been formed

with participation of different floras and faunas under conditions of

permanent climate change, is much higher than the amount of endemic

species. Under the conditions of global warming and the cyclic changes

in moisture availability characteristic for the region, appreciable

changes in species composition, abundance and spatial distribution of

wildlife take place.

• Due to cyclic changes in humidity habitats in the Daurian

eco-region change. During dry phases habitats with tall plants, which

provide much foraging capacity and good protection, reduce in area,


and most of the wetlands vanish completely, while in wet phases they

appear again and provide a sharp rise in biological productivity.

• The vegetation of Dauria is adapted to cyclical climate changes

and resiliently reacts with fluctuations and cyclical succession.

• Most of the species, both aquatic and terrestrial, survive

drought using different adaptation strategies. The most important are:

surviving in a few refuge habitats; persisting in the dormant phase

of the life cycle; survival of non-reproductive adult individuals. The

distribution areas of many ground vertebrates pulsate in concord with

the cyclic changes in humidity. But the continuing warming gradually

destroys the complete reversibility of these processes and leads to

aridization.

• On the whole, in Dauria the dry phase of the 30-year humidity

climate cycle, which occurs against the background of global warming,

causes remarkably strong changes in nature with mostly negative

consequences: the level of biological diversity falls, as well as the

sustainability and productivity of natural ecosystem complexes, the

biomass of living organisms decreases, the borders of the ranges and

migration routes of mammals and birds shift. Many vertebrate species

find themselves on the brink of survival.

34

II. Conservation and Monitoring

Protected areas network: challenges and opportunities.The Russia-Mongolia-China Dauria International Protected Area

(DIPA) was founded at the junction of the borders between Russia,

Mongolia and China on 29 March 1994(Fig.18). Three protected

areas of the three countries (belonging to the I category by IUCN PA

classification) were combined to create DIPA:

• Daursky Biosphere Reserve (national strict nature reserve in

then Chitinskaya oblast (presently Zabaikalsky Krai) )of Russia;

• Mongol Daguur national strictly protected nature area in

Dornod aimag of Mongolia, which borders on the Russian reserve;

• Dalai Lake (Dalaihu) National Nature Reserve in the Inner

Mongolia Autonomous Region, China.

The creation of this trilateral protected area, consisting of

functionally connected wetland and steppe habitats, was of special

importance for biodiversity conservation in Dauria, particularly for

II.Conservation and Monitoring 35

the protection of migrant species of birds and mammals. Besides

biodiversity and ecosystems conservation, the main target of the

international protected area is monitoring of natural processes and

phenomena in the Dauria steppe ecosystem.

Despite the differences in nature protection regimes and in the

management and staff of the three areas, DIPA as a united international

Fig.18. DIPA area and emblem.

36

reserve has been a conservation success. Since the first years of DIPA’s

existence, the area was managed to promote cooperation, first in

science and later in environmental education. Cooperative activities

included a joint inventory of animals and plants within the reserves

and throughout Eastern Dauria. Since DIPA establishment, more than

300,000 km² of the region have been investigated by joint scientific

expeditions spanning the region from the Hentii to the Great Hingan

Mountains and from the Gobi Desert to Siberian taiga forests. This

enormous tri-national survey has been a great opportunity to acquire

data on biodiversity and distribution of rare species, define conditions

of regional ecosystems, and also to select key areas for conservation of

a number of species.

The Ramsar Convention recognized the region’s importance

and listed all three reserves comprising the DIPA as wetlands of

international importance. Lake Buir and Khurh-Khuiten wetlands are

also listed as Ramsar Sites in Mongolia, but lack formal protection.

Other globally important wetland areas have been identified, including

the transboundary Argun (Erguna), Chinese Moergol and Hui River

floodplains, Russian Aginsky lake-steppe complex. All sites have

special importance with respect to Ramsar Convention implementation.

Careful analyses of ecosystems and populations of rare species

in relation to natural and anthropogenic factors enabled DIPA workers

to propose a number of conservation measures. These included: (i)

an interconnected multi-level regional network of protected areas;

(ii) programs for conservation of critically threatened species, and

(iii) integration of economic development planning with conservation


planning to achieve sustainability. DIPA personnel played a key role

in establishment of several protected areas: the Valley of Gazelles

National Wildlife Refuge, Aginskaya Steppe Regional Wildlife Refuge

in Russia and Onon Balj National Park in Mongolia. Further work on

development of an ecological network requires establishment of new

protected areas, improvements and adjustments in protection regime

and management of existing protected areas and development of explicit

transboundary forms of protected areas.

Development of a nature reserve network should provide for

migration and breeding of species in all phases of region-wide drought

cycle and preserve key hydrological features and all important refugia

(fragmentation avoidance, promoting connectivity, and protection of

climate refuge with especially resistant habitats). Riverine wetland

conservation is an essential component in any basin-wide adaptation

Programme and should first of all focus on protecting natural

refugia during most unfavorable climate conditions and sustaining

environmental flows.

Network design also requires understanding the interplay of

permafrost, fire regime, drought cycles, agriculture, infrastructure

development in changing landscapes, with special attention to the

forest-steppe transition zone and freshwater ecosystems.

Specific suggestions for establishment of new protected

areas, improvements and adjustments in the protection regime and

management of existing protected areas and development of certain

transboundary protected areas were made by DIPA to relevant

authorities. (see Fig. 19)


Fig.19. Territories requiring establishment of protected areas in the Dauria

Steppe Ecoregion

40

Action-oriented Ecosystem Monitoring Multi-year research conducted by DIPA staff resulted in

accumulation of a considerable body of knowledge on ecosystems and

species of Dauria and spurred development of a new comprehensive

ecological monitoring system that is oriented towards integration

of science and development of sound science-based policies in

conservation and natural resource management.

Now all activities are integrated into one program of research and

nature conservation called "Impact of climate change on ecosystems

of Daurian ecoregion and ecosystem-based adaptations to them".

Fig.20.Inner Mongolian Hulietu Nature Reserve spans the floodplain of the

transboundary Argun River near Kuti Village on the Russian side.

The key element of the Program is a system of long-term ground

and remote-sensing monitoring of wetlands in the transboundary upper

Amur-river basin. The main tasks of the monitoring system are

1) to study the influence of climate variability on the upper Amur


basin wetlands;

2) to develop a scientific basis for sustainable adaptation of

national and international policies of nature resources management to

climate change and biodiversity conservation.

3) to use monitoring results to guide development of specific

adaptation measures.

The monitoring network includes more than 200 plots at

floodplains and at lake shores on an area of about 200,000 sq.km

(Fig.21). Most of them are designed for monitoring both vegetation and

animal populations. This wide network allows the Project to get data on

spatial and temporal dynamics of ecosystems.

Fig.21. Location of the monitoring stations network in wetlands of Dauria

Ecoregion (marked by triangles))

42

The key outputs of the Project are policy-relevant knowledge on

the natural dynamics of ecosystems which can be part of the basis of

sustainable development of the region including sustaining globally

valuable biodiversity in the face of climate change. Now we already

know some general principles of climate cycles in the region and,

connected to them, spatial and temporal differentiation of biota, the

main factors and adaptations that help species to survive during critical

multi-year periods. Monitoring results will guide the development of

specific adaptation measures such as:

1. new protected areas planning and region-wide spatial planning

to secure refugia and corridors for species movements

2. prediction of possible adverse impacts of water infrastructure

and adjustment of water infrastructure schemes

3. development of allowable limits of anthropogenic impacts

to improve environmental flow requirements in changing climate

conditions

4. better planning of land-use and water consumption

5. development of other climate adaptation measures increasing

resilience of traditional activities of local communities

III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management 43

III.Climate Adaptation and Water Management

Fig. 22. Herders’ camp at Huihe, Inner Mongolia

Climate adaptation is not a new theme for people of Dauria -

Mongolian nomadic tribes were adapted to temporal and spatial change

44

in availability of water and other resources due to climate cycle. (Fig.22).

