Chapter 1

Introduction

Statement of the Problem

The Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI) through which power is decentralized in a

democracy is considered to be an effective machinery of socio-economic

transformation and political participation at the grass-root level. It is supposed to be

a “solid pillar on which a prosperous, dynamic and genuinely democratic rural

social system is attempted to be built by the Government of independent India”

(Desai, 1997, p.533). Towards this end, the 73rd Amendment of the Indian

Constitution, 1992 (received the assent of the President on April 20, 1993 and

published in the Gazette of India, extra, Part II, Section I, dated 20 April, 1993) is a

landmark which has sought to institutionalize democracy at the grass-root level by

making periodic elections mandatory to the local bodies. This could be done by

curtailing the power of the state governments to suspend these institutions for an

indefinite period as it has happened too often in the past. The Act provided for a set

of inter-connected democratic popular institutions at the village, block and district

levels through which representatives of the people can function for development of

their respective areas. Though the Act emphasized on a three-tier system of

panchayat raj, different states and union territories have adopted their own

methodology in forming the PRIs in accordance with their local conditions and

tradition. Panchayati Raj system in Assam is a well-knit three-tiered structure of

Chapter 1 2

Gaon Panchayat at the village level, Anchalik Panchayat at the intermediate (block)

level and Zilla Parishad at the apex (district) level.

Structure of PRIs in Different States/ Union territories

One-tier system Two-tier system Three-tier system

Jammu & Kashmir,

Nagaland

(Traditional council)

Goa,

Manipur,

Sikkim,

Lakshadweep,

Daman & Diu,

Pondicherry,

Dadra & Nagar Haveli,

Meghalaya,

(Traditional councils)

Mizoram,

(Traditional councils)

Andaman & Nicobar,

Andra Pradesh,

Arunachal Pradesh,

Assam,

Bihar,

Chattisgarh,

Chandigarh,

Gujarat,

Haryana,

Himachal Pradesh,

Jharkand,

Karnataka,

Kerala,

Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra,

Orissa,

Punjab,

Rajasthan,

Tamil Nadu,

Tripura,

Uttar Pradesh,

Uttaranchal,

West Bengal.

Source: PRIs in India, 2006, Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Chapter 1 3

Panchayati Raj system offers an institutional innovation for planning from below. It

has sought to give space to the weaker sections and women to participate in the

decision-making process and development at the grass-root level. It has also aimed

at decentralizing power and removing gender imbalance in rural local government

institutions with the objectives of empowering women and ensuring greater

participation of people who are uptill unrepresented in the political process. With

the Seventy-third (Constitution) Amendment Act, 1992 PRIs have become so

constitutionalised that it is no longer considered as agent of state government but as

self government at the local level. The Act (under Article 243-G) unambiguously

defines the panchayat as the “institution of self-government” constituted for the

rural areas. It has not only to implement the decisions of the state government taken

at the state capital but should also provide the forum in which people will take

decisions and execute the same at the local level. In this way, it brings the

government at the door of the governed and hence it is considered as a vital

instrument of realizing the goals of democratic decentralization, popular

participation in decision-making and development at the rural level. However, the

achievement of these goals needs a correct attitude and “creative leadership at the

rural level having linkage with political leadership at the highest level” (Dutta,

1989, p.1) as well as the rural masses.

The historic 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 had not only reinvented the PRI but also

added a new expectation for transparency, responsiveness and accountability to

ensure good governance at the rural level. The structural strength of panchayati raj,

indeed, lies in its ability to provide the right type of leadership which can generate

the fruits of decentralization to the benefit of all. Thus, the successful

implementation of the objectives of Panchayati Raj depends, to a large extent, on

the efficiency and commitment of the leaders and their preparedness to shoulder the

responsibilities as provided by the Article 243-G (Part-IX) of the Constitution of

India. But experiences show that the leaders at the local level often do not perform

their functions efficiently. It is generally observed that irregular elections to the

panchayat bodies, lack of public awareness, corruption and absence of

accountability towards people are the factors that deter the emergence of a

Chapter 1 4

progressive leadership at the grass-root level. But without evolving a sound and

transparent political culture that helps the emergence of an efficient leadership at

the rural level, the goal of democratic decentralization can not be fully realized.

Thus, in the realization of this goal, the role of panchayat leader is significant.

A panchayat leader is one who has won the election at the local level and thereby

occupies a position in one of the three-tiers of the PRI. Thus, winning of the

election is mandatory in case of panchayat leaders also. But the process of election

is not always right to select a right man for the leadership. Instead, it leads to the

emergence of such people on the rural political scenario who win elections to serve

the interests of various political parties. Although it was advocated at one stage that

PRIs should remain free from party politics, yet it did not happen and today it is the

vital instrument through which political parties recruit leaders, mobilize grass-root

support and use developmental funds to promote party interests. As a result, the

people at the helm of affairs choose the aspirants to the electoral offices of the PRIs

adhering to the party interests. However, there are exceptions. People do fight as

independent candidates but “by and large they do so as members of one or the other

political formation” (Vhora, 2004, p.1). This process of politicization of the

panchayat system has added a new dimension to the rural politics and in this

context the study of the patterns of leadership at the panchayat level has become

further relevant.

Theoretical Framework of the Study

After being strengthened and induced with the spirit of popular participation by the

73rd Amendment Act, panchayati raj system has become the soul of democracy in

India. It endeavours to develop a self-sustaining rural administration which can

address all the aspects of rural life. With the aim of decentralization of power it

provides a wider scope for democratic leadership at the rural level to implement the

programmes of development with people’s co-operation. The leaders holding

positions in different tiers of PRI are supposed to play a guiding role in the matter

of formulation and implementation of the programmes of rural development. They

Chapter 1 5

are also expected to initiate the process of involving masses in decision-making.

