Research Research Methodology Methodology BY BY Dr. J K SACHDEVA Dr. J K SACHDEVA
Transcript
1. Research Methodology BY Dr. J K SACHDEVA
2. BY Dr. J. K. SACHDEVA
M.B.A. (FINANCE), PGDMM, PH. D (DEVELOPMENT STUDIES)
Ex-SUPERINTENDENT OF CUSTOMS (P), Mumbai
FACULTY, GNIMS, Matunga, Mumbai
Hon Editor Journal of Global Economy
MEMBER
INDIAN SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
VISITING FACULTY/COUNSELOR
ITM, KHARGHAR
IGNOU, STUDY CENTRE,
SATHEYE COLLEGE, VILLE PARLE
JDC-BYTCO, NASIK
Chetana Institute of Management and Research, Bandra (E)
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4. Benefits of research to whom
As a graduate student...
To be able to read and understand the empirical literature in
your field; to become a critical consumer of information.
As a graduate student preparing for a thesis or
dissertation
To be able to both design and implement your thesis or
dissertation as well as future studies that interest you.
5. Benefits to whom
As a future practitioner
To be able to intelligently participate in research projects,
evaluations, and studies undertaken by your institution.
As an educated citizen ...
To understand the difference between scientifically acquired
knowledge and other kinds of information.
6. What Research Is Not
Research isnt information gathering:
Gathering information from resources such books or magazines
isnt research.
No contribution to new knowledge.
Research isnt the transportation of facts:
Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesnt
constitute research.
No contribution to new knowledge although this might make
existing knowledge more accessible.
7. What Research Is
Research is:
the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information
(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon
about which we are concerned or interested. 1
8. Whats the Difference Between Method and Methodology?
Method:
Techniques for gathering evidence
The various ways of proceeding in gathering information
Methodology:
The underlying theory and analysis of how research does or
should proceed, often influenced by discipline
9. Epistemology, Methodology, and Method
a research method is a technique for (or way of proceeding in)
gathering evidence" while
" methodology is a theory and analysis of how research does or
should proceed" and
"an epistemology is a theory of knowledge"
10.
"It is the theory that decides what can be observed."
Albert Einstein
11. Research Characteristics
Originates with a question or problem.
Requires clear articulation of a goal.
Follows a specific plan or procedure.
Often divides main problem into subproblems.
Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.
Accepts certain critical assumptions.
Requires collection and interpretation of data.
Cyclical (helical) in nature.
12. Research Projects
Research begins with a problem.
This problem need not be Earth-shaking.
Identifying this problem can actually be the hardest part of
research.
In general, good research projects should:
Address an important question.
Advance knowledge.
13. Research Project Pitfalls
The following kinds of projects usually dont make for good
research:
Self-enlightenment.
Comparing data sets.
Correlating data sets.
Problems with yes / no answers.
14. High-Quality Research (1 of 2)
Good research requires:
The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly
defined.
The process to be clearly explained so that it can be
reproduced and verified by other researchers.
A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as
possible.
15. High-Quality Research (2 of 2)
Good research requires:
Highly ethical standards be applied.
All limitations be documented.
Data be adequately analyzed and explained.
All findings be presented unambiguously and all conclusions be
justified by sufficient evidence.
16. Sources of Research Problems
Observation.
Literature reviews.
Professional conferences.
Experts.
17. Stating the Research Problem
Once youve identified a research problem:
State that problem clearly and completely.
Determine the feasibility of the research.
Identify subproblems:
Completely researchable units.
Small in number.
Add up to the total problem.
Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the data.
18. Research
Acquisition of Knowledge
Knowledge
v/s
Information
(Theoretically, concerned with developing, exploring, or
testing theories)
19. Theory
What exists?
Why exists?
What will happen in future?
20. How to acquire Knowledge?
Inductive Reasoning
( works moving from specific observation to broader
generalisation, bottom approach)
Deductive Reasoning
( more general to more specific or top down approach)
21. Deductive Reasoning Theory Hypothesis Observation
Confirmation
22. Inductive Reasoning
Observation
Pattern Hypothesis Theory
23. Positivism
Goal of Knowledge is to describe the phenomena that are
experienced,
There is interdependence of observation and theory, our
observations are theory laden
24. Scientific thought
Francis Bacon
Rene Descartes
John Stuart
Karl Popper
Thomas Kuhn
Feyer bend
Steven Hagen
25. Hypotheses
Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the
solution of the problem.
There is often a 1-1 correspondence between a subproblem and a
hypothesis.
