Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the SPN will be able to:1. Contrast principles of growth & development

across the life span.2. Identify factors that influence the development of

personality

3. Discuss the theories of personality development according to Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg, and Maslow

4. Define psychology and developmental psychology5. Define hypothesis and theory6. Explain the basic principles of research including

reliability and validity7. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative

research

Terms

Growth –physical changes . Patterns of growth are similar but rates vary.

Development – the progressive acquisition of skills and the capacity to function.

Principles of G&D

Growth occurs in an orderly and predictable pattern.

Cephalocaudal pattern –growth progresses from the head downward.

Proximodistal pattern - growth occurs from the center of the body outward.

Fundamentals, Table 9-1, p. 169

Topical Areas in Lifespan Development

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Psychology

Psychology is the science dealing with mental processes, both normal and abnormal, and their effects upon behavior.

There are 2 main approaches to the study: Introspective, i.e., engaging in self-examination of

one’s own mental processes; Objective- studying the minds of others

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents.

Nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior.

Developmental psychologists reject the notion that behavior is the result solely of either nature or nurture.

Developmental Psychology

Field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in human behavior that occur throughout the entire LIFESPAN

Understanding human development is an essential part of the nursing process.

Knowledge of normal behavior for specific age groups allows for individualizing assessments

Theories

Theories are explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles.

There are theoretical views that present ways of examining human development during childhood and adolescence. Each theory focuses on particular areas of human development and has underlying assumptions, principles, strengths, and weaknesses.

Theories

We will be looking at four theories of personality development. They are:

1. Psychosexual Development2. Psychosocial Development3. Cognitive Development4. Moral Development

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis.

1856-1939

His theories dealt with:The Unconscious MindThe PsychePsychosexual Stages of DevelopmentDream Analysis

Freud and Psychosexual Development

The psychosexual theory emphasizes the importance of unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences in influencing behavior and describes concepts related to personality and stages of development

Freud believes that one’s personality is comprised of 3 aspects- the id, ego, and superego

The ID

The id obeys the “pleasure principle”, and is oriented toward maximizing pleasure and immediately satisfying needs.

The id is manifest as irrational, selfish, impulsive part of personality

The Ego

The ego operates according to the “reality principle”, which allows individuals to be successful, and includes memory, cognition, intelligence, problem solving, compromising, separating reality from fantasy, and incorporating experiences

Freud believed that ego development continues during childhood and throughout the life span

The Superego or Conscience

This emergences when the child internalizes caregiver or societal values, roles, and morals

Superego becomes apparent in the preschool and school-aged years when the child learns socially acceptable behavior

The superego strives for perfection rather than pleasure or reality

After the superego emerges, children have a conscience that tells them the difference between right and wrong

Stages of Psychosocial

Freud believed the most important life instinct was the sex instinct, which changed its character and focus according to biological maturation.

As the sex instinct’s psychic energy (libido) shifts from one part of the body to another, the child passes through five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

Freud believed that the adult personality is profoundly impacted by how each stage is managed.

Oral Stage

Birth to 1 yearThe infant is preoccupied with activities

associated with the mouth such as sucking, biting, chewing, and satisfying hunger

Freud believed infants received satisfaction and enjoyment from these oral behaviors

Attachment to mother is important because she usually meets infant’s needs

Anal Stage

One to 3 years oldSphincter muscles are maturing and children

develop the ability to eliminate and retain fecal material

Sexual urges are gratified by learning to voluntarily defecate

Freud suggested that methods caregivers use to toilet train children during this period may have long lasting effects on personality

Phallic Stage

3 to 6 years oldThe child’s psychic energy is redirected to

the genitalsFascinated with gender differencesThe phallus(penis) assumes a critical role in

the development of both boys and girls.Girls wish they had a penis( penis envy) Boys fear losing their penis due to an attack

or injury by others (castration anxiety)

Phallic Stage Con’t.

During these years, children also develop a strong incestuous desire for the caregiver of the opposite gender.

The OEDIPAL complex –attachment of a boy to his mother

The ELECTRA complex-attachment of a girl to her father

These complexes produce anxiety that must be controlled

Resolution and control allows children to identify with the caregiver of the same gender and fosters male and female identity

Latency Stage

6 to 11 years oldSexual drives are submerged, appropriate

gender roles are adopted, and the Oedipal/Electra conflicts are resolved

Children learn about society and themselves while developing useful skills

They increasingly identify with the same-gender caregiver and become intensely involved with the same gender peers

Energies are directed toward school, play, and increasing their problem solving abilities

Genital Stage

Age 12-at the start of puberty and lasts throughout adulthood

Sexual desires reemerge due to physiological changes, fluctuating hormone levels, and changing social relationships

Before mature adult adjustment is possible, turmoil and adaptation are necessary

The adolescent vacillates between independence/ dependence from parents, learns how to form loving relationships, and manages sexual urges in societally appropriate ways

Erik Erikson

1902-1994Erikson proposed a lifespan psychosocial

model of development, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood

Stages of Psycho-Social Development

Erik Erikson and Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) acknowledged the contribution of biologic factors to development, but felt that the environment, culture, and society were also important.

