Introduction to Research Methodology

1

INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO METHODOLOGY:METHODOLOGY:

A Journey Through Man’s Intellectual, A Journey Through Man’s Intellectual, Spiritual,Spiritual,

and Cultural Developmentand Cultural Development

Dr. Masoud Hemmasi

2

• Professor Emeritus of Mgt & Quant. Methods (Former College of BusinessProfessor Emeritus of Mgt & Quant. Methods (Former College of Business

Research Director), Illinois State UniversityResearch Director), Illinois State University

• Ph. D. in Business Administration (Strategic Management), 1983Ph. D. in Business Administration (Strategic Management), 1983

• Honors/Awards/Recognitions:Honors/Awards/Recognitions:• Recipient of theRecipient of the ““Outstanding University Researcher AwardOutstanding University Researcher Award””

(One of only three COB faculty who have ever received this award)(One of only three COB faculty who have ever received this award)

• Recipient of the Recipient of the ““Manahan Family Award for Teaching ExcellenceManahan Family Award for Teaching Excellence””

• Designated as aDesignated as a ““Caterpillar Faculty ScholarCaterpillar Faculty Scholar””

• Recipient of theRecipient of the ““Outstanding College of Business Researcher AwardOutstanding College of Business Researcher Award””• Recipient of theRecipient of the ““Outstanding MQM Department Researcher AwardOutstanding MQM Department Researcher Award””• Member of Member of Editorial Review BoardsEditorial Review Boards of of 3 research journals3 research journals

• Recipient of many Recipient of many Outstanding Research/Best Paper AwardsOutstanding Research/Best Paper Awards at various conferencesat various conferences

• Manuscript ReviewerManuscript Reviewer for several other journals and national/international conferencesfor several other journals and national/international conferences

• Published more than Published more than 40 research articles40 research articles in academic and professional journals in academic and professional journals

• Published many chapters/articles in various booksPublished many chapters/articles in various books

• Presented more than Presented more than 60 research papers60 research papers in international/national conferencesin international/national conferences

and published them in the proceedings of those conferencesand published them in the proceedings of those conferences

• Extensive business consulting/management training experience Extensive business consulting/management training experience • Caterpillar, Country Insurance & Financial Services, Hardees Enterprises, City of Caterpillar, Country Insurance & Financial Services, Hardees Enterprises, City of

Bloomington, ChildrenBloomington, Children’’s Foundation, etc. s Foundation, etc.

Research Methodology- -Dr. Masoud HemmasiResearch Methodology- -Dr. Masoud Hemmasi

3

FO C US OF THE COURSE?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning of Meaning of ““MethodologyMethodology””??????• A sub-fieldA sub-field of of epistemologyepistemology which is, in turn, which is, in turn,

a branch of a branch of philosophy philosophy (see next slide).(see next slide).

• MethodologyMethodology is concerned with: is concerned with:

Methods/toolsMethods/tools of discovering the of discovering the unknownunknown and andpursuing knowledge (the pursuing knowledge (the ““truthtruth””) )

Science of Science of acquiring knowledgeacquiring knowledge and andestablishing its establishing its truth/validitytruth/validity

Methodology: Methodology: ““The The Science Science (and art) (and art) of conducting scienceof conducting science””

4

PHILOSOPHYPHILOSOPHY means means ““love of wisdomlove of wisdom””

It is the It is the rational pursuitrational pursuit of of the the truthtruth andand nature of existence/being. nature of existence/being. TheThe ““mother disciplinemother discipline”” from which other scientific disciplines emerged.from which other scientific disciplines emerged.

IN THE BEGINNING, IN THE BEGINNING, all systematic/rational searches of knowledge and all systematic/rational searches of knowledge and wisdomwisdom constituted philosophy, but constituted philosophy, but primarily focused onprimarily focused on::

OntologyOntology (nature of existence; what constitutes being? reality v. appearance; man (nature of existence; what constitutes being? reality v. appearance; man’’s s relationship to existence—e.g., existence of an afterlife, body v. soul, mortality v relationship to existence—e.g., existence of an afterlife, body v. soul, mortality v immortality) immortality)

Cosmology and Astronomy Cosmology and Astronomy (origin, structure, & source of the apparent order in the universe)(origin, structure, & source of the apparent order in the universe) Natural Philosophy Natural Philosophy (understanding the inner workings of the natural/physical world)(understanding the inner workings of the natural/physical world) Logic and Mathematics Logic and Mathematics (principles of logical reasoning and rational argumentation)(principles of logical reasoning and rational argumentation) EpistemologyEpistemology (nature of knowledge, its sources and validity, methods of acquiring it) (nature of knowledge, its sources and validity, methods of acquiring it) Spiritual/Theological IssuesSpiritual/Theological Issues (existence and nature of God, philosophical and (existence and nature of God, philosophical and

logical rationales for religious dogma)logical rationales for religious dogma) Ethics and Government Ethics and Government (man(man’’s conduct/morality and his relationship withs conduct/morality and his relationship with

other men, sources and types of human liberties and rights, legitimate other men, sources and types of human liberties and rights, legitimate source(s) of political power, forms of government and pros and cons of each) source(s) of political power, forms of government and pros and cons of each)