However, the current mode of development, associated with stationary

settlements/production facilities and linear growth in economic output is

inevitably leading to severe competition for water and other resources in

times of drought. Human induced “Climate Change” may make cycles

even more pronounced and affect the duration of phases, but is likely to

bring problems similar to those already experienced by society poorly

adapted to periodic drought. Meanwhile drought is nowadays perceived

as “climate change scarecrow” and very questionable water engineering

solutions are proposed to “protect environment and society” from

climate change. Poorly planned human activities initiated in anticipation

of climate change (including some adaptation measures) may drastically

hurt ecosystems much earlier and more severely than the consequences

of actual global climate change(Simonov and Wickel, 2009).

Recent rapid socio-economic changes and loss of nomadic heritage

in Dauria Steppe make ecosystems and local communities less resilient

to naturally fluctuating resources and to droughts and floods that are

made more extreme through climate change (Fig.23 ). Drastically

different cultures, population density and an unsustainable mode of

economic development and water use in Russia, China and Mongolia,

make it very difficult to build a transboundary mechanism to protect

common water resources. Meanwhile risks for wetland ecosystems and

dependent population are further exacerbated by recent proposals for

several inter-basin water transfer projects and other infrastructure in the

Argun River Basin. A water management crisis is actively developing

in all three countries – China, Mongolia and Russia. The Argun-


Hailaer, Khalkh-Halaha, Kherlen-Kelulun, Ulz, Onon, Imalka rivers –

virtually all notable watercourses of Dauria - are transboundary. The

greatest potential threat is unfolding when competition for water among

countries is made the implicit goal of national policies thus forcing

them to store waters on national territories and this leads to demolition

of transboundary wetlands of global importance.

Therefore, any adaptation to climate change in Dauria must first

of all occur through the prevention and removal of maladaptive water

management practices that do not succeed in reducing vulnerability but

increase it instead. Adaptation may be achieved through the use of best

water-saving technologies and appropriate resource-use practices. Here

Fig.23 . Concrete yurts of tourist camp in Gen river floodplain. Inner

Mongolia. Photo by Daniel Hanisch.


Fig. 24. Water infrastructure

projects and principal protected

areas in transboundary Dauria

48

# onmap

Name and Location

Reservoir volume in

km³

Water Diverted

Annually, in km³

Purpose Notes

RUSSIA

2009 withdrawal f rom the Argun River

0,009 Industry, agriculture,municipal supply

Likely underestimated

1,2 Transsibirskaya Hydro on Shilka river

15 no Hydropower, navigation,

Proposed by EN+ Yangtze Power in 2011

3-7 Hydropower cascade on Argun River

4 -20 no Hydropower, Proposed in Sino-Russian Amur andArgun Water Management Scheme in 1994.

CHINA

8 Xinkaihe Channel no No data Water transfer from Dalai lake to Argun River

Built in 1960, fell in disrepair

9 Hailaer-Dalai Canal Dalai Lake serves as reservoir

1.05 Water supply to Manzhouli, Dalai Lake replenishment, irrigation

Built and functioning since 2009

10 Direct canal from Halaha River to Orxon River that cuts off Buir Lake

unknown “restoration of Dalai Lake and Orxon River”

Suggested in 2010-11 at Sino Mongolian negotiations

11 Water diversion facility to Xilingol mining operation, Khalhingol (Halaha) River

>0.1 Thermal electric power plant and water supply to industrial facilities

In 2010 –EIA held

12 Zhaluomude Water Management System, Hailaer River

0.7 up to 0.5 Flood control, hydroelectric power, water supply, irrigation.

Project approved and financed by the Ministry of Water Management

Table 1. Existing and planned water infrastructure in headwaters of Amur River in Dauria.

(source: www.arguncrisis.ru/ )


# onmap

Name and Location

Reservoir volume in

km³

Water Diverted

Annually, in km³

Purpose Notes

13 Zhashuhe -Yakeshi City Hydropower Plant,

0.1 0.05? Hydroelectric power, irrigation

Project approved by the Ministry of Water Management, tender held in 2011

14 Huihe Reservoirs, Huihe River

0.1 and 0.2 0.1-0.2 Irrigation Completed by 2006.

15 Honghuaerji Water Management System, Yimin River

0.3 0.2 Water supply, Huaneng Corporation thermal power plant, flood control, irrigation, etc.

Completed by 2010

10 small reservoirs in Yakeshi area

>0.05 Multipurpose In planning

Daqiao and other reservoirs

>0.4 Water supply, irrigation

Project mentioned in long-term infrastructure plans

MONGOLIA

Water withdrawal from Dauria Rivers

0.015 Industry, agriculture, municipal supply

data unreliable

16 Hydropower on Onon River

No data Hydropower, Listed in National “Water” Programme (2010)

17,18

Togos Ovoo Reservoir for Kherlen-Gobi Water Transfer Project

0.6 « 1 0 % o f river flow

Supply to thermal power plant, coal washing, industry, irrigation, municipal

Feasibility Study by “Prestige Group” in 2010-2012

50

the countries have different comparative advantages and a lot to share.

Mining seems to be one of the most fast-growing of water consumers

among growing economy sectors in all 3 countries.

Water management in the Argun River basin. This basin spans

all the three countries of Dauria and includes 3 large transboundary

watercourses: the Argun-Hailaer, Khalkh and Kherlen rivers, as well as

the transboundary Buir Lake. While water use pattern in each of the 3

countries is unsustainable and has its peculiarities, China has the key

role in this basin due to greater population and economic activity.

In the middle of 20 century during wet phase of climate cycle

the first notable piece of water infrastructure - the Xinkaihe Channel

from Dalai Lake to Argun River was built to protect property built

inside pulsating wetlands from flooding (Fig.25). Nowadays the water

management component of the program "Revival of Old Industrial

Bases in Northeast China" in Inner Mongolia (2003-2030) contains

detailed justification for rapid water diversion and flow regulation in

the Argun River basin (called Hailar in the upper reaches), including

construction of two large canals for water diversion and 10 reservoirs

(Honghuaerji, Zhaluomude, Daqiao, Zhashuhe and others – see Fig. 24

and Table 1 ). This will ensure water supply for growing cities (Hailar,

Yakeshi, Manzhouli), development of irrigated agriculture, building of

thermal power plants that use of local coal (Dayankuangqu deposit and

coal-fired power plants in the valley of the Yimin River see Figure 26

and "Thirsty Coal" Box e.g.) and others (China Engineering Academy,

2007, Thirsty Coal…2012). All water infrastructure projects are


interrelated and implementation of one of them increases probability of

implementation of other projects to deal with negative consequences.

Simultaneously China is also developing programs for "water-

conserving irrigation”, air cooling systems and circulating water

supply systems in industry, etc. Nevertheless from 2003 to 2015

in four prefectures in eastern Inner Mongolia a 10-fold increase in

industrial water use was planned, mainly through the creation of coal

energy complexes, as well as substantial growth of water consumption

in agriculture and for "environmental" purposes like tree planting in

grasslands and converting lakes into reservoirs (e.g. “environmental

transfer” into the Dalai Lake). The planned increase in the average long-

term water consumption just by the already constructed or approved for

construction reservoirs in the Hailar River basin will be up to 1-1,5 km3

Fig.25. Now dysfunctional Xinkaihe Channel built in the 1960s to bring

water from Dalai Lake to Argun River. Hulunbeier

52

of water per year. In addition, the canal Hailar-Dalai is designed to

transfer more than 1 km3 / year. In total this will take more than 60%

of the average long-term run-off of the Hailar -Argun River.

“THIRSTY COAL”

GREENPEACE WARNING ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF COAL

INDUSTRY EXPANSION (after Thirsty Coal, 2012)

Coal mining is an extremely water-intensive industry, as are coal-

fired power plants and coal chemical industries. Through Greenpeace

East Asia commissioned research report prepared by the Institute

of Geography of Chinese Academy of Science, it is estimated that

in 2015, the water demand of coal power bases in Inner Mongolia,

Shaanxi, Shanxi and Ningxia will either severely challenge or exceed

the respective areas’ total industrial water supply capacity. Thus, the

development of coal-related industries in these areas will take up a

significant amount of water currently allocated to non-industrial uses,

such as farming, drinking water and ecological conservation. Report

findings show high potential for coal industry impacts on transboundary

river basins shared with Russia, Mongolia and Kazakhstan.