His theory stresses the complexity of inter-relationships existing between emotional and physical variables during one’s lifetime

He believed development was stage-like, and conflict resolution was necessary at each stage in order for the individual to successfully advance to the next stage

Erikson’s Stages of Development

Erikson believes that each stage is dominated by major conflicts or crises related to societal demands and expectations that must be addressed or resolved before the individual can progress to the next stage

There are eight stages in Erikson’s theory of development

The stages emerge in a fixed pattern and are similar for all people

Let us look at each stage

Erikson’s Stages of Development

Stage 1- Trust vs. MistrustStage 2-Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtStage 3- Initiative vs. GuiltStage 4- Industry vs. InferiorityStage 5- Identity vs. Role ConfusionStage 6- Intimacy vs. IsolationStage 7- Generativity vs. StagnationStage 8- Ego-integrity vs. Despair

Trust Vs. Mistrust

Infancy (birth to 18 months)Feeding is important during this stage Children develop a sense of trust when

caregivers provide reliability, care , and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust

Positive outcome-feelings of trust from environmental support

Negative outcome- fear and concern regarding others

Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt

Early Childhood ( 2 to 3 years)Toilet training is important during this stageChildren need to develop a sense of personal

control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Success leads to feelings of autonomy. Failure results in feelings of shame and doubt

Positive outcome- self sufficiency if exploration is encouraged

Negative outcome- doubts about self, lack of independence

Initiative Vs. Guilt

Preschool (3 to 5 years)Exploration and independence are important

during this stageChildren need to begin asserting control and power

over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt

Positive outcome- Discovery of ways to initiate actions

Negative outcomes- guilt from actions and thoughts

Industry Vs. Inferiority

School Age (6 to 11 years)School is important during this stageChildren need to cope with new social and

academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority

Positive outcome- development of a sense of competence

Negative outcome- feelings of inferiority, no sense of mastery

Identity Vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence (12 to 18 years)Social/Peer relationships are important during

this stageTeens need to develop a sense of self and

personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self

Positive outcome- awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed

Negative outcome-inability to identify appropriate roles in life

Intimacy Vs. Isolation

Young adulthood (19 to 40 years)Love relationships is important during this

stageYoung adults need to form intimate, loving

relationships with other people.Success leads to strong relationships, while

failure results in loneliness and isolationPositive outcome- development of loving,

sexual relationships and close friendshipsNegative outcomes- fear of relationships with

others

Generativity Vs. Stagnation

Middle adulthood (40 to 65)Work and parenthood are important during this

stageAdults need to create or nurture things that will

outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world

Positive outcome- sense of contribution to continuity of life

Negative outcome- trivialization of one’s activities

Ego Integrity Vs. Despair

Maturity (65 to death)Reflection on life and acceptance of one’s life is

important during this stageOlder adults need to look back on life and feel a

sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to wisdom, while

failure results in regret, bitterness, and despairPositive outcome- sense of unity in life’s

accomplishmentsNegative outcome- regret over lost opportunities

of life

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9s2dYVhtFnE

Piaget and Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) a Swiss psychologist,began studying children’s intellectual

development in the 1920’sHe was fascinated by the process and steps

children took as they discovered, reinvented, understood, and acquired knowledge of the world around them

According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs gradually, sequentially, and without regression

Development moves from simple to complex

Piaget and Cognitive Development

Some concepts essential to Piaget’s theory include:

1. Schemes or Schema- building blocks of knowledge

organized mental patterns that represent behaviors & actions.

Set of SkillsStart out as concrete in infancy and become more

abstract with age.Schemes direct & determine how data from the

world is handled.

Growth in child’s understanding of the world can be explained by 2 principles:

2. Assimilation-using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation

It is the process by which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking

3. Accommodation- changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget suggested cognitive development passes through four stages and several phases within some of these stages

Stages represented increased integration and organization, and although sequential, children could pass through them at different rates

The stages are as follows:1. Stage 1- SENSORIMOTOR. This stage has 6 phases2. Stage 2- PREOPERATIONAL- this stage has 2

phases3. Stage 3- CONCRETE OPERATIONS4. Stage 4- FORMAL OPERATIONS

Stage of Development Key Feature

Sensorimotor0 - 2 yrs.

Object Permanence

Preoperational2 - 7 yrs.