AestheticsAesthetics (Nature and source of beauty; what constitutes art and artistic (Nature and source of beauty; what constitutes art and artistic value; art’s relationship with nature and human creativity/genius) value; art’s relationship with nature and human creativity/genius)

TODAY, some of the above are no longer a mainstay in philosophy TODAY, some of the above are no longer a mainstay in philosophy and have emerged as independent disciplines in their own rights:and have emerged as independent disciplines in their own rights:

Natural philosophNatural philosophy has emerged as various branches of science (y has emerged as various branches of science (physics, biology, etcphysics, biology, etc.).) CosmologyCosmology has become has become astronomy and astrophysicsastronomy and astrophysics GovernmentGovernment and structure of human societies has become and structure of human societies has become sociology and political sciencesociology and political science MathematicMathematics and s and TheologyTheology are each now their own are each now their own independent fieldsindependent fields

Aristotle & Plato by Raphael (1510), Fresco, Vatican

INTRODUCTION: MANINTRODUCTION: MAN’’S QUEST FOR ANSWERSS QUEST FOR ANSWERS

The human species has always found itself living The human species has always found itself living between two distinct between two distinct worlds/realitiesworlds/realities (Jennifer Hecht, 2007): (Jennifer Hecht, 2007):

a.a.The reality of The reality of humannesshumanness with an with an instinctive curiosityinstinctive curiosity and desire to and desire to understand; a seemingly understand; a seemingly innate sense of fairnessinnate sense of fairness; and a ; and a need for purpose, need for purpose, reason, lovereason, love, justice, caring, compassion, sympathy, etc., justice, caring, compassion, sympathy, etc.

b.b.The reality of a universeThe reality of a universe beyond his life and control that beyond his life and control that appears to be appears to be cold, mechanicalcold, mechanical, indifferent, and impersonal. A universe that is , indifferent, and impersonal. A universe that is not readily not readily understandableunderstandable (often appears to defy human logic), and in which there (often appears to defy human logic), and in which there does does not seem to be a clear purposenot seem to be a clear purpose, planning, justifiable priorities, love, , planning, justifiable priorities, love, caringcaring, , justicejustice, empathy, etc., empathy, etc.

As a result, ever since man evolved into an intelligent species, he has had a As a result, ever since man evolved into an intelligent species, he has had a profound need to reconcileprofound need to reconcile these two seemingly divergent realities. This these two seemingly divergent realities. This has led him to a has led him to a preoccupation with life’s ultimate mysteriespreoccupation with life’s ultimate mysteries and and a quest for a quest for answersanswers to such existential questions as the to such existential questions as the nature of his existence nature of his existence (e.g.(e.g., , being v. becomingbeing v. becoming, , body v. soul/mindbody v. soul/mind, what happens to us , what happens to us after we dieafter we die?); ?); his place in the world his place in the world (e.g., what is the (e.g., what is the purpose of lifepurpose of life? ? free will v. free will v. predestinationpredestination); ); the way the world works the way the world works (e.g., (e.g., change vs permanencechange vs permanence, , causes of eventscauses of events); and ); and how how to go about to go about finding out the truthfinding out the truth (e.g.,, (e.g.,, what constitutes truthwhat constitutes truth when everything is constantly changing? What when everything is constantly changing? What methods are there for discovering it? How to know if it has been found?)methods are there for discovering it? How to know if it has been found?)..


In the search for answersIn the search for answers to these questions, understanding the human to these questions, understanding the human condition, condition, andand attempting to attempting to reconcile the rupturereconcile the rupture between man’s two realities, between man’s two realities, man has different man has different different approaches/means/sourcesdifferent approaches/means/sources of understanding. of understanding. Each of theseEach of these different approaches have different approaches have found greater prominencefound greater prominence, at different , at different times and in different places, times and in different places, in providing the needed answersin providing the needed answers and explanations: and explanations:

1.1. Appeal to iAppeal to intuitionntuition, the self evident, common sense, , the self evident, common sense, authorityauthority, t, traditionradition, majority , majority judgment, and judgment, and searching for explanations of the the unknownsearching for explanations of the the unknown in in superstition, superstition, mythologymythology, and , and supernatural powerssupernatural powers (deity).. (deity)..