Inner Mongolia is a key region for the expansion of the coal-power

bases as outlined in the 12th Five-Year Plan. Presently Hulunbeier

Prefecture alone has 22 lager thermal power plants in operation and

under construction that have a generation capacity of 48960MWt. But

the region faces a harsh reality: while it is blessed with 26% of China’s

coal reserves, it only has 1.6% of the country’s water resources. The


thirsty Coal Report estimates that in 2015, the major coal-power bases

in the region will demand a water volume 139.5% of its industrial water

consumption in 2010. Eastern Inner Mongolia -Mengdong coal-power

base is China’s largest coal-producing area and the fastest growing

region in terms of coal yield is located in Dauria steppe primarily in the

Argun River basin. Its coal output is predicted to reach 520 million tons

by 2015 and 693 million tons by 2020, if it develops as planned.

The Hulunbeier Grassland Supervision Station and the Inner

Mongolia Grassland Survey and Design Institute found that the area

suffering from grassland degradation, desertification and salinization

was 3.982 million hectares at the beginning of this century, increasing

two-fold from the 1980s when the number was 2.097 million hectares.

Greenpeace predicts that by 2015 the annual water demand from Inner

Mongolia’s coal mining industry will reach 2.218 billion m3. Another 606

million m3 of water will be consumed for coal-fired power generation

within the region, and 329 million m3 for its coal chemical industry. That

means a total of 3.153 billion m3 of water demand for all three coal-

related sectors, which is close to the total volume of annual average

water flow in Hailaer-Argun River. The development of coal power bases

has caused a fundamental change to the distribution of the grasslands’

water resources: groundwater is pulled out, and reservoirs are built

to trap surface water. Pumping out groundwater (mine dewatering) is

a prelude to coal extraction. In fact, it is estimated that for every ton

of coal extracted, 2.54 m3 of groundwater is pumped and wasted. In

open-cast coal mining areas in Inner Mongolia, aquifers have dried up

54

and groundwater levels have fallen, leaving the regions’ main water

resources depleted. Further long-term effects of this include degradation

of topsoil into sand, lowered soil fertility grassland degradation and drying

of wetlands, accelerating desertification contributing to sandstorms. It

also seriously impacts crop and animal farming.

The China Huaneng Group has built the Honghuaerji Reservoir

which dams the Yimin River- principal tributary to Hailer-Argun River.

The Yimin River, which provides water for the southeastern part of

the Hulunbeier grassland but is now cut off and dammed by Huaneng,

has tragically dried up - even in flood season. Decreasing surface and

ground water supply will result in degradation of forests and wetlands.

Regional water pollution is also a serious problem. The mining,

transport, processing, and burning of coal produce large amounts

of waste water and industrial waste, which is often directly dumped

into rivers, causing serious surface water pollution. Previous scientific

studies found that in China’s northwest, the mining of every ton of coal

results in contamination of an average of about 7 m3 of water resources.

The Report concludes that strict assessment should be conducted

on the impact of the the coal-power bases on the local water

resources, especilly when carrying out the “Strategic EIA on Regional

Development”. The principle of “development in accordance with

water” should be upheld, which entails limiting the scale of coal-power

bases according to the local situation of water resources. Industry

should adopt water-saving technologies, improve industrial processes,

and conserve and use water more efficiently.


In Mongolia the Argun basin is primarily represented by Kherlen

River, stronghold of Genghis Khan, where sparse population and

cultural tradition of nomads for long ensured protection of water

resources (Fig.27), but development of modern mining industry and

infrastructure may quickly destroy a fragile river ecosystems already

stressed by climate change (Fig. 28). The Mongolian National Water

Program stipulates that measures include, along with sound water-

conservation projects, an excessive amount of planned reservoirs for

“adaptation”, hydropower, irrigation, supply to mining sites, etc.

Fig.26 . New coal mining operation in Moergol River valley, Hulunbeier,

Inner Mongolia

56

Fig.27.Well used by herders.

Dornod. Mongolia

Fig. 28.Gold mining in Mongolia. Photo by UMMRL


Fig.29. Wastewater discharge from Zhalainor town into Mutnaya

watercourse 15 kilometers upstream from Molokanka water sampling

station. Hulunbeier

Fig.30. Nighttime wastewater

discharge into Huihe River at

Modamudji. Hulunbeier

58

In the depopulated Russian part of the Argun River basin

consumption of water is minimal and most concerns arise in relation

to mineral extraction and processing, with a large Priargunsky uranium

mine being of the most concern. Nevertheless Argun is perceived by

Russians as the most polluted river in Amur River basin.

Water quality in the transboundary Argun River deteriorated sharply

after 2000. This is partly connected with the advance of a long-term

dry period (reduced volume of water in the river resulted in increased

concentrations of dissolved pollutants), and partially - with the rapid

development of industry in China (Fig. 29, 30). During approximately

the last ten years there have been continuing discussions of this problem

between the Government of Zabaikalsky Province and Inner Mongolia.

These discussions have not yielded any tangible results, as the Russian

side has no effective tools to influence the Chinese side. In connection

with development plans for water use, industry and irrigation, as well as

with population growth, the situation in the Argun River basin should

be expected to worsen in the near future.

Hailaer-Dalai Water Transfer. Hulunbeier Prefecture (Inner

Mongolia, China) has completed construction of a canal to divert

water from the Hailar River (upper reaches of the Argun River) to

Lake Dalai for "environmental purposes”. The obvious purpose of the

canal construction is to provide water for fish farming, tourist facilities,

municipalities and mining industry. (Fig. 31, 32) The project has passed

the necessary approvals in the Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of

Environmental Protection and other relevant departments in China.

The average long-term run-off of the Argun River in the place


Fig.

31. I

nfra

stru

ctur

e de

velo

pmen

t in

the

Hai

laer

-Dal

ai W

ater

Tra

nsfe

r Pro

ject

are

a .

60

where the Argun-Hailaer River reaches the Russian-Chinese border is

about 3.5 km3 per year, and in the dry period the runoff hardly exceeds

1.5 km3 per year. The projected average long-term water transfer is 1,05

km3 without use of pumping and regulation by reservoirs upstream.

If the flow is regulated by water reservoirs and/ or installed pumping

equipment, water allocation can be increased. At the length of 200-300

km downstream from the planned water intake, the Hailar River is the

only significant source of water for the Argun River.

The water transfer project was suspended in summer 2007, after

Fig.32. Hailaer-Dalai Canal construction. May 2009

expression of concern from the Russian side at the official negotiations

of the heads of two states. The matter was passed for discussion at the

meetings of relevant water authorities, at which the Chinese Ministry

of Water Resources expressed an unambiguous opinion that the canal

construction is a purely internal matter of China, and it is not to be

discussed at bilateral meetings.


The threat to Dalai Lake Ramsar site from mining was even

mentioned in the Resolution X.13 of the COP10 of the Ramsar

Convention in 2008. Construction of the canal diverting water from the

Hailar River may become a new justification for water allocation from

Dalai Lake to many mines and factories around (Fig. 31).

Despite negotiations with Russia and concerns expressed by

international organizations the canal was nevertheless built and started

operating in August 2009 (see Fig.33.34,35). It is expected that by

2012-2015 water diversion through the canal will cut floods feeding the

Argun River floodplain and in general substantially change the volume

of the river runoff.

Fig.33. Hailar-Dalai Canal construction in May 2009. Image by

“Transparent World”

62

Fig.34. Water intake structure at Hailar River. 2011

The following consequences are possible as a result of water

regime alterations in the transboundary part of the Argun River valley

due to upstream reservoirs and canal(Fig. 37,38):

• Regulation of river flow will disturb the existing flood cycle,

leading to drainage of wetlands;

• River meandering will stop, and the natural braided channel

will degrade, leading to degradation of wetland habitats structure;

• Reduction of wetland areas threatens populations of migrating

and nesting birds, including 19 globally threatened species listed in the

International Red List;


Fig.