Thus, the role of leaders at the grass-root level is very significant. The success or

failure of the objectives of panchayati raj depends, to a large extent, on the quality

and capability of the people who form rural leadership. Under such circumstances, a

study on the pattern of leadership becomes important as it can throw light on the

role of leaders in the realization of the goals of panchayati raj in our country. The

present study entitled ‘Patterns of Leadership in the Panchayati Raj Institutions in

Assam: A Study of Hailakandi District’ is thus relevant to understand the patterns of

leadership that prevail in the different tiers of PRI. As the emergence of a

progressive leadership is underway along the traditional leadership, the study is

being made on “patterns” of leadership instead of “pattern”. The study is

undertaken in Hailakandi district as it is the smallest as well as one of the most

backward districts of Assam which has 92.70 per cent and 99.20 per cent of rural

population and territory respectively. As almost whole of the district is under rural

set up life of the people is being influenced, to a great extent, by the working of the

PRIs and the leaders associated with it. Thus, a study to investigate the emerging

patterns of leadership in such a district is expected to throw important light to

understand the role of panchayat leaders in rural development.

Since the present study deals with leadership at the Panchayati Raj Institutions, an

attempt has been made to explain the meaning of ‘Panchayati Raj’ and

‘Leadership’.

The concept of Panchayati Raj: The word ‘panchayat’ occupies a remarkable

position in the history and social system of India. The literal meaning of Panchayat

indicates its formation and function. Panch + Ayat = Panchayat. It is derived from

the Sanskrit word ‘Panchen’ and ‘Ayatanam’. The Sanskrit word ‘Panchen’ means

five members. A body of five persons formed to arbitrate and settle disputes is

called ‘Panchas’. Further, ‘Ayatanam’ denotes the place of functioning of

‘Panchas’. So, in this sense, panchayat means the ‘office of Panchas’. According to

Indian mythology, these five members are of utmost importance and are

representatives of God. Each one of them stands for the five elements that have

Chapter 1 6

constituted the earth. This conception of ‘Panchas’ is believed to have originated

from the Sanskrit word “Panchayatani” which means group of five deities. They are

Ganapati, Vishnu, Sankar, Devi and Surya. Taken together, they constitute the

“Parameshwar”, the great God of Justice (Dey, 1962. p.5). Thus, the wisdom of

‘Panchas’, according to our mythology, is infallible.

However, Panchayati Raj as a system of governance evolved out of the concepts of

decentralization and Gram Swaraj which were popularized in early 20th century

with a view to make rural India self-dependent. It refers to a democratic institution

which aims at the development of the rural society through participation of the

common people. It is a government at the local level to look after the development

of rural India. However, different meanings have been attached to the concept of

panchayati raj to define its nature and scope of activities. It is considered as an

institution of rural local self-government, a mechanism of rural development and

also an agency of state government to undertake specific developmental activities.

Panchayati Raj is also defined as a system for the realization of the goals of the

Community Development Programmes and an idea to realize democracy at the

village level (Maheshwari, 1979. p.11,12). There are three basic rationales which

are considered important behind the creation of Panchayati Raj i.e., to make

Community Development Programme relevant to the needs and problems of the

people, to transfer decision-making authority to the villages and to realize the

values of participatory democracy at the grass-root level (Dubey, 1972. p.254).

Panchayati Raj is also understood as an institution which provides certain basic

amenities to rural life like roads, electricity, drinking water, sanitation, school,

market and so on. From political point of view, Panchayati Raj is an institution to

carry out village welfare and developmental functions. It is also an institution of

democratic decentralization- an autonomous body capable of deciding its own

affairs and implement at the village level (Khan, 1967. p.113). The major stake

holders of the Panchayat system are government officials, rural elite and weaker

sections of the community and each one’s perception of Panchayati Raj differs from

the other. To the rural elite, it is an instrument for the involvement of the rural

masses in functional politics. To the weaker sections, it is a means to fulfill their

Chapter 1 7

necessities (Dasgupta, 1969. p. 37) and to the government officials, it is an agency

of higher units of government to realize democracy at the village level. Panchayati

Raj as a system of government shifts the power of decision making to the hands of

the people and thus initiates the process of democratization at the grass-root level.

As an instrument of rural development and democratization, it also provides the

opportunity for the emergence of an active leadership at the rural level (N.L. Dutta,

1989. p.1).

Thus, it may be said that the Panchayati Raj is an institution of rural development.

It provides opportunity for the emergence of an active and democratic leadership at

the most rudimentary level and brings the decision-making authorities nearer to the

people. It encourages popular participation at the grass-root level of administration.

For the purpose of the present study, Panchayati Raj is understood as an institution

of self-government in rural India. It is an autonomous body to decide and

implement developmental programmes at the local level. Its objective is to help the

process of decentralization, thereby creating space for the emergence of an efficient

and democratic leadership at the grass-root level.

The concept of Leadership: Generally, a leader is understood to be the one who has

the capability of mobilizing and leading people in different circumstances. But in

context of the present study, the leader is understood to be one who has contested

and won elections at the local level of our democratic political set up. But the role

of a leader does not end with mere winning of elections. Instead, his role begins

with the winning of elections as he is supposed to ensure village development with

the participation of the masses. This demands the competence of the leaders.

Leaders at the grass-root are like the agents to fulfill the goals of the 73rd

Amendment Act by giving panchayat a popular and pervasive character. Thus, the

role of leadership under the new PRIs is much more far-reaching and important as

the realization of democracy at the village level, depends to a large extent, on the

capacity and commitment of leadership.

Chapter 1 8

The concept of leadership is defined in various ways. It is understood as the activity

of influencing people towards some common goals in pursuit of general well-being

(Tead, 1935. p.20). Leadership is also defined as “a process of mutual stimulation

which, by the successful interplay of relevant individual differences, controls

human energy in the pursuit of a common cause” (Singh, 1968. p.12). Any person

who is more than ordinarily efficient in carrying psychological stimuli of others and

is thus effective in conditioning collective responses may be called a leader

(Sharma, 1994. p.258). Thus, the leader is a person who can mobilize a number of

people and exert special influence on them.

Depending on various features, leadership is classified into various types. Such

classification identifies leaders as political bosses, the democrats, the bureaucrats,

the diplomats, the reformers, the agitators and the theorists. On the basis of the

mode of exercise of leadership, leaders may also be classified as authoritarian,

democratic and charismatic. On the basis of origin, leadership has been classified as

self-appointed leaders, group-appointed leaders and executive-appointed leaders.

Finally, on the basis of objectives, leadership has been classified as political

leaders, executive leaders and intellectual leaders (Sharma, 1994. p.258)

Besides, leadership is studied with various approaches, such as, the positional

approach, the reputational approach, the functional approach, the situational

approach and the decisional approach. Most studies on community leadership have

used one or a combination of more than one approach to identify leaders.