1.1. Until 6Until 6thth century BC century BC

2.2. PhilosophyPhilosophy (it involves (it involves mapping out the world by reasonmapping out the world by reason and rational proof. and rational proof. It first defines a problem and then, using It first defines a problem and then, using speculative thoughtspeculative thought based on logical based on logicaland objective and objective reasoninreasoning, arrives at conclusions/explanations/g, arrives at conclusions/explanations/answers thatanswers thatdirectly flow directly flow from from logical necessitylogical necessity))

1.1. Born in Born in Greece--Greece--66thth century BC through growth of Christianity/Fall of Rom century BC through growth of Christianity/Fall of Rom (Thales, (Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, etc.).Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, etc.).

2.2. In the Islamic world: 8In the Islamic world: 8thth-12-12thth century century (Aristotelian philosophers such as Farabi, Razi, (Aristotelian philosophers such as Farabi, Razi, Avicenna, Averroes, etc.) Avicenna, Averroes, etc.)

3.3. In the West--mostly starting in the 16In the West--mostly starting in the 16thth century century (Descartes, Bacon, Locke, Kant, Hagel, (Descartes, Bacon, Locke, Kant, Hagel, Nietzsche, Russell, etc.)Nietzsche, Russell, etc.)


3.3. Theology/TheosophyTheology/Theosophy (It is an attempt to provide rational explanations/ (It is an attempt to provide rational explanations/ justifications for the justifications for the religious assertion that there is a divine purposereligious assertion that there is a divine purpose and wisdom and wisdom behind the apparent rupturebehind the apparent rupture between the two experienced realities, and that between the two experienced realities, and that to to reconcilereconcile the two, one ought to keep the the two, one ought to keep the focus on the eternityfocus on the eternity, and NOT on the , and NOT on the illusory illusory appearance of immediate realityappearance of immediate reality).).

• TheologyTheology, therefore, is a , therefore, is a belief systembelief system that examines that examines religious dogma religious dogma through a rational philosophical lensthrough a rational philosophical lens. .

• Therefore, Therefore, as a method of inquiryas a method of inquiry, it involves a journey in which, it involves a journey in whichone one starts at the destinationstarts at the destination before the journey even begins. before the journey even begins.

That is, in examining a question/issue, theologians That is, in examining a question/issue, theologians start fromstart from an an already already accepted/fixed explanationaccepted/fixed explanation (derived from an unalterable revealed (derived from an unalterable revealed knowledge/truth) and, knowledge/truth) and, thenthen, use , use metaphysical and logical argumentsmetaphysical and logical arguments to to reaffirmreaffirm/solidify/justify the /solidify/justify the pre-established explanation.pre-established explanation.

In Christianity: 1In Christianity: 1stst – 5 – 5thth century century (e.g., St. Paul and St. Augustine)(e.g., St. Paul and St. Augustine) In the Muslim World: 8In the Muslim World: 8thth-12-12thth century century (e.g., Mutazilite theologians, Ghazali, etc.) (e.g., Mutazilite theologians, Ghazali, etc.) In the 11In the 11thth-16-16thth century Christendom century Christendom (Scholastics, Anselm, St. Tho(Scholastics, Anselm, St. Thomas, Occam, etc. )mas, Occam, etc. )

3.3. Modern ScienceModern Science (Intellectual activity and method of inquiry that (Intellectual activity and method of inquiry that first first defines a questiondefines a question/problem regarding a /problem regarding a natural phenomenonnatural phenomenon, and then , and then methodically searchesmethodically searches for answers/explanations for answers/explanations based on objective based on objective analysisanalysis of of observational evidenceobservational evidence))

1.1. The 17The 17thth century - Today century - Today

6

A Historical Journey Through The Evolution of A Historical Journey Through The Evolution of EpistemologyEpistemology

The The ““how and whyhow and why”” of the of the transition among these approachestransition among these approaches is the is the Focus of this PresentationFocus of this Presentation: : We will examine the We will examine the historical forces historical forces that have shaped that have shaped modern man modern man’’s s perspectives on perspectives on epistemologyepistemology..