35. W

ater

star

ted

flow

ing

thro

ugh

Hai

lar-

Dal

ai C

anal

in A

ugus

t 200

9. Im

age

by “

Tran

spar

ent W

orld

”

64

• Migration routes of certain animals will be disrupted in the

entire area of Dauria steppes;

• Flood control will disturb flooding and replenishment of soil

with nutrients in floodplains, and thus will reduce the pastures and

hayfields on which people’s survival depends during droughts;

• Aridization of climate in the Argun River valley will occur, which

will worsen conditions for growing crops and cause desertification;

• Concentrations of pollutants in the waters of the Argun River

will increase;

• There will be worsened water supply conditions for Zabaikalsk

Fig.36. Hulungou watercourse that channels transferred water to Dalai

Lake.2011


Fig.37.Comparison of water levels in conditions of natural

flow in 2004 (1) and such flow reduced by 1 cubic kilometer

water withdrawal (2) in Argun River at Kuti village

(Assessment of impacts.., 2009)

Fig.38. Argun River curve near Genhe River mouth during

flood and in low water. Photo by Daniel Hanisch

66

settlement with the largest customs checkpoint, Priargunsky mining

chemical factory, settlements along the river, etc.;

• The deteriorating conditions will force inhabitants of the

settlements located in the border areas of China and Russia to move to

other places.

Consequences of the water transfer for Dalai Lake in China may

also be negative (Fig. 36):

• Increase of the inflow from the Hailar-Argun River will lead to

concentration of pollution in the lake, posing a threat to public health,

fisheries and tourism;

• Disturbance of the natural cycle of water level fluctuation will

affect diversity and productivity of the lake that has been converted into

human-made reservoir.

These negative consequences may take effect in the course of the

next 2 cycles in Dauria climate fluctuation, and in-depth study is needed

to plan how to minimize damage resulting from this canal and new

planned water infrastructure in Argun River basin. In 2011 the Chinese

side invited a delegation of Russian officials to visit the canal and start

discussion on the consequences of its functioning.

Meanwhile there are other water diversion projects planned in the

region:

• from the Kherlen River (Kerulen, Kelulunhe) to Gobi in

Mongolia to supply the South Gobi mining industry, export-oriented

thermal power plant at Shivee Ovoo and exports of added-value

products (washed coal) from Sainshand. (#17-18 at Fig.24, Fig.39,40)


• from the Khalkh Gol River (Halahahe) to Xilingol coal mining

areas in China to support development of coal-burning thermal power

plants(#11 at Fig.24).

Hydropower Plans. Dauria has very poor and risky conditions

for hydropower development due to highly variable flow with dramatic

climate cycles, remoteness from large industrial consumers and other

limitations. Despite several dozen perspective dam locations suggested

here during the last century not a single hydropower plant has been

built.

Nevertheless, “EuroSibEnergo-En+”, the largest independent

power producer in Russia, and China Yangtze Power Co. (”CYPC”), the

largest Chinese listed hydroelectricity producer, now prepare for joint

investment into power plant construction projects in Eastern Siberia.

The owner of “EuroSibEnergo-En+”, the Russian billionaire Deripaska

claims that China and Russia could jointly develop large hydropower

in Siberia to reduce Chinese dependence on coal. “EuroSibEnergo-

En+” proposed Trans-Sibirskaya Hydro in Zabaikalsky Province, on

the Shilka River – the source of the Amur River with a 450 kilometer

long reservoir, that in length will occupy roughly a half of the Shilka

River proper (Fig. 42). It will fully block the Shilka River watershed,

disrupt important migration corridor between the Amur river and

northern Dauria, exterminate floodplain communities unique for Dauria,

drown 130 important historic sites and 20 settlements(Fig. 41, 43). The

reservoir will be contaminated with rotting wood and toxic substances

from mining complexes upstream, it will exterminate local fish

68

Fig.

39. O

rkho

n-G

obi a

nd K

herl

en-G

obi w

ater

tran

sfer

sche

mes

(afte

r: L

ong

dist

ance

…, 2

007)


Fig.

39. O

rkho

n-G

obi a

nd K

herl

en-G

obi w

ater

tran

sfer

sche

mes

(afte

r: L

ong

dist

ance

…, 2

007)

Fig.40. Gun-Galuut Nature Reserve on the Kherlen River to be destroyed

by Kherlen-Gobi water transfer

Fig.41. Old settlements in Shilka River valley would be drowned by

Transsibirsky Reservoir

70

including giant Kaluga Sturgeon–endemic of the Amur(Fig.14). CYPC

and Three Gorges Co. eye this project in the headwaters of the Amur

as a first step to build dams on the Amur River main transboundary

channel. Over the last 20 years that plan to dam the Amur River main

channel，jointly schemed by Russian and Chinese water agencies in the

1980-s，has been continuously rejected by Russian officials, scientists

and environmentalists. Completely removed from the development

agenda in Russia, but it remains as centerpiece of the long-term

hydropower development Scheme for Northeast China and is supported

by Chinese authorities despite huge environmental and social risks.

Right now “EuroSibEnergo”(En+) is developing a feasibility study to

obtain investment from EXIM Bank of China and other sources.

Already existing hydropower has significant negative impact on

the Amur River Basin and adding a new plant on Shilka River may

significantly worsen the situation in the whole river basin (see Fig.

44). Therefore the Shilka project has been continuously questioned

by regional scientists and environmentalists. In March 2012 a wave

of actions in defense of the Shilka River initiated by WWF and local

NGOs rolled through the cities and towns of the Amur River basin and

it forced the hydropower company to start a dialogue with NGOs. On

World Water Day En + Group and WWF Russia signed an agreement to

hold a joint comprehensive study to assess the impact of hydroelectric

plants on the ecosystem of the Amur River Basin. The purpose of the

study is to produce a balanced account of all the key factors, including

environmental and socio-economic, that should be considered when

deciding on the possible development of the hydro potential of the


Fig.

42. P

lann

ed re

serv

oirs

of T

rans

sibi

rsky

hyd

ropo

wer

cas

cade

on

the

Shilk

a Ri

ver

72

Amur basin and construction of new hydroelectric plants. Such a

comprehensive strategic basin-wide environmental assessment will be

conducted for the first time in the history of hydropower in Russia and

the Soviet Union.

Prior to the completion of studies and discussion of its conclusions

with the public En+ EuroSibEnergo promised to suspend all planning

and negotiations on the Trans-Siberian hydropower project on the Shilka

River. The decision on the future of the Trans-Siberian hydropower

project should be based on the conclusions of a comprehensive

Fig.43. St.Prokopy Church that would be flooded in Gorbitsa Village. Photo

by D.Plukhin


environmental assessment.

If such an assessment was conducted in Dauria river basins

only, it would not make much sense, since much better conditions for

hydropower development exist in adjacent basins to the North (the

Lena River), West (the Yenisey River), East (the Zeya and Bureya

tributaries of the Amur).

Gold Mining. The mining industry is on the rise in Dauria and its

impacts on rivers are very obvious. Among mining activities, extraction

of placer gold has the longest history and widest distribution among

mined minerals and has profound impacts on Dauria’s natural systems.

Placer gold mining transforms the relief, the hydrological regime, the

destroys plant and animal communities (Fig.28,45,46). It is also known

to induce disease and abnormal development in humans and animals.

Besides devastation of a key element of the habitat - stream valleys, the

mining process may bring mercury and other pollution. Fig. 49 presents

findings of a survey carried out in 2011-2012 in the Amur River basin,

which resulted in in the production of an Electronic Atlas of Gold

Mining in the Amur River basin, an assessment of the degree of placer

gold mining impacts on river valley ecosystems, and an assessment of

potential pollution in streams below mining sites. In China placer gold

mining has resulted in degradation of significant parts of wetland and

riverine habitat that requires science-based ecosystem management and

restoration measures, while in Russia and Mongolia it is also causing

on-going destruction in previously pristine river valleys (see Fig47).