The positional approach considers those as panchayat leaders who are occupying a

position in one of the three tiers of PRI. This approach has been used extensively

for the study of community leadership in India. It is a simple approach which

focuses on the persons occupying a formal position in the community organization.

Researchers using the positional approach proceed by listing positions and offices

in formal organizations in the community to identify community leaders (Dutta,

1989. p.5). It considers those persons as leaders who hold some specific position in

Chapter 1 9

an organization or institution. Therefore, persons who possess institutional position

may be considered as leaders (Sharma, 1994. p.256).

The reputational approach considers reputation or popularity as a determining factor

for leadership. It considers those persons as leaders who are most popular in the

community and can exercise influence over its members. In reputational approach,

the members of a community are asked to name people, whom they think to be

influential and powerful in their respective society. The great advantages of this

approach are ‘transportability’ which means to have a powerful, agreeable, and

often overwhelming emotional effect on someone and his mode of operation as it

simply takes into account the reputation of the leader in the society. Under this

approach the respondents have to be asked to name the leader whom they like most

(Harson, 1961. p.817). However, this approach is not free from criticism. Robert A.

Dahl criticizes reputational approach for its limitation to measure leadership instead

of reputation.

Functional approach to study community leadership identifies community leaders

on the basis of their role and function in the community affairs. It explains

leadership in terms of the functions which they perform for the community. Hence,

those persons who possess the ability to do something for the community under

different circumstances may be called a leader. Leader, therefore, emerges as a

consequence of the needs of a group and of the conditions under which the group is

to function for its existence (Sharma, 1994. p.255-256). Situational approach, on the

other hand, recognizes leadership as a situation specific phenomenon. Leadership

evolves out of a particular situation only. Different situations demand different

leadership and the variables which are required to produce leaders are determined

by the particular situation. Another approach which helps to determine leadership is

decisional approach. It considers those persons as leaders who make key decisions

on community issues. It involves the action of leaders in decision-making on

specific issues or events. The major advantage of this approach is that it enables the

researcher to measure power directly from the concrete observable behaviour of the

participants in community actions.

Chapter 1 10

An overview of the concept of leadership yields the following formulations:

• Leader is one who is holding a position in a community organization and

takes key decisions on community issues.

• He can strengthen local self-government, promote development through the

implementation of various programmes, encourage mass participation in the

development process and promote justice and equality by spreading the

benefits of development to all the sections of the society.

• He is a popular figure in his community and exerts considerable influence

on it.

• He is one who makes decisions on specific issues of rural concern.

For the purpose of the present study, leader is taken as an individual who has won

the election and is occupying a position in one of the three tiers of the Panchayati

Raj Institution. Thus, it may be said that largely the positional approach to the study

of leadership is adopted in the present context.

Review of Relevant Literature

Since the present study deals with democratic leadership at the grass-root level,

studies available on panchayati raj system and more particularly on patterns of rural

leadership have been reviewed.

“Democratic Decentralization and Grass-root Leadership in India” (Subhabrata

Dutta 2009) is an empirical study of grass-root leadership in Birbhum district of

West Bengal. It studies the socio-economic condition and educational attainment of

the panchayat leaders, their social support base, their participation and activities in

the political process. It also examines the perception and knowledge of the

panchayat leaders and their value orientation. So far as the socio-economic

condition and educational attainment of the panchayat leaders are concerned; the

study reveals that majority of the panchayat leaders belong to the age group 30-40

years and are mostly from the general caste. Regarding the factors that determine

Chapter 1 11

the emergence of the panchayat leaders, it is found that political parties play a

significant role. Most of the leaders in the study were found to be motivated to

contest election due to party affiliation. The role of caste and religion are found to

be insignificant in the process of shaping of leadership. Gram Sabha was found to

be a very active body. The leaders take initiatives to involve people in the

functioning of the Gram Sabha. Both leaders and people play an active role in the

Gram Sabha meetings. Regarding political participation and knowledge of the

leaders, it is found that almost all (95.80 per cent) are affiliated to the political

parties. Majority (56.70 per cent) of the leaders were found to have been people

with moderate political knowledge, although male leaders were found ahead of their

female counterparts in political awareness.

“Tribals and Panchayats of Central India” (R.D. Maurya 2009) is an empirical

study of the functioning of the new Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in tribal

dominated Bastar and Jhabua districts of united Madhya Pradesh. Different

dimensions of relationship between traditional tribal panchayats and the new PRIs

and the emerging pattern of leadership is studied and the areas of cooperation and

conflict between traditional and new panchayati raj leadership is being discussed.

The issue of women participation at the local level (in the new PRIs) and its impact

on their socio-economic development is also being focused upon. The findings of

the study show that the developmental infrastructure in tribal dominated districts of

Bastar and Jhabua is very poor and the common tribals are still living without even

two square meal a day. So far as the emerging pattern of leadership is concerned;

the study reveals a clear cut demarcation between non-tribal and tribal leaders in

terms of education, income and level of awareness. In the context of traditional

panchayats and their operational linkages with new PRIs, it was found that

traditional panchayats are still functional for tribal community in the districts of

Bastar and Jhabua. Thus, although officially the traditional panchayats have got

replaced by the new PRIs following the seventy-third Amendment Act, yet they still

continue to have remarkable influence over the tribal people of the areas. Thus, the

new PRIs were welcomed by the people for economic and other all-round

development of these otherwise backward tribal districts, yet they did not totally

Chapter 1 12

disown the traditional panchayat and still share their loyalty to it. This dichotomy

hinders the pace of functioning of PRIs.

“Panchayati Raj System and Development Planning” (Hariprasad Chhetri 2008)

studied the structure and functioning of Panchayati Raj in Sikkim with special

reference to empowerment of women, devolution of powers, participation of

weaker sections of people in the process of development, resource mobilization, the

extent of autonomy enjoyed by the Gram Panchayats and the role of bureaucracy.

Regarding the determinants of changing pattern of leadership, it identified age, sex,

caste and ethnicity, education, occupation and political affiliation as factors

influencing leadership pattern at the rural level. It is, however, pointed out that

majority of elected leaders belong to lower income group i.e. up to Rs. 1000/- p.m.

and almost all are affiliated to political parties. It also highlighted an exemplary role

performed by panchayat leaders in Sikkim in social welfare, rural infrastructure

development, creation of employment avenues and improving the overall conditions

of the rural people.

