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ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Intr
od
uct
ion
to
Co
mp
ute
r S
yste
ms
(IC
S)
Par
t-I
2
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Mo
du
le O
bje
ctiv
e
3
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A c
ompu
ter
syst
em in
clud
es a
com
pute
r, p
erip
hera
l
devi
ces,
and
sof
twar
e
Com
pute
r sy
stem
is a
dev
ice
that
acc
epts
inpu
t,
proc
esse
s da
ta, s
tore
s da
ta, a
nd p
rodu
ces
outp
ut
Wha
t is
a C
ompu
ter
Sys
tem
?
4
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Wha
t is
a C
ompu
ter
Sys
tem
? (C
ont’d
)
CO
MP
UT
ER
SY
ST
EM
INP
UT
OU
TP
UT
5
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Wha
t is
a co
mpu
ter?
Co
mp
ute
r re
fers
to a
Pro
gram
mab
le e
lect
roni
c de
vice
use
d to
Sto
re
Ret
rieve
and
,
Pro
cess
dat
a.
Inp
ut
mea
ns to
feed
info
rmat
ion
into
a c
ompu
ter
Wor
ds a
nd s
ymbo
ls in
a d
ocum
ent
Num
bers
for
a ca
lcul
atio
n
Pic
ture
s
6
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Dat
a is
def
ined
as
the
sym
bols
, raw
fact
s or
figu
res
that
repr
esen
t peo
ple,
eve
nts
, thi
ngs
and
idea
s
Info
rmat
ion
is d
ata
that
is p
rese
nte
d in
a fo
rmat
peo
ple
can
unde
rsta
nd a
nd u
se
Com
pute
rs s
tore
dat
a in
dig
ital
form
at a
s a
serie
s of
1s
and
0s.
Eac
h 1
or 0
is c
alle
d a
bit
Eig
ht b
its is
cal
led
a b
yte
Dat
a, In
form
atio
n
7
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Dat
a V
ersu
s In
form
atio
n
(Kno
wn
Fac
ts)
(Pro
cess
ed D
ata)
DA
TA
ININ
FO
RM
AT
ION
OU
T
8
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Pro
cess
ing
is th
e w
ay th
at a
com
pute
r m
anip
ulat
es d
ata
perf
orm
ing
calc
ulat
ions
sort
ing
lists
and
num
bers
draw
ing
grap
hs
A c
ompu
ter
proc
esse
s da
ta in
a d
evic
e ca
lled
the
cen
tral
pro
cess
ing
un
it (
CP
U)
Wha
t is
a co
mpu
ter?
(C
ont’d
)
9
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A c
ompu
ter
stor
es d
ata
so
that
it w
ill b
e av
aila
ble
for
proc
essi
ng
Mem
ory
is a
n ar
ea o
f a c
ompu
ter
that
hol
ds d
ata
that
is w
aitin
g to
be
pro
cess
ed
Vol
atile
mem
ory
Sto
rag
e is
the
area
whe
re d
ata
can
be le
ft on
a
perm
anen
t bas
is
Wha
t is
a co
mpu
ter?
(C
ont’d
)
10
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Com
pute
r o
utp
ut
is th
e re
sults
pro
duce
d b
y th
e
com
pute
r
Rep
orts
Doc
umen
ts
Mus
ic
Gra
phs
Pic
ture
s
Wha
t is
a co
mpu
ter?
(C
ont’d
)
11
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A p
erip
her
al d
evic
e de
sign
ates
equ
ipm
ent
that
mig
ht b
e
adde
d to
a c
ompu
ter
syst
em to
enh
ance
its
fun
ctio
nalit
y
Wha
t is
a pe
riphe
ral d
evi
ce?
12
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Wha
t is
a co
mpu
ter?
(C
ont’d
)
13
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Evo
lutio
n of
Com
pute
r
Intr
oduc
tion:
Thi
s T
opic
giv
es a
n ov
erv
iew
on
com
put
er e
volu
tion
and
and
its h
isto
ry.
Obj
ectiv
e:
Afte
r co
mpl
etin
g th
is T
opi
c, y
ou w
ill b
e ab
le to
und
erst
and,
1. T
ypes
of C
ompu
ter
2. H
isto
ry o
f Com
pute
r
14
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Bef
ore:
Com
pute
rs a
re c
ateg
oriz
ed in
to th
ree
mai
n ca
tego
ries
from
leas
t
to m
ost p
ower
ful:
mic
roco
mp
ute
rs
min
ico
mp
ute
rs
mai
nfr
ame
com
pu
ters
Su
per
com
pu
ter
Tod
ay:
A c
ompu
ter
is c
ateg
oriz
ed b
ased
on
its te
chno
logy
, fun
ctio
n, s
ize,
perf
orm
ance
, and
cos
t
Typ
es o
f Com
pute
r
15
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Tod
ay’s
Com
pute
r C
ateg
orie
s
Per
sona
l com
pute
rs
Han
dhel
d co
mpu
ters
Wor
ksta
tions
Vid
eoga
me
Con
sole
s
Mai
nfra
mes
Sup
erco
mpu
ters
Ser
vers
Com
pute
r C
ateg
orie
s
16
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A p
erso
nal c
ompu
ter
is a
type
of m
icro
com
pute
r de
sign
ed
to m
eet t
he c
ompu
ting
need
s of
an
indi
vidu
al
Des
ktop
com
pute
rs
Not
eboo
k co
mpu
ters
Wha
t is
a P
erso
nal C
ompu
ter?
17
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Wha
t is
a ta
blet
com
pute
r?
A t
able
t co
mp
ute
r is
a p
orta
ble
com
putin
g d
evic
e
feat
urin
g a
touc
h-se
nsiti
ve s
cree
n th
at c
an b
e u
sed
as a
writ
ing
or d
raw
ing
pad
18
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A h
and
hel
d c
om
pu
ter
is o
ne th
at is
des
igne
d to
fit i
nto
a
pock
et, r
un o
n ba
tterie
s, a
nd b
e us
ed w
hile
you
are
hol
ding
it
Als
o ca
lled
a P
DA
(P
erso
nal D
igita
l Ass
ista
nt)
Sen
d an
d re
ceiv
e e-
ma
il
Use
map
s an
d gl
obal
pos
ition
ing
Mai
ntai
n ex
pens
e ac
coun
t, co
ntac
ts, t
o-do
list
s, m
emos
, etc
.
Mak
e vo
ice
calls
usi
ng c
ellu
lar
serv
ice
Wha
t is
a ha
ndhe
ld?
19
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Wha
t is
a ha
ndhe
ld?
20
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Pow
erfu
l des
ktop
mod
els
des
igne
d fo
r sp
ecia
lized
task
s
is a
hig
h-en
d m
icro
com
pute
r de
sign
ed fo
r te
chni
cal
appl
icat
ions
Wor
ksta
tions
nec
essa
rily
offe
r hi
gher
per
form
anc
e th
an is
norm
ally
see
n on
a c
onte
mpo
rary
per
sona
l com
pute
r,
espe
cial
ly w
ith r
espe
ct to
gra
phic
s, p
roce
ssin
g po
wer
,
mem
ory
capa
city
and
mul
titas
king
abi
lity.
Wor
ksta
tions
are
ofte
n o
ptim
ized
for
disp
layi
ng
and
man
ipul
atin
g co
mpl
ex d
ata
such
as
3D m
echa
nic
al d
esig
n,
engi
neer
ing
sim
ulat
ion
,ani
mat
ion
of im
ages
and
mat
hem
atic
al p
lots
.
Wha
t typ
es o
f com
pute
rs c
an b
e cl
assi
fied
as w
orks
tatio
ns?
21
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A v
ideo
gam
e sy
stem
(i.
e. S
on
y’s
Pla
ysta
tio
n)
is a
com
pute
r, b
ut
typi
cally
it
has
not
bee
n co
nsid
ered
a c
ompu
ter
cate
gory
bec
ause
of it
s hi
stor
y as
a d
edic
ated
gam
e de
vice
tha
t co
nnec
ts t
o a
TV
set
and
prov
ides
onl
y a
pair
of jo
ystic
ks fo
r in
put
Tod
ay’s
vi
deog
ame
syst
ems
cont
ain
mic
ropr
oces
sors
th
at
are
equi
vale
nt t
o th
ose
fou
nd i
n a
fast
per
sona
l co
mpu
ter,
as
they
are
equi
pped
to
pr
oduc
e gr
aphi
cs
that
riv
al
tho
se
on
soph
istic
ated
wor
ksta
tions
Is a
Pla
ySta
tion
a co
mp
uter
?