In cooperation with a project led by Dr.Guo Yumin of Beijing


Fig.44 . Areas of influence of hydroelectric dams on river basins

76

Fig.46. Kirkun River valley at confluence with the Vereya

River devastated by gold mining

Fig.45. Chinese gold-mining vessel at work


Fig.47. Gold mining consequences on Onon River tributaries

in Russia

Fig.48. Protest by Mongolian environmentalists in Ulaan

Baatar in 2011

78

Forestry University and supported by Whitley Fund for Nature we also

explored gold mining policies in Russia, China and Mongolia. China

issued strong forest conservation policies and has already stopped

a “gold rush” in forested regions but still has to deal with profound

consequences and bears the costs of habitat restoration and developing

alternative livelihood opportunities for local people. Mongolian society

has just realized the tremendous threats to nature and people and in

2009 the government under strong pressure from the expert community

and civil movements adopted the “Law on prohibiting mineral

extraction in forest areas, river headwaters and water protection zones”

and started implementing measures to limit mining in environmentally

valuable areas. Russia is boasting the greatest amount of rivers already

destroyed by mining and is on the verge of starting new mining

operations. Due to the economic crisis there was some slow-down in

expansion of Russian placer mining operations in the 1990s and then

a significant shift to hard-rock ore mining of gold. This is because of

complicated regulations, lack of new accessible deposits, depopulation

of Eastern Russian and the bad attitude of local communities towards

placer-mining operations. But in 2010 the placer mining companies

successfully lobbied to boost development of “micro-deposits” in

small valleys with under 10 kilograms of gold in each, and that had

not interested larger companies in the past. It is presented to the public

as a “social measure” to help local people to make a living in harsh

economic times by killing their environment. In reality it will have

ultimate effects similar to “ninjia mining” in Mongolia where people

are loosing health and culture in the process of devastation of their


Fig.

49.

Gol

d m

inin

g im

pact

s on

riv

ers

of D

auri

a. M

ap d

eriv

ed fr

om th

e El

ectro

nic

Atla

s of

Gol

d M

inin

g in

the

Amur

Riv

er b

asin

80

Fig.

50..

Gol

d m

inin

g in

tran

sbou

ndar

y O

non

Rive

r bas

in


Fig.51.Downstream impacts of gold mining. Polluted Ubyr-Shinia River

confluence with transboundary Ashinga River

own environment. Demonstration of effective conservation limitations

imposed on placer mining in two neighboring countries would help to

introduce similar measures in Russia, where many pristine rivers are

now targeted for accelerated gold prospecting.

Downstream pollution from placer gold mining on Onon River

tributaries Ashinga, Balj and Kirkun in Zabaikalsky Province of Russia

threatens the well-being of local citizens, cattle breeding and fishing

tourism and the integrity of Onon-Balj National Park in Mongolia

(Fig.50,51) . Gold mining on transboundary rivers has already led to

official complaints by Mongolian authorities and civil society to Russian

82

officials in 2010-2011(Fig.48). Several licenses were withdrawn from

“Balja” Mining Company in 2011, but despite that in June 2012 new

pollution reached Mongolia from placer mining on the Kirkun River.

Embankments on the Transboundary River. The relation

between the state border line and natural changes of the riverbed

(erosion and sedimentation processes) is a hot issue in Sino-Russian

negotiations. In the present situation the agreed border follows “the

center of transboundary watercourse” and each party independently

decides the issue of preserving stability of riverbanks on the demarcated

state border, including undertaking artificial bank protection which

Fig.52. Embankment built on the China side of the Mutnaya and the Prorva

watercourses’ confluence


may lead to erosion of the opposite bank, destruction of the natural

floodplain dynamics at this section, loss of natural retention areas in

floodplain reservoirs that reduce the risk of catastrophic floods, loss of

spawning grounds, etc. (Fig.52,53)

This issue is most relevant for the Argun River, where negative

environmental impacts of river bank protection have never been

formally evaluated by governments. Natural riverbed processes

(meandering) are cyclical in time and are limited by floodplain areas

(i.e., they may cause only local and temporary loss of limited areas).

A sound common regime for the protection and use of floodplains and

for demarcation of state border should be elaborated, that preserves the

Fig.53. Erosion of the Argun River Bank in Russia provoked by embankment

of the opposite riverbank. Starotsurukhaitui

84

natural floodplain processes. The coordinated establishment of a system

of protected wetlands on transboundary rivers in the long term may

also help to solve the problem. Resolving this problem has enormous

long-term environmental, economic and political effects, because the

ecological integrity of the river will be maintained, enormous costs to

control riverbed processes will be reduced, the damage to fisheries will

be eliminated, ability to self-purification will be maintained, and damage

from floods to downstream areas will be prevented (not increased).

Obviously, the mutual claims of both parties that regularly arise under

the present regime of border demarcations will be eliminated.

International cooperation on water and climate. Uncoordinated

water resource development aimed at securing water on the individual

national territories would have devastating effects on the transboundary

wetlands. While conflict is possible, the countries have different

comparative advantages and have a lot of reasons to share experience.

There are hopeful developments in each country: China has a strong

National Wetlands Protection Policy and Action Plan that prescribes

water allocation to important wetlands (2003). Russia adopted a new

Water Code prescribing development of “Standards of acceptable

impact” (SAI) for environmental flows, as well as chemical, thermal,

radioactive and microbial pollution (2007), Mongolia adopted a new

law “Law on prohibiting mineral extraction in forest areas, river

headwaters and water protection zones”(2009).

Amongst the many multilateral conventions the Ramsar

Convention is one of the most relevant policy tools in the Amur-Heilong


River basin with 17 wetlands already listed under the convention, five

of them located in Dauria Steppe. The Ramsar Convention Regional

Initiative approach provides a suitable framework for multilateral

cooperation on transboundary water management and transboundary

environmental flows for wetland conservation, but the three countries

are slow to realize it.

All three countries also have bilateral agreements on Use

and Protection of Transboundary Waters, which lack clear mutual

obligations and their implementation so far has not led to appropriate

integration of water management across the borders.

It is necessary to initiate the establishment of a Chinese-Russian-

Fig.54. Sand storm in Argun River Valley near Huliyetu Nature Reserve,

Hulunbeier, Inner Mongolia. Photo by Guo Yumin

86

Mongolian intergovernmental commission on economic and ecological

adaptation of nature resource management policies in Dauria to climate

change with the aim to ensure a favorable environmental and political

situation. The Commission is needed primarily for the development and

implementation of water management regimes, mutual endorsement of

economic projects that might have a significant impact on transboundary

ecosystems, as well as for the joint application of best technologies and

management practices.

One of the most needed international tools is an Agreement on

environmental flow norms for transboundary rivers of Dauria river

basins and provisions for sustaining natural dynamics when planning

water allocation to wetlands.

Fig.55. Argun River Valley near Russian Kuti village across from Inner

Mongolian Hulietu Nature Reserve on the China side. Photo by O.Goroshko


E-FlowDesign of Environmental Flow Requirements

Environmental flows describe the quantity, timing, and quality of

water flows required to sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems

and the human livelihoods and well-being that depend on these

ecosystems (Brisbane Declaration 2007). The goal of environmental

flow management is to restore and maintain the socially-valued benefits

of healthy, resilient freshwater ecosystems through participatory

decision-making informed by sound science. Sound environmental flow

management hedges against potentially serious and irreversible damage

to freshwater ecosystems from climate change impacts by maintaining

and enhancing ecosystem resiliency.

Scientific research is being undertaken by DIPA on the

environmental flow requirements of the transboundary Argun and Ulz

rivers during different phases of the climate cycle. Considerations on

selection of critical components and parameters of environmental flow

in conjunction with Hailar-Dalai water transfer are presented below.

(Table2)

When developing environmental flow norms we should also

consider climate change effects on water temperature and flow

volume, etc. Over the last 50 years the average thickness of ice cover on

Dauria rivers has decreased by 22 centimeters.

To protect and manage wetlands we should consider flow

dynamics interplay with other factors such as wildfires, overgrazing,

88

Critical Components Measurable parameters to be monitored

I For Argun River:

1 Sustaining floodplain habitat for waterbirds and fish, meadow productivity

Timing of floods, flooding frequency, duration of rise and fall Flooded area (wetted perimeter)Density and breeding success of indicator species of birds and fishArea and productivity of meadows (ton/hectare) related to flooding frequency

2 Sustaining geomorphological processes

Reporduction of important stream habitats and meandering processes, braided channels.Frequency and magnitude of flow events necessary to reproduce habitat featuresAdditional condition: limitations on length and location of embankements and other engineering structures

3 Biota survival in low flow periods and changing concentration of pollutants (minimal flow)

Timing, frequency and duration of low flow (and no-flow freezing) periodsCritical low-flow discharge ( still sufficient for survival of biota)Species composition, abundance and productivity of plankton and benthos, dynamics of fish populations, invasion of exotic species

II For Dalai Lake:

1 Sustaining cyclical habitat dynamics

Fluctuation of water level (magnitude, timing, speed, frequency)Habitat succession and acreage and abundance of indicator species

2 Sustaining geochemical dynamics of lake ecosystem

Cyclical change in water chemistry (salinity, PH, etc)Succession and abundance in indicator species, absence of exotic speciesAdditional condition: limitations on pollutant discharge through diversion canal

Table 2. Critical components and parameters of environmental flow


waterfowl hunting and egg collection, thermal power plant impact, and

embankment construction.