“Grassroot Politics and Panchayati Raj” (Shakuntala Sharma 1994) is an

empirical study of Panchayati Raj in Himachal Pradesh. It traces the genesis and

growth of panchayats from ancient time to the present day and discusses various

aspects of panchayat institution including the pattern of leadership and voting

behaviour. Regarding the socio-economic determinants of leadership, it is found

that younger, active and educated persons having upper caste identity are coming to

power in larger number in rural politics. This signifies the emergence of a

progressive leadership but one factor that is delaying the change is the aggressive

involvement of political parties in rural politics. Local leaders are still to serve as

vote banks to Assembly and Parliament elections.

“The New Political Leadership: From Panchayat to Parliament” (Gautam Vohra

2004) is a study carried out in Raigad district of Maharashtra. The study reveals the

differences that exist in emerging trend of leadership of Adivasi and Marathas. It is

found that the average landholding of the Adivasi leaders (1.70 acres) is much

Chapter 1 13

lower than the Maratha leaders (3.25 acres). There also exists disparity between the

two groups of leadership in terms of education. Local leaders from the Maratha

community are generally found to be more educated than their Adivasi

counterparts. While all Maratha Gram Panchayat leaders are found to be literate,

only 30.00 per cent of the Adivasi leaders are found to be literate. It is also found

that in the three-tier system of Panchayati Raj Institutions, the leaders of the Zilla

Parishad and Anchalik Panchayat are economically and educationally more well off

than their counterparts in Gram Panchayat. The average landholding of the Zilla

Parishad and Anchalik Panchayat leaders is 13.50 acres, while the average

landholding of the Gram Panchayat leaders is 2.20 acres. However, at the Gram

Panchayat level, the landholding of the Maratha leaders is higher than their Adivasi

counterparts. As regards women members in Maratha leadership, it is observed that

they belong to upper economic class and are supported by influential male members

of their family.

“Village Panchayats in India” (N.L. Dutta 1989) is based on an empirical study of

Panchayati leadership in Assam. It unfolds the leadership pattern in the village

Panchayats and their role in the process of politicization, modernization and

decision making at the grass-root level. Regarding the leadership pattern in the

village Panchayats, it is found that the traditional determinants of Panchayati

leadership, i.e. caste, religion, land holdings, income, occupation, sex, social status

and family status are on decline and are being replaced by competitive factors like

education, political affiliation and involvement with community organizations.

“Panchayati Raj System in India” (S. Dharmaraj 2008) analyses the origin, growth

and latest developments in the field of Panchayati Raj. It is based on a study

conducted in two major states, namely, West Bengal and Bihar to gather perception

about PRIs in the fields of rural development. The study identifies that the political

parties and the PRIs act as agents of political socialization to raise the level of

awareness about our democratic political process.

Chapter 1 14

“Panchayati Raj in Kangra District” (S. Bhatnagar 1974) deals with a case study

of Panchayati Raj in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh. It focuses mainly on

social background of the panchayat leaders, their attitude towards their role and

their understanding of the developmental problems. So far as the nature of

leadership is concerned; the study reveals that 62.50 per cent of the leadership at

Gaon Panchayats and Panchayat Samities is in the hands of the privileged section of

the society, while only 37.50 per cent leadership is at the hands of marginalized

section of the society.

“Leadership in Rural India: An Analysis of Some Trends”, (K.D. Gangrade 1974)

studies the socio-economic basis of the emerging leadership at the Panchayat level.

It identifies two types of leaders at the village level i.e. formal and informal. Formal

leaders are those who are elected to the panchayat bodies and are occupying a

position in it, while informal leaders are those who by virtue of their power and

resource enjoy a special position in the PRIs without being members. It is also

found that the formal leaders are mostly from the landless agriculturists and are

younger and educated having an upper caste identity, while the informal leaders are

generally older people belonging to the owner cultivators group and exert influence

over elected members.

“Patterns of Emerging Leadership in Rural India” (S.N. Mishra 1977) is a study

of Daruli Gaon Panchayat of Bihar. It deals with the process which is shaping the

emergence of the panchayat leaders and their attitude towards their role. The

emergence of leadership is determined by various factors and the attitude is formed

corresponding to the variety of factors. Philanthropic image, championship of

majority or minority as the case may be, past record of good work, personal

familiarity, influential family background, caste identity, money and muscle power

are generally the factors that shape the leadership pattern at the Panchayat level.

Although it is the interplay of various factors that determine the leadership pattern

at the local level, yet the influence of caste and financial strength are found to be of

utmost importance.

Chapter 1 15

“Grass-root Politics in Assam” (Amalendu Nag 2008) examines in detail the

conceptual framework, growth and development of urban local self government in

Assam and particularly in Hailakandi district. Regarding the leadership pattern of

the urban local self government bodies, it is found that there is an emerging trend of

younger leaders with better educational attainment at the local level and almost all

are affiliated to the political parties.

“Village Politics” (K. Ranga Rao 1980) is an empirical study of village politics in

Talengana. It deals with the socio-economic structure of the rural society, social

base of the rural leaders and their role in the development of the village community.

The study brings to light the dynamics underlying political power and conflict at

grass-root politics, how does caste play a determining role in it. According to the

study, Panchayati Raj System suffers from both localized and diluted caste conflict

and exacerbated factionalism.

“Emerging Leadership Pattern in Rural India: An Empirical Study” (G.D. Bhatt

2006) is a case study of Pithoragarh district in Uttar Pradesh. It examines the

emerging pattern of leadership in rural India and their level awareness and

knowledge relating to various aspects of Indian democracy and government. It also

considered the general views of the members of Panchayati Raj on various socio-

economic values, such as women empowerment, Scheduled Castes and child

marriage. It is found that the importance of caste factor in obtaining a place in

Panchayati Raj is decreasing, while education, membership of a political party, and

economic status are gaining ground to influence the leadership pattern at the local

level.

