Notes

1 Introduction

1 For a summary, see H.H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (London: Thames and Hudson, 1981), pp. 213±18. The most recent major study is Ernst KuÈnzl, Der roÈmische Triumph (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1988).

2 `Of Masques and Triumphs', in Francis Bacon, Essayes, ed. Michael Kieran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 118.

3 William V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327±70 B.C. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), pp. 9±53.

4 Roy Strong, Splendour at Court: Renaissance Spectacle and Illusion (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973), pp. 79±119; Marie Tanner, The Last Descend-ant of Aeneas: the Hapsburgs and the Mythic Image of the Emperor (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 131±9; Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: an Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 66±7, 75±81, 363±71.

5 Tanner, Last Descendant, pp. 103±7, 113. 6 For example, on the Hapsburg side, Rubens's Pompa introitus Ferdinandi

(Antwerp, 1641) celebrates the Antwerp entry in 1635 of Ferdinand of Hun-gary, shortly to succeed as emperor, and incorporates a triumph for his victory over Sweden at NoÈrdlingen (1634). On the republican side, Willem Buytewech (c.1591±c.1624) painted a Triumph of William of Orange; in the Huis ten Bosch, The Hague, are frescoes by Jacob Jordaens (1593±1678), Triumphal March of Prince Frederic Henry after Conquering Bois-le-Duc, and Theodor van Thulden (1606±69), Vanguard of a Triumph with Spanish Prisoners.

7 Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations . . . of the English Nation, 12 vols (Glasgow: James MacLehose, 1903±5), vol. IV, pp. 233±4; Payne Fisher, `Anni-versarium; In Diem Inaugurationis Oliuari', in Poemata (1656), sig. F2v.

8 Frances A. Yates, Astraea: the Imperial Theme in the Sixteenth Century (London: Routledge, 1975), pp. 51±9; Roy Strong, Gloriana: the Portraits of Queen Eliza-beth I (London: Thames and Hudson, 1987), pp. 103±7.

9 Wallace T. MacCaffrey, Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588±1603 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 222.

10 Lodowyck Lloyd, The Triplicitie of Triumphes (1591), sig. C4. 11 Michael Roberts, The Military Revolution, 1560±1660 (Belfast: Marjory Boyd,

1956); I.A.A. Thompson, `The Impact of War', in The European Crisis of the 1590s: Essays in Comparative History, ed. Peter Clark (London: Allen and Unwin, 1985), pp. 261±84; Michael Mallett, `The Theory and Practice of Warfare in Machiavelli's Republic', in Machiavelli and Republicanism, ed. Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner and Maurizio Viroli (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 173±80.

12 Cf. Richard Eden, Decades of the Newe Worlde or West India (1555), whose title page shows a triumph with an elephant, recalling the elephants displayed in Rome's triumphs over Carthage (Livy, xxvi. 21; Appian, Punica, 66).

190

Notes 191

13 `N. Eleutherius', ed., Triumphalia de uictoriis Elisabethae (1588), pp. 21, 64; Fisher, Poemata, sig. G1.

14 Lodowick Lloyd, Diall of Daies (1590), sig. Cc1. 15 The spiral reliefs on Trajan's column at Rome `represent the unrolling of two

scrolls (volumina) which formed a marble record of his warlike exploits'. The reliefs include `a figure of Victory in the act of writing on her shield ``Ense et stylo'', . . . ̀ `By the sword and by the pen'' ', JeÂroÃme Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome, trs. E.O. Lorimer (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956), p. 19.

16 On textuality and national identity, see Richard Helgerson, Forms of Nation-hood: the Elizabethan Writing of England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 1±18. R.M. Smuts's study of the royal entry seeks to recover the actual conduct of those events, rather than the often notional record: `Public Ceremony and Royal Charisma: the English Royal Entry in London, 1485±1642', in A.L. Beier, David Cannadine and James M. Rosenheim, eds, The First Modern Society: Essays in English History in Honour of Lawrence Stone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 65±93. Printing, in the form of woodcuts and engravings, disseminated visual representations of the triumph, such as the imaginary triumphs of the Emperor Maximilian I, produced by DuÈrer and others (1517, 1526), and Titian's Triumph of Christ (1508±15?), based on Savonarola's Triumphus crucis (Plate 5).

17 Nigel Brooks, `triumphs', in The Spenser Encyclopedia, gen. ed. A.C. Hamilton (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), pp. 700±1.

18 Cf. Tanner, Last Descendant, p. 119. 19 The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth, in The Works of

John Milton, gen. ed. F. Allen Patterson, 18 vols (New York: Columbia Uni-versity Press, 1931±8), vol. VI, p. 118; David Armitage, `The Cromwellian Protectorate and the Languages of Empire', Historical Journal, 35 (1992), 537.

20 Historia Regum Britanniae, ed. Jacob Hammer (Cambridge, MA: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1951), iv. 1.

21 Historia, ix. 12±14, x. 6±13; Lucan, De bello ciuili, ii. 572. 22 Remains concerning Britain (London: John Russell Smith, 1870), pp. 11±12. 23 Britannia, trs. Philemon Holland (1610), pp. 87±8. 24 The Acts and Monuments of John Foxe, ed. George Townsend, 8 vols (London:

Seeley, Burnside and Seeley, 1843±9), vol. I, pp. xxvi, xxxix±xliv. 25 Acts, vol. I, p. 312. 26 Acts, vol. IV, p. 78, vol. VIII, pp. [811±12]; Historia, iii. 9. 27 Patrick Collinson, `England and International Calvinism, 1558±1640', in

International Calvinism, 1541±1715, ed. Menna Prestwich (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 203. Cf. Wallace T. MacCaffrey, Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572±1588 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 217±42, 267±347; Simon Adams, `Spain or the Netherlands: the Dilemmas of Early Stuart Foreign Policy', in Before the English Civil War, ed. Howard Tomlinson (London: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1983), pp. 79±102; Roger Crabtree, ̀ The Idea of a Protestant Foreign Policy', in Cromwell: a Profile, ed. Ivan Roots (London: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1973), pp. 160±89. I use the term `militant Protestant' rather than `puritan' for proponents of this policy. There is no necessary connection between the fundamental puritan concern, church reform, and the militant policy of protecting or extending Protestantism by arms, though the same people often supported both.

192 Notes

28 Elizabetha Triumphans, pp. 2±15, 23; Albions England, p. 78. See Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: a Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), ch. 8; Patrick Collinson, The Religion of Protestants: the Church in English Society, 1559±1625 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), pp. 177±88. Walzer's general argument has not won acceptance, but his location of the English Protestant militants in the context of late sixteenth-century continental Calvinism remains the most compre-hensive discussion.

29 There is no major scholarship in early modern England on the Roman triumph. The two short books by Lodowick Lloyd, Diall of Daies (1590) and The Triplicitie of Triumphes (1591), and the long book by Sir William Segar, Honor Military and Civill (1602), all derive their treatment of the triumph from continental sources: see Anthony Miller, `A Source for Segar's Honor Military and Civill', Notes and Queries, 242 (1997), 516±19. The first substantial English contribution is Thomas Lydiat, Series summorum magistratuum et triumphorum Romanorum (Oxford, 1675), compiled between 1612 and 1646.

30 Richard Jenkyns, ed., The Legacy of Rome: a New Appraisal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 2. Major surveys of early modern ceremonies are: FeÃtes de la Renaissance, 3 vols (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scien-tifique, 1956±75); David M. Bergeron, English Civic Pageantry 1558±1642 (Columbia SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1971); Mitchell Bonner, Italian Civic Pageantry in the High Renaissance: a Descriptive Bibliography of Triumphal Entries and Selected Other Festivities for State Occasions (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1979); Lawrence M. Bryant, The King and the City in the Parisian Royal Entry Ceremony: Politics, Ritual and Art in the Renaissance (Geneva: Droz, 1986).

31 Sydney Anglo, Spectacle, Pageantry, and Early Tudor Policy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969); Gordon Kipling, The Triumph of Honour: Burgundian Origins of the Elizabethan Renaissance (The Hague: Leiden University Press, 1977).

32 The major recent study is Helen Watanabe-Kelly, Triumphall Shews: Tourna-ments at German-speaking Courts in their European Context 1560±1730 (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1992).

33 Munday, Chruso-thriambos. The Triumphes of Golde (1611), ll. 1±7, 145±50, in Pageants and Entertainments of Anthony Munday, ed. David M. Bergeron (New York: Garland, 1985); Dekker, Britannia's Honor (1628), ll. 23±5, in The Dra-matic Works of Thomas Dekker, ed. Fredson Bowers and Cyrus Hoy, 6 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953±74), vol. IV.

34 Important contributions are: James Knowles, `The Spectacle of the Realm: Civic Consciousness, Rhetoric and Ritual in Early Modern London', in The-atre and Government under the Early Stuarts, ed. J.R. Mulryne and Margaret Shewring (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 157±89; Ray-mond D. Tumbleson, `The Triumph of London: Lord Mayor's Day Pageants and the Rise of the City', in The Witness of Times: Manifestations of Ideology in Seventeenth Century England, ed. Katherine Z. Keller and Gerald J. Schiffhorst (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1993), pp. 53±68; Rostovsky Sergei Lobanov, `The Triumphs of Golde: Economic Authority in the Jacobean Lord Mayor's Show', ELH: English Literary History, 60 (1993), 879±98.

35 Michael McCormick, Eternal Victory: Triumphal Rulership in Late Antiquity, Byzantium, and the Early Medieval West (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Notes 193

Press, 1986), p. 17; Randolph Starn and Loren Partridge, Arts of Power: Three Halls of State in Italy, 1300±1600 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 157±62.

36 For example, Juvenal, x. 36±46. Even Virgil discreetly sets a distance between his treatment of Actium and its triumph and the Augustan myth: see The Cambridge Companion to Virgil, ed. Charles Martindale (Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press, 1997), pp. 178±9, 199±202.

37 Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals, 1450±1650 (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boy-dell, 1984), pp. 44±50. On Venice, see Edward Muir, Civic Ritual in Renaissance Venice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

38 Art and Power, p. 45; Charles L. Stinger, `Roma Triumphans: Triumphs in the Thought and Ceremonies of Renaissance Rome', Medievalia et Humanistica, n.s. 10 (1981), 189±92. It is perhaps not coincidental that the distinguished scholar coexists in Strong with the deferential courtier revealed in The Roy Strong Diaries, 1967±1987 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997).

39 `Murdering Peasants: Status, Genre, and the Representation of Rebellion', in Representing the English Renaissance, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (Berkeley: Uni-versity of California Press, 1988), pp. 15, 11.

40 Lucan, De bello ciuili, i. 2±4. 41 A countervailing trend to the work of Strong and the new historicists has

been the study of popular and local festivities, which mediate or resist official festivities: for instance, David Cressy, Bonfires and Bells: National Memory and the Protestant Calendar in Elizabethan and Stuart England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). Like Cressy's festivities, the triumph could occa-sion `disputes about what exactly was being commemorated, and about the behaviour appropriate to it' (p. xiii).

42 Sharpe and Lake, Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1993), pp. 12, 13.

2 Roman models

1 Virgil Aeneid, viii. 626; Cicero, In Verrem, II. v. 66. 2 Valerius Maximus, ii. 8; H.S. Versnel, Triumphus: an Inquiry into the Origin,

Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970), ch. 5; Valerie A. Maxfield, The Military Decorations of the Roman Army (London: Batsford, 1981), pp. 101±3.

3 Livy, v. 23, xxviii. 9, xlv. 35. 4 Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 32. 5 Josephus, Bellum Judaicum, vii. 120; cf. Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, ix. 9;

Appian, xii. 116. 6 Livy, xxxix. 7. 7 Plutarch, Caesar, 49. 8 Diodorus Siculus, iv. 3; cf. ii. 65; Pliny, Naturalis historia, vii. 56. 9 Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 32. 10 Diodorus Siculus, xxxi. 8; Livy, xxvi. 21, xxxiii. 23, xxxiv. 52, xxxvii. 46,

xxxix. 7; Josephus, Bellum Judaicum, vii. 148±51; Plutarch, Flamininus, 14, Aemilius Paullus, 32, Lucullus, 37; Appian, xii. 116±17.