Egocentrism

Concrete Operational7 – 11 yrs.

Conservation

Formal Operational11yrs +

Manipulate ideas in head, e.g. Abstract Reasoning

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage

Birth to 2 years.

A period of rapid cognitive growth.

Has 6 phases

Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage: 6 phases

Phase 1- Reflexive- birth.

The neonate responds to external stimulation with innate reflex actions. For example, if you brush a baby’s mouth or cheek with your finger it will suck reflexively.

Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage: 6 phases

Phase 2- Primary Circular Reactions- 1 to 4 months.

Responds purposefully to stimuli; initiates; repeats satisfying behaviors. Infants commonly reach for objects

The baby will repeat pleasurable actions centred on it’s own body. For example babies from 1 – 4 months old will wiggle their fingers, kick their legs and suck their thumbs. These are not reflex actions. They are done intentionally – for the sake of the pleasurable stimulation produced.

Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage: 6 phases

Phase 3- Secondary Circular Reactions-4 to 8 months. Learns from intentional behavior; motor skills/ vision coordinated; recognizes familiar objects.

Now babies repeat pleasurable actions that involve objects as well as actions involving their own bodies. An example of this is the infant who shakes the rattle for the pleasure of hearing the sound that it produces

Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage: 6 phases

Phase 4- Coordination of Secondary Schemes -8 to 12 months-Develops object permanence; anticipates others’ actions; differentiates familiar/ unfamiliar

For example the infant will not just shake the rattle but will reach out and knock to one side an object that stands in the way of it getting hold of the rattle.

Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage: 6 phases

Phase 5- Tertiary Circular Reactions- 12 to 18 months- interested in novelty, repetition; understands causality; solicits help from others

These differ from secondary circular reactions in that they are intentional adaptations to specific situations. The infant who once explored an object by taking it apart now tries to put it back together.

Example: nesting boxes

Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage: 6 phases

Phase 6- Mental Combinations- 18 to 24 months- simple problem solving; imitates. Can name and locate familiar objects

Beginning of symbolic thought

Babies can now form mental representations of objects.

This is crucial to the acquisition of object permanence – the most fundamental achievement of the whole sensorimotor stage of development.

Blanket and Ball Study

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjBh9ld_yIo&feature=player_embedded

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development :Stage 2 Preoperational

2 to 7 years. Children's' thoughts and communications are

typically egocentric (i.e. about themselves). Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view. According to Piaget, the egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does.

At the beginning of this stage you often find children engaging in parallel play

Stage 2 Preoperational

As the pre-operational stage develops egocentrism declines and children begin to display some imitation of each other. They seem to enjoy the participation of another child in their games and “lets pretend “ play becomes more important.

Another key feature which children display during this stage is animism. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears) have human feelings and intentions.

Stage 2 Preoperational

Has 2 phases:

Preconceptual- 2 to 4 years. Egocentric thought; mental imagery; increased language, symbolic play

Intuitive- 4 to 7 years. Sophisticated language; decreasing egocentric thought; reality-based play

Stage 2 Preoperational

Children in the preoperational stage are able to focus on only one aspect or dimension of problems. For example, suppose you arrange two rows of blocks in such a way that a row of 5 blocks is longer than a row of 7 blocks. Preoperational children can generally count the blocks in each row and tell you the number contained in each. However, if you ask which row has more, they will likely say that it is the one that makes the longer line, because they cannot simultaneously focus on both the length and the number. The ability to solve this and other "conservation" problems signals the transition to the next stage.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I&feature=player_embedded

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development :Stage 3 Concrete Operations

-7 to 11 years. Children become less egocentric and better

at conservation tasks. This means that the child understands that although the appearance of something changes, the thing itself does not.

Understands relationships, classification, conservation, seriation, reversibility; logical reasoning limited; less egocentric thought. TRIAL and ERROR approach to problem-solving occurs

Stage 3 Concrete Operations

By around seven years the majority of children can conserve liquid.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:Stage 4- Formal Operations

11 years and older.

Capable of systematic abstract thought. Children and adolescents move from what is real to what is possible, and can project themselves into and plan for the future

Stage 4- Formal Operations

An example of the distinction between concrete and formal operational stages is the answer to the question “If Kelly is taller than Ali and Ali is taller than Jo, who is tallest?” This is an example of inferential reasoning, which is the ability to think about things which the child has not actually experienced and to draw conclusions from its thinking. The child who needs to draw a picture or use objects is still in the concrete operational stage, whereas children who can reason the answer in their heads are using formal operational thinking.

Kohlberg and Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) formulated a theory of moral development that described changes in thinking about moral judgments and reflected societal norms and values.

Kohlberg believed moral development was influenced by both internal and external factors. Internal factors included empathy, intelligence, impulse control, and the ability to judge behavior.

