Introduction to Motor Development

Human behavior is not

compartmentalized; there

is a complex system of

constant, reciprocal exchanges

among an individual’s cognitive,

affective, motor, and physical

being

Development--identifiable, progressive flowof changes which are psychological, social, emotional, physical

– Developmental psychology– Ontogeny--long term change over the lifespan– Differentiation--becoming something different

Learning--acquisition of knowledge, experience and its application; change in behavior; generation of neural pathways or programs

– Experimental psychology– Short term change

Motor Development

Motor Development (continued) Evolution--specific change of species according to the environment (generation to generation)

– Phylogeny Maturation--physical and mental growth and development defined in terms of a definitive time period

Growth--change over time, aging process, change to mature state, acquisition of skills, knowledge, coordination

– Change in physical size

Introduction to Motor Development All five of these previous definitions tend to overlap; often maturation, growth, and development don't include environmental factors

What is Motor Development?–Clark & Whitall (1989)-Describes the lawful changes in motor skill behavior across the lifespan

Consider the product--end result; task oriented approachConsider the process--what occurs duringthe movement; process oriented approachConsider factors affecting changes

Past, present, future

Motor Development

• Working definition for this text

– Motor development is the study of changes in human motor behavior over the lifespan, the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them

Defining Motor Development

• Identify similarities and differences between motor development and the following phenomena.– Motor learning– Motor control– Physical growth and maturation

Characteristics of Motor Development

• Involves change in movement behavior

• Is sequential, age-related, continuous

• Depends on underlying processes

Related Areas of Study

• Motor learning: relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience

• Motor control: the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of movement

Brief History of Motor Development

Precursor Period (late 1700's-1928)– Descriptive observation

Darwin (1787)Tiedemann (1877)

Maturational Period (1928-1946)– Biological processes--description of processes, and

productGesell (1928)McGraw (1935)-Johnny & JimmyBayley (1936)-Motor Development Scale

Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-70)– Anthropometric Measurement– Development of Standardized Norms– Product Oriented

Glassow, Espenschade, Rarick

Process Oriented Period (1970-present)– Concern for processes underlying development– Perception, information processing– Coordination, dynamical systems, lifespan

perspective– Film analysis, biomechanics

Research Designs in Motor Development

Cross Sectional Design--study different age groups at the same time period with the same measure

– Easy, efficient, quick results– Assumes age causes changes, rather than behavior

Longitudinal Design--study one group of subjects at different ages and different times of measurement

– Time consuming, costly– Subject loss over time; test sensitive– Examines change in behavior

Mixed Longitudinal Design (time lag or sequential)– Combines two designs to utilize the advantages of both

Problems with designs– Chronological age (CD & LD)– Cohort Effects--experiences one brings to testing based

upon time raised (CD)– Time of Measurement (LD)

Pros and cons of designs

Research Designs-Pros

Cross-sectional Administratively efficient

Quickly completed

Age differences can be observed

Longitudinal Change can be observed across ages

Sequential-Cohort Accounts for generational (cohort) effect

Research Designs-Cons

Cross-sectional Cannot observe change

Cannot determine accurate age of groups

Age and cohort are confounded

Longitudinal Administratively inefficient

Age and time of measurements are confounded

Subjects may be influenced by repeated testing

Subjects may drop out

Sequential-Cohort

Administratively inefficient

Costly

Subjects may drop out

Difficult to analyze statistically

Design Comparisons

Bloom's Taxonomy (1956)--Three Interactive Domains (Fig. 1-2, p. 6)

– Cognitive Domain--one's intellect (Piaget)– Affective Domain--social & emotional– Motor Domain--human movement, our focus– Payne & Isaacs added the physical domain

Why study motor development?

• Study of normal development allows one to identify problems or delayed development

• Improve motor performance

• Curriculum development; developmentally appropriate activities

Common Motor Development Terms

Direction of Development– Cephalocaudal--from head to tail;growth

Head size in infantsWalking

– Proximodistal--from close to body to farther out; prenatal growth

Reaching and grasping Differentiation & Integration

– Differentiation refers to the process of moving from gross control of movements to fine precise control of movements

– Integration refers to the ability of the system to function together as a unit; coordination

Types of Movements– Gross movements--controlled by large muscles (walking,

hopping, jumping)– Fine movements--controlled by small muscles (typing,

writing, drawing, sewing)– Skill like throwing involves both– Fine motor ability develops with maturation

Terms for Age Periods throughout Lifespan– Divisions are not always accurate because they

are based on CHRONOLOGICAL age

Chronological Age--length of time from birth Developmental Age--takes into account rate of maturation

Stages or Phases of Development--Do they exist?– Roberton--in order to be a it stage" then there must be

some hierarchial, qualitative change in human movementUnique from all other stagesPossess common characteristics in one stageInvariant order in all individuals

– Often used for ease of description

Other Considerations Why consider a lifespan perspective?

– Number of people over the age of 65 continues to increase

– Allows us to study both progressive and regressive phases of development

Intrinsic and extrinsic factors Dynamical Systems Perspective

– Movement is a product of the whole system which is constantly interacting and changing

– WalkingNeural Perspective vs. Dynamical Systems

Current Trends

• Since 1900, US population statistics show – 3 times more people over age

65– 8 times more people age 65-

74– 16 times more people age 75-

84– 31 times more people over 85

• Lifespan perspective– Offers the

opportunity to examine a broader ranges of change processes

Newell’s Model of Constraints

Constraints

• Limit or discourage certain movements

• Permit or encourage other movements

• “Shape” movement

Individual Constraints

• Inside the body (internal)

• Structural constraints: related to the body’s structure– Height– Muscle mass

• Functional constraints: related to behavioral function– Attention– Motivation

Environmental Constraints

• Outside the body: properties of the world around us

• Global, not task specific• Physical

– Gravity– Surfaces

• Sociocultural– Gender roles– Cultural norms

Task Constraints

• External to the body

• Related specifically to tasks or skills– Goal of task– Rules guiding task performance – Equipment