•““EpistemeEpisteme”” (Greek word):(Greek word): Organized knowledgeOrganized knowledge (science)(science)

• EpistemologyEpistemology ((theory of knowledgetheory of knowledge, ways of acquiring true knowledge), ways of acquiring true knowledge)

• The nature and The nature and certitudcertitude of human knowledge e of human knowledge (What constitutes (What constitutes true knowledgetrue knowledge?)?)• Its Its sourcessources and and methodsmethods (How is it supposed to be acquired?)(How is it supposed to be acquired?)• Its Its scope and validityscope and validity (Ways of verifying and establishing its truth?)(Ways of verifying and establishing its truth?)• As a result, what are the As a result, what are the appropriate principles & methodsappropriate principles & methods for advancing science/ for advancing science/

knowledge knowledge

In short, we will be examining:In short, we will be examining:•How and why How and why EpistemologyEpistemology has evolved over the centuries and, thus, has evolved over the centuries and, thus,•How we have arrived at our How we have arrived at our modern scientific outlook/methodsmodern scientific outlook/methods . . . . . . •What significant What significant historical, philosophical, political, and religious historical, philosophical, political, and religious events/personalitiesevents/personalities have contributed to its development. have contributed to its development.

6

BIRTH OF THE UNIVERSE, FORMATION OF EARTH, AND BIRTH OF THE UNIVERSE, FORMATION OF EARTH, AND EVOLUTION EVOLUTION OF LIFE ON EARTH:OF LIFE ON EARTH:

In the 19In the 19thth century, century, discovery of similar fossilsdiscovery of similar fossils in similar rocks in similar rocks across the across the globeglobe indicated that, in the past, indicated that, in the past, many speciesmany species had come into existence and had come into existence and later became later became extinct.extinct.

There are today There are today 30 million 30 million different living different living speciesspecies. These represent. These representonly only 1% of the 3 billion1% of the 3 billion species that have ever come to existence. species that have ever come to existence.

• This suggested that This suggested that there had beenthere had been not one, but not one, but many creationsmany creations and and extinctions, providing unconvertible evidence extinctions, providing unconvertible evidence contradictingcontradicting the Biblical the Biblical story of story of creation in the Genesiscreation in the Genesis..

The best The best astrophysical evidenceastrophysical evidence obtained obtained since thensince then points to: points to:

The BIG BANG The BIG BANG (Birth of the universe) (Birth of the universe) 13.7 billion13.7 billion years agoyears ago

Birth of the EARTH Birth of the EARTH 4.6 billion 4.6 billion years agoyears ago

6

Geological and fossil evidenceGeological and fossil evidence obtained in the past couple of centuries also obtained in the past couple of centuries also has revealed that:has revealed that:

NO LIFENO LIFE existed on the earth existed on the earth for a whole BILLION YEARSfor a whole BILLION YEARS..

•3.63.6 bil bil years agoyears ago First First life form--life form--SimpleSimple cells/cells/ single-celled organismssingle-celled organisms

Then it took Then it took another 3 bilanother 3 bil++ years for years for mammalsmammals to appear: to appear:

•200 200 milmil years agoyears ago MammalsMammals

•6060 mil mil years agoyears ago PrimatesPrimates

• 2020 mil mil years agoyears ago Great ApesGreat Apes ((HominidsHominids, human ancestors), human ancestors)

• 33 mil mil years ago years ago BipedalismBipedalism

6

AFRICA—THE DAWN OF HUMANITY:AFRICA—THE DAWN OF HUMANITY:

•3 million3 million years ago in years ago in EthiopiaEthiopia, (new, (new 2015 2015 discovery) our human ancestors discovery) our human ancestors developed developed bipedalismbipedalism (e.g., (e.g., Lucy was 2.5 mil. Lucy was 2.5 mil.), which in turn), which in turn::

Bipedalism Bipedalism freed the handsfreed the hands to make tools, hunt animals, change diet, grow brain to make tools, hunt animals, change diet, grow brain

•2 mil2 mil years ago, emergence ofyears ago, emergence of Homo HabilisHomo Habilis ((handy manhandy man) ) start of the start of the Old Stone AgeOld Stone Age ( (Paleolithic PeriodPaleolithic Period 2,000,000 – 10,000 BC)2,000,000 – 10,000 BC)

•1.7 mil1.7 mil. . years ago, emergence of years ago, emergence of Homo ErectusHomo Erectus ((upright manupright man), a true ), a true hunter gathererhunter gatherer

Evolution of Early Humans & Emergence of CivilizationEvolution of Early Humans & Emergence of Civilization::

•200,000-150,000200,000-150,000 years ago, years ago, Homo SapiensHomo Sapiens (wise/thinking man(wise/thinking man),),anatomically modern humansanatomically modern humans

•60,000-30,00060,000-30,000 years ago, also a period of years ago, also a period of creative/artistic explosion creative/artistic explosion (appearance of (appearance of cave paintingscave paintings, carved ivory, female figurines, etc.), carved ivory, female figurines, etc.)

Female Female figurinesfigurines suggest worship of suggest worship of female godsfemale godsto them to them giving birthgiving birth appeared appeared mysterious, miraculousmysterious, miraculous, and a godly act., and a godly act.