Lack of field observations is the greatest impediment to

developing environmental flow norms and therefore DIPA concentrates

on data collection and management. In 2010 DIPA developed a

monitoring system and established 3 field monitoring transects with

more than 100 standard observation plots, which allow to discern

changes in, water surface, and plant communities succession under

climatic fluctuations. Wetland monitoring in both Argun and Ulz River

basins is enhanced by developing combined remote-sensing and field-

transect monitoring methods in transboundary wetlands. This will allow

scientists to measure the effects of climate change and other impacts

on water levels and ecosystem health, and will help improve water

management for human use and economic development.

This research, when completed, may provide the technical

foundation for harmonizing bilateral water management policies

with Mongolia and China. Results will be used to promote the

implementation of the existing Sino-Russian provincial Agreement on

the Conservation of the Argun River Basin and development of bilateral

Agreement on environmental flow norms for transboundary rivers of

Argun basin and provisions for sustaining natural the dynamics of water

allocation to wetlands.

90

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42. Ma Jianzhang, E.Simonov. Northeast Forestry University.

Protected areas network of Argun River Basin and international

efforts to conserve transboundary ecosystems. “Cooperation in

nature conservation between Chita Province and Inner Mongolia

Autonomous Region.” October 29-31.2007. Proceedings. Chita

2007.(in Russian ).

Bibliography 97

43. Ma Jianzhang, Simonov Evgeny, Dahmer T., Darman Yu., Minaeva

T. Perspectives of transboundary conservation management of

the Amur Heilong River Basin. Hpp182-189. in Conference

Proceedings “A long life for Clean Amur” Khabarovsk, 2008. (in

English and Russian)

44. MARCC: Mongolia Assessment Report on Climate Change. UNDP-

UNEP-MONET Ulaanbaatar, 2010; page 62.

45. Minaeva, Markina, Simonov, Titova, Gafarov. Wetlands of the

Amur River basin. Russia-China-Mongolia. WWF Amur Branch ,

September 2008.50 pp .

46. Мining infrastructure investment support project –MINIS. World

Bank Project appraisal document Report #59811-MN, 60 pp. April,

2011. www.minis.mn

47. Mongolia National Development Committee. Techno-enginering

and economical prefeasibility study on Water supply improvement

in Southern gobi area. Prestige engineering. Co. 2011

48. Moscow State University. School of Geography. Research Report:

Comprehensive Assessment of water resources and water

management in Argun River Basin 2011.226pp.(in Russian)

49. NDRC Environmental Protection Department. Developing and

Reforming Energy [2011] No. 2242 Provisional Measures

for the Evaluation of River Hydropower Plans (RHPs)http://

www.transrivers.org/documents/hydropower/new-regulation-

on-evaluation-of-river-hydropower-plans-issued-in-china/ - _

ftn1_2400 and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) http://

www.transrivers.org/documents/hydropower/new-regulation-on-

98

evaluation-of-river-hydropower-plans-issued-in-china/ Последнее

обращение: 30.03.12

50. Obdrlik, P., P. Nieznansky. Oder Border Meanders. WWF. 2003.

60pp.

51. Obyazov V.А. 1994. Connection of fluctuations in water fill

of the Transbaikalia steppe zone lakes with multi-year hydro-

meteorological changes on the example of the Torey lakes. News

of the Russian Geographic Society 126, 48-54.(in Russian)

52. Olson D.M., Dinerstein E. 1998. The Global 200: A representation

approach to conserving the Earth’s most biologically valuable eco-

regions. Conservation Biology 12, 502-

53. Olson David M. The Global 200: priority ecoregions for global

conservation / David M. Olson, Eric Dinershtein // Annals of the

Missouri Botanical Garden. – 2002. – Vol. 89. – №2. – P199-224.

54. OYUNBAATAR Dambaravjaa, Gombo DAVAA, Dashzeveg

BATKHUU, Luvsangombo CHULUUN, Nyamaa KHISHIGJARGAL.

Water Resources and Hydrology and Some Socio-economical

and Environmental Aspects in the Kherlen River Basin. http://

amurokhotsk.com/?page_id=209 и http://amurokhotsk.com/wp-

content/uploads/2011/12/02-Oyunbaatar-web.pdf

55. Peshkov B.I. 1967. Spreading of the raccoon dog in the Chita

region. Protection and reproduction of natural resources. Chita. 1,

78–79.(in Russian)

56. Postel, S., and B. Richter. 2003. Rivers for life: managing water for

people and nature. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.

57. Poff, N. L., J. D. Allan, M. B. Bain, J. R. Karr, K. L. Prestegaard,

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B. D. Richter, R. E. Sparks, and J. C. Stromberg. 1997. The natural

flow regime: a paradigm for river conservation and restoration.

BioScience 47:769-784.

58. Ramsar Wetlands of Dauria.pp102-103 (in English and Russian)

In The Second Assessment of Transboundary Rivers, Lakes

and Groundwaters in the UNECE region.UN.Geneva. 2011.

http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/publications/

assessment/Russian/F_PartIV_Chapter2_Ru.pdf

59. Resolution X.13 of the COP10 of the Ramsar Convention in 2008

http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubs-cop10-resolutions-of-

10th/main/ramsar/1-30-170%5E21247_4000_0__

60. Richter, B. D., and G. A. Thomas. 2007. Restoring environmental

flows by modifying dam operations. Ecology and Society 12(1):

12. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/

art12/

61. Shesternev D.M., Enikeev F.I., Obyazov V.A., Chuprova A.A., 2008.

The Cryolithozone of Transbaikalia in conditions of global climate

changes: the problems and research priorities. Changes of climate

of Central Asia: social-economical and ecological consequences.

Chita, pp. 46-53.\(in Russian)

62. Simonov Eugene, Dahmer Thomas. Amur-Heilong River Basin

Reader. - Hongkong: Ecosystems LTD, 2008. - 450p. http://www.

wwf.ru/resources/publ/book/299. and http://www.amur-heilong.net

63. Eugene Simonov and Bart Wickel (WWF US, DC), Reinventing

a “Climate cycle” in Dauria. (in Russian) In A.Galanin, editor,

Proceedings of the conference “Rythms and Catastrophes I

100

vegetation cover: Desertification in Dauria” Botanical Garden of

FEBRAS Vladivostok 2009. ISBN5-7596-0403-1 (in Russian)

64. Simonov Evgeny, editor. Golden Rivers. Issue I. The Amur River

Basin. International Coalition Rivers without Boundaries, WWF-

Russia Amur Branch,Beijing Forestry University. 120 pp, Apelsin

publishers, Vladivostok, 2012(in Russian)

65. E.Simonov. Hydropower and water resource management in the

Amur River basin- options for the future.pp93-103 (in Russian)

http://www.dauriarivers.org/pdf/2011Amurreview.pdf (2011

version in English) published in a book:Evgeny Simonov, Evgeny

Shvarts and Lada Progunova editors. Environmental Concerns

of Russian-Chinese Transboundary Cooperation: from “Brown”

Plans to a “Green” Strategy. 200 pp. WWF-Russia. Moscow. 2010

(in Russian) 2012 (in English) http://www.wwf.ru/resources/publ/

book/eng/440

66. E.Simonov. E.Egidarev. Analysis of Hydropower Development in

Amur River Basin: some questions of dam location. Proceedings

of Amur 2011 International conference. Khabarovsk. 2011 (in

Russian) http://arguncrisis.ru/documents/dokumenty-2011/ges-gde/

(in Russian)

67. E.Simonov. “International treaties in Amur River Basin and

development of transboundary environmental policies”

.Proceedings of International Symposium on “Russo-Chino-

Japanese cooperation toward the environmental conservation of the

Sea of Okhotsk” November 2009. 9 pages (in English.)