“Local Government in India: Policy and Practice” (Rashmi Sharma 2009) studies

the development of panchayati raj system in India and examines the functioning of

Panchayati Raj Institutions in Kerala on the basis of a detailed field survey

undertaken in 2003-04. Data reveal that the Gram Panchayat in Kerala is an

institution with greater responsiveness and accountability than the macro level

governmental institutions, while it is poor in terms of its technical and

Chapter 1 16

administrative capabilities. Role of Gram Sabha and people’s participation in it is

not up to the level of expectation. But this does not mean that the Gram Panchayat

is cut-off from people, rather people’s influence is mediated through pressure

exerted upon elected representatives instead of direct participation. Regarding the

socio-economic background of the leaders, it is found that the panchayat leaders

tend to be ordinary people, rather than elites. Representation of Schedule Castes,

Schedule Tribes and women have been ensured through reservation and across the

sample Gram Panchayats, 37.30 per cent of panchayat leaders were women and

2.50 per cent of the leaders belonged to SC and ST categories. It is interesting to

note that where there is no reservation, there is not even marginal representation of

SCs, STs or women. The example of Standing Committees of the Panchayat may be

cited in this regard. As the policy of reservation does not apply in the Standing

Committees, the SC/ ST or female representation is hardly found in the Standing

Committees. If at all a member from SC/ ST or women category is being made a

chairperson, generally he/she is being assigned to head a less important Committee

like Development and Welfare Committee instead of Finance Committee. In this

study, it is also observed that in Kerala, the monthly income of the panchayat

leaders generally do not exceed the limit of Rs. 10000/-. Most of them are found to

be people without car or motor bikes. About 50.00 per cent of the panchayat leaders

in the state come from the category of daily wage-earners.

Apart from books, some articles are also reviewed below;

“Panchayati Raj in India: Under Threats” (M.R. Biju 2003) deals with the

concept and meaning of decentralization in Indian context and discusses the impact

of 73rd Constitution Amendment Act on India’s grass-root democracy. The

evaluation of the working of the PRIs since 1993 reveals that several state

governments have not given any serious attention to conduct election to panchayat

bodies regularly, civil servants are indirectly given powers over PRIs. Similarly,

administrative and technical personnel of the PRIs in several states are still working

under departmental heads and the PRIs have absolutely no control over them.

Moreover, majority of the Ministers, MLAs have strong feeling that the power they

Chapter 1 17

enjoyed so far will diminish if PRIs become really powerful. Further, low literacy

rate and lack of political consciousness are found as challenges to the PRIs.

“Panchayati Raj Under Seige: An Analysis of Orissa’s Experiment with Rural

Local Government” (Avinash Samal and B.S. Bahargava 1999) highlights the

difficulties on the way of the functioning of Panchayati Raj institutions and the

attitude of the state government towards these bodies. Data reveal that that the

political bosses at the state capital have always been eager to capture power in these

local government bodies and hence they do not take any interest in conducting

regular election. It also shows an unprecedented kind of unity among the major

political parties in postponing the panchayat elections in the state.

“Democracy and Development at the Local Level” (B. Mohanan 2003) discusses

the nature and dynamics of Gram Sabhas in Kerala. The study focuses that the

people’s participation rates in Gram Sabha does not correspond to Kerala’s high

literacy rates and higher level of political participation that is registered at the upper

level. The non-involvement of mass organizations affiliated to CPI(M) in local

politics and also the apathy of leading NGOs to involve people in the political

process at the grass-root level are considered to be the causes of low participation in

Gram Sabhas.

“Leadership Pattern in Rural Maharashtra” (V.M. Sirsikar 1974) reveals that in

the name of decentralization there is a perceptible trend of centralization of social,

economic and political power. Decentralization of power has not reached to the

weaker sections of the society rather it is exercised and enjoyed by the leaders

belonging to privileged classes of the society. There is still the constraint on the

way of management of Panchayati Raj Institutions like absence of clear functional

jurisdiction, little flexibility, lack of technical assistance, supervision and so on. All

these together did not allow decentralization to become a success.

Chapter 1 18

“Status of Panchayati Raj Institutions in the Scheduled Area of Orissa: An

Empirical Study” (N. K. Behura and N. Panigrahi 2004) describes the importance

of traditional tribal polity and explains the growth of modern Panchayati Raj

institutions in the scheduled areas of the State of Orissa. In comparison to non-tribal

localities, the development of modern PRIs is slow in tribal areas. This is because

the tribal societies are still very backward in many respects in comparison to the

non-tribal societies and are governed by traditional practices. They are in a sense

caught between the politics of their traditional and closed society and modern

Panchayati Raj institutions.

From the above study, it appears that different factors influence the pattern of

leadership at the panchayat level. Some studies emphasize that factors like caste,

class, sex and religion are on decline and are being replaced by the competitive

ones like educational attainment, charisma, political linkage, social status,

organizing ability and so on. Others opine that the traditional factors still continue

to be the significant determinants of leadership at the rural level. Again some

studies regard panchayat leadership as nothing but vote banks to the Assembly and

Parliament elections. In this backdrop, the study of the emerging patterns of

leadership in PRIs of Hailakandi district may be an interesting one to understand

the dynamics influencing the formation of leadership in rural India. It is further

important as no such study has so far been conducted in this part of Assam.

Objectives of the Study

• To study the socio-economic and political determinants for the

emergence of leadership in the Panchayati Raj Institutions.

• To study the level of awareness of the panchayat leaders.

• To study the opinion of the electorates about panchayat leaders.

• To investigate the voting behaviour and its impact on the election of

the leaders.

• To study the growing trend of participation in panchayat elections.

Chapter 1 19

Research Questions

The following questions that have emerged out of the earlier discussion have been

addressed in the present study:

• Is there any role of socio-economic factor like caste, religion, sex, income

and family status in the emerging pattern of leadership in Panchayati Raj

Institutions?

• Are panchayat leaders aware of the objectives of Panchayati Raj system and

their responsibilities towards it?

• What are the factors that influence people’s participation in panchayat

elections?

• Do they face any obstacle in the way of participation?

• Do people share good opinion about panchayat leaders?

• Is the increasing emergence of women in panchayat leadership active and

spontaneous or a mere outcome of reservation?

• Has the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 encouraged participation in panchayat

election?