11 Livy, xxxix. 7, 52, xlv. 40; Plutarch, Pompey, 45, Lucullus, 37, Caesar, 55.

194 Notes

12 Livy, xxxiv. 52, xlv. 39, 40; Josephus, Bellum Judaicum, vii. 153±5; cf. Versnel, Triumphus, pp. 391±2.

13 Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 33, Marius, 12; Dio Cassius, li. 21. 14 Plutarch, Flamininus, 13; cf. Livy, xxxiii. 23, xxxiv. 52. 15 Versnel, Triumphus, ch. 9. 16 Livy, xlv. 35. 17 Pliny, Naturalis historia, xxxiii. 36. 18 In Pisonem, 57; cf. 62. 19 Plutarch, Romulus, 16. 20 Livy, v. 23; Plutarch, Camillus, 7. 21 Livy, xxviii. 9. 22 Plutarch, Marius, 12. 23 Tertullian, Apologeticus, 33; cf. Pliny, Naturalis historia, XXVIII. vii. 39. 24 Livy, xlv. 40±1. 25 Appian, viii. 65. 26 Livy, xxxviii. 50; cf. xlv. 38. 27 Plutarch, Pompey, 46; cf. Tacitus's Germanicus (Annales, ii. 41). 28 The Oxford History of the Classical World, ed. John Boardman, Jasper Griffin

and Oswyn Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 590. 29 Diodorus Siculus, xxxi. 6. 30 T. Corey Brennan, `Triumphus in monte Albano', in Transitions to Empire:

Essays in Greco-Roman History, 360±146 B.C., ed. R.W. Wallace and E.M. Harris (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), pp. 315±37.

31 Plutarch, Pompey, 45; cf. Pliny, Naturalis historia, vii. 26. In early modern Europe, the claim of Philip II to rule territory in four continents remembered and outdid Pompey's conquests.

32 Suetonius, Iulius, 37. 33 Suetonius, Augustus, 22. 34 Plutarch, Pompey, 45, Caesar, 55; cf. Jean GageÂ, `Les ClienteÁles Triomphales de

la ReÂpublique Romaine', Revue Historique, 218 (1957), 1±31; Stephan Wein-stock, Julius (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 71±5.

35 Dio Cassius, li. 21. 36 Suetonius, Augustus, 94. 37 Tacitus, Annales, i. 8; Suetonius, Augustus, 100; cf. Jean GageÂ, `La TheÂologie de

la Victoire ImpeÂriale', Revue Historique, 171 (1933), 1±43; Werner Eck, `Senat-orial Self-Representation: Development in the Augustan Period', in Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects, ed. Fergus Millar and Erich Segal (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp.138±43; Paul Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augus-tus, trans. Alan Shapiro (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988), ch. 1; R.A. Gurval, Actium and Augustus: the Politics and Emotions of Civil War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 1±85.

38 Concetta Barini, Triumphalia: Imprese ed onori militari durante l'impero romano (Turin: SocietaÁ Editrice Internazionale, 1952); J. B. Campbell, The Emperor and the Roman Army, 31 BC ± AD 235 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 133±42, 358±62.

39 Suetonius, Claudius, 24, Nero, 15. In Ammianus Marcellinus, the noble monuments of the city awe the unworthy triumph of the emperor Constan-tius (xvi. 10).

40 Suetonius, Nero, 25.

Notes 195

41 Apologeticus, 30±3.42 Tertullian, De corona militis, 12.43 Apologeticus, 50.44 Eusebius, De laudibus Constantini, i. 3. 45 Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, IX. ix. 9±11.46 Jean GageÂ, `La Victoire ImpeÂriale dans l'Empire ChreÂtien', Revue d'Histoire et

de Philosophie Religieuses, 13 (1933), 370±400; Michael McCormick, Eternal Victory: Triumphal Rulership in Late Antiquity, Byzantium, and the Early Medieval West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 35±130.

47 Epodes, ix. 23±6. 48 Lindsay Watson, `Epode 9, or the Art of Falsehood', in Homo Viator: Classical

Essays for John Bramble, ed. Michael Whitby, Philip Hardie and Mary Whitby (Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, and Oak Park, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci, 1987), pp. 119±29.

49 Odes, I. xxxvii. 6±8, 30±2; cf. Propertius IV. vi. 65±6. For other admirable suicides, see Livy, xxvi. 13, xxxvii. 46; for the king who fails to take his life, see Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 34.

50 Philip R. Hardie, Virgil's `Aeneid': Cosmos and Imperium (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966), pp. 346±75; Gurval, Actium and Augustus, pp. 232±47.

51 Cf. Horace, Odes, III. iii. 9±16, III. xiv; Pliny, Naturalis Historia, xxxiv. 16. 52 Plutarch, Marcellus, 22. 53 Amores, II. xii. 1±2. 54 Cf. Propertius, II. xiv, xv. 55 Ars amatoria, ll. 213±14. 56 For further variations on the triumphal theme, see Amores, I. xv, II. ix. 15±18,

II. xviii. 17±18. See also Elizabeth Thomas, `Variations on a Military Theme in Ovid's Amores', Greece and Rome, 2nd Series, 11 (1964), 151±65; Karl Galinsky, `The Triumph Theme in the Augustan Elegy', Wiener Studien, 82 (1969), 75±107; Leslie Cahoon, `The Bed as Battlefield: Erotic Conquest and Military Metaphor in Ovid's Amores', Transactions of the American Philological Associ-ation, 118 (1988), 293±307. For a reworking of triumphal convention hardly less brilliant than Ovid's, see Propertius, III. iv.

57 Metamorphoses, i. 560±5; Augustus, Res gestae, xxxiv. 2. 58 Tristia, IV. ii; cf. Ex Ponto, III. iv. 39±44. 59 Ex Ponto II. i. 29±30, 41±2. 60 Tristia, IV. ii. 74. 61 Cf. Ex Ponto, II. v. 27±32. 62 Shadi Bartsch, Ideology in Cold Blood: a Reading of Lucan's `Civil War' (Cam-

bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 73±100. 63 De bello ciuili, x. 151±4. 64 i. 286±7, vii. 254±6; cf. H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 5th edn

(London: Methuen, 1982), p. 112±14. Pollio among the ancients and Syme among the moderns both began their classic histories of the end of the republic with the refusal of Caesar's triumph.

65 For the more sceptical view of Lucan's Pompey prevalent in contemporary criticism, see Matthew Leigh, Lucan: Spectacle and Engagement (Oxford: Clar-endon Press, 1997), pp. 143±57.

66 Julius Caesar, III. i. 259±75, in The Riverside Shakespeare, textual ed. G. Blake-more Evans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974); Abraham Cowley, The Civil

196 Notes

War, ed. Allan Pritchard (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), p. 73; The Triumph of Patience (1648), pp. 3±4.

67 De consolatu Honorii, ll. 405±6. 68 De consolatu Stilichonis, i. 373±4, 384±5. 69 De consolatu Honorii, ll. 560±8. 70 In Eutropium, i. 252±71. 71 See p. 68, and Plate 6. Claudian is the main ancient source for the coronation

`triumph' of Charles II in 1661: The Entertainment of His Most Excellent Majestie Charles II . . . by John Ogilby, ed. Ronald Knowles (Binghamton, NY: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1988), p. 50.

72 Cf. Randolph Starn and Loren Partridge, Arts of Power: Three Halls of State in Italy, 1300±1600 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), p. 163.

3 Humanist transmission

1 Angelo Mazzocco, `The Antiquarianism of Francesco Petrarca', Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 7 (1977), 203. Cf. Cicero, Academica, I. iii. 9; Arnaldo Momigliano, The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 55±79; Eric Cochrane, Historians and Historiography in the Italian Renaissance (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1981), pp. 423±44.

2 The Tempio (c.1450) incorporates a triumphal arch motif in its facade and contains bas-relief triumphs of Mars, Diana, and Scipio. See Charles Hope, `The Early History of the Tempio Malatestiano', Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 55 (1992), 51±154.

3 De re militari (Paris, 1532), p. 351. 4 P.J. Jones, The Malatesta of Rimini and the Papal State: a Political History

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Michael Mallett, Mercenaries and Their Masters: Warfare in Renaissance Italy (London: Bodley Head, 1974).

5 Ellen Callman, `The Triumphal Entry into Naples of Alfonso I', Apollo, 109 (1979), 24±31.

6 Piero probably made use of Valturio's study: Ronald Lightbrown, Piero della Francesca (New York: Abbeville Press, 1992), pp. 239±43.

7 Jones, Malatesta, p. 231. 8 Sergio Bertelli, ed., NiccoloÁ Machiavelli: Arte della guerra e scritti politici minori

(Milan: Feltrinelli, 1961), p. 313. 9 Bartolomeo Nogara, ed., Scritti inediti e rari di Biondo Flavio (Rome: Tipografica

Poliglotta Vaticana, 1927), p. clv; Angelo Mazzocco, `Rome and the Human-ists: The Case of Biondo Flavio', in Rome in the Renaissance: the City and the Myth, ed. P.A. Ramsey (Binghamton, NY: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982), pp. 185±95; R. Fubini, `Flavio Biondo', in Dizio-nario biografico degli italiani, vol. X (Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1968), pp. 536±59.

10 Charles L. Stinger, The Renaissance in Rome (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), p. 158; Eugenio Marino, `Eugenio IV e la storiografia di Flavio Biondo', Memorie domenicane, n.s. 4 (1973), 241±87.

Notes 197

11 De Roma triumphante (Basle, 1531), p. 204. Biondo's gloss on Cicero itself became a commonplace: cf. FrancËois Modius, Pandectae triumphales (Frank-furt, 1586), p. 2.

12 Biondo does not know of, or ignores, the numerous triumphs of the Roman emperors at Constantinople: Michael McCormick, Eternal Victory: Triumphal Rulership in Late Antiquity, Byzantium, and the Early Medieval West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 35±130.

13 For Byzantine and medieval versions of Biondo's programme, see Marie Tanner, The Last Descendant of Aeneas: the Hapsburgs and the Mythic Image of the Emperor (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), ch. 2; cf. Andrea Fulvio, De urbis antiquitatibus libri quinque (Brescia, 1545), pp. 408±9.

14 Cf. his address to the emperor Frederick III and Alfonso of Aragon in March± April 1452: Scritti, ed. Nogara, pp. 107±14.

15 Stinger, Renaissance, p. 224; cf. Plate 1. Panvinio took further the Christian-ization of the triumph of Titus and Vespasian: the unique spectacle of a father and son riding in a single triumphal chariot had an apt symmetry, since they had defeated a people who had offended against the heavenly Father and Son (Fasti, p. 460).

16 De mirabilibus nouae et ueteris urbis Romae (Rome, 1520), sigs B1v, T4v. 17 Opera omnia, 10 vols (Leiden, 1703±6), vol. VI, p. 455; vol. IX, p. 361; Opus

epistolarum Des. Erasmi, ed. P.S. Allen et al., 12 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906±58), vol. VI, p. 1756.

18 Fubini, `Biondo', p. 553. 19 Roma triumphans, pp. 15, 18, 28, 31 ff., 117, 120. 20 A. Degrassi, `Le sistemazioni dei Fasti Capitolini', Capitolium, 18 (1943), 327±

35. 21 G.B. Marliani, Consulum, dictatorum censorumque Romanorum series (Rome,

1549; enlarged edition, 1560); C. Sigonio, Regum, consulum, dictatorum, ac censorum Romanorum fasti (Venice, 1555; enlarged edition, 1556); F. Robor-tello, De conuenientia supputationis Liuianae ann. cum marmoribus Rom. quae in Capitolio sunt (Padua, 1557); O. Panvinio, Fasti et triumphali Romanorum (Venice, 1557; enlarged edition, 1558).

22 Davide Perini, Onofrio Panvinio e le sue opere (Rome: Tipografia Poliglotta della Propaganda Fidei, 1899), pp. 189±213.

23 Quoted by Perini, Panvinio, p. 50. 24 See Cochrane, Historians, p. 426. 25 Randolph Starn and Loren Partridge are therefore not correct in contrasting

Panvinio's ahistorical `liberal interpretation' of the triumph to Marliani's more scrupulously historical `strict construction': Arts of Power: Three Halls of State in Italy, 1300±1600 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 159±60.

26 Maurice Aymard and Jacques Revel, `La famille FarneÁse', in Le Palais FarneÁse, 6 vols (Rome: Ecole francËaise de Rome, 1981±), vol. I, part ii, pp. 695±715; Clare Robertson, `Il Gran Cardinale': Alessandro Farnese, Patron of the Arts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).

27 Zanobio Cessino, La triomphante entrata di Carlo V imperatore Augusto in l'alma cittaÁ di Roma (Rome, 1536); Loren W. Partridge, `Divinity and Dynasty at Caprarola: Perfect History in the Room of Farnese Deeds', Art Bulletin, 60 (1978), 494±530.