68. Simonov E. . 2006. The role of international conventions,

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agreements and projects in conservation cooperation in

transboundary areas of Amur river Basin. P232-234. In: Natural

Resources of Transbaikalia and research on earth sciences.

Conference proceedings. Chita. ZapSHPU publishers.2006. (in

Russian)

69. E.A.Simonov, S.A.Podolsky, Yu.A.Darman. Water resource

utilization in Amur River Basin and possible environmental

consequences: an early warning. P133-138. In: Problems of

sustainable use of transboundary territories. Proceedings of the

international conference. PIG FEBRAS. Vladivostok 2006.(in

English)

70. Simonov Eugene, Kiriliuk Vadim.. “Design of environmental

flow requirements of Argun River and opportunities for their

introduction into transboundary management” Second workshop

on water and adaptation to climate change in transboundary basins:

challenges progress and lessons learnt, held on 12-13 April 2011

in Geneva. http://www.dauriarivers.org/unece-loooks-into-argun-

river-environmental-flow-requirements/

71. Simonov E. Transfering of water from Hailaer River to Hulun

Lake: Agenda for international negotiations. “Cooperation in

nature conservation between Chita Province and Inner Mongolia

Autonomous Region.” October 29-31.2007. Proceedings. Chita

2007.(in Russian).

72. Simonov Eugene, Zhang Yadong, Oleg Goroshko, Tatiana Tkachuk,

Igor Glushkov, Vadim Kiriliuk. . Transboundary conservation of

wetlands in Dauria and adaptation to climate change. International

102

Congress for Conservation Biology (23rd Annual Meeting of the

Society for Conservation Biology. Beijing, China 11-16 July 2009.

Report at Wetlands Conservation Section.

73. Eugene Simonov, Oleg Goroshko, Tatiana Tkachuk, Igor Glushkov,

Vadim Kiriliuk. Trans-boundary conservation in Dauria and

adaptation to climate change. Biodiversity and Humanity

Cooperation Forum. ECBP Hulunbeier project. Hailaer. June 2009.

(in English)

74. Sukhgerel Dugersuren, Mining in Mongolia and possible

transboundary impacts of water transfers from Orkhon and Herlen

Rivers. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON “EUROPE-ASIA

TRANSBOUNDARY WATER COOPERATION.UNECE Geneva,

Palace of Nations, December 15-16, 2011http://www.unece.

org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2011/wat/Int._Conference/

presentations/Session_5/4_Mongolia_Sukhgerel_Orhon_Herlen-

Gobi_Project_Transboundary_ImpacESt.pdf\

75. Tkachenko Е.E. & Obyazov V.А. 2003. Change of the Torey lakes

level and nesting of colonial near-water birds. Ground vertebrates

of Dauria. Collection of scientific papers of the Daursky State

nature biosphere reserve. Chita. 3, 44-59. (in Russian)

76. Tkachuk T., Kirilyuk O., Simonov E. 2008. Daurian Steppe.

Compendium of Regional Templates on the Status of Temperate

Grasslands Conservation and Protection. Prepared for The World

Temperate Grasslands Conservation Initiative Workshop “Life in

a working Landscape: Towards a Conservation Strategy for the

World’s Temperate Grasslands. Hohhot, China”. Canada, 2008

Bibliography 103

– рр.46http://www.srce.com/files/App_2_Comp_of_Regional_

Grassland_Templates.pdf

77. Tkachuk T.E., Zhukova O.V. 2010. Results of vegetation monitoring

on the stationary transect at Daursky nature reserve. Nature

protection collaboration of Zabaikalsky krai (Russia), Autonomous

Province Inner Mongolia (China) and Eastern Aimak (Mongolia)

in transboundary eco-regions. Chita, pp. 299-302. (in Russian)

78. Tsybikova E, _Simonov E, _Glushkov I. Monitoring of Hailaer

river –Dalai lake Water transfer in transboundary Dauria. “Earth

from Space”. Russian Journal of Remote Sensing. 2009. (in

Russian)

79. The Study on Herlen River Basin Water Supply (Herlen-Gobi)

Project in Mongolia. CTI Engineering Co., Ltd. Mongolia 2007

.http://www.ctie.co.jp/english/service/projects/01/project09.html

80. Tuinhof, A. and Buyanhisnig, N. 2010. Groundwater Assessment

of the Southern Gobi Region. Mongolia Discussion Papers,

East Asia and Pacifc Sustainable Development Department.

Washington, D.C.: World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/

INTEAPREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/GroundwaterAsse

ssmentoftheSouthernGobiRegion(Eng).pdf

81. Udvardy M. A classifications of the biographical provinces of the

world / M.D.F. Udvardy // IUCN Occasional Paper. – 1975. – №

18. – P. 5-47.

82. Vladimirov, A.M. 1990. Hydrological calculations. Leningrad,

“Gidrometeoizdat”, 366 p. (in Russian)

83. Vostokova E.A. 1983. Ecological rows of vegetation of closed

104

depressions in the Mongol Peoples Republic. Ecological-coenotic

and geographical peculiarities of vegetation. Moscow, Nauka

Publisher. p. 40-49. (in Russian)

84. Water Authority and Dutch Gov. Strengthening Integrated Water

Resource Management in Mongolia project (IWRM), 2008-2012

. Nation-wide Groundwater Resource Assessment ( in print, not

made available to us by decision of project manager)

85. Water Authority and Dutch Gov. Strengthening Integrated Water

Resource Management in Mongolia project (IWRM), 2008-2012

Nation-wide Surface Water Resource Assessment ( in final editing,

not made available to us by decision of project manager).

86. “Water” National Program. Ulaanbaatar, approved in May 2011 by

Mongolian Parliament (in Mongolian and English) - 80pp.

87. World Bank. 2006. Mongolia: a Review of Environmental and

Social Impacts in the Mining Sector. Washington, D.C.: World

Bank.

88. Zhao, F., Liu, H., Yin, Y., Hu, G. & Wu, X. 2011. Vegetation

succession prevents dry lake beds from becoming dust sources in

the semi-arid steppe region of China. Earth Surface Processes and

Landforms 36: n/a. doi: 10.1002/esp.2114

107106

CLIMATE

107106

AppendixI.ClimateII. Rivers and LandscapesIII. Dauria ZooIV. LanduseV.Dauria People

109108

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v

Dry salt lake in Dornod, Mongolia by V.KiriliukHummocks in Erguna floodplain by Dan HanischDry Ulz River at Erentzaav in 2007 by V.KiriliukSwaeda invading dry lake bottom by V.KiriliukWet Duroy lake in Argun floodplain by Simonov

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111110

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ii

Halophyte by V.KiriliukDry Duroy lake in Argun floodplain by Simonov

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vi vii

In dry years a bar connects island with shores of Zun Torey LakeA Cormorant and Gull colonies on the island are devastated as soon as it becomes accessible to predatorsHalophyte by Oleg KorsunFirst ice on Onon river in N.Tsasuchei by SimonovThick snow cover makes grazing difficult by Guo YuminFloodplain of Argun river by T.TkachukIn dry years spring fires facilitate encroachment of steppe into forest zone by V.Kiriliuk

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vi | vii |

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Dance on new ice by A.Barashkovai ii iii |

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v vi

vii

viii

ix x

Degraded oxbow bog in Erguna Wetland Reserve by SimonovSand on a road in Huliyetu Erguna valley by SimonovMoving sand blocking road in Hulubuir by SimonovSandstorm by SimonovSoil on floodplain meadow during draught by SimonovSpring in Dornod by SimonovKids of Erguna by Dan HanischFlood on Genhe River by Dan HanischDry wetland by Guo YuminShade is precious on Torey Lakes in dry summers by V.Kiriliuk

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ix | x |

119118

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Hills at the northern shore of Zun-Torey Lake are refugia for many species in dry periods by V.KiriliukElm groves sheltered by rock outcrops - important refugia for many species by E.KokukhinRoe Deer can survive in steppe if water and woody plant shelter is available by E.KokukhinSimonov blown with the wind - thumbleweed is well adaptated to steppe climate by O.Kiriliuk