Methodology of the Study

a) Sampling

The present study is an intensive survey of the three-tier system of Panchayati Raj

Institutions of Hailakandi district of Assam which is composed of a Zilla Parishad,

five Anchalik Panchayats and sixty-two Gaon Panchayats. The study was confined

to the Zilla Parishad of Hailakandi district, three Anchalik Panchayats selected

through purposive sampling on the basis of the diversity in terms of population,

territory, number of Gaon Panchayats covered and distance from the district

headquarter. Besides, nine Gaon Panchayats, three from each Anchalik Panchayat,

have also been selected on the basis of simple random sampling.

Chapter 1 20

b) Location of the Sample

cc)) SSaammpplliinngg DDeessiiggnn

HailakandiZilla Parishad

Soidbond (GaonPanchayat)

Nizvernerpur-Sarbanandapur(Gaon Panchayat)

Manipur-Niskar(Gaon Panchayat)

Algapur (AnchalikPanchayat)

South Hailakandi(Anchalik Panchayat)

Lala (AnchalikPanchayat)

North Narinpur(Gaon Panchayat)

Nischantapur (GaonPanchayat)

Gharmurda-Bhagcherra (Gaon

Panchayat)

Karicherra-Dharirghat (Gaon

Panchayat)

Koiya-Ramchandi(Gaon Panchayat)

Kalinagar (GaonPanchayat)

HailakandiDistrict

Chapter 1 21

All the elected representatives of the Gaon Panchayats, Anchalik Panchayats and

Zilla Parishad constituted the sample. Furthermore, thirty Gram Sabha members

from each Gaon Panchayat have also been selected through stratified random

sampling (stratification on the basis of gender) to study the socio-economic profile,

political participation and voting behaviour of the electorates. The sampling has

been made from the Electoral List. For the purpose of selection of respondents from

the huge number of Gram Sabha members, a separate list of male and female was

prepared and every tenth person has been chosen as a respondent.

As the Zilla Parishad of Hailakandi consists of 11 members including its

Chairperson, all of them were taken as respondents and were interviewed with the

help of an interview schedule.

Table: 1.01: Members Interviewed at the Zilla Parishad Level

Hailakandi Zilla Parishad

Total no. of members(including Chairperson)

11

No. interviewed 11

Among the sample Anchalik Panchayats, there has been 13, 18 and 09 members

(including Chairperson) at the Algapur, Lala and South Hailakandi Anchalik

Panchayats respectively and all of them were interviewed with the help of an

interview schedule.

Table: 1.02: Members Interviewed at the Anchalik Panchayat Level

Algapur Lala SouthHailakandi

Total

Total no. of Members(including Chairperson)

13 18 09 40

No. interviewed 13 18 09 40

As there is uniformity in terms of number of members of the Gaon Panchayats,

(each consists of a president and 10 other members elected directly by the people),

Chapter 1 22

for the purpose of the present study all the leaders of the nine sample Gaon

Panchayats were taken as respondents and were interviewed with the help of an

interview schedule.

Table: 1.03: Members Interviewed at the Gaon Panchayat Level

AnchalikPanchayats

GaonPanchayats

Total no ofelectedLeaders(includingPresident)

No.interviewed

No. of Votersinterviewed

Male Female

AlgapurNorth Narainpur 11 11 15 15

Kalinagar 11 11 15 15

Soidbond 11 11 15 15

LalaNishchintapur 11 11 15 15

Nizvernerpur-Sarbanandapur

11 11 15 15

Koiya- Ramchandi 11 11 15 15

SouthHailakandi

Manipur-Niskar 11 11 15 15

Karicherra-Dhariarghat

11 11 15 15

Gharmurda-Bhagcherra

11 11 15 15

Total 09 99 99 135 135

Besides, 30 electorates (15 male and 15 female Gram Sabha members) from each

Gaon Panchayat were also interviewed with the help of a separate interview

schedule.

Techniques of Data Collection

Data for the present study have been collected both from primary and secondary

sources. For the purpose of primary data collection, two interview schedules were

used. Schedule-(I) was used to collect data relating to the socio-economic

background, political affiliation and political awareness of the elected leaders and

Schedule-(II) was used to collect some similar type of information about the

Chapter 1 23

electorates (Gram Sabha members) like their socio-economic background, their

participation and voting behaviour in panchayat elections and their opinion about

panchayat leaders. Other important data have been collected from the Election

Office, Zilla Parishad Office, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Guwahati,

District Economics and Statistical Branch, Hailakandi and the Block Development

Offices. Besides, books, journals, periodicals and internet have also been consulted

for the purpose of gathering secondary data.

Chapterization

For an elaborate presentation of the findings, the thesis has been divided into six

chapters:

Chapter – 1 Introduction

This chapter provides a detailed outline of the research plan

under the following heads:

• The Statement of Problem

• Theoretical Framework of the Study

• Review of Relevant Literature

• Objectives of the Study

• Research Questions

• Methodology of the Study

• Chapterization

• Profile of the Sample area which is discussed at the last of

the chapter.

Chapter – 2 OOrriiggiinn aanndd EEvvoolluuttiioonn ooff PPaanncchhaayyaattss iinn IInnddiiaa wwiitthh SSppeecciiaall

RReeffeerreennccee ttoo AAssssaamm

This chapter is divided in to three sections which deal with:

• Panchayat Institutions of Ancient and Medieval Periods

• The Evolution of Panchayats during the British Period

• Post-Independence Developments in Panchayat Institutions

Chapter 1 24

Chapter – 3 Socio-Economic Profile of the Electorates, their Voting

Behaviour and its Impact on Emergence of Leadership

This chapter is divided into three sections. Section I deals

with the socio-economic profile of the rural electorates,

section II deals with their voting behaviour and the

hindrances they have to face in the way of casting vote in

panchayat elections and section III is an analysis of the

opinion of the electorates about the leaders of PRI.

Chapter – 4 Socio-Economic Determinants and Pattern of Leadership

in Panchayati Raj Institutions

This chapter is divided into three sections. Section I deals

with the socio-economic profile of the leaders of the three-

tiers of the PRI. This section throws important light on the

patterns of leadership that are emerging at the rural level of

our democracy. Section II deals with the issue of the

representation of women in panchayat bodies and section III

is an analysis of the level of awareness and aptitude of the

leaders of the PRIs.