22
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A m
ain
fram
e co
mpu
ter
is a
larg
e an
d e
xpen
sive
com
pute
r
that
is c
apab
le o
f pro
cess
ing
data
sim
ulta
neou
sly
to m
any
user
s
Use
d by
gov
ernm
ents
and
larg
e co
rpor
atio
ns t
o pr
ovid
e
cent
raliz
ed s
tora
ge a
nd p
roce
ssin
g
Wha
t is
so s
peci
al a
bout
a m
ainf
ram
e co
mpu
ter?
23
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A s
up
erco
mp
ute
r is
one
of t
he fa
stes
t co
mpu
ters
in th
e
wor
ld Bre
akin
g co
des
Mod
elin
g w
eath
er s
yste
ms
Sim
ulat
ing
nucl
ear
exp
losi
ons
How
pow
erfu
l is
a su
perc
ompu
ter?
24
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A s
erve
r se
rves
the
com
pute
rs o
n a
netw
ork
by s
uppl
yin
g
them
with
dat
a
A c
lien
t re
ceiv
es d
ata
from
a s
erv
er
Any
com
pute
r ca
n be
a s
erve
r or
a c
lient
Hig
h pe
rfor
man
ce s
erve
rs a
re n
eede
d w
hen
ther
e is
a
need
for
lots
of u
sers
and
rap
id r
espo
nse
Wha
t mak
es a
com
pute
r a
serv
er?
25
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A p
erso
nal
co
mp
ute
r sy
stem
con
sist
s of
the
follo
win
g:
Sys
tem
un
it
Dis
pla
y d
evic
e
Key
bo
ard
Mo
use
Flo
pp
y d
isk
dri
ve
Har
d d
isk
dri
ve
CD
an
d D
VD
dri
ves
So
un
d c
ard
an
d s
pea
kers
Mo
dem
Pri
nte
r
Wha
t’s a
per
sona
l com
pute
r sy
stem
?
26
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
27
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Key
boa
rdM
ouse
– p
oin
tin
g d
evic
e
Mic
rop
hon
e –
spee
ch-r
ecog
nit
ion
Dig
ital
Cam
eras
Inpu
t Dev
ices
28
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Mon
itor
Pri
nte
r
Sp
eak
ers
Out
put D
evic
es
29
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Har
d D
rive
Flo
pp
y D
isk
Dri
ve
Zip
D
rive
CD
/DV
D
Dri
ve
Jaz
Dri
ve
Tap
e D
rive
Mic
ro D
rive
Sto
rage
Dev
ices
30
ELTP
-CA
MP
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EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
�Th
e F
irst
Gen
erat
ion
(19
45-5
5):
Vac
uu
m T
ub
es
�T
he
Sec
on
d G
ener
atio
n (
1955
-65)
: T
ran
sis
tors
�T
he
Th
ird
Gen
erat
ion
(19
65-7
5):
Inte
gra
ted
Cir
cuit
s
�T
he
Fo
urt
h G
ener
atio
n (
1975
- )
: V
LS
Is
�B
eyo
nd
th
e F
ou
rth
Ge
ner
atio
n
His
tory
of C
ompu
ters
?
31
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Firs
t Gen
erat
ion
Vac
uum
Tub
e T
echn
olog
y fo
r pe
rfor
min
g ba
sic
proc
essi
ng
Punc
hed
card
s fo
r in
put
and
outp
ut
Slow
inpu
t, p
roce
ssin
g an
d ou
tput
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
32
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Firs
t Gen
erat
ion
Mac
hin
e la
ng
uag
e pr
ogra
ms
wer
e m
ade
up
of in
stru
ctio
ns w
ritte
n
in b
inar
y co
de.
Thi
s is
the
“nat
ive”
lang
uage
of t
he c
ompu
ter.
Har
dw
are
dep
end
ent:
Cou
ld b
e pe
rfor
med
by
only
one
type
of
com
pute
r w
ith a
par
ticu
lar
CP
U.
Mac
hine
lang
uage
: R
equ
ired
expe
rts
to p
rogr
am p
rogr
am
Low
-leve
l sym
bolic
lang
uage
s fo
r pr
ogra
mm
ing
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
33
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Sec
ond
Gen
erat
ion
Tra
nsis
tor
repl
aced
vac
uum
tube
s
Mag
netic
cor
e m
emor
ies
and
mag
netic
sto
rage
dev
ices
wer
e
mor
e w
idel
y us
ed
Sep
arat
e I/O
pro
cess
ors
wer
e de
velo
ped
alon
g w
ith C
PU
IBM
bec
ame
maj
or m
anu
fact
urer
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
34
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Sec
ond
Gen
erat
ion
Ass
emb
ly la
ng
uag
e pr
ogra
ms
are
mad
e up
of i
nstr
uctio
ns
writ
ten
in m
nem
onic
s.
– M
nem
on
ics:
Use
s co
nven
ient
alp
hab
etic
abb
revi
atio
ns
to r
epre
sent
ope
ratio
n co
des,
and
abs
trac
t sym
bols
to
repr
esen
t ope
rand
s.
– H
ardw
are
depe
nden
t.
– A
ssem
bler
s tr
ansl
ate
“Eng
lish-
like”
inst
ruct
ions
into
mac
hine
co
de
– S
till d
epen
dent
on
mic
ropr
oces
sor(
CP
U)
arch
itect
ure
and
thus
on
the
hard
war
e le
vel (
no
t p
ort
able
)
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
REA
D
num
1R
EA
D
num
2LO
AD
num
1A
DD
num
2ST
OR
E
sum
PRIN
T
sum
STO
P
35
ELTP
-CA
MP
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ELLE
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S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
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-GR
OU
P
Thi
rd G
ener
atio
n
Man
y tr
ansi
stor
s on
a s
ingl
e ch
ip (
IC)
enab
led
low
er c
ost ,
fast
er
proc
esso
rs a
nd m
emor
y el
emen
ts
IC m
emor
ies
repl
aced
mag
netic
cor
e m
emor
ies
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
36
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Thi
rd G
ener
atio
n
Inst
ruct
ions
in th
ese
lan
gua
ges
are
calle
d st
ate
men
ts.
Hig
h-l
evel
lan
gu
ages
: Use
sta
tem
ents
that
res
embl
e E
nglis
h ph
rase
s
com
bine
d w
ith m
athe
mat
ical
term
s ne
eded
to e
xpre
ss th
e pr
oble
m o
r
task
bei
ng p
rogr
amm
ed.
Tra
nspo
rtab
le: N
OT
-Ha
rdw
are
depe
nden
t.
Abs
trac
t aw
ay C
PU
op
erat
ions
(po
rtab
le)
Impr
oved
rea
dab
ility
/ u
nd
erst
and
ing
, and
com
fort
of
deve
lopm
ent e
nviro
nmen
ts
Tra
nsla
tor
prog
ram
s ca
lled
com
pile
rs c
onve
rt H
LL (
C, C
++
, Jav
a,
Vis
ual B
asic
)
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
37
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ELLE
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S P
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CE
ME
NTS
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-GR
OU
P
Fou
rth
Gen
erat
ion
Stil
l adv
ance
men
t in
IC te
chno
logy
(V
LSI)
that
is V
ery
Larg
e S
cale
Inte
grat
ion
Mic
ropr
oces
sor
conc
ept -
Inte
l wer
e th
e m
ajor
com
pani
es
Par
alle
lism
, Pip
elin
ing
, Cac
he e
volv
ed to
pro
duc
e hi
gh p
erfo
rman
ce
Com
putin
g sy
stem
s of
tod
ay
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
38
ELTP
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S P
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CE
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OU
P
Fou
rth
Gen
erat
ion
: “P
robl
em-o
rient
ed”
lan
guag
es
No
n-P
roce
du
ral L
ang
uag
es :A c
ompu
ter
lang
uage
tha
t do
es
not
requ
ire
writing
tra
dition
al p
rogr
amm
ing
logi
c.