198 Notes

28 Stinger, Renaissance, p. 262. 29 On the politics of the abdication, see M.J. Rodriguez-Salgado, The Changing

Face of Empire: Charles V, Philip II and Habsburg Authority, 1551±59 (Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

30 Mazzocco, `Antiquarianism', pp. 213±14. 31 Francisci Petrarchae opera (Basle, 1554), vol. III, pp. 1324, 1329. Petrarch

imitates Lucan, iii. 154±68, where Caesar pillages these treasures, many of them the spoils of Pompey's triumphs. See also Paul Colilli, `Scipio's Trium-phal Ascent in the Africa', in Petrarch's `Triumphs': Allegory and Spectacle, ed. Konrad Eisenbichler and Amilcare A. Iannucci (Ottawa: Dovehouse, 1990), pp. 147±59.

32 Triumphus Fame, i. 28±31, in Francesco Petrarca, Triumphi, ed. Marco Ariani (Milan: Mursia, 1988).

33 Triumphus Cupidinis, i. 13±18, in Triumphi, ed. Ariani. 34 Triumphus Pudicitie, ll. 124±5, 146±7, in Triumphi, ed. Ariani. 35 Hieronymi Sauonarolae opera (Basle, 1540), p. 117. The major modern study is

D. Weinstein, Savonarola and Florence: Prophecy and Patriotism in the Renais-sance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970). For Titian's Triumph of Christ, probably based on Savonarola, see Plate 5.

36 Du Bartas His Divine Weekes, and Workes, trans. Joshua Silvester (1633), p. 249. 37 Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 2 vols (Cam-

bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976±7), vol. I, p. 177. 38 Silvester was a member of the household of Henry, Prince of Wales, a centre

of the militant Protestant cause. Though Du Bartas's hero, Henri IV of France, deserted Protestantism, he retained his stature as a warrior prince and an opponent of Spain. After his assassination in 1610, Silvester's translation of one of Du Bartas's elegies appeared in The Parliament of Vertues Royal (1614±15), which was dedicated to the English patrons of militant Protestant-ism, the Earls of Southampton and Essex.

39 The Faerie Queene, I. xii. 8, in Spenser's Faerie Queene, ed. J.C. Smith, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909), vol. I.

4 Elizabethans and the Armada

1 Popish Kingdome, p. 5. Googe's poem is a translation of Thomas Kirchmeyer, Regnum Papisticum (Basle?, 1553).

2 Centurie, Sonnet 74. 3 Livy, xxx. 12±15; Odes, I.xxxvii. 25±32; Annales, xiv. 37. On the indecorum of

a woman sharing in triumphal dignity at Rome, see Annales, xii. 37. 4 BL Royal MS XII. A. xlvii, fol. 8±8v; see also fol. 3. 5 Wallace T. MacCaffrey, Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572±1588

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 164±80, 191±6. 6 By the date of his second book, Lloyd's orientation will have changed from

bellicose to pacific: see above, pp. 3±4. 7 Triumphs, ll. 5±8, 171±4, in Certaine Englishe Verses, presented unto the queenes

most excellent Maiestie, by a Courtier (1586). 8 The Shepheards Holidaie, ll. 208±11, 216±21, in Day, Daphnis and Chloe

(1587).

Notes 199

9 Leicester, almost 55, and a year away from death, was not `youthfull', but members of his court-like entourage fitted the description: R.C. Strong and J.A. van Dorsten, Leicester's Triumph (Leiden: Sir Thomas Browne Institute, 1964), pp. 32±3.

10 MacCaffrey, The Making of Policy, pp. 384±99. 11 David Cressy, Bonfires and Bells: National Memory and the Protestant Calendar in

Elizabethan and Stuart England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 110±29; Carlos GoÂmez-CenturioÂn JimeÂnez, `The New Crusade: Ideology and Religion in the Anglo-Spanish Conflict', in England, Spain and the `Gran Armada', ed. M.J. Rodriguez-Salgado and Simon Adams (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1991), pp. 278±83; Bertrand T. Whitehead, Brags and Boasts: Propa-ganda in the Year of the Armada (Stroud, Glos.: Alan Sutton, 1994).

12 Colin Martin and Geoffrey Parker, The Spanish Armada (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1988), pp. 251±3; Cressy, Bonfires, pp. 114±17.

13 J.E. Neale, Essays in Elizabethan History (London: Jonathan Cape, 1958), p. 104.

14 See James Aske, Elizabetha Triumphans (1588), ll. 769±72, 786±90; `N. Eleutherius', ed., Triumphalia de uictoriis Elisabethae (1588), pp. 10, 37±8.

15 Miller Christy, `Queen Elizabeth's Visit to Tilbury in 1588', English Historical Review, 34 (1919), 55; cf. Susan Frye, `The Myth of Elizabeth I at Tilbury', Sixteenth Century Journal, 23 (1992), 95±114.

16 Elizabetha, ll. 670±2, 678±81. See Carole Levin, The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994), pp. 143±5.

17 De tertio consolatu Honorii, ll. 96±8. The immediate source is probably Augustine's quotation of Claudius, City of God, v. 26. The lines are resusci-tated for the coronation `triumph' of Charles II in 1661: The Entertainment of His Most Excellent Majestie Charles II . . . by John Ogilby, ed. Ronald Knowles (Binghamton, NY: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1988), pp. 34±6.

18 A MS draft, with corrections in Burghley's hand, survives in BL Lansdowne MS 103, fols 134±63v. In response to the Spanish propaganda, Italian, French, German, and Dutch translations were published in London and the Netherlands. See Conyers Read, `William Cecil and Elizabethan Public Rela-tions', in Elizabethan Government and Society, ed. S.T. Bindoff, J. Hurstfield and C.H. Williams (London: Athlone Press, 1961), pp. 21±5; Whitehead, Brags, pp. 146±56.

19 Copie, sigs E3v±E4v. 20 Martin and Parker, Armada, pp. 242±9. 21 Cf. K.R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering during the Span-

ish War, 1585±1603 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964), pp. 134±49, 233±8. Even if Burghley's account of the origin of this triumph is not true, the fiction still creates its impressive spectacle of triumphal enthu-siasm governed by prudence.

22 Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations . . . of the English Nation, 12 vols (Glasgow: James MacLehose, 1903±5), vol. IV, pp. 233±4. Other accounts of the Armada triumph: John Stow, The Annales, or Generall Chronicle of England (1615), sig. Rrr2v; William Camden, The History of . . . Princess Elizabeth (1688), sig. Hhh4v; William Segar, Honor Military and Civill (1602), pp. 244±7; The

200 Notes

Fugger News-Letters, 2nd Series, ed. Victor von Klarwill and trans. L.S.R. Byrne (New York: Putnam, 1926), pp. 184±5.

23 Daniel Archdeacon, A True discourse of the Armie which the King of Spaine caused to bee assembled in the Haven of Lisbon (1588), sig. A6.

24 Archdeacon, Discourse, sigs A6±A6v; cf. TheÂodore de BeÁze, Ad Serenissimam Elisabetham, in Hakluyt, Navigations, vol. IV, p. 235.

25 Hakluyt, Navigations, vol. IV, p. 234. 26 Robert Humston, A Sermon Preached at Reysham (1588), sig. C8v. 27 Martin and Parker, Armada, p. 253. 28 The Holy Bull, And Crusado of Rome (1588), esp. sig. A3. 29 Archdeacon, Discourse, sig. C2. 30 Certaine Advertisements out of Ireland (1588), sigs A3±B5v. 31 Bull, sig. A4. The Latin texts are given also by Archdeacon and in Eleutherius's

Triumphalia. 32 Copie, sig. F2. 33 Camden, History, sig. Hhh4v. 34 See Leicester Bradner, `Poems on the Defeat of the Spanish Armada', Journal of

English and Germanic Philology, 43 (1944), 447±8. The place of publication of Triumphalia is unknown, but was probably not England.

35 Triumphalia, p. 41. 36 Triumph of the Lord, ll. 1±2, 5±8, in The Poems of Alexander Hume, ed. Alex-

ander Lawson (Edinburgh: Scottish Text Society, 1902). 37 Triumphalia, pp. 28, 30, 34. 38 Naumachiae, pp. 57, 59. 39 Triumphalia, p. 16. Elizabeth is also saluted as `clarum Regina triumphum'

and `digna tribus Mulier triumphis' (Triumphalia, pp. 21, 61). 40 Triumphalia, pp. 28, 57, 53. 41 Camden, Britannia (1594), p. 259; R.G. Collingwood, The Archaeology of

Roman Britain (London: Methuen, 1930), pp. 62±3 (fuller on Elizabethan knowledge of the pharos than is the rev. edn, 1969); Ivan Green, The Book of Dover (Chesham, Bucks.: Barracuda, 1978), p. 14.

42 Naumachiae, pp. 56±7; Triumphalia, p. 26. 43 Naumachiae, p. 61; cf. `illic res Italas Romanorumque triumphos / haud

uatum ignarus uenturique inscius aeui / fecerat ignipotens', Aeneid, viii. 626±8.

44 Aeneid, viii. 721±8; Naumachiae, p. 59. 45 Aeneid, vi. 794±5, 853; Naumachiae, pp. 56, 64. 46 Strong and van Dorsten, Leicester's Triumph, pp. 54, 61; cf. Virgil, Eclogues, iv.

6. 47 Thomas Churchyard's propempticon casts Essex as a Scipio: The Fortunate

Farewell to the most forward and noble Earle of Essex (1599), l. 1. 48 Peele, An Eglogue Gratulatorie to Robert Earl of Essex (1589), ll. 87±9, 94±7,

109. 49 Pricket, Honors Fame in Triumph Riding, ll. 1±2, 337±9, 343±4, 445±6, 505±8. 50 Storer, The Life and Death of Thomas Wolsey Cardinall. Diuided into three parts:

His Aspiring, His Triumph, and His Death (1599), ll. 323±31, 1247. 51 Thomas Rogers, Leicester's Ghost, ed. Franklin B. Williams, Jr (Chicago: New-

berry Library and University of Chicago Press, 1972), p. xiv. 52 Leicester's Ghost, ll. 316±19, 323±9; cf. 1283±1300.

Notes 201

5 Marlowe and Spenser

1 Tamburlaine the Great, ed. J.S. Cunningham (Manchester: Manchester Uni-versity Press, 1981), Part I, III. iii. 126±9, 272±3; cf. III. iii. 40±3, 159±61.

2 Part II, III. v. 103±5, 146±8, 164±6; IV. iii o.s.d. 3 For related discussions, see Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning:

From More to Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 193±221; Richard Wilson, `Visible Bullets: Tamburlaine the Great and Ivan the Terrible', in Christopher Marlowe and English Renaissance Culture, ed. Darryll Grantley and Peter Roberts (Aldershot, Hants: Scolar, 1996), pp. 51±69; John Gillies, `Marlowe, the Timur Myth, and the Motives of Geography', in Playing the Globe: Genre and Geography in English Renaissance Drama, ed. John Gillies and Virginia Mason Vaughan (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1998), pp. 212±16.

4 For Roman comparisons in Marlowe's sources, see Una Ellis-Fermor, ed., Tamburlaine the Great, 2nd edn (London: Methuen, 1951), pp. 298, 305.

5 Part I, .I i. 120; Part II, I. ii. 35. 6 Part I, III. iii. 215±17, IV. iv. 7; Part II, III. v. 168±9; cf. Livy, v. 23, xlv. 40;

Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 30. 7 Part I, II. i. 54±60, II. ii. 59±67, III. iii. 261±2. It is Tamburlaine who success-

fully uses gold as a weapon, dazzling and winning over Theridamas at their first meeting, Part I, I. ii. 123±40.

8 Bellum Catilinae, 7. 9 Roberto Valturio, De re militaria (Paris, 1532), p. 353.10 Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 33. Tamburlaine's captive monarchs may also

recall the noble, pathetic, and dangerous figure of Mary Queen of Scots, executed in 1587: Emily C. Bartels, Spectacles of Strangeness: Imperialism, Alienation, and Marlowe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), p. 64.

11 Phyllis Pray Bober and Ruth Rubenstein, Renaissance Artists and Antique Sculp-ture: a Handbook of Sources (London: Harvey Miller, 1986), pp. 200±3.

12 Cf. Part II, III. v. 93, V. i. 31±3. 13 Oratio M. Ant. Mureti . . . post Turcas nauali praelio uictos, in Orationes gratulator-

iae (Hanover, 1613), p. 433; Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations . . . of the English Nation, 12 vols (Glasgow: James MacLehose, 1903±5), vol. V, p. 177.