Chapter – 5 Political Participation and Leadership: Changing Trend

This chapter deals with the changing trend of participation of

people in panchayat elections on the basis of a comparative

analysis of data of three panchayat elections of 1992, 2002

and 2008.

Chapter – 6 FFiinnddiinnggss aanndd CCoonncclluussiioonnss

This chapter summarizes the findings of the study. Besides,

the limitations of the study and scope of further research are

discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 1 25

Profile of the Sample Area

Hailakandi district which constitutes the universe of the present study is one of the

smallest districts in Assam. It is situated in the southernmost corner of Assam

surrounded by river Barak in the North, Cachar in the East, Mizoram in the South

and East and Karimganj in the West. Hailakandi was one of the oldest subdivisions

in the state of Assam. It was constituted as a civil subdivision on 1st June 1869.

Subsequently, it was upgraded to a district and declared as the 24th district of

Assam in 1989 by a Government of Assam Notification No. AAA.98/89/Pt/I, dated

29/09/1989. The district Headquarter is at Hailakandi town which is located 341

k.m. away from the state capital of Guwahati. The inter-state border of the district

stretches over 76 k.m. in the south-east.

Several myths are associated with the name ‘Hailakandi’. According to historical

records, Kukies were the first inhabitants of this area. After some time Bodo-

Kacharis (Dimasas) entered and settled down in different places in the north of the

district. Some historians believe that the word ‘Hailakandi’ has been derived from

both Kuki and Bodo-Kachari language. The Kuki word “Halam” which means a

small state and “Kundia”, a Bodo-Kacahari word which means a plot of land for

temporary ploughing was later combined and came to be known as Hailakandi.

Another view is that in Barak Valley dyke is constructed for preserving water in

paddy land. This dyke is colloquially pronounced as ‘Ail’ or ‘Hail’. ‘Hail’ later

combining with Bodo-Kachari ‘Kundia’ came to be known as Hailakandi’.

Population

As per census of India, 2011 the district has a total population of 659260

comprising 338766 (51.39 per cent) males and 320494 (48.61 per cent) females.

Out of its total population, 611087 (92.70 per cent) reside in rural areas, while only

48173 (7.30 per cent) reside in urban settlements.

Chapter 1 26

Table: 1.04: Population-wise Distributions in the District

Total Male Female

Population 659260 (100%) 338766 (51.39%) 320494 (48.61%)

Rural 611087 (92.70%) 370701 (56.23%) 288559 (43.77%)

Urban 48173 (7.30%) 24376 (50.60%) 23797 (49.40%)

Source: Census Report 2011

The composition of population by gender is not uniform in rural and urban

settlements of the district. The rural population of the district is composed of 56.23

per cent of male and 43.77 per cent of female, while the urban population is divided

into male and female at the rate of 50.60 per cent and 49.40 per cent respectively.

Geographical distribution of population belonging to rural and urban areas of the

district is highly disproportionate. 92.70 per cent of the total population belong to

rural area, while only 7.30 per cent belong to urban area.

Literacy rate

The literacy rate of the district is 75.26 per cent which is comparatively a little bit

better than the state average of 73.18 per cent. However, the literacy rate in the

district in terms of rural and urban population and male and female is not uniform.

Rural literacy rate is 57.05 per cent, while urban literacy rate is 94.67 per cent.

Similarly, male literacy rate is 81.61 per cent and female literacy rate is 50.46 per

cent.

Table: 1.05: Literacy Rate wise Distributions in the District

Literacy Rate Assam Hailakandi

Total Literacy Rate 73.18 per cent 75.26 per cent

Rural Literacy Rate 59.73 per cent 57.05 per cent

Urban Literacy Rate 91.35 per cent 94.67 per cent

Male Literacy Rate 78.81 per cent 81.61 per cent

Female Literacy Rate 67.27 per cent 50.46 per cent

Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2011.

Chapter 1 27

Territory

Geographically the district has an area of 1327 square k.m. which constitutes only

1.69 per cent of the total state territory. Out of its total territory of 1327 square k.m.,

1316.47 (99.95 per cent) is rural territory, while only 10.53 square km. (0.05 per

cent) is under urban settlement.

Table: 1.06: Land Distribution in the District (in square k.m.)

Assam Hailakandi

Total Land 78438 1327 (1.69 per cent)

Rural 77476.23 1316.47 (1.67 per cent)

Urban 961.77 10.53 (0.02 per cent)

Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2010.

The density of population in the district is 497 per square k.m. against the state

average of 397 per square k.m.

Linguistic Composition

The district has a heterogeneous ethno-linguistic composition. Other than Bengalee,

it is the home of a large number of different communities like Meitei, Bishnupriya,

Kuki, Reang, Chakma, indigenous Muslims and immigrant population. Majority of

the population of the district speaks Bengali, which is the official language of the

District. Besides, Hindi (Bhujpuri) and Manipuri are also two important languages

of the district spoken by a large minority.

Table: 1.07: Linguistic Distributions in the District

Language Bengali Assamese Manipuri Hindi Bodo Telegu Others

Population 452968 1463 10742 53275 128 692 300

Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2010.

Chapter 1 28

Religion

The population of the district is almost entirely divided into two major religions viz.

Hinduism and Islam. Besides, people of other religious faith viz. Christianity,

Jainism and Buddhism have also been living in the district for a long time. As per

Census of India, 2001 the total population of Hindus were 223191 and Muslims

were 312849 in the district. Besides, Christians were 5424, Buddhists were 589,

Jains were 82 and Shikhs were only 9 in the district.

Table: 1.08: Religion-wise Distributions in the District

Hindu Muslim Christian Buddhist Jain Shikh

Hailakandi 223191 312849 5424 589 82 09

Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2010.

Administrative Divisions

Hailakandi district comprises two notified towns viz. Hailakandi (district

headquarter) and Lala and one industrial town ship viz. Panchgram. Both

Hailakandi and Lala have elected Municipal Board with 16 and 10 wards

respectively. The district consists of four revenue circles viz. Algapur, Hailakandi,

Lala and Katlicherra and five development blocks viz. Algapur, Hailakandi, Lala,

Katlicherra and South Hailakandi. To ensure that the fruits of development

percolate down to the lowest level, the district has been further sub-divided in to 62

Gaon Panchayats comprising of a total of 331 villages (including 27 forest

villages).