Pro
gram
min
g la
ngua
ge fo
r “n
on-p
rogr
amm
ers”
Ver
y H
igh
Leve
l (V
HL)
lang
uage
s fo
r sp
ecifi
c p
robl
em d
omai
ns
Man
y ar
e as
soci
ated
with
spe
cific
app
licat
ion
pack
ages
.
– Q
uery
Lan
guag
es:
– R
epor
t Writ
ers:
– A
pplic
atio
n G
ener
ator
s:
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
39
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
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ELLE
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
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-GR
OU
P
Fou
rth
Gen
erat
ion
Qu
ery
Lan
gu
ages
:
Ena
bles
a p
erso
n to
sp
ecify
exa
ctly
wha
t inf
orm
atio
n th
ey r
equi
re fr
om
the
data
base
.
Usu
ally
em
bedd
ed w
ithin
dat
abas
e m
anag
eme
nt p
rogr
ams.
Rep
ort
Wri
ters
:
Tak
es in
form
atio
n re
trie
ved
from
dat
abas
es a
nd
form
ats
into
attr
activ
e,
usab
le o
utpu
t.
Ap
plic
atio
n G
ener
ato
rs:
A p
erso
n ca
n sp
ecify
a p
robl
em, a
nd d
escr
ibe
the
desi
red
resu
lts.
Incl
uded
with
man
y m
icro
-com
pute
r pr
ogra
ms
(mac
ros)
.
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
40
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
His
tory
of C
ompu
ter
Fift
h G
ener
atio
n
– N
ew u
ser
inte
rfac
es (
voic
e ac
tivat
ion,
etc
.)
– N
ew c
ompu
tatio
nal p
arad
igm
(pa
ralle
l pro
cess
ing,
neu
ral n
etw
ork,
artif
icia
l int
ellig
ence
, op
tical
pro
cess
ing,
giga
bit
netw
orks
, etc
.)
– N
atu
ral-
Lan
gu
age
Pro
cess
ing
: Lan
guag
es th
at u
se o
rdin
ary
conv
ersa
tion
in o
ne’s
ow
n la
ngua
ge.
– In
telli
gent
com
pile
rs a
re n
ow b
eing
dev
elop
ed to
tran
slat
e
natu
ral l
angu
age
(spo
ken)
pro
gram
s in
to s
truc
ture
d
mac
hine
-cod
ed in
stru
ctio
ns th
at c
an b
e ex
ecu
ted
by
com
pute
rs.
41
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S P
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CE
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OU
P
Str
uct
ure
of
Co
mp
ute
r S
yste
m
42
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Wh
at a
re t
he
mai
n h
igh
leve
l co
mp
on
ents
in a
co
mp
ute
r?
�C
entr
al P
roce
ssin
g U
nit
(C
PU
)
�In
terc
on
nec
tio
ns
(Bu
s)
�M
ain
Mem
ory
(M
M)
�In
pu
t/O
utp
ut
devi
ces
CPU
M
D1
ICN
DK
D2
……
..
Cen
tral
Pr
oces
sing
Uni
tM
ain
Mem
ory
Syst
em B
us
(Inte
r C
onne
cted
N
etw
ork)
IO
Dev
ices
Bas
ic C
ompu
ter S
truc
ture
43
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Bus A
set
of
para
llel c
ondu
ctor
s, w
hich
allo
w d
evic
es a
ttach
ed
to it
to c
omm
unic
ate
with
the
CP
U.
Par
alle
l wire
s th
at c
arry
sev
eral
bits
at a
tim
e
Car
ries
inst
ruct
ions
, da
ta, a
ddre
sses
or
com
man
ds
Uni
dire
ctio
nal o
r bi
-dire
ctio
nal
44
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
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AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Bus
Typ
es�
Co
ntr
ol l
ines
The
se a
llow
the
CP
U to
con
trol
whi
ch o
pera
tions
the
devi
ces
atta
ched
sho
uld
perf
orm
, rea
d or
writ
e
�
Ad
dre
ss li
nes
(U
ni-
Dir
ecti
on
al)
Allo
ws
the
CP
U to
ref
ere
nce
cert
ain
(Mem
ory)
loca
tions
with
in th
e
devi
ce
�
Dat
a lin
es (
Bi-
Dir
ecti
on
al)
The
mea
ning
ful d
ata
whi
ch is
to b
e se
nt o
r re
trie
ved
from
a d
evic
e
is p
lace
d on
to th
ese
lines
45
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
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ELLE
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PU
S P
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CE
ME
NTS
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-GR
OU
P
Arc
hit
ectu
re o
f a
sim
ple
co
mp
ute
r
46
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Str
uctu
re o
f Com
pute
r S
yste
m
47
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Co
mp
on
ents
in a
Co
mp
ute
r
48
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
49
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
CP
U (
Pro
cess
or)
Wha
t is
it?
Bra
in o
f th
e co
mpu
ter
50
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Con
trol
Arit
hmet
ic lo
gic
Uni
t (A
LU)
Reg
iste
r set
Com
pone
nts
of th
e C
PU
51
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Com
pone
nts
of th
e C
PU
�
Co
ntr
ol u
nit
– C
oord
inat
es a
nd c
ontr
ols
all p
arts
of t
he
com
pute
r sy
stem
.
�
Ari
thm
etic
-lo
gic
un
it –
Per
form
s ar
ithm
etic
or
logi
cal
oper
atio
ns.
�
Reg
iste
rs –
Tem
pora
rily
stor
e th
e c
urre
ntly
use
d
inst
ruct
ions
and
dat
a.
52
ELTP
-CA
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Co
ntr
ol U
nit
AL
U
Reg
iste
rs
CP
U�
Fet
ches
Inst
ruct
ion
s fr
om
mem
ory
�In
terp
rets
th
e in
stru
cti
on
s
�P
erfo
rms
arit
hm
etic
op
erat
ion
s
�P
erfo
rms
Lo
gic
al o
pe
rati
on
s
�V
ery
hig
h s
pee
d m
emo
ry u
nit
s in
th
e C
PU
- fo
r st
ori
ng
ver
y sm
all
amo
un
t o
f d
ata.
CP
U –
Fu
nct
ion
al U
nit
s
53
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Wha
t Fun
ctio
n pe
rfor
m b
y C
PU
?
Fet
ch i
nstr
uctio
ns fr
om m
emor
y
Exa
min
e (D
ecod
e)
Exe
cute
54
ELTP
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CE
ME
NTS
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OU
P
Exe
cuti
on
of
the
Inst
ruct
ion
s( F
etch
-dec
ode-
exec
ute
cycl
e )
The
exe
cutio
n pr
oces
s of
the
inst
ruct
ion
stor
ed
in th
e
mem
ory
happ
ens
in th
ree
phas
es.
�F
etch
Ph
ase-
The
inst
ruct
ions
ret
rieve
d fr
om th
e
mem
ory.
�D
eco
de
Ph
ase:
Ret
rieve
d in
stru
ctio
ns a
re d
ecod
ed
by th
e C
U.
�E
xecu
te P
has
e: D
ecod
ed in
stru
ctio
ns a
re
exec
uted
by
the
ALU
.
55
ELTP
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CE
ME
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-GR
OU
P
Inte
lA
dva
nce
d
Mic
ro D
evic
es
(AM
D)
Cyr
ixM
oto
rola
(A
pp
le)
Pen
tiu
m IV
Pen
tiu
m M
MX
Pen
tiu
m I
II
Po
pu
lar
CP
Us
56
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
CP
U (
Con
td.)
Inte
l Pro
cess
ors
8085
8086
8028
6
8038
6
8048
6
Pen
tium
I
Pen
tium
II
Pen
tium
III
Pen
tium
IV
Mot
orol
a P
roce
ssor
s
6800
0
6802
0
6803
0
Exa
mpl
es
57
ELTP
-CA
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S P
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CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
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OU
P
Ho
w t
o M
easu
res
spe
ed o
f P
roce
sso
r ?
58
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Mea
sure
s o
f C
PU
per
form
ance
Mill
ion
of In
stru
ctio
ns P
er S
econ
d (M
IPS
) -
is a
mea
sure
of t
he s
peed
of t
he p
roce
ssor
.
Clo
ck s
peed
– is
ano
ther
met
ric u
sed
to m
easu
re
perf
orm
ance
.