6

MIDDLE EAST—THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION:MIDDLE EAST—THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION:

•10,000-12,00010,000-12,000 years ago (years ago (Mesolithic PeriodMesolithic Period), a ), a new breed of wheatnew breed of wheat appeared that had to be planted; appeared that had to be planted; domestication of cropsdomestication of crops started in started in Mesopotamia/Fertile CrescentMesopotamia/Fertile Crescent (today’s Iraq, Iran, Turkey). (today’s Iraq, Iran, Turkey).

•10,00010,000 years ago, years ago, domestication of animalsdomestication of animals began in mountainous regions began in mountainous regions of the Fertile Crescent (modern-day Iran, Iraq, and Turkey).of the Fertile Crescent (modern-day Iran, Iraq, and Turkey).

Hunter gatherersHunter gatherers first becomefirst become herdersherders and thenand then farmersfarmers

•9,0009,000 years ago, the years ago, the first small town first small town and rectangular and rectangular structures with sun-structures with sun-dried claydried clay appear in appear in JerichoJericho..

•6,0006,000 years ago, the years ago, the first city-states first city-states ((Uruk, Ur, EriduUruk, Ur, Eridu) with temples were ) with temples were built in built in SumerSumer (Mesopotamia); (Mesopotamia); urbanizationurbanization and city life begins. and city life begins.

•6,000-5,0006,000-5,000 years ago, metallurgy and smelting metals began years ago, metallurgy and smelting metals began(The Copper Age) (The Copper Age) in in SusaSusa (today’s (today’s IranIran). ). HorseHorse Was Was domesticateddomesticated..

•6,000-3,500 6,000-3,500 years ago years ago 3 successive civilizations3 successive civilizations ( (SumerianSumerian, , AkkadianAkkadian, , and and BabylonianBabylonian) flourished in ) flourished in MesopotamiaMesopotamia..

6

EVOLUTION OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS EVOLUTION OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS (Middle East)(Middle East)::

•6,000-43506,000-4350 years ago, years ago, fromfrom SumeriansSumerians camecame::

The first The first writing systemwriting systemFirst First numerical/calculation systemsnumerical/calculation systemsLunar Lunar calendarcalendar (13 months, 28 days each) (13 months, 28 days each)CitiesCitiesPolytheistic Polytheistic mythological religionsmythological religionsTemples—”ziggurats”Temples—”ziggurats” (laid out to four points of the compass) (laid out to four points of the compass)PriesthoodPriesthoodThe plowThe plowFemale literary figureFemale literary figureLiteratureLiterature & poetry & poetry

The The Epic of GilgameshEpic of Gilgamesh (the oldest surviving work of (the oldest surviving work of literature & poetry about a Sumerian king aroundliterature & poetry about a Sumerian king around4700 years ago4700 years ago..

GilgameshGilgamesh (12 tablets) was found (12 tablets) was found in 1853 in Ninevehin 1853 in Nineveh the Sumerian capital (near Mosul, Iraq) with 1,000s of the Sumerian capital (near Mosul, Iraq) with 1,000s of other Cuneiform tablets.other Cuneiform tablets.

Statue of a Sumerian deity, ca. 2550 and 2520 BC

6

EVOLUTION OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS:EVOLUTION OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS:

•5,0005,000-4,500 -4,500 years ago, years ago, Bronze AgeBronze Age began in began in MesopotamiaMesopotamia and and encouraged development of the encouraged development of the swordsword. .

•4,600-4,300 4,600-4,300 years ago,years ago, EgyptiansEgyptians built the built the Pyramids at Giza. Pyramids at Giza.

• 4,000-3600 4,000-3600 years ago, years ago, BabyloniansBabylonians flourished in Mesopotamia. flourished in Mesopotamia.

From Babylonians cameFrom Babylonians came: : Astronomical observations Astronomical observations (important for farming)(important for farming)wheeled vehicleswheeled vehiclesSailboatsSailboatsIrrigation canalsIrrigation canalsPost-and-beam arches Post-and-beam arches Works of art and StatuesWorks of art and StatuesMusical instrumentsMusical instrumentsMedical textsMedical textsHammurabi CodeHammurabi Code (1700 BC): (1700 BC): A law code much like A law code much likethe 10 Commandments given to him by the the 10 Commandments given to him by the god Mardukgod Marduk. .

The Babylonian Empire

6

EVOLUTION OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS:EVOLUTION OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS:

•The ancient The ancient EgyptiansEgyptians were highly skillful in: were highly skillful in:

AstronomyAstronomy: :

a a solar calendarsolar calendar (12 months/year, 30 days/month, and 5 extra days (12 months/year, 30 days/month, and 5 extra days at the end of the year. Later, Romans adopted the Egyptian calendar. at the end of the year. Later, Romans adopted the Egyptian calendar.