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121120

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iiWinter flowers by A.Barashkovai ii |

123122

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Pallas cat in winter by A.BarashkovaLocal cattle is adapted to year-round grazing by A.Barashkova

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125124

Rivers and Landscapes

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Ad u n - c h e l o n ro c k s i n Daursky BR by V.KiriliukApr icots in Onon-Bal j National Park by SimonovArgun floodplain across fom Genhe River Mouth in Russia by Simonov

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127126

129128

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Cliffs overlooking Zun Torey Lake in Daursky Biosphere Reserve by V.KiriliukErka Wetland connecting Dalai lake and Argun River by SimonovConfluence of Kirkun and Bukukun rivers in Onon headwaters in Mongolia by SimonovCranes stop-over at Daursky BR by O.Goroshko

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129128

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Head of Xinkaihe Canal at Zhalainor by SimonovHerders camp on Argun River in Russia by SimonovFieldwork in dry year on Barun Torey lake in Daursky BR by V.KiriliukHorseshoe-shaped oxbow lake on Argun River floodplain across from Huliyetu reserve by SimonovHuihe wetland in bloom by Simonov

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133132

iIce on Barun Torey Lake by V.Kiriliuki |

135134

dauria zoo

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137136

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v

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Bean and White-fronted geese by Guo YuminDaurian hedgehog by V.KiriliukCormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) by O.GoroshkoFlying swans by Guo YuminDemoselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) By V.KiriliukGallinago gallinago by O.Goroshko

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Hooded cranes return from the south very early by Guo YuminGazelle migration is often triggerred by snowfall by BarashkovaGazelle injured by border fence by V.KiriliukLenok from Balj River by SimonovGrayling (Thymallus arcticus) by Oleg KorsunGreat Bustard by Guo YuminKaluga Sturgeon by Yu Dunskii

i | ii |

iii | iv | v |

vi | vii |

139138

141140

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iv

v

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Loach(Barbatula toni) by Oleg KorsunMongolian toad(Bufo raddei) by Oleg KorsunMarmota sibirica by V.KiriliukOtter by V.SolkinPallas cat by V.KiriliukMongolian Gazelle by V.Kiriliuk

i | ii |

iii | iv | v |

vi |

141140

143142

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Pallas kittens by V.KiriliukRed fox by EgidarevRat snake (Elaphe dione) by Oleg KorsunRed-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) by O.GoroshkoMigrating geese at Argun river by Guo YuminRacoon dog by V.Solkin

i | ii |

iii | iv | v |

vi |

145144

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v

vi

vii

viii

ix x

xi Ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) by Oleg KorsunSiberian crane by Guo YuminWader by Oleg KorsunWhite-naped crane (Grus vipio) by O.GoroshkoRelic gulls by Guo YuminTree frog (Hyla japonica) by Oleg KorsunTern (Sterna hirundo) by Oleg KorsunWolf by V.SolkinSwans come in early spring by V.KiriliukWhite-tailed Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) by Oleg KorsunSwan goose (Anser cygnoides) hiding in reeds by O.Goroshko

i | ii |

iii | iv | v |

vi | vii | viii |

ix | x |

xi |

145144

147146

landuse

147146

149148

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Construction of Hailaer-Dalai water transfer canal in 2009 from RwB archiveCoal prospecting well at Old Heishantou village at Erguna wetland edge by SimonovDischarge channel and meadow flooded with water from coalmine Chenbaerhu bnner, China from RwB archiveBarbwire-promiinent landscape feature in Argun Valley in Russia by SimonovElm tree shelterbelt in Erka nature reserve wetland China by SimonovE.Simonov at Hailaer-Dalai canal 2011

i | ii |

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iv | v |

vi |

151150

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Good Morning in Heishantou village Erguna China by SimonovGully erosion in Erguna China by Daniel HanischHerder camp in Dornod Mongolia by V.KiriliukEvening on Argun River by SimonovGold miners from Balja company discharge polluted water into Kirkun River floodplain by SimonovGold mining water cannon of Balja Company destroys river valley, Kirkun River, Russia by SimonovHonghuaerji Huaneng coal-energy complex on Yimin River from RwB archiveGold prospecting also destroys river valley, Kirkun River, Russia by Simonov

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iii | iv | v |

vi | vii | viii |

151

153152

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Lamb in fenced pasture of Erguna China by SimonovMoergol fisheries, Hulunbeier China by SimonovHorse breeding in biuffer zone of Daursky BR by V.KiriliukIn Moergol wetlands herders often travel by boat Hulunbeier China by SimonovHorses are used for transportation, sports and food in DauriaKhudzhertai River destroyed by Balja Company miners in 1998 from RwB archive

i | ii |

iii | iv | v |

vi |

153152

155154

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vii viii

ix

Old Heishantou village at Erguna wetland edge by SimonovTractor grazing Argun floodplain in Abagaitui, Russia by SimonovPig herd in Norovlin Henti by SimonovOld boundary fortification on Argun by SimonovSheepyard Erka NR China by SimonovReed of Moergol floodplain transported to paper-making factory - one of main water polluers in Hulunbeier China by Simonov

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iii | iv | v |

vi |

vii |

viii | ix |

Overgrazing in Huihe natue reserve China by SimonovOvergrazed floofplain in Erguna by SimonovTwo coalmines at Moergol valley by Simonov

157156

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v

Vereya River destroyed by Balja Company miners in 2010 from RwB archiveWetland edges are severely affected by grazing in dry years Huihe floodplain Hulunbeier China by SimonovWildfire eats grassland by SimonovWild egg collection at Huliyetu China by Chen LiangWetland is not an ideal pasture Hulunbeier China by Simonov

i | ii |

iii | iv | v |

157156

159158

dauria people

159158

161160

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As gazelle grow in numbers in Daursky and vicinity rangers have to do more and more patrolling by E.KokukhinBowl of Genghis Khan in Aginsky steppe reserve-Russia by SimonovBarbers' shop on Kherlen River floodplain at Togos-Ovoo. Herders do not welcome plan to build reservoir there. Mongolia by SimonovBinder-ovoo at Khurkh -Khuiten Ramsar site in Henty-Mongolia by Simonov

i | ii |

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163162

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Cowboys of Hulunbuir by SimonovCows a base of economy in Heishantou village at Genhe River mouthDaursky Biosphere reserve has brave rangersDr.Goroshko and his workload by V. Kiriliuk

i | ii |

iii | iv |

163

165164

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Dr.Korsun in search of grassland bugs by O.GoroshkoWater delivery by truck to Daursky BR ranger station by SimonovEugene Simonov befriending Daurian herder at Derbugan river, Hulunbeier China by Dan Hanisch

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167166

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Gorbitsa village resident - They threaten us with reservoir on Shilka River each decade by SimonovObservation post at the border on Argun River by SimonovInterview with a herder in Erguna, China by SimonovHerder's holiday at Moergol wetland by SimonovHerding wild cats with radiometry in Daursky BR by A.BarashkovaLocal herder riding through marsh in Erguna China by Dan Hanisch

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ii | iii | iv | v |

vi |

169168

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Local moving by boat through the Moergol wetland by SimonovMudhut construction by SimonovMonument of Mongolian-Russian Friendship at Kherlen river in Choibalsan by SimonovNomadic birdwatch by Simonov

i | ii |

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168

171170

iOvoo at Torey lakes by V.Kiriliuki |

171170

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Summer huts used by Russians for recreation in Argun River floodplain by SimonovHydro-meteorology station at Gorbitsa village on Shilka River by SimonovSwan goose chick by O.GoroshkoUtochi research station at Daursky BR in 2006 before renovation by V.KiriliukRitual on the road Dornod by Simonov

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172

175174

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Watchful ornithologists of DIPA by V.KiriliukOvoo overlooking Kherlen valley at Baganuur-Mongolia by SimonovSacred Alkhanay Mountain in Russia by Simonov

i | ii |

iii |

177176i

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Ranger station at Zun-Torey Lake Daursky BR by V.KiriliukParking lot in Dadal Mongolia by SimonovProtect the Taimen sign in Dadal Soum on Onon river Mongolia by Simonov

i | ii |

iii |

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