Flo
atin
g P
oint
Ope
ratio
ns P
er S
econ
d (F
LOP
S)
-
is a
mea
sure
of t
he s
peed
of t
he F
loat
ing
Poi
nt U
nit (
FP
U)
whi
ch is
a c
o-pr
oces
sor
unit.
59
ELTP
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
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OU
P
Wha
t is
it?
�P
lace
to s
tore
pro
gram
s an
d da
ta
�
Idea
lly, t
he M
emor
y w
oul
d be
Fas
t, La
rge,
& In
expe
nsiv
e
�
The
max
imum
siz
e of
mem
ory
depe
nds
on A
ddre
ssin
g S
chem
e
�
16-b
it co
mpu
ter
gene
rate
s 16
bit
addr
esse
s an
d is
cap
able
of
addr
essi
ng u
p to
2 16
= 6
4 K
mem
ory
loca
tion
s
�
Num
ber
of lo
catio
ns =
Add
ress
spa
ce
The
Mem
ory
60
ELTP
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MP
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S P
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CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
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OU
P
Mem
ory
Typ
e of
Mem
ory
Inte
rnal
Mem
ory
Prim
ary
Mem
ory
Sec
onda
ry M
emor
y
61
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S P
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ME
NTS
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OU
P
Mem
ory
ME
MO
RY
Reg
iste
rsM
ain
Mem
ory
Cac
he
Mem
ory
Sec
on
dar
y
Mem
ory
RA
MR
OM
Inte
rnal
Cac
he
Ext
ern
al
Cac
he
62
ELTP
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NT C
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Inte
rnal
mem
ory
Impl
emen
ted
in v
ery
high
-spe
ed d
evic
es lo
cate
d w
ithin
CP
U
Hol
ds c
urre
ntly
exe
cutio
n in
stru
ctio
ns a
nd fe
w d
ata
rela
ted
item
s
Vol
atile
Mem
ory
Exa
mpl
es
Reg
iste
rs
Cac
he
63
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MP
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EXC
ELLE
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Dif
fere
nt
typ
es o
f re
gis
ters
Gen
eral
Pur
pose
Reg
iste
rs
are
thos
e w
hich
are
use
d by
the
prog
ram
mer
to s
tore
dat
a an
d
Add
ress
.
All
CP
Us
will
hav
e on
e r
egis
ter
calle
d A
ccum
ula
tor(
Spe
cial
Pur
pose
Reg
iste
rs).
Con
trol
Reg
iste
rs
The
spe
cial
pur
pose
re
gist
ers
are
used
by
the
CP
U fo
r pr
ogra
ms
cont
rol a
nd o
ther
pur
pose
s.
Ex.
: IR ,
PC
, Fla
gs R
egis
ters
64
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MP
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
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OU
P
Reg
iste
rs
Pro
gra
m C
ou
nte
r (P
C)
hold
s th
e ad
dres
s of
the
next
inst
ruct
ion
to b
e e
xecu
ted
Inst
ruct
ion
Reg
iste
r (I
R)
hold
s th
e in
stru
ctio
n th
at i
s cu
rren
tly b
eing
exe
cute
d.
Mem
ory
Ad
dre
ss R
egis
ter
(MA
R)
hold
s th
e ad
dres
s of
the
next
mem
ory
loca
tion
to b
e us
ed fo
r th
e
data
and
inst
ruct
ion
Mem
ory
Bu
ffer
Reg
iste
r (M
BR
)
hold
s th
e cu
rren
tly w
ritte
n an
d re
ad d
ata.
Acc
um
ula
tor
(A
)
is a
gen
eral
pur
pose
re
gist
er u
sed
for
arith
met
ic a
nd lo
gica
l
oper
atio
ns.
65
ELTP
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S P
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CE
ME
NTS
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OU
P
Reg
iste
rs, C
PU
an
d t
he
mem
ory
Mai
n M
emor
y
Con
trol
Uni
t(G
ener
ates
the
sign
als)
Pro
gram
Cou
nter
Inst
ruct
ion
Reg
iste
r
MA
R
M B
R
Spe
cial
and
con
trol
R
egis
ters
Arit
hmet
ican
d Lo
gic
Uni
t
CP
U
Gen
eral
Pur
pose
regi
ster
sF
lags
Reg
iste
r
66
ELTP
-CA
MP
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EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Fet
ch-d
ecod
e-ex
ecut
e cy
cle
mem
ory
ad
dre
ss
regis
ter
(MA
R)
me
mo
ryb
uff
er
reg
iste
r(M
BR
)
mem
ory
unit
instr
uctio
n r
eg
iste
r (I
R)
instr
uction d
ecoder
cir
cuits f
or
genera
ting
co
ntr
ol sig
nals
clo
ck
prp
gra
m c
oun
ter
(PC
)
A
B
D
E
R
co
ntr
ol u
nit
B
loc
k d
iag
ram
wit
h e
ss
en
tia
l in
terc
on
ne
cti
on
s
PC
co
nta
ins a
dd
ress o
f ne
xt
instr
uctio
nto
be e
xecute
d w
hic
h is m
oved to M
AR
67
ELTP
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MP
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NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Fet
ch p
hase
Con
tent
s of
PC
are
tran
sfer
red
to M
AR
Mai
n m
emor
y is
acc
esse
d an
d cu
rren
t ins
truc
tion
is
fetc
hed
into
MB
R (
Sin
ce M
BR
hav
e to
sto
re th
e da
ta)
Inst
ruct
ion
is tr
ansf
erre
d fr
om M
BR
to IR
(Sin
ce M
BR
hav
e
to s
tore
the
data
)
68
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Dec
ode
phas
e
Opc
ode
of th
e in
stru
ctio
n is
dec
oded
Con
tent
s of
PC
are
incr
emen
ted
by
1(in
cas
e o
f 1 b
yte
inst
ruct
ion
or e
qual
to t
he n
o. o
f byt
es o
f the
inst
ruct
ion
curr
ently
bei
ng e
xecu
ted.