14 The Acts and Monuments of John Foxe, ed. George Townsend, 8 vols (London: Seeley, Burnside and Seeley, 1843±9), vol. IV, p. 28. Cf. Roy W. Battenhouse, Marlowe's `Tamburlaine' (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1941), pp. 108±13; Cunningham, Tamburlaine, pp. 71±81; T. MacAlindon, English Renaissance Tragedy (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1986), pp. 85±92.

15 Townsend, Acts, vol. IV, pp. 81±2. 16 Cf. Simon Shepherd, Marlowe and the Politics of Elizabethan Theatre (Brighton:

Harvester, 1986), pp. 142±56. 17 Richard Bonney, The European Dynastic States 1494±1660 (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1990), pp. 139±40, cf. p. 292. 18 Daniel Archdeacon, A True discourse of the Armie which the King of Spaine

caused to bee assembled in the Haven of Lisbon (1588), sig. A4v. Cf. William S.

202 Notes

Maltby, The Black Legend in England: the Development of Anti-Spanish Sentiment, 1558±1660 (Durham, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), pp. 17, 25.

19 Robert Humston, A Sermon Preached at Reysham (1588), sig. C8v. 20 Cf. Part I, V. i. 252±4; Part II, I. ii. 40±53. 21 On the similarly self-cancelling effect of the play's arithmetic, cf. Bartels,

Spectacles, pp. 73±4. 22 Flavio Biondo, De Roma triumphante (Basle, 1531), p. 205; FrancËois Modius,

Pandectae triumphales (Frankfurt, 1586), fol. 2v. 23 Though there is evidence that The Faerie Queene was well advanced by 1588,

it is not known to have reached its first published form before October 1589. Spenser's dedicatory sonnet in the 1590 edition to the victorious Lord High Admiral, Baron Howard of Effingham, promises that the poem will commemorate the Armada campaign: Spenser's Faerie Queene, ed. J.C. Smith, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909), vol. II, p. 495. As with Marlowe, the relationship between Spenser's text and the Armada cele-brations does not however need to be conceived in strictly chronological terms: literary texts and historical celebrations mutually inscribed one another.

24 Alastair Fowler, `Spenser and War', in War, Literature and the Arts in Sixteenth-Century Europe, ed. J.R. Mulryne and Margaret Shewring (Basingstoke: Mac-millan Press ± now Palgrave, 1989), p. 156.

25 Friedrich Heer, The Holy Roman Empire, trans. Janet Sondheimer (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), p. 163; Marie Tanner, The Last Descendant of Aeneas: the Hapsburgs and the Mythic Image of the Emperor (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 191±2, 204; cf. Fowler, `Spenser and War', p. 157. The Armada is represented as a dragon in a painting of c. 1610: M.J. Rodri-guez-Salgado et al., Armada: 1588±1988 (London: Penguin Books / National Maritime Museum, 1988), p. 281.

26 Jacobus de Voragine, The Golden Legend, trans. William Granger Ryan, 2 vols (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), vol. I, p. 209.

27 As well as the various Saracens and their gods Mahoun and Termagaunt (II. viii. 30, 33; IV. viii. 44), Corflambo rides a dromedary (IV. viii. 38) and Radigund wields a scimitar (V. v. 3).

28 E.H. Gombrich, `Celebrations in Venice of the Holy League and of the Victory of Lepanto', in Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Art Presented to Anthony Blunt on His 60th Birthday (London: Phaidon, 1967), p. 62; Iain Fenlon, `Lepanto: The Arts of Celebration in Renaissance Venice', Proceedings of the British Academy, 73 (1987), 207.

29 Tomaso Costo, Dell rotta di Lepanto (Naples, 1573), fols 4v, 11. 30 Cf. the Armada verses of TheÂodore de BeÁze, Ad serenissiman Elizabetham

Angliae Reginam (1588): `Quam bene, te ambitio mersit uanissima, uentus: / Et tumidos tumidae, uos superastis aquae!' [how apt that the wind caused you to drown, insubstantial ambition, and that you, swollen waters, over-came those puffed-up ones], Hakluyt, Navigations, vol. IV, p. 235.

31 `To the right honourable the Lo. Ch. Howard', line 7, in Faerie Queene, ed. Smith, vol. II, p. 495; cf. The Faerie Queene, ed. A.C. Hamilton (London: Longman, 1977), III. iii. 49 and note.

32 Townsend, Acts, vol. IV, pp. 451±2; cf. Maltby, Black Legend, pp. 37±8.

Notes 203

33 On the politico-religious character of the Orgoglio episode, see Anthea Hume, Edmund Spenser: Protestant Poet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 92±6.

34 In Du Bartas's triumph for Henri IV's victory at Ivry, which also appeared in 1590, Henri likewise represents reformed Christianity, and his arch-enemies are `fatall Philip' and `Romes Vatican': The Battail of Yvry, in Du Bartas His Divine Weekes, and Workes, trans. Joshua Silvester (1633), pp. 552±3.

35 Onofrio Panvinio, Fastorum libri V (1558), p. 456; cf. the Latins viewing the dead Cacus, slain by Hercules, Aeneid, viii. 265±7.

36 The correspondence between fictional and historical events and persons in The Faerie Queene continues to be debated. Arthur's victories in Belge have been identified with the campaigns of Leicester in 1585±7, of Vere in 1589± 94, and of the Dutch Republic at large. In his victory over the Souldan, Arthur has been identified with Leicester, with Howard of Effingham, and with the English nation at large. In the Renaissance practice of allegorical reading, such interpretations would not have been mutually exclusive. A recent assessment of Spenser's political allegiances, confirming his links to Leicester, is Vincent P. Carey and Clare L. Carroll, `Factions and Fictions: Spenser's Reflections of and on Elizabethan Politics', in Spenser's Life and the Subject of Biography, ed. Judith H. Anderson, Donald Cheney and David A. Richardson (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), pp. 31±44.

37 Jane Aptekar, Icons of Justice: Iconography and Thematic Imagery in Book V of `The Faerie Queene' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), ch. 10±12.

38 For Charles V and Philip II as Hercules, see Roy Strong, Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals, 1450±1650 (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell, 1984), pp. 84, 88; Tanner, Last Descendant, p. 139. The Geryon legend is invoked for Augustus's Spanish conquests in Horace, Odes, III. xiv, and for the Armada in Eleutherius's Triumphalia, p. 4; the English Hercules slays the Roman Hydra in Kuehn's Naumachiae, p. 62.

39 On the sense of decline in The Faerie Queene of 1596 and on Mercilla's problematic status, see Thomas H. Cain, Praise in `The Faerie Queene' (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978), pp. 131±6, 140±6.

40 Cf. Rene Graziani, `Philip II's impresa and Spenser's Souldan', Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Intitutes, 27 (1964), 322±4.

41 Dictionary of National Biography, vol. VI, p. 119. 42 In V. viii. 45, Arthur hangs the armour on a tree, re-enacting the invention of

the triumphal trophy: Plutarch, Romulus, 16. 43 Cf. Michael F.N. Dixon, The Polliticke Courtier: Spenser's `The Faerie Queene' as a

Rhetoric of Justice (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996), pp. 138±41.

44 Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, 3 vols (London: Longmans, Green, 1885±90), vol. III, pp. 65±78; Steven G. Ellis, Tudor Ireland: Crown, Community and the Conflict of Cultures, 1470±1603 (London: Longman, 1985), pp. 281±4.

45 See, e.g., V. xii. 3±4, 27; Richard A. McCabe, `The Fate of Irena: Spenser and Political Violence', in Spenser and Ireland: an Interdisciplinary Perspective, ed. Patricia Coughlan (Cork: Cork University Press, 1989), pp. 109±25; Walter S.H. Lim, `Figuring Justice: Imperial Ideology and the Discourse of Colonialism in Book V of The Faerie Queene and A View of the Present State of Ireland', Renaissance and Reformation, 19 (1995), 45±70; Gregory Tobias,

204 Notes

`Shadowing Intervention: on the Politics of The Faerie Queene Book 5 cantos 10±12', ELH: English Literary History, 67 (2000), 365±97. For the use of Roman models in the Elizabethan conquest of Ireland, see F.J. Levy, `Spenser and Court Humanism', in Anderson et al., Spenser's Life, pp. 77±8. For contrary views: T.K. Dunseath, Spenser's Allegory of Justice in Book Five of `The Faerie Queene', (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 47±59; Kenneth Borris, Spenser's Poetics of Prophecy in `The Faerie Queene' V (Victoria, BC: University of Victoria, 1991).

46 Letters from Ireland, Relating the several great Successes (1649), p. 9. 47 In some versions, Hercules's last labour was to slay the Hydra, a figure

associated with slander (and with the Blatant Beast); in other versions, slander is the enemy that even Hercules cannot slay: Horace, Epistulae, II. i. 10±12; Dunseath, Allegory of Justice, pp. 231±3; Aptekar, Icons, pp. 206±12.

48 Diodorus Siculus, xxxi. 8.

6 The Stuart Peace

1 For the `triumphalism' of the Stuart Banqueting House, see Per Palme, Tri-umph of Peace: a Study of the Whitehall Banqueting House (London: Thames and Hudson, 1957) pp. 124±8.

2 For the paucity of public, as distinct from court, ceremonies under Charles I, see Malcolm Smuts, `The Political Failure of Stuart Cultural Patronage', in Patronage in the Renaissance, ed. Guy Fitch Lytle and Stephen Orgel (Prince-ton: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 165±87.

3 Among many studies, see David M. Bergeron, English Civic Pageantry 1558±1642 (Columbia SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1971), pp. 71±89; Graham Parry, The Golden Age Restor'd: the Culture of the Stuart Court, 1603±42 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1981), pp. 1±21.

4 Rowlands, `Stay Sorrowes there about Elizaes Tombe', ll. 43±6, in Aue Caesar (1603).

5 Petowe, Englands Caesar (1603), ll. 144±54. 6 John Davies, Bien venu: Greate Britaines welcome to hir greate friendes, and deere

brethren the Danes (1606), ll. 65±6, 161±2, 165±6, 234±6. 7 As King of Scotland, James the poet had won him a `secund Croune' of laurel

that `dois bring / Moir hich triumphe' than his `Croune Imperiale': `To His Maiestie the Day of His Coronation with Laurell', ll. 7±8, in Poems of John Stewart of Baldyneiss, ed. Thomas Crockett (Edinburgh: Scottish Text Society, 1912±13).

8 Marcelline, Triumphs of King James (1610), sig. B3v. This book was first pub-lished as Les trophees du Roi Iacques I (London?, 1609).

9 The iconography described by Marcelline appears on the title page of his book, and in the statue at the Bodleian Library, Oxford, where the enthroned James holds a book in each hand: cf. David Howarth, Images of Rule: Art and Politics in the English Renaissance, 1485±1649 (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1997), pp. 120±2.

10 See W.B. Patterson, King James VI and I and the Reunion of Christendom (Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 31±123.

Notes 205

11 Thomas Dekker, The Magnificent Entertainment: Given to King James, ll. 698±9, in The Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker, ed. Fredson Bowers and Cyrus Hoy, 6 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953±74), vol. II.

12 Threnothriambeuticon (Cambridge, 1603), sig. C2. 13 Samuel R. Gardiner, History of England from the Accession of James I to the

Outbreak of the Civil War, 3rd edn, 10 vols (London: Longmans, Green, 1889), vol. II, pp. 161±3; David Norbrook, `The Masque of Truth: Court Enter-tainments and International Protestant Politics in the Early Stuart Period', Seventeenth Century, 1 (1986), 81±110.

14 John Gell, Epithalamium et gratulatio (Heidelberg, 1613), sig. D2v. 15 Peacham, Prince Henrie revived (1615), ll. 592±603. On Henry, Prince of Wales,

see Roy Strong, Henry Prince of Wales and England's Lost Renaissance (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986), pp. 71±85; J.R. Mulryne, ` ̀ `Here's Unfortunate Revels'': War and Chivalry in Plays and Shows at the Time of Prince Henry Stuart', in War, Literature and the Arts in Sixteenth-Century Europe, ed. J.R. Mulryne and Margaret Shewring (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Pal-grave, 1989), pp. 165±89. Peacham, like Gell, visited Heidelberg, and he was present with the continental army of Sir John Ogle in 1613±14.

16 Peacham may allude to Cornelius Vroom's Armada tapestries, bought by James I in 1616: J.S.A. Adamson, `Chivalry and Political Culture in Caroline England', in Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England, ed. Kevin Sharpe and Peter Lake (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1993), p. 173.

17 Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477±1806 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 244±7, 405±7.