Hypotheses can direct later research activities since they can
help determine the nature of the research and methods applied.
26. Delimitations
All research has limitations and thus certain work that will
not be performed.
The work that will not be undertaken is described as the
delimitations of the research.
27. Definitions
Define each technical term as it is used in relation to your
research project.
This helps remove significant ambiguity from the research
itself by ensuring that reviewers, while they may not agree with
your definitions, at least know what youre talking about.
28. Assumptions
Assumptions are those things that the researcher is taking for
granted.
For example: a given test instrument accurately and
consistently measures the phenomenon in question.
As a general rule youre better off documenting an assumption
than ignoring it.
Overlooked assumptions provide a prime source of debate about a
research projects results.
29. Importance of the Study
Many research problems have a kind of theoretical feel about
them. Such projects often need to be justified:
What is the research projects practical value?
Without this justification, it will prove difficult to convince
others that the problem in question is worth study.
30. Research Proposals
Research proposals are documents that describe the intended
research including:
Problem and subproblems.
Hypotheses.
Delimitations.
Definitions.
Assumptions.
Importance.
Literature review.
31. Literature Review
A literature review is a necessity.
Without this step, you wont know if your problem has been
solved or what related research is already underway.
When performing the review:
Start searching professional journals.
Begin with the most recent articles you can find.
Keep track of relevant articles in a bibliography.
Dont be discouraged if work on the topic is already
underway.
32. Literature Review Pitfalls (1 of 2)
Be very careful to check your sources when doing your
literature review.
Many trade magazines are not peer reviewed.
Professional conferences and journals often have each article
reviewed by multiple people before it is even recommended for
publication.
The IEEE and ACM digital libraries are good places to start
looking for legitimate research.
33. Literature Review Pitfalls (2 of 2)
The Internet can be a good source of information. It is also
full of pseudo-science and poor research.
Make sure you verify the claims of any documentation that has
not been peer reviewed by other professionals in the computing
industry.
34. Processes & Methodologies
Research Process.
Common Methodologies.
Methodology Comparison.
35. Research Process
Research is an extremely cyclic process.
Later stages might necessitate a review of earlier work.
This isnt a weakness of the process but is part of the built-in
error correction machinery.
Because of the cyclic nature of research, it can be difficult
to determine where to start and when to stop.
36. Step 1: A Question Is Raised
A question occurs to or is posed to the researcher for which
that researcher has no answer.
This doesnt mean that someone else doesnt already have an
answer.
The question needs to be converted to an appropriate problem
statement like that documented in a research proposal.
37. Step 2: Suggest Hypotheses
The researcher generates intermediate hypotheses to describe a
solution to the problem.
This is at best a temporary solution since there is as yet no
evidence to support either the acceptance or rejection of these
hypotheses.
38. Step 3: Literature Review
The available literature is reviewed to determine if there is
already a solution to the problem.
Existing solutions do not always explain new observations.
The existing solution might require some revision or even be
discarded.
39. Step 4: Literature Evaluation
Its possible that the literature review has yielded a solution
to the proposed problem.
This means that you havent really done research.
On the other hand, if the literature review turns up nothing,
then additional research activities are justified.
40. Step 5: Acquire Data
The researcher now begins to gather data relating to the
research problem.
The means of data acquisition will often change based on the
type of the research problem.
This might entail only data gathering, but it could also
require the creation of new measurement instruments.
41. Step 6: Data Analysis
The data that were gathered in the previous step are analyzed
as a first step in ascertaining their meaning.
As before, the analysis of the data does not constitute
research.
This is basic number crunching.
42. Step 7: Data Interpretation
The researcher interprets the newly analyzed data and suggests
a conclusion.
This can be difficult.
Keep in mind that data analysis that suggests a correlation
between two variables cant automatically be interpreted as
suggesting causality between those variables.
43. Step 8: Hypothesis Support
The data will either support the hypotheses or they wont.
This may lead the researcher to cycle back to an earlier step
in the process and begin again with a new hypothesis.
This is one of the self-correcting mechanisms associated with
the scientific method.
44. Common Methodologies
Methodologies are high-level approaches to conducting
research.
The individual steps within the methodology might vary based on
the research being performed.
Two commonly used research methodologies:
Quantitative.
Qualitative.