)
Exe
cutio
n ph
ase
follo
ws
( sp
ecifi
c to
the
give
n in
stru
ctio
n )
69
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Exe
cute
pha
se
Exe
cute
the
inst
ruct
ion
Sto
re th
e re
sults
in th
e m
emor
y or
reg
iste
r (g
o to
the
fetc
h
phas
e to
beg
in e
xecu
ting
the
next
inst
ruct
ion)
70
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Mem
ory
- P
rimar
y or
mai
n M
emor
y
Rea
d O
nly
Mem
ory
Ran
dom
Acc
ess
Mem
ory
Mai
n M
emo
ry
71
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Prim
ary
mem
ory
Impl
emen
ted
in h
igh
spee
d de
vice
s lo
cate
d ou
tsid
e C
PU
Cos
tly a
nd v
olat
ile
Hol
ds p
rogr
am c
onte
nts
curr
ently
bei
ng e
xecu
ted
& s
mal
l
amou
nt o
f dat
a
Exa
mpl
e
RO
M
RA
M
72
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
RO
M (
Rea
d O
nly
Mem
ory)
Con
tent
s ca
n no
t be
chan
ged
onlin
e –
if th
ey c
an b
e al
tere
d
at a
ll
Wid
ely
used
to s
tore
co
ntro
l pro
gram
s
Wel
l sui
ted
for
stor
ing
fixed
pro
gram
s an
d da
ta
73
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Prim
ary
Mem
ory
RO
M (
Rea
d O
nly
Mem
ory)
MR
OM
PR
OM
EP
RO
M
EE
PR
OM
74
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Pro
gram
mab
le R
OM
(PR
OM
)
�
Use
r ca
n lo
ad d
ata
into
PR
OM
�
PR
OM
s ar
e m
ore
flexi
ble
& c
onve
nien
t
�
PR
OM
s ar
e le
ss e
xpen
sive
and
fas
t
Era
sabl
e P
rogr
amm
able
RO
M (
EP
RO
M)
�
Her
e da
ta c
an b
e er
ase
d an
d ne
w d
ata
can
be lo
aded
�
EP
RO
Ms
are
capa
ble
of s
torin
g in
form
atio
n fo
r lo
nger
tim
e
�
Whi
le u
sing
EP
RO
Ms,
mem
ory
chan
ges
and
upd
ates
can
be
easi
ly
mad
e
�
Dra
wba
ck -
For
rep
rog
ram
min
g an
d er
asin
g th
e co
nten
ts o
f EP
RO
M
chip
it s
houl
d be
phy
sica
lly r
emov
ed
75
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Ele
ctric
ally
Era
sabl
e P
rogr
amm
able
RO
M (
EE
PR
OM
)
�
The
se R
OM
s ca
n be
ele
ctric
ally
era
sed
and
pro
gram
med
�
The
se c
hips
nee
d no
t hav
e to
be
rem
oved
for
Era
sure
�
The
spe
cific
cel
ls o
f EE
PR
OM
can
als
o be
era
sed
�
Dra
wba
ck -
Diff
eren
t vo
ltage
is n
eede
d fo
r R
EA
D, W
RIT
E, E
RA
SE
76
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
RA
M (
Ran
dom
Acc
ess
Mem
ory)
RA
M is
now
use
d to
de
sign
ate
read
/writ
e m
emor
y (R
OM
is a
lso
rand
om
acce
ss)
If an
y m
emor
y lo
catio
n c
an b
e ac
cess
ed fo
r R
EA
D o
r W
RIT
E o
pera
tion
in s
ome
fixed
am
ount
of t
ime
that
is in
depe
nde
nt o
f loc
atio
n’s
addr
ess
then
that
mem
ory
unit
is R
AM
Mai
n m
emor
y is
mos
tly o
f thi
s ty
pe
Sem
icon
duct
or M
emor
ies
are
avai
labl
e in
a w
ide
rang
e of
spe
eds
77
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Sta
tic M
emor
ies
Mem
orie
s th
at a
re c
apa
ble
of r
etai
nin
g th
eir
sta
te a
s lo
ng a
s po
wer
is
appl
ied
are
know
n a
s S
tatic
Mem
orie
s
Con
tinuo
us p
ower
is n
eed
ed fo
r re
tain
ing
stat
e o
f cel
l
SR
AM
is v
olat
ile m
emo
ry
SR
AM
con
sum
es v
ery
less
pow
er a
s th
e cu
rre
nt fl
ows
only
whe
n ce
ll is
acce
ssed
SR
AM
s ca
n be
acc
esse
d ve
ry q
uick
ly
Acc
ess
time
is a
roun
d 10
ns
78
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Dyn
amic
Mem
orie
s
Sta
tic R
AM
is v
ery
fast
but
ver
y co
stly
as
thei
r ce
ll re
quire
sev
eral
tra
nsis
tors
DR
AM
cel
ls a
re s
impl
e a
nd h
ence
less
exp
ensi
ve
The
sta
te o
f the
cel
l ca
n no
t be
reta
ined
per
man
ently
and
hen
ce c
alle
d
DR
AM
In D
RA
M, t
he in
form
atio
n is
sto
red
in th
e fo
rm o
f cha
rge
on c
apac
itor
DR
AM
is c
apab
le o
f sto
ring
info
rmat
ion
for
only
a fe
w m
illis
econ
ds
The
con
tent
s of
the
cell
shou
ld b
e re
tain
ed fo
r a
muc
h lo
nger
tim
e
Per
iodi
c re
fres
hmen
t by
rest
orin
g th
e ca
paci
tor
char
ge to
its
full
valu
e is
the
way
to o
verc
ome
abov
e pr
oble
m
79
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Dyn
amic
Mem
orie
s
DR
AM
cel
l con
sist
s of
a c
apac
itor
and
a tr
ansi
stor
Info
rmat
ion
sto
red
in c
ell c
an b
e re
trie
ved
corr
ectly
onl
y if
it is
RE
AD
befo
re th
e ch
arge
on
capa
cito
r dr
ops
belo
w T
HR
ES
HO
LD V
ALU
E
DR
AM
are
wid
ely
used
in M
AIN
Mem
ory
beca
use
of it
s
�
Low
cos
t
�
Hig
h D
ensi
ty
80
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Spe
ed, S
ize
& C
ost
Fas
t Mem
ory
can
be a
chie
ved
if S
RA
M c
hips
are
use
d, C
ache
Mem
ory
can
be b
uilt
with
SR
AM
tech
nolo
gy
SR
AM
chi
ps a
re C
ostly
as
thei
r ba
sic
cell
cons
ists
of 6
Tra
nsis
tors
The
bas
ic c
ells
of D
RA
M a
re s
imp
le a
nd le
ss e
xpen
sive
but
DR
AM
are
slow
er
Mai
n M
emor
y ca
n be
bui
lt w
ith D
RA
M te
chno
logy
81
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Cha
ract
eris
tics
of M
emor
y S
yste
m
�L
oca
tio
n:
CP
U, I
nte
rnal
(m
ain
), E
xter
nal
(se
con
dar
y)
�C
apac
ity:
Wo
rd s
ize,
Nu
mb
er o
f w
ord
s
�U
nit
of
Xfe
r: W
ord
, Blo
ck
�A
cces
s M
eth
od
s: S
equ
enti
al, R
and
om
,Ass
oci
ativ
e
�P
erfo
rman
ce:
Acc
ess
tim
e, C
ycle
tim
e, X
fer
rate
�P
hys
ical
Typ
e: S
emic
on
du
cto
r, M
agn
etic
su
rfac
e
�P
hys
ical
Ch
ar:V
ola
tile
/no
n-v
ola
tile
,era
sab
le/n
on
eras
able
82
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
A m
emo
ry p
lace
d b
etw
een
CP
U a
nd
mai
n m
emo
ry
Co
nta
ins
a co
py
of
the
po
rtio
n o
f m
ain
mem
ory
Pro
cess
or
wh
en n
eed
s so
me
info
rmat
ion
fir
st c
hec
ks c
ach
e
If n
ot
fou
nd
in c
ach
e, t
he
blo
ck o
f m
emo
ry c
on
tain
ing
th
e n
eed
ed
info
rmat
ion
is m
ove
d t
o t
he
cach
e
Mem
ory
- C
ach
e M
emo
ry
CP
U
Cac
he
Mai
n M
emo
ry
83
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Why
Cac
he?
Rep
eate
dly
exec
uted
inst
ruct
ions
and
freq
uent
ly a
cces
sed
data
are
sto
red
�Con
cept
: To
expl
oit t
he lo
calit
y of
ref
eren
ce
84
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Virt
ual M
emor
y
In m
ost m
oder
n co
mpu
ter,
The
mai
n m
emor
y is
not
suf
ficie
nt to
acc
om
mod
ate
volu
min
ous
prog
ram
s a
nd d
ata
Whe
n pr
ogra
m is
not
get
ting
acco
mm
odat
ed c
ompl
etel
y in
Mai
n M
emor
y th
en
part
of t
he p
rogr
am w
hic
h is
not
und
er e
xecu
tion
is s
tore
d in
Sec
onda
ry s
tora
ge
devi
ces
Ope
ratin
g sy
stem
s m
oves
dat
a an
d pr
ogra
m b
etw
een
Mai
n M
emor
y &
Sec
onda
ry d
evic
e
Tec
hniq
ues
that
aut
omat
ical
ly m
ove
the
data
& p
rogr
ams
into
Mai
n M
emor
y ar
e
calle
d as
Virt
ual M
emo
ry te
chni
ques
The
bin
ary
addr
esse
s th
at th
e pr
oces
sor
issu
es
for
eith
er in
stru
ctio
ns o
r da
ta a
re
calle
d V
IRT
UA
L A
ddre
sses
The
se a
ddre
sses
are
con
vert
ed in
to a
ctua
l (ph
ysic
al)
addr
esse
s by
the
com
bina
tion
of h
ardw
are
& s
oftw
are
85
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Cac
he M
emor
y vs
. Virt
ual M
emor
y
The
Cac
he b
ridge
s th
e s
peed
gap
bet
wee
n P
roce
ssor
& M
ain
Mem
ory
The
Cac
he is
impl
emen
ted
in H
ardw
are
Virt
ual M
emor
y br
idge
s th
e S
ize
gap
& S
peed
gap
bet
wee
n M
ain
Mem
ory
& S
econ
dary
Sto
rage
Dev
ices
Virt
ual M
emor
y co
ncep
ts a
re im
plem
ente
d by
Sof
twar
e T
echn
ique
s
86
ELTP
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MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Mem
ory
Org
aniz
atio
n
Virt
ual m
emor
y O
rgan
izat
ion
Proc
esso
r
Cac
he
Mai
n M
emor
y
Dis
k St
orag
eMM
U
Virt
ual a
ddre
ss
Phys
ical
add
ress
Phys
ical
add
ress
Dat
a
Dat
a
Blo
ck tr
ansf
er
87
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Sec
onda
ry m
emor
y
Low
spe
ed
Non
-vol
atile
Hol
ds p
rogr
am n
ot c
urre
ntly
bei
ng e
xecu
ted
Hol
ds la
rge
data
88
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
AM
PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Mem
ory
- S
eco
nd
ary
mem
ory
dev
ices
Typ
eD
escr
ipti
onR
ead
able
Wri
tabl
eT
ypic
al
siz
e
Har
d di
skPl
aced
alo
ng w
ith
the
com
pute
r U
sual
ly n
ot p
orta
ble.