18 Shute, The Triumphs of Nassau (1613), sigs D2±D2v. The French text (with Dutch title) is Jan Orlers and Henrik van Haestens, Nassauschen laurencrans (Leiden, 1612).

19 L.J. Reeve, Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 9±57; Kevin Sharpe, The Personal Reign of Charles I (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 3±70.

20 Holland, Heroologia Anglica (Arnhem, 1620), sig. 6v. 21 Crosse, Belgiaes Troubles, and Triumphs (1625), sig. F3v. 22 Blunt (or Blount) is the name of several soldiers and several recusants of the

period, but I have been unable to identify Crosse's `Philippicke' Blunt. 23 Van Baerle, Britannia triumphans (Leiden, 1626), p. 18. 24 Laude, The Scottish souldier (Edinburgh, 1629), ll. 320±4. Buckingham was

assassinated in August 1628, raising hopes of peace with France and a con-centration on war with Spain. Peace with France was concluded in April 1629, with Spain in December 1629. Lauder's poem may have been published in the middle of the year, when negotiations with Spain were at an impasse. On Buckingham's style, see Roger Lockyer, Buckingham (London: Longman, 1981), pp. 20, 236, 470.

25 Laude, The soldiers wishe (Edinburgh, 1628), ll. 120±35. When his wish was thwarted by the peace of 1629, Lauder followed Ogle into the military service of the Princes of Orange.

26 Soldiers wishe, ll. 70±2, 152, 173±4. For similar urgings to a crusade, see Sir John Stradling, Beati Pacifici (1623), pp. 16±17.

27 Scottish souldier, ll. 285±8. 28 Belgiaes Troubles, and Triumphs, sigs E4v I4V; cf. sig. K1v.

206 Notes

29 Gardiner, History of England, vol. VII, pp. 384±6; Sharpe, Personal Rule, pp. 97±104; B.W. Quintrell, `Charles I and His Navy', Seventeenth Century, 3 (1988), 159±79.

30 Andrew Martindale, The Triumphs of Caesar by Andrea Mantegna (London: Harvey Miller, 1979), pp. 56±74, 134, 159, 171±2.

31 Martindale, Triumphs, pp. 42±6. 32 Martindale, Triumphs, pp. 59±60. 33 Parry, Golden Age Restor'd, pp. 215±16; Howarth, Images of Rule, pp. 252±3. 34 Oliver Millar, Van Dyck in England (London: National Portrait Gallery, 1982),

pp. 50±2; John Peacock, `The Politics of Portraiture', in Culture and Politics, ed. Sharpe and Lake, p. 226; Howarth, Images of Rule, pp. 141±4.

35 Gardiner, History of England, vol. VIII, pp. 269±81; Sharpe, Personal Rule, pp. 717±30; Martin Butler, `Reform or Reverence? The Politics of the Caroline Masque', in Theatre and Government under the Early Stuarts, ed. J.R. Mulryne and Margaret Shewring (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 146±51.

36 Albion's Triumph, l. 131, in Stephen Orgel and Roy Strong, Inigo Jones: the Theatre of the Stuart Court, 2 vols. (London: Sotheby Parke Bernet, 1973), vol. II.

37 Orgel and Strong, Inigo Jones, vol. II, pp. 453, 462±8. 38 On the Roman-English continuity, see Jerzy Limon, The Masque of Stuart

Culture (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1990), pp. 82±5. 39 See Orgel and Strong, Inigo Jones, vol. I, p. 61; Erica Veevers, Images of Love and

Religion: Queen Henrietta Maria and Court Entertainments (Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press, 1989), pp. 177±8.

40 Sharpe, Personal Rule, pp. 77±8, 84, 90±1. 41 For poetic treatments of Gustavus, see James Loxley, Royalism and Poetry in the

English Civil Wars: the Drawn Sword (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1997), pp. 23±7.

42 `Elegy on the death of the King of Sweden', ll. 33±40, in The Poems and Masques of Aurelian Townshend, ed. Cedric C. Brown (Reading: Whiteknights Press, 1983); Kevin Sharpe, Criticism and Compliment: the Politics of Literature in the England of Charles I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 173±6; Loxley, Royalism and Poetry, pp. 25±7.

43 Orgel and Strong, Inigo Jones, vol. I, p. 59; cf. p. 71.44 Sharpe, Personal Rule, pp. 97±104.45 See also Butler, `Politics of the Caroline Masque', pp. 133±7. On the ways in

which royal authority was `negotiated rather than simply affirmed' in Stuart masques, see Butler, `Courtly Negotiations', in The Politics of the Stuart Court Masque, ed. David Bevington and Peter Holbrook (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 20±40; for a persuasive treatment of war, peace and `Platonic politics' in the 1630s, see R. Malcolm Smuts, Court Culture and the Origins of a Royalist Tradition in Early Stuart England (Philadelphia: Uni-versity of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), pp. 247±62.

7 Shakespeare and Stuart Drama

1 Titus Andronicus, I. i. 18±38, in The Riverside Shakespeare, textual ed. G. Blake-more Evans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974).

Notes 207

2 Ruines, xiv. 11±14, in Spenser's Minor Poems, ed. Ernest de SeÂlincourt (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910), p. 241.

3 On civility and barbarism in this text and its Elizabethan context, see Francis Barker, `Treasures of Culture: Titus Andronicus and Death by Hanging', in The Production of English Renaissance Culture, ed. David Lee Miller, Sharon O'Dair and Harold Weber (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), pp. 226±61. The dialectic between triumphal victories abroad and perturbing tumults at home was always a theme of Roman history: see for example Livy, ii. 31, ii. 54, and esp. iii. 8.

4 See Mark Rose, `Conjuring Caesar: Ceremony, History, and Authority in 1599', English Literary Renaissance, 19 (1989), 291±304.

5 John Guy, Tudor England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 440. 6 Anthony Miller, `Domains of Victory: Staging and Contesting the Roman

Triumph in Renaissance England', in Playing the Globe: Genre and Geography in English Renaissance Drama, ed. John Gillies and Virginia Mason Vaughan (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1998), pp. 277±83.

7 The prominence of triumph and its irreverent variations may recall the ceremonies for the visit of Christian IV of Denmark in 1606: see p. 109, and H. Neville Davies, `Jacobean Antony and Cleopatra', Shakespeare Studies, 17 (1985), 123±58. The play's triumphs are well studied in Russell Jackson, `The Triumphs of Antony and Cleopatra', Jahrbuch der Shakespeare-Gesellschaft West, 1984, 128±48.

8 For the ancients, see, e.g., Livy, xxxvii. 60, xlv. 42; cf. Helen Morris, `Queen Elizabeth I ``Shadowed'' in Cleopatra', Huntington Library Quarterly, 32 (1969), 271±8.

9 Coriolanus calls the entry a triumph, II. i. 177. Shakespeare's description, II. i. 205±21, like those in Henry V and Julius Caesar, vies with the virtuoso descrip-tions in humanist studies.

10 Among many studies of the Jacobean Coriolanus, see R.B. Parker, `Coriolanus and ``th'interpretation of the time'' ', in Mirror up to Shakespeare: Essays in Honour of G.R. Hibbard, ed. J.C. Gray (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), pp. 261±76; Leah S. Marcus, Puzzling Shakespeare: Local Reading and its Discontents (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 202±11.

11 The Tragedie of Bonduca, iv. 62, ed. Cyrus Hoy, in The Dramatic Works in the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon, gen. ed. Fredson Bowers, 10 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966±96), vol. IV.

12 Cf. Paul D. Green, `Theme and Structure in Fletcher's Bonduca', Studies in English Literature 1500±1900, 22 (1982), 309±10.

13 Annales, xii. 37. 14 The play dates from either 1609±11 or 1613±14: E.K. Chambers, The Eliza-

bethan Stage, 4 vols (London: Oxford University Press, 1923), vol. III, p. 228. 15 For contemporary controversies on the historical Boudicca and submission to

Rome, see Malcolm Smuts, `Court-Centred Politics and the Uses of Roman Historians, c. 1590±1630', in Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England, ed. Kevin Sharpe and Peter Lake (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1993), p. 40.

16 The Bond-Man, I. i. 47±8, in The Plays and Poems of Philip Massinger, ed. Philip Edwards and Colin Gibson, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), vol. I.

17 Plays and Poems, vol. V, p. 130.

208 Notes

18 Cf. the further triumphal references at I. iii. 296, 366±8, II. i. 89±93. 19 G.E. Bentley, The Jacobean and Caroline Stage, 7 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1941±68), vol. IV, p. 766. 20 `Prerevolutionary Drama', in The Politics of Tragicomedy, ed. Gordon McMul-

lan and Jonathan Hope (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 136±7. 21 Margot Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre: Thomas Middleton and Opposition

Drama under the Early Stuarts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), p. 136.

22 Benjamin Townley Spencer, ed., The Bondman: An Antient Storie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1932), pp. 28±43.

23 Dictionary of National Biography, vol. IX, p. 659. 24 S.R. Gardiner, `The Political Element in Massinger', The New Shakspere Soci-

ety's Transactions, Series 1, No. 4 (1875±6), 316±19. 25 Hannibal and Scipio, II. i. p. 209, in The Works of Thomas Nabbes, ed. A.H.

Bullen, 2 vols. (1882±9, repr. New York: Benjamin Blom, 1964), vol. I. 26 Nabbes's sources are Livy and Plutarch, and he appears to allude to Petrarch's

Africa in acknowledging `the singer of the Punick warr': R.W. Vince, `Thomas Nabbes's Hannibal and Scipio: Sources and Theme', Studies in English Literature 1500±1900, 11 (1971), 328±36.

27 Works, vol. II, p. 260. 28 Corneille's career began in 1629; Le Cid would appear in 1636. Hannibal too

is capable of the CorneÂlien recognition, `Hang beauty: that and ease are th' onely engines / To ruine vertue' (I. v; p. 205); his shortcoming is in moderat-ing `vertue' and its dreams of triumph.

8 Civil War and Commonwealth

1 Bulstrode Whitelocke, Memorials of the English Affairs (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1853), vol. I, p. 355; B. Capp, Cromwell's Navy: the Fleet and the English Revolution 1648±1660 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), pp. 52±3.

2 The Civil War, ed. Allan Pritchard (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), p. 73; cf. Epibateria (1643), sigs B(2)2, B(2)3.

3 T. Manley, Veni; Vidi; Vici (1652), sig. C4v; Aeneid, vi. 129. 4 S.R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, 1642±1649, 2nd edn, 4 vols,

(London: Longmans, Green, 1893), vol. I, pp. 14±15; Sean Kelsey, Inventing a Republic: the Political Culture of the English Commonwealth, 1649±1653 (Man-chester: Manchester University Press, 1997), ch. 2.

5 Thomas Hill, The Militant Church, triumphant over the Dragon and his Angels (1643), sig. B4v.

6 Proclamation of 21 March 1645.7 W.I., The Jubilie of England (1646), pp. 5±6.8 Cf. Gardiner, Civil War, vol. I, pp. 187, 256±7.9 A more exact and perfect Relation Of the great Victory (1645), p. 4.10 A Glorious Victorie Obtained By Sr. Thomas Fairfax (1645), sigs A3v±A4. 11 An Ordinance of the Lords and Commons . . . Together with two exact Relations

(1645), p. 4. Many of the alleged whores were soldiers' wives: Peter Young and Richard Holmes, The English Civil War: a Military History of the Three Civil Wars, 1642±1651 (London: Eyre Methuen, 1974), p. 250.

Notes 209

12 A More Particular and Exact Relation of The Victory (1645), p. 2. 13 S.R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649±1656, 2nd

edn, 4 vols (London: Longmans, Green, 1903), vol. I, pp. 21±8, 178±81. 14 Letters from Ireland, Relating the several great Successes (1649), p. 10. 15 The last great and Bloudy Fight in Ireland (1649), p. 4. 16 A Letter from Windsor, printed with A Speech or Declaration of the Declared King

of Scots (1650), pp. 4, 5. 17 Letter from Windsor, pp. 5±6. 18 Remarkable Observations of Gods Mercies towards England (1651), p. 5. 19 A Letter from the Lord General Cromwel . . . Touching the taking of the City of

Worcester (1651), p. 3. 20 A Perfect Relation of his Excellency the Lord Generall Cromwells Reception . . . in

and about the City of London, printed with Another Victory in Lancashire Obtained against the Scots (1651), p. 3; cf. Gerald M. MacLean, Time's Witness: Historical Representation in English Poetry, 1603±1660 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), pp. 230±1.