Applied Mathematics: Applied Mathematics:

engineering/construction principlesengineering/construction principles, rules for measuring figures, , rules for measuring figures, calculating the volumes of solids.calculating the volumes of solids.

Medicine:Medicine:

The oldest surviving The oldest surviving medical/surgical text medical/surgical text from 3600 (possibly 5000)from 3600 (possibly 5000) years ago. years ago.

Art and Aesthetics:Art and Aesthetics:

Aesthetic rulesAesthetic rules for painting and sculpture. Had significant influence onfor painting and sculpture. Had significant influence on the Greeks. the Greeks.

•3,2003,200 years ago, years ago, Iron AgeIron Age began in earnest in the began in earnest in the Hittite cultureHittite culture of of Turkey Turkey and Northern Syriaand Northern Syria,,Earliest iron artifacts date back to Earliest iron artifacts date back to 5,000 years5,000 years ago in ago in Iran & IraqIran & Iraq..

7

A Journey ThroughA Journey ThroughThe Evolution of Knowledge & The Evolution of Knowledge & EpistemologyEpistemology

THE GENESIS OF WRITTEN KNOWLEDGETHE GENESIS OF WRITTEN KNOWLEDGE----Emergence of Emergence of Knowledge Storage,Knowledge Storage, Knowledge Knowledge Preservation, Preservation, and Knowledge and Knowledge Transmission:Transmission:

• The originThe origin of of written knowledgewritten knowledge goes back to the goes back to the SumeriansSumeriansin in Mesopotamia.Mesopotamia.

• WorldWorld’’s first s first writing systemswriting systems 3300 BC3300 BC::

Sumerian Cuneiform Sumerian Cuneiform (initially pictographs, then ideogram,(initially pictographs, then ideogram,and eventually phonogram/script). and eventually phonogram/script).

Egyptians borrowed the idea for their Egyptians borrowed the idea for their HieroglyphicsHieroglyphics..

• First First standard alphabetstandard alphabet 1100 1100 BCBC (only consonants) (only consonants)PhoeniciaPhoenicia (today (today’’s s Lebanon, SyriaLebanon, Syria))

• Symbols to represent Symbols to represent vowels,vowels, 750 BC750 BCGreekGreek alphabet, (Greek alphabet was a descendant of Phoenician) alphabet, (Greek alphabet was a descendant of Phoenician)

THE VERY BEGINNINGSTHE VERY BEGINNINGS

8

Important Discoveries in Important Discoveries in Numbering SystemsNumbering Systems::

•Positional notationPositional notation in numbers discovered around in numbers discovered around 3500 BC3500 BCe.g., 253 = (2 X100) + (5 X 10) + (3 X 1)e.g., 253 = (2 X100) + (5 X 10) + (3 X 1)

MesopotamiaMesopotamia (by Sumerians & Babylonians): (by Sumerians & Babylonians):

Base of 60Base of 60 (and, thus, 60 min./hr, 60 sec./min., 360 deg. in a circle) (and, thus, 60 min./hr, 60 sec./min., 360 deg. in a circle)

Did not understand Did not understand 00 ( (zero)zero), so often left it out , so often left it out (wrote 306 as 3 6!)(wrote 306 as 3 6!)

• The concept of 0 The concept of 0 properly understood/used properly understood/used 350 BC350 BC

First in First in MesopotamiaMesopotamia

Then by Then by GreeksGreeks, but in a , but in a numbering system based on 60numbering system based on 60

•0 & the 0 & the decimaldecimal system, system, HindusHindus around 1200 years ago around 1200 years ago ((AD 750)AD 750)

Introduced to Europe in the Introduced to Europe in the 11001100’’ss through the translations of the through the translations of the works of works of KhawrazmiKhawrazmi (780-850)(780-850),, an Iranian mathematicianan Iranian mathematician(the (the inventor of algebrainventor of algebra. .

9

GREECE: THE ORIGIN OF SCIENCE & PHILOSOPHYGREECE: THE ORIGIN OF SCIENCE & PHILOSOPHY

SCIENCE:SCIENCE: (organized knowledge) (organized knowledge) systematic attempts to use systematic attempts to use observational evidenceobservational evidence to to classifyclassify objects/phenomena and to objects/phenomena and to explore/explore/quantify relationshipsquantify relationships between them. between them.

Science/modern scientific methods Science/modern scientific methods owe their developmentowe their development directly to directly to threethree major major knowledge explosionsknowledge explosions in philosophy and science: in philosophy and science:

1.1. The initial blast in The initial blast in GreeceGreece (around 7(around 7thth century BC). century BC).

2.2. The second burst occurred in the The second burst occurred in the Muslim WorldMuslim World (especially by (especially by Iranians/Persians)Iranians/Persians) (around AD 8(around AD 8thth-12-12thth century). century).