Yes
Yes
160
GB
Flop
py
disk
Po
rtab
le.
Smal
ler
size
s co
mpa
red
to H
ard
Dis
k.
Yes
Yes
1.44
MB
CD
RO
M
Port
able
dev
ices
.Rea
d on
ly d
evic
esYe
sN
o65
0 M
B
CD
Rea
d/
Wri
te
•Sim
ilar
to C
D R
OM
s ex
cept
tha
t it
is
also
us
ed t
o w
rite
the
inf
orm
atio
n on
to
the
spec
ial CD
RO
M
•Rea
d W
rite
typ
e.
Yes
Yes
650
MB
89
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Co
mp
aris
on
of
dif
fere
nt
typ
es o
f m
emo
ry
( sp
eed
, lo
cati
on
, co
st,
vo
lati
le/n
on
vola
tile
)
Stor
age
type
Imple
men
tati
on F
eatu
res
Con
tents
Exam
ple
Inte
rnal
Mem
ory
Ver
y hi
gh s
peed
dev
ices
, lo
cate
d w
ithi
n CPU
; Ex
pens
ive,
and
Vol
atile
. Ver
y co
stly
, he
nce
limit
ed
in s
ize.
Hol
ds
inst
ruct
ions
un
der
exec
utio
n an
d fe
w d
ata
rela
ted
item
s
Reg
iste
rs,
Inte
rnal
Cac
he m
emor
y
Prim
ary
Mem
ory
Hig
h sp
eed
devi
ces
(but
sl
ower
tha
n th
e in
tern
al
CPU
reg
iste
rs)
loca
ted
outs
ide
CPU
, Le
ss c
ostl
y co
mpa
red
to int
erna
l m
emor
y. U
sual
ly lar
ger
in
size
Enti
re(a
lmos
t)
prog
ram
co
nten
ts be
ing
exec
uted
; ho
lds
smal
l vo
lum
e of
da
ta
RAM
(vo
lati
le),
RO
M (
Non
vo
lati
le),
Ext
erna
l Cac
he M
emor
y
Seco
ndar
y M
emor
yLo
w s
peed
, N
on-v
olat
ile,
Low
cos
t.H
uge
in s
ize.
Prog
ram
s no
t cu
rren
tly
bein
g ex
ecut
ed;
hol
ds
larg
e vo
lum
e of
da
ta
Har
d D
isk,
Com
pact
D
isks
(CD
), F
lopp
y di
sks
90
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
ELLE
NT C
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
-GR
OU
P
Mem
ory
Hie
rarc
hy
�Ove
rall
go
al :
to
ob
tain
th
e h
igh
est
po
ssib
le a
vera
ge
acce
ss s
pee
d w
hile
m
inim
izin
g t
he
tota
l co
st o
f th
e en
tire
mem
ory
sys
tem
•R
egis
ters
•C
ach
e
•M
ain
Mem
ory
•M
agn
etic
Dis
k (D
isk
Cac
he)
•Ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f th
e h
iera
rch
y
•D
ecre
asin
g co
st /
bit
•In
crea
sing
cap
acity
•In
crea
sing
acc
ess
time
•D
ecre
asin
g fr
eque
ncy
of a
cce
ss o
f mem
ory
by C
PU
91
ELTP
-CA
MP
US
EXC
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PU
S P
LA
CE
ME
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Mem
ory
hier
arch
y
92
ELTP
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CE
ME
NTS
ELTP
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P
Mem
ory
hier
arch
y in
a c
ompu
ter
syst
em
Mag
netic
ta
pes
Mag
net
ic
dis
ks
CPU
Cac
he
mem
ory
Mai
n m
emor
y
I/O
proc
esso
r
Reg
iste
rs
DM
A
93
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CE
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Buf
fers
Why
Buf
fers
?
A m
emor
y ar
ea u
sed
to b
ridge
the
spee
d m
ism
atch
betw
een
the
CP
U a
nd I
/O d
evic
es
Wha
t dev
ices
hav
e bu
ffer
s?
Key
boar
d, P
rinte
rs
94
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CE
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A f
ile is
a n
amed
col
lect
ion
of d
ata
that
exi
sts
on a
sto
rage
med
ium
A d
ata
file
con
tain
s da
ta s
uch
as t
he te
xt fo
r a
docu
men
t
An
exec
uta
ble
file
con
tain
s th
e pr
ogra
ms
or in
stru
ctio
ns th
at te
ll
a co
mpu
ter
how
to p
erfo
rm a
spe
cific
task
A f
ilen
ame
exte
nsi
on
indi
cate
s a
file’
s co
nten
ts
EX
E
DO
C
Wha
t is
a fil
e?
95
ELTP
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LA
CE
ME
NTS
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OU
P
Wha
t is
a P
rogr
am ?
�S
eque
nce
of s
tate
men
ts/in
stru
ctio
ns s
tatin
g h
ow to
perf
orm
a t
ask
Wha
t are
thes
e st
atem
ents
writ
ten
in ?
Pro
gram
min
g w
ays
Mac
hine
Lan
guag
e
Ass
embl
y La
ngua
ge
Hig
h Le
vel L
angu
age(
HLL
)
96
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CE
ME
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P
Wha
t is
a S
oftw
are
?
Set
of p
rogr
ams
to p
erfo
rm a
tas
k
Typ
e of
sof
twar
e ?
App
licat
ion
softw
are
Sys
tem
sof
twar
e
97
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App
licat
ion
softw
are
is a
set
of o
ne o
r m
ore
com
pute
r
prog
ram
s th
at h
elps
a p
erso
n to
car
ry o
ut a
task
Cre
ate,
edi
t, an
d pr
int d
ocum
ents
Man
age
mon
ey a
ccou
nts
Cre
ate
and
edit
hom
e m
ovie
s
Cre
ate
and
edit
grap
hics
App
licat
ion
softw
are
is t
ypic
ally
use
d by
peo
ple
Ex. B
anki
ng, P
ayro
ll et
c.
Wha
t is
appl
icat
ion
soft
war
e?
98
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App
licat
ion
Sof
twar
e
Tw
o ty
pes
of a
pplic
atio
n pr
ogra
ms:
Hor
izon
tal a
pplic
atio
ns
Ver
tical
app
licat
ions
99
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Per
son
al P
rod
uct
ivit
y
Wo
rd P
roce
ssin
g
Sp
read
shee
ts
Ad
dre
ss B
oo
ks
Mu
ltim
edia
/Gra
ph
ics
Des
kto
p P
ub
lish
ing
Ph
oto
Ed
itin
g
3D R
end
erin
g
Inte
rnet
Web
Bro
wse
rs
E-M
ail Hom
e/E
du
cati
on
Per
son
al F
inan
ce
Tax
Pre
par
atio
n
Ref
eren
ce
Gam
es
Hor
izon
tal A
pplic
atio
ns
Ho
rizo
nta
l ap
plic
atio
ns
are
used
acr
oss
divi
sio
ns o
f a c
ompa
ny
and
are
popu
lar
with
co
nsum
ers.
100
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Ver
tical
App
licat
ions
: Tai
lor
Mad
e P
rogr
ams
Ver
tica
l ap
plic
atio
ns
are
used
for
spec
ializ
ed
field
s.