External factors included rewards, punishment, family structure, and parent/peer contacts

Kohlberg and Moral Development Con’t.

Kohlberg believed that moral growth progresses through universal sequences of three broad levels, each containing several stages.

Let us look at each of these levels and stagesLevel 1- Preconventional Level- Birth to 7

years. Has 3 stages Stage 0-Premoral Stage- Birth to 2 years.

The baby cannot differentiate right from wrong. Impulses rule behavior

Kohlberg and Moral Development Con’t.

Stage 1- Punishment and Obedience Stage- 2 to 3 years. Conforming behavior based on fear of punishment rather than a respect for authority. “I do it because you tell me to and I don’t want to get punished”

Stage 2-Instrumental Realistic Orientation Stage- 4 to 7 years. Conforming behavior based on rewards. Rules are obeyed to satisfy personal objectives. There is no feeling of gratitude, loyalty, or justice

Kohlberg and Moral Development

Level 2-Conventional Level- 7 to 12 years . Has 2 stages.

Stage 3- Interpersonal Concordance Orientation Stage- 7 to 10 years. Behavior evaluated on intent and other’s reactions. Behavior may also be evaluated on the basis of how the other person feels

Stage 4- Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation Stage-10 to 12 years. Obey out of respect for laws, authority which take precedence over any personal wishes, good intentions, or group beliefs

Kohlberg and Moral Development Con’t.

Level 3- Postconventional Level- 12 years and older

Stage 5- Social Contract/ Legalistic Orientation Stage - 12 years through adolescence- Believes laws should further human values and express majority views. Laws compromising human rights or dignity are unjust and should be challenged

Stage 6- Universal Ethical Principles Orientation Stage- Adolescence through adulthood-Right/wrong defined on universal, comprehensive, and consistent, yet personal ethical principles

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/secret-state-of-north-korea/

Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective

research supports the idea that unconscious memories, inner forces and conflicts have an influence on our behavior

We are not aware of these inner conflicts nor can we control them

research supports the idea that development continues throughout the life span

Several Perspectives

BehavioralCognitiveHumanisticBroad

Behavioral Perspective

suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment

Behavioral Perspective

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING is a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response.

Watson (1878 - 1958) argued that by effectively controlling a person’s environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behavior

Behavioral Perspective

OPERANT CONDITIONING is a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its association with positive or negative consequences.

B. F. Skinner claimed that people operate on their environments to bring about a desired state of affairs. Behavior Modification

Behavior Modification

formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

Behavior Modification

Uses principles of operant conditioning:Reinforcement - process by

which a stimulus is provided increasing the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Punishment - introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus; decreasing probability that a behavior will occur in the future.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xLMEMhGRD0Q

Behavioral Perspective

SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY, learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model. Bandura

Observer must pay attention to model’s behavior.

Observer must successfully recall the behavior.

Behavior must be reproduced accurately. Observer must be motivated to learn and

carry out behavior

Cognitive Perspective

focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world.

Humanistic Perspective

contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior.

each has the ability & motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential.

emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives.

Maslow

Broad Perspective

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: an approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture.

to understand the course of development we must consider what is meaningful to members of a given culture.

development is the result of recurring reciprocal transactions between people and the child.

So Many Perspectives

Which one is the right one?

Research Methods

Scientific Method:process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques

involves the formulation of theories, broad explanations, and predictions about phenomena

Theories are broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.

Theories are used to develop Hypotheses, predictions stated in a way that permit testing.

Research Strategies

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists.

EXPERIMENT determines cause and effect

APPLIED provides practical solutions to immediate problems

THEORETICAL tests some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge.

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

Naturalistic Observation: observation of a naturally occurring behavior without intervention in the situation.

Case Studies involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or a small group of individuals.

SURVEY RESEARCH, where people are chosen to represent some larger population and are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic.

PSYCHOPHYSICAL METHODS focus on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior.

Correlational Studies

Experiment

is a process in which an investigator, (experimenter), devises two different experiences (treatments) for subjects or participants.

Experimental Group receives treatment

Dependent Variable what researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation.

Independent Variable variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bp2fbzWZDmA

Measuring Developmental Change

Longitudinal - behavior of one or more individuals is measured as the subjects age

Cross-Sectional - people of different ages are compared at the same point in time.

Cross-Sequential - examine a number of different age groups over several points in time.

Reliability & Validity

Reliability: ability of the measuring method or device to produce reproducible data or information

Validity: the degree to which data or results of a study are correct or true

Ethics

Society for Research in Child Development and the American Psychological Association have developed ethical guidelines for researchers:

1. 2. 3. 4.