21 A Perfect Relation, p. 2. 22 A Perfect Relation, p. 3. Standards captured in Cromwell's Scottish campaign

were hung in Westminster Hall: Gardiner, Commonwealth, vol. II, p. 1. 23 William was son of Prince Maurits, hero of the militant Protestants in earlier

decades; by the 1640s, dynastic interest allied the house of Nassau-Orange with the Stuarts rather than with Parliament.

24 Gardiner, Civil War, vol. I, pp. 36±7, 93±5, 160±6. 25 See C.V. Wedgwood, Poetry and Politics under the Stuarts (Cambridge: Cam-

bridge University Press, 1960), pp. 76±9; Raymond A. Anselment, `The Oxford University Poets and Caroline Panegyric', John Donne Journal, 3 (1984), 196±7; MacLean, Time's Witness, pp. 199±202; James Loxley, Royalism and Poetry in the English Civil Wars: the Drawn Sword (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press ± now Palgrave, 1997), pp. 81±4.

26 Musarum Oxoniensium Epibateria (1643), sig. A4v; cf. Marvell, `Horatian Ode', ll. 1±8.

27 Gardiner, Civil War, vol. I, p. 353; vol. II, pp. 114, 180, 231. 28 Cf. the masque-like treatment of the meeting of the King and queen in

Cowley's Civil War, i. 207±50. 29 The Poetical Works of Robert Herrick, ed. L.C. Martin (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1956), p. 271. 30 Thomas N. Corns, Uncloistered Virtue: English Political Literature, 1640±1660

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 94±102. 31 The Militant Church, triumphant, sigs D3v, B4, B2. Another example of the

genre is John Bewick, Confiding England under conflicts Triumphing in the Middest of her Terrors (1644).

32 Whitfield, Idolaters Ruine (1645), sig. E1v. 33 Triumph of Loyalty (1648), pp. 17±18. See Daphne Woodward and Chloe

Cockerill, The Siege of Colchester, 1648: a History and Bibliography ([n.p.]: Essex County Library, 1979).

34 Triumph of patience (1649), pp. 3, 4. On the conventions and iconography of the triumph of patience, see Gerald J. Schiffhorst, ed., Triumph of Patience: Medieval and Renaissance Studies (Orlando: University Presses of Florida, 1978).

210 Notes

35 King, Elegy, l. 166, in The Poems of Henry King, ed. Margaret Crum (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965). For poems on Charles's execution, see MacLean, Time's Witness, pp. 214±19.

36 Cf. Herrick, `The Plunder', and Corns, Uncloistered Virtue, pp. 92±3. 37 Hesilrige was widely accused of profiting excessively from the confiscations:

Dictionary of National Biography, vol. IX, p. 745. 38 Elegy, ll. 200 (marginal note), 173, 175. Cf. Barbara Carpenter Turner,

Winchester (Southampton: Paul Cave, 1980), pp. 109±13; John R. Phillips, The Reformation of Images (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), ch. 9; C. Carlton, Going to the Wars (London: Routledge, 1992), ch. 11.

39 John Vicars, Jehovah-Jireh . . . or England's Parliamentarie-Chronicle, Parts I and II (1644±6), p. 227.

40 De bello ciuili, iii. 155±68. 41 Hammond was Cromwell's cousin, which adds to the persuasiveness of

King's tragedy of intrigue, though his charges are historically dubious: Gar-diner, Civil War, vol. IV, p. 131, n. 2. On representations of the captive king, see Loxley, Royalism and Poetry, pp. 147±55.

42 Horsmann, Sionis certamina et triumphus (1651), sig. G5. 43 Gardiner, Commonwealth, vol, I, pp. 312±13; cf. MacLean, Time's Witness, pp.

214, 219. 44 Antonia Fraser, Cromwell: Our Chief of Men (London: Weidenfeld and Nicol-

son, 1973), pp. 455±63; Roy Sherwood, The Court of Oliver Cromwell, 2nd edn, (Cambridge: Willingham, 1989).

45 Robin Simon, ''Roman-cast similitude'': Cromwell and Mantegna's Triumphs of Caesar', Apollo, 134 (1991), 111±22. The republican Council of State had taken similar steps: Kelsey, Inventing a Republic, p. 39.

46 Charles Wilson, Profit and Power: a Study of England and the Dutch Wars (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), p. 79; Christopher Hill, God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970), p. 155.

47 Gardiner, Commonwealth, vol. II, pp. 153±220; vol. III, pp. 28±60; vol. IV, pp. 146±76; Charles Harding Firth, The Last Years of the Protectorate, 1656±1658, 2 vols (London: Longmans, Green, 1909), vol. I, pp. 1±11. Caspar Staphorst's triumph of peace laments the spectacle of Protestants at war with one another: Carmen . . . de bello Britannico et ejusdem per Dei gratiam foelici exitu, qui est triumphus pacis (Dordrecht, [1656]).

48 The Full Particulars of the last great and terrible Sea-Fight (1653), p. 6. 49 Another great Victorie Obtained by Vice-Admiral Pen against the Hollanders

(1653), pp. 3, 5. 50 An Exact and True Relation of the great and mighty Engagement between the

English and Dutch Fleets (1653), pp. 1, 2. 51 Maurice Ashley, Financial and Commercial Policy under the Cromwellian Protect-

orate, 2nd edn (London: F. Cass, 1962), p. 3. 52 Mr. Recorders Speech to the Lord Protector (1654), pp. 4±5. 53 Mr. Recorders Speech, p. 2; cf. Perez Zagorin, A History of Political Thought in the

English Revolution (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954), p. 5. 54 Wither, A Suddain Flash (1657), p. 9. 55 Oliua pacis (Cambridge, 1654), sig. Dlv; Elaiophoria (Oxford, 1654),

p. 34.

Notes 211

56 Elaiophoria, pp. 7, 18, 48. In John Locke's Oxford contribution, Cromwell surpasses both Caesar and Augustus: Elaiophoria, p. 45. On `Protectoral Augustanism and its critics', see David Norbrook, Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627±1660 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), ch. 7.

57 Oliua, sigs G1v, A2v. 58 On Fisher's career, see Norbrook, Republic, pp. 231±8; on interregnum pan-

egyric in general, Nigel Smith, Literature and Revolution in England 1640±1660 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 277±86. I believe that Smith underrates Fisher's technical competence as a Latinist (p. 285). The 1650s saw a corresponding vogue for literary triumphs in other fields, e.g., the Protest-ant translation of Savonarola, The Triumph of the Crosse (1651); R. Boreman, Triumph of Learning over Ignorance (1653) and Triumph of Faith over Death (1654); R. Fletcher, `Easter Day', in Ex otio Negotium (1656).

59 Fisher, Poemata (1656), sigs a1, b1. Parenthetical references are to this edition. 60 T. Manley, Veni; Vidi; Vici: The Triumphs of the Most Excellent and Illustrious,

Oliver Cromwell (1652), sig. B1. Manley's poem is a translation of Fisher's Irenodia Gratulatoria (1652).

61 Poemata, sig. D2v. Fisher's book has two consecutive gatherings with the signature D. References to sig. D in this chapter are to the second of these gatherings.

62 Veni; Vidi; Vici, sig. C4. 63 Veni; Vidi; Vici, sig. B2. 64 Malice and detraction against Cromwell take the form of the dog Cerberus in

Wither, Suddain Flash, p. 10. Both versions recall the Envy and Detraction that assailed Spenser's victorious Artegall.

65 Fisher, Paean Triumphalis (1657), fol. 14. 66 Gardiner, Commonwealth, vol. IV, pp. 159±213; Ashley, Financial and Commer-

cial Policy, pp. 118±19. 67 Cf Oliua, sig. H2; Elaiophoria, p. 100. On the continuity between Elizabethan

and Cromwellian imperialism, see Hill, God's Englishman, pp. 158±60; on the debate over imperialism in 1654±6, see David Armitage, `The Cromwellian Protectorate and the Languages of Empire', Historical Journal, 35 (1992), 531± 55.

68 Cf. Elaiophoria, pp. 7, 9, 66. In fact, Cromwell refused to join in a war against the Ottoman empire: Hill, God's Englishman, p. 165.

9 Marvell and Milton

1 `Tom May's Death', ll. 44±5, 49±52, in The Poems and Letters of Andrew Marvell, ed. H.M. Margoliouth, 3rd edn, rev. Pierre Legouis and E.E. Duncan-Jones, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), vol. I, p. 95.

2 Poems and Letters, ed. Margoliouth, vol. II, p. 306. 3 The scrolling form of Trajan's column itself resembles the form of a Roman

book: see above, p. 5, and Poems and Letters, ed. Margoliouth, vol. II, pp. 378±9.

4 Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio Secunda, in The Works of John Milton, gen. ed. F. Allen Patterson, 18 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931±8), vol.

212 Notes

VIII, pp. 158, 222. Milton's sonnet to Sir Henry Vane (1652) also praises him as a Roman Senator. On Milton's republicanism and Romanitas, see Edward B. Benjamin, `Milton and Tacitus', Milton Studies, 4 (1972), 125±30.

5 Paradise Lost, iii. 249, in Works, ed. Patterson, vol. II, part i. 6 Paradise Regain'd, iii. 194±5, in Works, ed. Patterson, vol. II, part ii. Cf.

Christopher Hill, Milton and the English Revolution (London: Faber and Faber, 1977), p. 352.

7 Tibullus, i. 7; Propertius, iii. 4. 8 `An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland', ll. 1±4, in Poems and

Letters, ed. Margoliouth, vol. I, pp. 91±4. See Francis Cairns, Generic Composi-tion in Greek and Roman Poetry (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1972), p. 167; David Norbrook, `Marvell's ``Horatian Ode'' and the Politics of Genre', in Literature and the English Civil War, ed. Thomas Healy and Jonathan Sawday (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 147±69; cf. the opening of Du Bartas, The Battail of Yvry, trans. Joshua Silvester in Du Bartas His Divine Weekes, and Workes (1633), p. 551.

9 Cf. Poems and Letters, ed. Margoliouth, vol. II, pp. 295±6; Nigel Smith, Litera-ture and Revolution in England 1640±1660 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 277±8. Important discussions of the poem's Romanitas in general, and its relation to Lucan in particular, are: A.J.N. Wilson, `Andrew Marvell, An Horatian Ode upon Cromwel's Return from Ireland: the Thread of the Poem and its Use of Classical Allusion', Critical Quarterly, 11 (1969), 325±41; David Norbrook, Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627±1660 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 243±71, especially pp. 261±3.

10 Antonia Fraser, Cromwell: Our Chief of Men (London: Weidenfeld and Nicol-son, 1973), pp. 93±4, 139, 141, 152±3, 387±90; Lucan, i. 125±6, 146±50.

11 Fraser, Cromwell, pp. 140, 152. 12 Cf. Tacitus, Agricola, 11, 17, 29. The conquest of the Scots and Picts and

eventually of Rome had all witnessed to England's imperial destiny in Kasper van Baerle, Britannia triumphans (Leiden, 1626), sigs A6±A7.

13 In `N. Eleutherius', Triumphalia de uictoriis Elisabethae (1588), the virtues of Queen Elizabeth similarly draw praise from Medina Sidonia, the conquered commander of the Armada (p. 9).

14 Livy, xxxiv. 52, xlv. 39, 46; Josephus, Bellum Judaicum, vii. 153±5; Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 33, Marius, 12; Dio Cassius, li. 21.

15 Alastair Fowler, Triumphal Forms: Triumphal Patterns in Elizabethan Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 78±81.

16 Cf. Derek Hirst, ` ̀ `That sober liberty'': Marvell's Cromwell in 1654', in The Golden and the Brazen World: Papers in Literature and History, 1650±1800, ed. John M. Wallace (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), esp. pp. 21±6, 32±41.

17 The First Anniversary of the Government under O. C. (1655), ll. 23±6, in Poems and Letters, ed. Margoliouth, vol. I, pp. 108±19.

18 `On the Victory obtained by Blake', a poem not unanimously attributed to Marvell, does award to the Protector the navalis triumphus earned by the admiral (145±8).

19 Poems and Letters, ed. Margoliouth, vol. II, p. 321. 20 Cf. Sallust, Bellum Catilinae, 7.

Notes 213

21 Cf. Steven N. Zwicker, Lines of Authority: Politics and English Literary Culture, 1649±1689 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), pp. 87±9.

22 Milton's uses of triumph are studied with reference to Restoration spectacle by Laura Lunger Knoppers, Historicizing Milton: Spectacle, Power, and Poetry in Restoration England (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1994), ch. 4. See also Stevie Davies, Images of Kingship in Paradise Lost: Milton's Politics and Christian Liberty (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1983), pp. 110±26.