Typ
es o
f ver
tical
app
licat
ions
:
Bill
ing
prog
ram
s
Inve
ntor
y tr
acki
ng p
rog
ram
s
Poi
nt o
f Sal
e so
ftwar
e
Cus
tom
sof
twar
e
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Sys
tem
sof
twar
e is
a s
et o
f one
or
mor
e co
mp
uter
prog
ram
s th
at h
elps
a s
yste
m to
car
ry o
ut a
task
Ex. C
ompi
lers
, Ass
embl
ers,
Loa
ders
, Lin
kers
,
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
m,
Uti
litie
s
Wha
t is
Sys
tem
sof
twa
re?
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Wha
t is
oper
atin
g sy
ste
m?
A p
rogr
am w
hich
act
s a
s an
inte
rfac
e be
twee
n th
e us
er a
nd
the
com
pute
r an
d pr
ovid
es a
n en
viro
nmen
t in
whi
ch a
use
r
can
exec
ute
prog
ram
s
103
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Wha
t is
oper
atin
g sy
ste
m?
The
thre
e di
ffere
nt p
ersp
ectiv
e of
the
oper
atin
g s
yste
m a
re
�
Use
r V
iew
: A
n in
terf
ace
betw
een
the
hard
war
e an
d th
e
user
�
Pro
gram
mer
Vie
w :
It is
a c
olle
ctio
n of
sys
tem
cal
ls
�
Sys
tem
’s V
iew
: C
olle
ctio
n of
sys
tem
pro
gram
s, w
hich
cont
rols
the
way
in w
hich
the
com
pute
r sy
stem
func
tions
. It
can
also
be
term
ed a
s a
reso
urce
man
ager
.
104
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Ope
ratin
g S
yste
m: F
unct
ions
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
m p
erfo
rms
two
maj
or fu
nctio
ns:
1. R
esou
rce
Man
ager
2. V
irtua
l Mac
hine
OS
as
Res
ourc
e M
ana
ger:
A c
ompu
ter
syst
em c
onsi
sts
of m
any
hard
war
e a
nd s
oftw
are
reso
urce
s. O
S a
cts
as a
man
ager
of t
hese
res
ourc
es a
mon
g
one
or m
any
user
s.
OS
as
Virt
ual M
achi
ne:
OS
pro
vide
s a
virt
ual i
mag
e of
the
com
putin
g sy
stem
to th
e
user
. Use
rs th
ink
that
Com
pute
r is
a m
achi
ne t
hat u
nder
stan
ds
Eng
lish
like
com
man
ds. B
ut a
ctua
l har
dwar
e o
nly
unde
rsta
nds
0s a
nd 1
s.
105
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The
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
m (
OS
): T
he C
ompu
ter’s
Tra
ffic
Cop
The
func
tions
of t
he o
per
atin
g sy
stem
are
:
Sta
rtin
g th
e co
mpu
ter
Man
agin
g pr
ogra
ms
Man
agin
g m
emor
y
Han
dlin
g m
essa
ges
fro
m in
put a
nd o
utpu
t dev
ices
Ena
blin
g us
er in
tera
ctio
n w
ith th
e co
mpu
ter
106
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P
R
ES
OU
RC
E
EX
AM
PLE
S
MA
NA
GE
RS
Mem
ory
Prim
ary,
Sec
onda
ry
Mem
ory
man
agem
ent
Proc
esso
rs
CPU
,I/O
pro
cess
ors
Proc
ess
man
agem
ent
Periph
eral
s Ta
pe,P
rint
er,T
erm
ina
l D
evic
e m
anag
emen
t
Info
rmat
ion
File
s,da
ta
File
man
agem
ent
107
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Ope
ratin
g S
yste
m O
bje
ctiv
e
Tw
o m
ain
Obj
ectiv
es o
f OS
�C
on
ven
ien
ce
�E
ffic
ien
cy
108
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Sta
rtin
g th
e C
ompu
ter
Bo
oti
ng
– T
he p
roce
ss o
f loa
din
g or
rel
oadi
ng th
e
oper
atin
g sy
stem
into
the
com
pute
r’s m
emor
y.
The
boo
ting
proc
esse
s ar
e:
Co
ld b
oo
t –
Load
s th
e O
S w
hen
the
pow
er is
turn
ed o
n.
War
m b
oo
t –
Rel
oads
the
OS
whe
n th
e co
mpu
ter
is a
lrea
dy o
n.
109
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Sta
rtin
g th
e C
ompu
ter
The
ste
p-by
-ste
p bo
otin
g pr
oces
s:
I. T
he B
IOS
(ba
sic
inpu
t/out
put s
yste
m)
and
setu
p pr
ogra
m
II.
The
pow
er-o
n-se
lf-te
st (
PO
ST
)
III.
The
ope
ratin
g sy
stem
load
s
IV.
Sys
tem
con
figur
atio
n
V.
Sys
tem
util
ities
load
s
VI.
Use
rs A
uthe
ntic
ate
d
110
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Ste
p 1:
The
BIO
S a
nd S
etup
Pro
gram
RO
M (
read
onl
y m
emor
y) –
Per
man
ent a
nd u
ncha
ngin
g m
emor
y
BIO
S (
basi
c in
put/o
utpu
t sys
tem
) –
The
par
t of t
he s
yste
m s
oftw
are
that
incl
udes
the
inst
ruct
ions
that
the
com
pute
r us
es to
acc
ept i
nput
and
outp
ut
RO
M lo
ads
BIO
S in
to t
he c
ompu
ter’s
mem
ory.
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Ste
p 2:
The
Pow
er-O
n-S
elf-
Tes
t (P
OS
T)
PO
ST
(po
wer
-on-
self-
test
) –
A s
erie
s of
test
s co
nduc
ted
on th
e
com
pute
r’s m
ain
mem
ory
(ra
ndom
acc
ess
mem
ory
or R
AM
),
inpu
t/out
put d
evic
es, d
isk
driv
es, a
nd th
e ha
rd d
isk.
BIO
S c
ondu
cts
a P
owe
r-O
n-S
elf-
Tes
t (P
OS
T)
to c
heck
the
inpu
t/out
put s
yste
m fo
r op
erab
ility
.
The
com
pute
r w
ill p
rod
uce
a be
epin
g so
und
and
an
erro
r m
essa
ge
will
app
ear
on th
e m
onito
r if
any
prob
lem
s ar
e e
ncou
nter
ed.
112
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Ste
p 3:
The
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
m (
OS
) Lo
ads
BIO
S s
earc
hes
for
the
OS
.
Set
tings
in th
e C
MO
S�
com
plem
enta
ry m
etal
-oxi
de
sem
icon
duct
or�
dete
rmin
e w
here
to lo
ok
for
the
OS
.
�
The
ope
ratin
g sy
stem
’s k
erne
l is
load
ed in
to th
e co
mpu
ter’s
mem
ory.
�
The
OS
take
s co
ntro
l of t
he c
ompu
ter
and
beg
ins
load
ing
syst
em
conf
igur
atio
n in
form
atio
n.
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Ste
p 4:
Sys
tem
Con
figu
ratio
n
Reg
istr
y –
A d
atab
ase
that
sto
res
info
rmat
ion
abou
t
perip
hera
ls a
nd s
oftw
are
Dri
ver
– A
util
ity p
rogr
am th
at m
akes
per
iphe
ral d
evic
es
func
tion
prop
erly
The
sys
tem
is c
onfig
ured
from
the
oper
atin
g sy
stem
’s
regi
stry
.
Driv
ers
are
load
ed in
to m
emor
y.
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Ste
p 5:
Sys
tem
Util
ities
Loa
ds
Sys
tem
util
ities
are
loa
ded
into
mem
ory.
Vol
ume
cont
rol
Ant
iviru
s so
ftwar
e
PC
car
d un
plug
ging
util
ity
115
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Ste
p 6:
Use
rs A
uthe
ntic
atio
n
Aut
hent
icat
ion
or u
ser
logi
n oc
curs
.
Use
r na
me
Pas
swor
d
The
use
r in
terf
ace
star
ts, e
nabl
ing
user
inte
ract
ion
with
com
pute
r pr
ogra
ms.
116
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Ope
ratin
g S
yste
ms
(Typ
e of
os)
- E
volu
tion
Ser
ial p
roce
ssin
g
Her
e ea
ch jo
b is
pro
cess
ed o
ne a
fter
anot
her
seria
lly.
As
a jo
b ar
rives
it
is p
roce
ssed
com
plet
ely
bef
ore
pick
ing
up th
e ne
xt o
ne.