45. Methodology Comparison
Quantitative
Explanation, prediction
Test theories
Known variables
Large sample
Standardized instruments
Deductive
Qualitative
Explanation, description
Build theories
Unknown variables
Small sample
Observations, interviews
Inductive
46. An Overview of Empirical Research Methods
Descriptive (Qualitative)
Ethnography
Case Study
Suvey/Sampling
Focus Groups
Discourse/Text Analysis
Quantitative Description
Prediction/Classification
Experimental (Quantitative)
True Experiment
Quasi-Experiment
Meta-Analysis
47. Assessing Methods
Research Question(s) is/are key
Methods must answer the research question(s)
Methodology guides application
Epistemology guides analysis
48. Ethnographies
Observational field work done in the actual context being
studied
Focus on how individuals interrelate in their own environment
(and the influence of this environment)
Difficult to interpret/analyze
Time consuming/expensive
Can influence subject behavior
49. Case Studies
Focus is on individual or small group
Able to conduct a comprehensive analysis from a comparison of
cases
Allows for identification of variables or phenomenon to be
studied
Time consuming
Depth rather than breadth
Not necessarily representative
50. Survey Research
An efficient means of gathering large amounts of data
Can be anonymous and inexpensive
Feedback often incomplete
Wording of instrument can bias feedback
Details often left out
51. Focus Groups
Aid in understanding audience, group, users
Small group interaction more than individual response
Helps identify and fill gaps in current knowledge re:
perceptions, attitudes, feelings, etc.
Does not give statistics
Marketing tools seen as suspect
Analysis subjective
52. Discourse/Text Analysis
Examines actual discourse produced for a particular purpose
(job, school)
Helps in understanding of context, production, audience, and
text
Schedule for analysis not demanding
Labor intensive
Categories often fluid, making analysis difficult
53. Quantitative Descriptive Studies
Isolates systematically the most important variables (often
from case studies) and to quantify and interrelate them (often via
survey or questionnaire)
Possible to collect large amounts of data
Not as disruptive
Biases not as likely
Data restricted to information available
54. Discourse/Text Analysis
Examines actual discourse produced for a particular purpose
(job, school)
Helps in understanding of context, production, audience, and
text
Schedule for analysis not demanding
Labor intensive
Categories often fluid, making analysis difficult
55. Quantitative Descriptive Studies
Isolates systematically the most important variables (often
from case studies) and to quantify and interrelate them (often via
survey or questionnaire)
Possible to collect large amounts of data
Not as disruptive
Biases not as likely
Data restricted to information available
56. Prediction and Classification Studies
Goal is to predict behaviors:
Prediction forecasts and interval variable (Diagnostic/TAAS
scores)
Classification forecasts a nominal variable (Major selection
after taking 2311)
Important in industry, education to predict behaviors
Need substantial population
Restricted range of variables can cause misinterpretation
Variables cannot be added together; must be weighted and looked
at in context of other variables
57. Positive Aspects of Descriptive/Qualitative Research
Naturalistic; allows for subjects to interact with
environment
Can use statistical analysis
Seeks to further develop theory (not to influence action);
Prescientific
Coding schemes often arise from interplay between data and
researchers knowledge of theory
58. Problems with Descriptive/Qualitative Research
Impossible to overlay structure
Impossible to impose control
Subject pool often limited, not representative
Seen as more subjective, less rigorous
Beneficial only in terms of initial investigation to form
hypothesis
59. Experimental Research: True Experiment
Random sampling, or selection, of subjects (which are also
stratified)
Introduction of a treatment
Use of a control group for comparing subjects who dont receive
treatment with those who do
Adherence to scientific method (seen as positive, too)
Must have both internal and external validity
Treatment and control might seem artificial
60. Experimental Research: Quasi-Experiment
Similar to Experiment, except that the subjects are not
randomized. Intact groups are often used (for example, students in
a classroom).
To draw more fully on the power of the experimental method, a
pretest may be employed.
Employ treatment, control, and scientific method
Act of control and treatment makes situation artificial
Small subject pools
61. Meta-Analysis
Takes the results of true and quasi-experiments and identifies
interrelationships of conclusions
Systematic
Replicable
Summarizes overall results
C/C apples and oranges?
Quality of studies used?
62. Positive Aspects of Experimental Research
Tests the validity of generalizations
Seen as rigorous
Identifies a cause-and-effect relationship
Seen as more objective, less subjective
Can be predictive
63. Problems with Experimental Research
Generalizations need to be qualified according to limitation of
research methods employed
Controlled settings dont mirror actual conditions;
unnatural
Difficult to isolate a single variable
Doesnt allow for self-reflection (built-in)
64. Testing the Waters
How do you come up with a good research question?
How do you determine if the method you plan to use will answer
your question?