23 The History of Britain, in Works, ed. Patterson, vol. X, p. 57. On Milton, war, and triumphal celebration, see James A. Freeman, Milton and the Martial Muse (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), esp. pp. 216±23; J.P. Rumrich, Matter of Glory (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987).

24 Works, ed. Patterson, vol. I, part i, p. 65. 25 The exiled Tarquin likewise sought to regain his throne at the head of a

foreign army and was defeated by the triumphator Publius Valerius Publicola: Livy, ii. 1±6.

26 Cf. Ruth Nevo, The Dial of Virtue: a Study of Poems on Affairs of State in the Seventeenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 88±92.

27 Defensio Secunda, in Works, ed. Patterson, vol. VIII, pp. 232±4. 28 The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth (1660), in Works,

ed. Patterson, vol. VI, p. 121. On the reservations about the Protectorate inscribed in the Defensio Secunda, see Norbrook, Republic, pp. 331±7.

29 For versions of Christ the triumphator in Roman humanist writings, see Charles L. Stinger, The Renaissance in Rome (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), pp. 241±3.

30 Physical assault is suggested by iii. 392±6 and vi. 834±55. 31 This triumph is the fulcrum on which the action of Milton's epic turns, being

the event that has just occurred as the poem opens in medias res. 32 `The Messias came down from heaven to triumph over Satan, death and

sinne, and led them as prisoners and slaves, which before were conquerors and kept all in subiection': Ephesians 4:8, Geneva gloss.

33 Cf. Davies, Kingship, pp. 99±108; for comparisons with Lucan's Caesar, see Norbrook, Republic, pp. 438±67.

34 Satan's anti-triumph for the seduction of Eve resembles Tarquin's for the violation of Lucrece: Shakespeare, Lucrece, 1593±4.

35 David Armitage, `John Milton: Poet against Empire', in Milton and Republican-ism, ed. David Armitage, Armand Himy and Quentin Skinner (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 206±25. J. Martin Evans, Milton's Imperial Epic: `Paradise Lost' and the Discourse of Colonialism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996) argues for a conflicted relation between the poem and English empire-building.

36 For Satan's return as a Stuart court masque, see John G. Demaray, Milton's Theatrical Epic: the Invention and Design of `Paradise Lost' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 31±9, 71±2. See also Stevie Davies, `Tri-umph and Anti-triumph: Milton's Satan and the Roman Emperors in Paradise Lost ', Etudes Anglaises, 34 (1981), 385±98. Satan's return recalls in particular the masquing language for the return of Queen Henrietta Maria in the Oxford Epibateria.

37 For a cognate discussion of Paradise Regain'd, emphasizing the Son's classical virtues of magnanimity and Stoic heroism, see Richard Strier, `Milton against

214 Notes

Humility', in Religion and Culture in Renaissance England, ed. Claire McEachern and Debora Shuger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 258±86.

38 Plutarch, Romulus, 16.39 See p. 8.40 Gerald J. Schiffhorst, `Patience and the Humbly Exalted Heroism of Milton's

Messiah: Typological and Iconographic Background', Milton Studies, 16 (1982), 97±113.

41 Stella P. Revard, `Milton and Classical Rome: the Political Context of Paradise Regained', in Rome in the Renaissance: the City and the Myth, ed. P.A. Ramsey (Binghamton, NY: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982), pp. 409±19; Christopher Hill, The Experience of Defeat: Milton and Some Con-temporaries (London: Faber, 1984), pp. 313±19.

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Plutarch. Vitae Parallelae [The Parallel Lives], trans. B. Perrin. 11 vols, 1914±26. Propertius. Trans. H.E. Butler, 1990. Sallust. Trans. J.C. Rolfe. Rev. edn, 1931. Suetonius. Trans. J.C. Rolfe. Rev. edn, 2 vols, 1997±8. Tacitus. Agricola, Germania, Dialogue on Oratory, trans. W. Peterson and Maurice Hutton, rev. R.M. Ogilive et al., 1970.

Tacitus. Histories and Annals, trans. C.H. Moore and J. Jackson. 4 vols, 1925± 37.

215

216 Bibliography of Classical Texts

Tertullian. Tertullian: Apologia, De Spectaculis; Minucius Felix, trans. T.R. Glover and G.H. Rendall, 1931.

Tertullian. De corona militis. In Tertulliani quae supersunt omnia, ed. F. Oehler. 3 vols, Leipzig: T. O. Weigel, 1853.

Tibullus. In Catullus, Tibullus, Pervigilium Veneris, trans. F.W. Cornish, J.P. Postgate and J.W. Mackail. 2nd edn, rev. G.P. Goold, 1988.

Valerius Maximus. Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri nouem, ed. C. Kempf. Leipzig: Bibliotheca Teubneriana, 1888.

Virgil. Trans. H.R. Fairclough. Rev. edn, 2 vols, 1934±5.

Index

Actium, 22, 23, 25±8 aduentus, 2, 159, 184 Aemilius Paullus, 19, 20, 34, 74, 119 Aeneas, 8, 27, 30, 54, 76 Alberti, Leon Baptista, 42 Albertini, Francisco, 45 Alexander the Great, 3 Alfonso I, of Naples, 40 Americas, 3, 4, 66, 77, 121 Anglo-Dutch War, 165±70 Anne of Denmark, 109 Antony, Mark (Marcus Antonius),

26, 28, 36, 132, 133±6 Antwerp, 190 n.6 apobateria, 172 Apollo, 1, 43, 92, 103 Aratus, 110±11 Armada, Spanish ceremonial triumphs for, 3,

19±20, 66±70 English writers and, 88, 92±4,

101±3 literary triumphs for, 11, 67,71±8 and revival of triumph, 4, 5, 27,

28, 46, 61 see also Spain; Hapsburg, house

of Arthur, 8, 10, 20, 95, 99±103 Aske, James, 11, 67±8 Augustine, St, 46, 52±3 Augustus continental writers and, 54, 75,

77, 79 English writers and, 108, 134±6 in Roman history and poetry,

13, 22±3, 25±8, 30, 32 Aurelian, 53

Babington plot, 64±5, 100 Bacchus, see Dionysus Baerle, Kasper van, 119±20 Barnes, Barnabe, 62±3, 73 Basel, Council of, 42

Bellarmine, Roberto Cardinal, 110 Bergen-op-Zoom, 115 Biondo, Flavio compared to other writers and

artists, 57±8, 61, 62, 94, 97, 122

writings of, 38, 42±7, 51 Blake, Robert, 169 Boudicca, 63, 67, 140±2 Bourbon, house of, 39 Bracciolini, Poggio, 42, 90 Brunswick, Christian of, 118 Brute, 8 Buckingham, first duke of, 116,

143, 145 Burghley, first baron, 3, 69±70, 72,

104 Burgundy, 2, 12 Buytewech, Willem, 190 n.6

Caesar, Julius English writers and, 3, 80, 121,

130±3, 173±4, 176, 188 historical triumphs of, 16±17, 22 Italian culture and, 45, 54, 55,

122±3 Roman poets and, 8, 26, 32,

33±6, 162 Cambridge University

Oliua pacis, 166±70 Threnothriambeuticon, 111±13

Camden, William, 8±9 Camillus, 19, 22, 41, 53, 79, 119,

154±5 Campo Morto, 41 Capitol, Roman, 5, 35, 40, 52, 53,

54, 111 Capitoline tables, 38, 47 Caratacus, 140±2 Carthage, 26, 44, 52, 66, 112, 143,

146 Cartwright, William, 157 Charlemagne, 114, 120±1

217

177

218 Index

Charles I in Civil War, 7, 27, 81, 160±3,

173±8 early reign, 107, 116, 119±21, 147 personal rule, 6, 122±7, 147±8 and Roman models, 149, 159,

Spanish match, 142, 143 Charles II, as Prince of Wales, 147 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,

2, 49±50 Chichester, 161 Christian IV, of Denmark, 109, 124 Cicero defence of republic, 166, 168 on triumph, 16, 19, 33, 42, 90, 97

Civil War, English, 149±64 representation of enemies, 27,

28, 59 and revival of triumph, 4, 6

Claudian, 26, 36±7, 68, 171, 177 Claudius, 23 Cleopatra English writers and, 75, 95, 128,

133±6 Roman writers and, 18, 26±7,

30, 63, 89, 129 Cohen, Walter, 145 Colchester, 160 Constantine, 10, 13, 24±5, 79,

111, 121 Constantine, arch of, 49 Constantinople, 41, 42, 44±5, 197

n.12 Cowley, Abraham, 36, 150 Cromwell, Oliver Christian and puritan triumphs,

20, 25, 98, 152±5 and English conquests, 3, 8, 11,

61 in Marvell and Milton, 171±9,

180±2 as Protector, 6, 20, 164±70,177±9 Roman models for, 149, 166±9,

175 compared to Stuart monarchs,

155, 162±3, 175, 177±8 Cromwell, Thomas, 81 Crosse, William, 117±19, 121

Cupid, 31 Cyprus, 9

Davenant, Sir William, 124 David, 28, 54, 55±6, 59, 60, 74 Davies, John, 109±10 Day, Angell, 65±6, 112 Diodorus Siculus, 21 Dionysus, 17, 28, 53, 98 Dover, 76 Du Bartas, Guillaume, 11±12, 39,

58±61, 65, 203 n.34 Du Bellay, Joachim, 90 Dunes, battle of the, 169 DuÈrer, Albrecht, 13±14, 191 n.16 Dutch republic, see Netherlands Dyck, Sir Anthony van, 123

Elizabeth, Princess, consort of Frederick V, 113, 142, 143

Elizabeth I and English empire, 10 later monarchs and, 108, 110,

117, 119, 156 in Shakespeare and Spenser,

99±101, 132, 138 triumphs of, 3, 19±20, 63±8, 70,

114, 142 Empire, Holy Roman, 50±1

see also Hapsburg, house of epibateria, 172 Erasmus, Desiderius, 45±6, 62,

107, 110 Essex, second earl of, 6, 21, 78±81,

132 Eugenius IV, pope, 42

Fabricius, 74, 166 Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 150, 152, 155,

181 Famagusta, 60 Farnese, Alessandro Cardinal,

49±51 Farnese, house of, 49 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman

Emperor, 50 Fisher, Payne, 164, 167±70 Flamininus, 34 Fletcher, John, 6, 129, 140±2

Foxe, John, 10±11, 88, 96 Frederick V, elector Palatine, 4,

107, 113, 116, 143

Gell, John, 113 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 8, 10 Gonzaga family, 122 Googe, Barnabe, 62 Greenblatt, Stephen, 13±14 Grey de Wilton, fourteenth baron,

7, 21, 98, 104±6 Guise, third duc de, 66, 76 Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, 4,

6, 126

Hampton Court, 114 Hannibal, 21, 26, 82, 146±7, 175 Hapsburg, house of Elizabethan writings and, 73,

78, 94, 99 English rivalry with, 3, 51, 107,

119±20, 122, 170 and revival of triumph, 2 as successor to Rome, 47, 49±51 see also Spain

Hawarden, Samuel, 111±13 Henri IV, of France, 66, 108, 119±

20 Henrietta Maria, 7, 116, 125±6,

155±8 Henry, Prince of Wales, 114, 119,

147, 198 n.38 Henry V, 79±80, 108, 114 Henry Frederick, son of Frederick

V, 114, 120 Hercules English uses of, 95, 98, 103, 114,

157, 169 pillars of, 76 as triumphator, 28, 53, 65

Herrick, Robert, 158±9 Hesilrige, Sir Arthur, 161±2 Hill, Thomas, 159 Holland, Henry, 116±17 Horace, 25±7, 63, 128, 133±4, 171 Horsmann, Robert, 163±4 Hume, Alexander, 73

insignia triumphalia, 23

Index 219

Ireland, 4, 104±6, 152±3 Islam, 2, 44±5, 50, 58, 60, 61

see also Ottoman empire, Turkey Israel, 68 ius triumphandi and conclusive victory, 57, 96,

100, 142, 159, 182, 185 disallowal of triumphs, 29, 59,

149±50 and extending empire, 177 and formidable enemy, 71, 104

James I peace policies and triumphs, 6,

61, 107±19, 142 and other rulers, 3, 27±8, 108,

110, 111 Shakespeare and, 128±9, 138±9 and Spain, 107, 112, 113, 116,

142 Jenkyns, Richard, 12 Jerusalem, 4, 23, 45, 56, 94, 121,

170 Jones, Inigo, 124±7, 148 Jordaens, Jacob, 190 n.6 Josephus, 18 Jugurtha, king of Numidia, 18, 26,

176, 183 Julius II, pope, 13, 45±6 Juno, 68 Jupiter, 1, 19, 23, 43, 54, 92, 173 Jupiter Capitolinus, temple of Christian and English versions,