3.3. The third upsurge The third upsurge beganbegan in in EuropeEurope during the during the RenaissanceRenaissance,,took shapetook shape during the during the scientific revolutionscientific revolution,, and andmaturedmatured during the during the enlightenment era enlightenment era ((““the age of reasonthe age of reason””).).

History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads

10

First Knowledge Explosion--The First Knowledge Explosion--The GreekGreek Domination: Domination:

• In 600 BCE In 600 BCE Greek city-statesGreek city-states were democracies (only for free males). were democracies (only for free males).

• REASONREASON and and rational thinkingrational thinking took took precedence over all other ways of precedence over all other ways of acquiring knowledgeacquiring knowledge (e.g., handed-down beliefs and traditions). (e.g., handed-down beliefs and traditions).

Reason: Reason: Systematic attempt to obtain Systematic attempt to obtain rational/verifiable/demonstrable rational/verifiable/demonstrable explanationsexplanations for natural phenomena for natural phenomena

Searching for explanations that have a Searching for explanations that have a foundation outside of plain faithfoundation outside of plain faith..

Raphael (1483-15 ), Raphael (1483-15 ), Academy of Athens,Academy of Athens,Fresco, VaticanFresco, Vatican

The Mind of the GreekThe Mind of the Greek

• For about the next 2000 years (For about the next 2000 years (600 BC -16600 BC -16th th century)century) the the development of virtually development of virtually all philosophy and scienceall philosophy and science was was dominateddominated (or greatly (or greatly influencedinfluenced) by the work of ) by the work of ancient Greek ancient Greek philosophersphilosophers, , e.g., Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus, Socrates, and e.g., Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus, Socrates, and others, others, particularlyparticularly Plato Plato andand AristotleAristotle..

11

Thales Thales (625-546 BC)-(625-546 BC)---Birth of Natural Philosophy:Birth of Natural Philosophy:

• Explanation for how the Explanation for how the material worldmaterial world was constructed. was constructed. ExplainingExplaining natural phenomena natural phenomena in terms of nature itselfin terms of nature itself, not forces beyond nature , not forces beyond nature

(e.g., deity/miracles).(e.g., deity/miracles).

• Founded Founded geometrygeometry, which became the , which became the foundation for rational philosophyfoundation for rational philosophy..

The first to ask:The first to ask: ”What is the ”What is the one thing from which everythingone thing from which everything else in our else in our physical world is made? He replied: physical world is made? He replied: WATERWATER

AssumptionAssumption: : World is an ordered entityWorld is an ordered entity, made of a basic , made of a basic physical elementphysical element (Materialism)(Materialism) and is intelligible and is intelligible/explainable by reason/explainable by reason. .

He asked:He asked: ““Is there Is there something that remainssomething that remains the same, the same, when everythingwhen everythingelse around us appear to else around us appear to constantly changeconstantly change??””

TWO THINGS: TWO THINGS: (a). The elemental building block of everything (water), & (a). The elemental building block of everything (water), & (b). An(b). An enduring universal order enduring universal order, the , the ““COSMOSCOSMOS..””

• Therefore, a basic Therefore, a basic unityunity and and permanencepermanence underlies the underlies the apparent pluralityapparent plurality and and changechange that we observe in the universe. that we observe in the universe.

His work marked the His work marked the birth of sciencebirth of science (natural philosophy)! (natural philosophy)! Soon after, other Greeks began thinking about the world in similar ways.Soon after, other Greeks began thinking about the world in similar ways.

ThalesThalesMiletus, Asia MinorMiletus, Asia Minor

GREECE OF THE GREECE OF THE ARCHAICARCHAIC AGE AGE (800-479 BCE)(800-479 BCE)

Pre-Socratic Philosophers & Birth of Science:Pre-Socratic Philosophers & Birth of Science:

12

PythagorasPythagoras (570- 495 BC)—(570- 495 BC)—A A MathematicaMathematical World:l World:

• MathematicsMathematics, as a , as a system of deductive argumentsystem of deductive argument, began with him., began with him.

•Originator of Originator of RationalismRationalism (i.e., (i.e., truthtruth may be arrived at by may be arrived at bypure thinkingpure thinking).).

•He was the originator of He was the originator of Idealism—Idealism—considered the considered the changing worldchanging world as false/as false/illusoryillusory; behind it lies a ; behind it lies a realm of invisible, unchanging, realityrealm of invisible, unchanging, reality..

•Founded a Founded a new religion, new religion, with a belief in afterlife and with a belief in afterlife and immortality of soulimmortality of soul..