117
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Bat
ch p
roce
ssin
g
Her
e jo
bs
with
si
mila
r re
quire
men
ts
are
batc
hed
toge
ther
and
run
thr
ough
the
com
pute
r as
a g
roup
.Thu
s a
batc
h op
erat
ing
syst
em
read
s a
stre
am
of
sepa
rate
jobs
,eac
h w
ith it
s ow
n co
ntro
l car
ds t
hat
pred
efin
e w
hat
the
job
does
,feed
the
bat
ches
one
afte
r an
othe
r an
d se
nd t
he
outp
ut o
f eac
h jo
b to
the
appr
opria
te d
estin
atio
n.
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
ms
(Typ
e of
os)
- E
volu
tion
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Mu
ltip
rog
ram
min
g
Her
e th
e O
S
keep
s se
vera
l jo
bs
in
mem
ory
at
a
time.
Whe
n a
job
is w
aitin
g fo
r an
I/O
ope
ratio
n in
its
cour
se
of e
xecu
tion,
the
CP
U i
s sw
itche
d to
ano
ther
job
and
the
proc
ess
cont
inue
s til
l th
e fir
st j
ob f
inis
hes
wa
iting
and
get
back
the
CP
U.T
hus
CP
U u
tiliz
atio
n is
max
imiz
ed i
n th
is
case
.
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
ms
(Typ
e of
os)
- E
volu
tion
119
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- M
ult
itas
kin
g :
Mul
titas
king
or
Tim
e sh
arin
g is
a l
ogic
al
exte
nsio
n of
mul
tipro
gra
mm
ing.
Mul
tiple
job
s ar
e ex
ecut
ed
by th
e C
PU
sw
itchi
ng b
etw
een
them
.
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
ms
(Typ
e of
os)
- E
volu
tion
120
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Mu
ltip
roce
ssin
g s
yste
m
In t
his
a co
mpu
ter
hard
war
e co
nfig
urat
ion
that
incl
udes
mor
e th
an
one
inde
pen
dent
pr
oces
sing
un
it.
The
te
rm
mul
tipro
cess
ing
is
gene
rally
us
ed
to
refe
r to
la
rge
com
pute
r ha
rdw
are
com
plex
es f
ound
in m
ajo
r sc
ient
ific
or
com
mer
cial
app
licat
ion
s.
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
ms
(Typ
e of
os)
- E
volu
tion
121
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�
Net
wo
rked
co
mp
uti
ng
sys
tem
(N
etw
ork
Op
era
tin
g
Sys
tem
)
In t
his
a co
llect
ion
of p
hysi
cal i
nter
conn
ecte
d co
mpu
ters
.
The
op
erat
ing
syst
em
of
each
of
th
e in
terc
onne
cted
com
pute
rs m
ust
cont
ain
, in
add
ition
to
its o
wn
stan
d-
alon
e fu
nctio
nalit
y, p
rovi
sion
s fo
r ha
ndin
g co
mm
unic
atio
n
and
tran
sfer
of
pr
ogra
m
and
data
am
ong
th
e ot
her
com
pute
rs w
ith w
hich
it is
con
nect
ed.
Ope
ratin
g S
yste
ms
(Typ
e of
os)
- E
volu
tion
122
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Ope
ratin
g S
yste
ms
- E
xam
ples
GU
I
�W
indo
ws
98
Win
dow
s C
E
�
Mu
lti-
use
r
�Li
nux
UN
IX
Win
dow
s 20
00
�
Mu
ltip
roce
ssin
g
�Li
nux
UN
IX
Win
dow
s 20
00
• M
ult
itas
kin
g
�U
NIX
W
indo
ws
200
0
• M
ult
ith
read
ing
is th
e ab
ility
of a
n o
per
atin
g s
yste
m to
exe
cute
the
diffe
rent
par
ts o
f the
pro
gram
, cal
led
thre
ads,
sim
ulta
neou
sly.
�Li
nux
UN
IX
Win
dow
s 20
00
• N
etw
ork
OS
�W
indo
ws
2000
N
ovel
l Net
war
e
123
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MS
-DO
S
WIN
DO
WS
XP
MA
C O
S
LIN
UX
UN
IX
Exp
lorin
g P
opul
ar O
pera
ting
Sys
tem
s: A
Gui
ded
Tou
r
124
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P
MS
-DO
S
Dev
elop
ed fo
r IB
M P
Cs
in 1
981
Use
s co
mm
and-
line
inte
rfac
e
Use
is d
imin
ishi
ng
125
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Mic
roso
ft W
indo
ws
Clic
k to
vie
w e
ach
Win
dow
s ve
rsio
n (1
985-
2001
)
Win
dow
s 1.
0 (1
985)
Win
dow
s 2.
0 (1
987)
Win
dow
s 3.
x (1
990-
1992
)W
ind
ows
NT
(19
93)
Win
dow
s 95
(19
95)
Win
dow
s 98
(19
98)
Win
dow
s 20
00 (
2000
)W
ind
ows
ME
(20
00)
Win
dow
s X
P (
2001
)
126
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Win
dow
s X
P
Rel
ease
d in
200
1 by
Mic
roso
ft
XP
is s
hort
for
“exp
erie
nce”
Use
s th
e sa
me
unde
rlyin
g co
de fo
r
all v
ersi
ons
Rep
lace
s al
l pre
viou
s ve
rsio
ns o
f
Win
dow
s
Thr
ee v
ersi
ons:
Win
dow
s X
P H
ome
Ed
ition
Win
dow
s X
P P
rofe
ssio
nal
Win
dow
s X
P S
erve
r
127
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Win
dow
s N
T
Rel
ease
d in
199
3 by
Mic
roso
ft
Des
igne
d fo
r cl
ient
/ser
ver
syst
ems
Tw
o co
mpo
nent
s:
Win
dow
s N
T W
orks
tatio
n
Win
dow
s N
T S
erve
r
Orie
nted
to b
usin
ess
nee
ds
Offe
rs s
ecur
ity, r
emot
e
adm
inis
trat
ion,
dire
ctor
y
serv
ices
, and
a W
eb s
erv
er
128
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Win
dow
s C
E
Rel
ease
d in
199
6 by
Mic
roso
ft
Sys
tem
use
d in
PD
As
or
palm
tops
Run
s si
mpl
ified
ver
sion
s of
Win
dow
s pr
ogra
ms
Dat
a ca
n be
tran
sfer
red
to P
Cs
Incl
udes
han
dwrit
ing
and
voic
e re
cogn
ition
129
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P
MA
C O
S
Cre
ated
in 1
984
Firs
t OS
to u
se g
raph
ical
user
inte
rfac
e
Eas
iest
ope
ratin
g sy
ste
m
for
begi
nner
s
A n
ew v
ersi
on, M
ac O
S X
,
was
rel
ease
d in
200
0
130
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UN
IX
Dev
elop
ed b
y A
T&
T in
197
0s
Incl
uded
firs
t pre
empt
ive
mul
titas
king
sys
tem
Dev
elop
ed c
once
pts
of fi
le
man
agem
ent a
nd p
ath
nam
es
Fac
ilita
tes
clie
nt/s
erve
r ne
twor
king
Wid
ely
used
by
corp
orat
ions
131
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Linu
x
Dev
elop
ed in
199
1 by
UN
IX
Op
en-s
ou
rce
cod
e –
Ava
ilabl
e fo
r al
l to
see
and
use
Com
pete
s w
ith
Win
dow
s an
d M
AC
-OS
Pow
erfu
l and
free
Gro
win
g ac
cept
ance
132
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Sys
tem
Util
ities
: Too
ls f
or H
ouse
keep
ing
Sys
tem
util
ities
are
pro
gram
s th
at h
elp
the
ope
ratin
g sy
stem
man
age
the
com
pute
r sy
stem
’s r
esou
rces
.
Typ
es o
f util
ities
:
Bac
kup
softw
are
Ant
iviru
s so
ftwar
e
Dis
k sc
anni
ng
Dis
k de
frag
men
tatio
n
File
man
agem
ent
File
-sea
rchi
ng s
oftw
are
File
com
pres
sion
133
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Fir
mw
are
Firm
war
e S
oftw
are
embe
dded
in h
ardw
are
durin
g m
anuf
actu
re
Exa
mpl
esH
ome
appl
ianc
esIn
telli
gent
prin
ters
134
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Tha
nk Y
ou!