73±4, 114, 183 destination of triumph, 1 treasury of, 34, 51, 95, 103, 162

Juvenal, 38

King, Henry, 161±3

Lake, Peter, 15 Lauder, George, 120±21, 123 Leicester, city of, 158±9 Leicester, first earl of Governor-General of

Netherlands, 11, 65, 66, 82 Spenser and, 98, 100±2 uses of triumph, 6, 78±80, 82

Lepanto, 46, 87, 88, 94±5

220 Index

Lisbon, 81 Lisle, Sir George, 160 Livy, 21, 63, 136, 140, 146, 167, 179 Lloyd, Lodowick, 64±5, 192 n.29 Low Countries, see Netherlands Lucan

De bello ciuili, 8, 14, 26, 33±6, 38, 198 n.31

English writers and, 36, 84, 100, 131, 147, 150, 162, 173±7

van Baerle and, 119±20 Lucas, Sir Charles, 160 Luther, Martin, 14 Lydiat, Thomas, 192 n.29

Machiavelli, NiccoloÁ , 41 Malatesta, Roberto, 41 Malatesta, Sigismondo, 39±42, 115 Manlius, 16 Mansfeld, Ernst Count, 116, 118 Mantegna, Andrea, 122±3, 126, 164 Marcelline, George, 110±11, 172,

178 Marcellus, 82 Marius, 19, 176 Marliani, Giovanni Bartolommeo,

38 Marlowe, Christopher compared to other writers, 128,

137, 185 Tamburlaine, 5, 7, 32, 36, 83±92

Mars, 113 Marvell, Andrew, 6, 27, 168, 171±9 Mary Queen of Scots, 64±5, 100,

201 n.10 masques, 123±7, 157±9, 209 n.28 Massinger, Philip, 6, 129, 143±6 Maurits of Nassau, Prince of

Orange, 6, 114±15, 143 Mehmed II, of Turkey, 41, 161 Milton, John, and Rome, 8 uses of triumph, 6, 7, 20, 179 other writers and, 57±8, 180,

185, 187, 189prose writings, 171±2, 179,

181±2, 187Paradise Lost, 164, 182±7Paradise Regain'd, 24, 187±9

Modius, FrancËois, 12 Montefeltro, Federigo da, 40 Montgomery, first earl of, 145

Nabbes, Thomas, 6, 129, 146±8 Naseby, 3 Nero, 23±4 Netherlands Anglo-Dutch War, 165±70 and revival of triumph, 2 war with Spain: English role in,

61, 64, 65, 111, 115, 117±19; Armada triumphs and, 73; Spenser and, 95, 100±1

new historicism, 13±15 Norbrook, David, 36

Ogle, Sir John, 117 Orosius, 46 Ostend, 115 Ottoman empire, 4, 41, 51, 73

see also Islam, Turkey ouatio, 29, 137 Ovid English writers and, 84, 91±2,

130, 133, 144, 152Petrarch and, 52, 56writings, 26, 28±33, 36

Oxford University Eliaphoria, 166±80 Epibateria, 155±8

Panvinio, Onofrio, 38, 47±51, 124, 125, 197 n.15

Paul III, pope, 49±50 Paul IV, pope, 50 Paul V, pope, 110 Peacham, Henry, 114, 122 Peele, George, 80±1 Pembroke, third earl of, 145 Perseus, king of Macedon, 18, 20 Petowe, Henry, 108±9 Petrarch, Francesco Du Bartas and, 58 English writers and, 91, 130,

144, 146, 185 writings of, 11, 36, 38, 51±6, 81,

90 Pharsalus, 34

Philip II, of Spain, 2, 50±1, 66±7,89, 95, 99, 104

Piombino, 40±1Pius II, pope, 40Pius V, pope, 104Plutarch, 17, 21Pompeius, Sextus, 26PompeyEnglish writers and, 131, 173±4,

176±7, 188in Roman history and poetry,

21, 22, 33±6, 53possesso, 2 Pricket, Robert, 81Protectorate, 4, 6, 164±70

quanto magisChristian use, 9, 73, 183, 185defined, 9English use, 9, 12, 64, 124, 161

reditus, 2 Rogers, Thomas, 82RomeEnglish kinship and rivalry

with: Stuart kings and, 113,118, 121; Cromwell and,164±5, 167±8, 174±5; inEnglish writers, 8±11, 104,130, 135, 141±2

England as successor to: 4, 7, 46;in Armada triumphs, 68,72±8; Charles I and, 123,125; in Milton, 189

imperial triumphs, 1, 23±4, 179papacy, 7, 36, 41±6, 62, 95, 112,

164±5republican triumphs, 1±2,

16±21, 179see also translatio imperii

Romulus, 19Rowlands, Samuel, 108royal entry, 5, 13

see also aduentusRubens, Peter Paul, 190 n.6

St James's Palace, 123St Paul's Cathedral, 3, 19, 69, 70,

109

Index 221

St Paul's School, 64St Peter's basilica, 43Sallust, 136, 164, 178Savonarola, Girolamo, 10, 11±12,

38±9, 56±8, 60, 65, 73Scaeua, 34ScipioEnglish writers and, 138, 146±8,

188model for English rulers and

soldiers, 65±6, 111, 119,168, 181

Petrarch and, 52, 53, 55Roman writers and, 20±21, 26, 36

Segar, Sir William, 12, 192 n.29Selim II, of Turkey, 60Shakespeare, William,dramatizations of triumph, 6, 32Antony and Cleopatra, 128,

133±6, 140, 146Coriolanus, 128±9, 136±40Cymbeline, 142Henry V, 79±80Julius Caesar, 128, 130±3Titus Andronicus, 128, 129±30,

131Sharpe, Kevin, 15, 127Shute, William, 115±16Sidney family, 115Sigonio, Carlo, 38Silvester, Joshua, 61Sixtus IV, pope, 45, 95Smerwick, 104Spainbarbarian character of, 70, 71, 89English enmity toward, 9, 20,

65, 164±5English writers and, 11, 89,

92±103, 130and Farnese ambitions, 50±1James I and, 107, 112, 113, 116,

142see also Armada; Hapsburg,

house ofSpenser, Edmund,treatments of triumph, 5±6, 7,

11, 20, 28, 58, 61The Faerie Queene, Books I and V,

92±106

222 Index

Stilicho, 26, 36 Storer, Thomas, 81 Strafford, first Earl of, 159±60 Strong, Sir Roy, 13±15 Suetonius, 17

Tacitus, 63, 79, 136 Tarquin (Tarquinius Priscus),188±9 Tarquin (Tarquinius Superbus),

149, 177 Tempio Malatestiano, Rimini, 39,

196 n.2 Tenerife, 169 Tertullian, 24, 46, 56 Thirty Years' War, 4, 107, 116±21 Thulden, Theodor van, 190 n.6 Tiberius, 188±9 Tilbury, 67±8 Titian, 123, 191 n.16 Titus, arch of, 49 Titus and Vespasian, 4, 18, 23, 45,

109, 125, 170, 197 n.15 Townshend, Aurelian, 124±7, 148 Trajan's column, 171, 191 n.15 Trent, Council of, 4 translatio imperii, 7, 51, 60, 75, 114 triumphalism, 13±15, 36, 39, 93,

182 in court masques, 107±8, 126, 147

triumphator, 19, 27±8 at centre of procession, 19, 176,

178 chariot of: drawn by horses or

exotic beasts, 23, 31, 58, 123; Christian versions, 43, 56±7, 182±3, 185; variations of, 68, 81, 102±3, 136

Christ as, 24, 56±7, 63, 163±4, 170, 182, 185

detraction of: historical figures, 80, 168, 180; Hercules, 99; literary versions, 103±6, 131, 137±8, 182, 185

fortune and mortality of, and attendant's warning: at Rome, 1, 20±1; in continental writings, 52, 53, 54, 59; Elizabethan versions, 65, 81±2; in

Marlowe, 83, 86±7; in Shakespeare, 129, 130±1, 136, 139; Charles I and, 123, 162; Cromwell and, 153, 177, 178, 180±1

as god-king: at Rome, 1; Christian versions, 25, 56±7, 59; in English writers, 95, 102±3, 136, 173, 183

self-conquest of, 125, 166, 172, 175, 181, 187±9

subordinate to the state, 22, 35, 104, 174, 178, 188

Triumph of Loyalty, 160 Triumph of Patience, The, 160±1 triumphs anti-triumphs or mock-

triumphs: defined, 6±7; in Lucan, 35, 176; Cleopatra, 75; in Marlowe, 84, in Spenser, 92, 95, 105; in Shakespeare, 129, 132, 133; Civil War, 160±3; in Milton, 185±6

captives displayed and executed in: Roman versions, 1, 14, 18, 27, 31±2, 33±4; continental versions, 53±5, 57, 59±60; Elizabethan versions, 71, 85±7, 94±5; and James I, 109; in Stuart drama, 125, 129, 134±5, 141±2, 146; in seventeenth-century poetry, 162, 175±6, 181, 183±5

and carnival, 1, 16, 135 Christian: defined, 2;

Constantine and, 24±5; continental versions, 42±6, 56±61; English versions, 6, 73±5, 163±4, 178

and Roman civil wars: triumphs not awarded, 3, 6, 14, 18, 59, 149±50; in Lucan, 33±6; in Shakespeare, 131±3

described or characterized: 1, 5, 37; in Roman writings, 16±21; in humanist studies,

39, 42, 48; in English writings, 79, 135, 143±4

distinguished from cognate ceremonies, 2, 12±15

and empire: at Rome, 1, 17, 27±8, 36; Elizabethan versions, 4, 76±8, 84, 98±9; Stuart versions, 108, 121, 123; Civil War and Protectorate versions, 3, 150, 152, 169±70, 174±5; in Milton, 184, 186

female: Elizabeth and, 6, 7, 63, 75±6; Henrietta Maria and, 7, 125; in continental writings, 53, 55±6, 59; in English writings, 128, 133±6, 139±40, 142, 143

freed prisoners in, 18, 45, 87±8, 96, 169, 185±6, 188

jubilation in: Roman versions, 16, 32, 35; in Biondo, 57; in English writers, 100, 101, 104, 139, 183; and Charles I, 119, 123; and Cromwell, 154, 167

literary versions, 4±5, 11, 110±11, 173

of love: 7, 17; in Ovid, 29±32, 52; in Petrarch, 52, 53±5; English versions, 91, 125±6, 130, 133, 157±8

naualis triumphus, 46, 74, 136, 166, 169, 212 n.18

legendary origin of, 19 of patience or martyrdom, 149,

175±6 of peace, 2, 108±11, 126, 167,

210 n.47 political contentions for, 21, 78,

87, 99, 137±9, 173 protestant: 4, 10, 36;

continental writings and, 46, 58±9, 61; Armada period, 61, 62±3, 72±6, 78; Stuart versions, 113±14

puritan: continental versions, 12, 38±9, 46; English

Index 223

versions, 98, 101, 151, 178±9, 181, 187±8

spoils displayed and distributed: at Rome, 17±18, 22, 32; opima spolia, 74, 82, 177; Elizabethan versions, 70, 71, 80, 85±6; seventeenth-century versions, 113, 121, 152, 162, 165, 184

weapons displayed in, 17, 36±7, 42±3, 71, 75, 96, 152

see also ius triumphandi; ouatio; Rome; triumphalism; triumphator; events, places and persons commemorated; writers and artists

Tullianum, prison of, 1, 55, 94, 183 Tunis, 49 Turkey continental writers and, 44±5,

58, 60±1 English writers and, 87±9, 94, 101 European enmity toward, 4, 9,

20, 46, 49 see also Islam, Ottoman empire

Valois, house of, 49, 122 Valturio, Roberto, 38±42, 51, 85±6,

115, 122 Varro, 38, 47 Venice, 9, 13, 45 Venus, 29, 55, 76, 92, 136 Vere, Sir Horace, 116, 118 via triumphalis, 49 Virgil Armada triumphs and, 5, 76±8 and Augustus, 12, 25±8, 30 English writers and, 128, 134±6,

150, 167, 170, 184, 189 on triumphs, 16

Vroom, Cornelius, 205 n.16

Warner, William, 11 Whitfield, William, 159±60 Winchester, 161±2 Wither, George, 166 Wolsey, Thomas Cardinal, 81±2 Worcester, 3, 154±5