Table: 1.09: Distributions of Panchayati Raj Institutions in the District

Village Gaon Panchayat AnchalikPanchayat

Zilla Parishad

Total 331 62 05 01

Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2011.

Chapter 1 29

Profile of the Sample Anchalik Panchayats

Out of five Anchalik Panchayats (Development Blocks) of the district, three viz.

Algapur, Lala and South Hailakandi Development Blocks have been taken as

sample which consists of thirteen, eighteen and nine Gaon Panchayats respectively.

The selection of Anchalik Panchayats has been made on the basis of their distinct

geographical location, distance from the district headquarter, population and

occupational pattern. The profile of the Anchalik Panchayats has been presented on

the basis of primary data collected from the concerned Block Development Offices

and is presented below.

Population

There is no uniformity among the Anchalik Panchayats in terms of population. As

per Census of India, 2011 the total population of Algapur Anchalik Panchayat is

121125 comprising 62449 males and 58676 females. The total population of Lala

Anchalik Panchayat is 202738 comprising 103696 males and 99042 females and

South Hailakandi Anchalik Panchayat has a total population of 143689 comprising

76793 males and 66896 females.

Table: 1.10: Population-wise Distributions in the Anchalik Panchayats

Algapur Lala South Hailakandi

Total Population 121125 202738 143689

Male 62449 103696 76793

Female 58676 99042 66896

Source: Official records of the Development Blocks concerned.

Area and Location

As per the official records of the concerned Anchalik Panchayats, Algapur Anchalik

Panchayat has a total land of 214 square kilometers and is situated 9 kilometers

away from the district headquarter. The total territory of Lala Anchalik Panchayat is

Chapter 1 30

342 square kilometers and is situated at 11 kilometers away from the district

headquarter. South Hailakandi Anchalik Panchayat has a total land of 385 square

kilometers and is situated 32 kilometers away from the district headquarter.

Table: 1.11: Area and Location of the Anchalik Panchayats

Algapur Lala South Hailakandi

Total Land Occupied (in sq.km.)

214 342 385

Distances from DistrictHeadquarter (in km.)

09 11 32

Source: Official records of the Development Blocks concerned.

All the three Anchalik Panchayats differed from each other in terms of Gaon

Panchayats covered. The number of Gaon Panchayats covered by Algapur, Lala

and South Hailakandi Anchalik Panchayat is 13, 18 and 09 respectively.

Table: 1.12: Gaon Panchayat-wise Distributions in the Anchalik Panchayats

Algapur Lala South Hailakandi

No of Gaon

Panchayats covered 13 18 09

Source: Official records of the Development Blocks concerned.

Profile of the Sample Gaon Panchayats

Out of forty Gaon Panchayats of the three Anchalik Panchayats, nine (three from

each Anchalik Panchayats) have been taken for the purpose of the study. Data

relating to the profile of the Gaon Panchayats have been collected from the

Development Block and Gaon Panchayat concerned.

Population

According to the official data of the concerned Gaon Panchayats, there is a

population of 11734, comprising 5955 males and 5779 females in North Narainpur

Gaon Panchayat. Kalinagar has a total of 14150 comprising 7320 male and 6830

Chapter 1 31

female population. The total population of Soidbond is 11168 comprising 5872

males and 5296 females. The Nischintapur Gaon Panchayat has a total of 12626

population with 6731 males and 5895 females. The total population of

Nizvernerpur-Sarbanandapur Gaon Panchayat is 13,122 comprising 6436 males and

6686 females. Koiya-Ramchandi has a population of 12845 comprising 6324 male

and 6521 female population. The total population of Manipur-Nishkar is 12790 and

it comprises 6758 males and 6032 females. There is a total of 11422 comprising

5826 male and 5596 female population in the Karicherra-Dhariarghat and

Gharmura-Bhagcherra Gaon Panchayat has a population of 12671 comprising 6805

male and 5866 female population.

Table: 1.13: Population-wise Distributions in the Gaon Panchayats

Gaon Panchayats Population Male Female

North Narainpur 11,734 5,955 5,779

Kalinagar 14,150 7,320 6,830

Soidbond 11,168 5872 5296

Nishchintapur 12,626 6,731 5,895

Nizvernerpur-Sarbanandapur 13,122 6,436 6,686

Koiya- Ramchandi 12,845 6,324 6,521

Manipur-Niskar 12,790 6,758 6,032

Karicherra-Dhariarghat 11,422 5,826 5,596

Gharmurda- Bhagcherra 12,671 6,805 5,866

Source: Official records of the Gaon Panchayats concerned.

Chapter 1 32

Area and Location

In terms of area and location, the North Narainpur Gaon Panchayat has a total land

of 5.80 square kilometers and is situated 9 kilometer away from the district

headquarter. Kalinagar has 6.30 square kilometers of land and is situated 14

kilometers away from the district headquarter. The total land occupied by the

Soidbond Gaon Panchayat is 7.20 square kilometers and is situated at 5 kilometer

distance from the district headquarter. Nischintapur has a total of 8.50 square

kilometers of land and is situated 6 kilometers away from the district headquarter.

The total land occupied by the Nizvernerpur-Sarbanandapur Gaon Panchayat is

5.60 square kilometers and is situated 19 kilometers away from the district

headquarter. The total area of Koiya-Ramchandi Gaon Panchayat is 7.90 square

kilometers and is situated 24 kilometers away from the district headquarter.

Table: 1.14: Areas and Location of the Gaon Panchayats

Gaon Panchayats Total land (in sq. km.) Distance from districtheadquarters (in k.m.)

North Narainpur 5.80 9

Kalinagar 6.30 14

Soidbond 7.20 5

Nishchintapur 8.50 6

Nizvernerpur-Sarbanandapur 5.60 19

Koiya- Ramchandi 7.90 24

Manipur-Niskar 6.00 33

Karicherra-Dhariarghat 6.40 41

Gharmurda- Bhagcherra 8.50 49

Source: Official records of the Gaon Panchayats concerned.

Chapter 1 33

The total land occupied by the Gaon Panchayats, namely, Manipur-Nishkar,

Karicherra-Dhariarghat and Gharmura-Bhagcherra is 6.00, 6.40 and 8.50 square

kilometers and are situated 33, 41 and 49 kilometers away from the district

headquarter respectively.