•The first to view the universe as The first to view the universe as mathematically constructedmathematically constructed

intelligibleintelligible in mathematical terms in mathematical terms

13

Leucippus Leucippus (c 480-420 BC) (c 480-420 BC) && DemocritusDemocritus (460-370 BC) (460-370 BC)

•Founders of the Founders of the Atomist Atomist Theory/PhilosophyTheory/Philosophy::

•The material world was composed of The material world was composed of a combination ofa combination ofvarious various tinytiny, , invisibleinvisible, , everlastingeverlasting, and , and irreducible/irreducible/ indivisibleindivisible particlesparticles (i.e., (i.e., ““AtomsAtoms””).).

•There is There is nothing elsenothing else in the world but in the world but AtomAtoms.s.

•They swerve around subject to physical principlesThey swerve around subject to physical principles(explainable (explainable natural lawsnatural laws).).

Finally, came the Finally, came the greatest philosophersgreatest philosophers of all times of all times::

PLATOPLATO and and ARISTOTLEARISTOTLE

And, with them, began a long-standing And, with them, began a long-standing philosophical debatephilosophical debate regarding the regarding the theory of knowledge.theory of knowledge.

14

This debate This debate centering aroundcentering around the following issues: the following issues:

1.1.The nature of existence. The nature of existence.

a.a. World is made of basic physical elements. World is made of basic physical elements. Material objects existMaterial objects exist independent of our mind and independent of our mind and perception perception Everything that happens Everything that happens has a material cause has a material cause (materialism), (materialism), vsvs

b.b.A more real realmA more real realm of permanent, unchanging, perfect, and of permanent, unchanging, perfect, andabstract entities (i.e., ideas/ forms) abstract entities (i.e., ideas/ forms) lies behind the illusorylies behind the illusory and andever-changing appearance of the material world/nature ever-changing appearance of the material world/nature (idealism). (idealism).

So, it is our So, it is our transcendent ideas/ideal conceptiontranscendent ideas/ideal conception of this world’s entities that constitute of this world’s entities that constitute primary reality, not the changing/deceptive appearance of them.primary reality, not the changing/deceptive appearance of them.

2.2.The nature of reality. The nature of reality. What is realWhat is real? What constitutes ? What constitutes primary realityprimary reality??

a.a. The material things of the The material things of the changing/experienciblechanging/experiencible ““phenomenalphenomenal”” world (objects world (objects asas appear to our senses,appear to our senses, e.g., e.g., beautiful thingsbeautiful things, or various individual cats)—, or various individual cats)—RealismRealism

b.b.The eternal, The eternal, changelesschangeless, and , and perfect prototypes/ideas perfect prototypes/ideas of worldly entities of the of worldly entities of the ““noumenalnoumenal”” world (world (PlatoPlato’’s s Idea/Forms/UniversalsIdea/Forms/Universals) (i.e., objects ) (i.e., objects as they actually areas they actually are beyond our senses--e.g., beyond our senses--e.g., beautybeauty, or what it is to be a cat)—, or what it is to be a cat)—IdealismIdealism

That is, whether there is a That is, whether there is a dualityduality//distinctiondistinction between the between the ““real worldreal world”” and and ““world of appearancesworld of appearances””::

a.a. The noumenal world: The noumenal world: The real and eternal world of perfect Platonic entities The real and eternal world of perfect Platonic entities ((Ideas/Ideas/ Forms Forms)); the ; the world as it actually isworld as it actually is, and , and

b.b. The phenomenal world: The phenomenal world: The experiencible The experiencible world of imperfect material objects world of imperfect material objects ((““particularsparticulars””); ); the the world as it appears to our senses.world as it appears to our senses. (Continued…)(Continued…)

Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens,

Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

15

3.3. The nature of knowledge.The nature of knowledge. What constitutes What constitutes true knowledgetrue knowledge??

a.a. Does knowledge pertains to the Does knowledge pertains to the understandingunderstanding of the individual, of the individual, observable observable material objectsmaterial objects (i.e., (i.e., ““ParticularsParticulars””) ) of the phenomenal/natural world? of the phenomenal/natural world? (materialism(materialism Or Or

b.b. Is knowledge associated with Is knowledge associated with understandingunderstanding the unchanging, the unchanging, species/concepts species/concepts that define the individual particularsthat define the individual particulars (i.e., (i.e., ““UniversalsUniversals””))? ? (“idealism”) (“idealism”)

4.4. The Source of knowledge. The Source of knowledge.

– Is knowledge Is knowledge a prioria priori ((inborn/innateinborn/innate)? That is, is it already )? That is, is it already planted/stamped in planted/stamped in our mindour mind prior to our birth and, thus, we only have to uncover it prior to our birth and, thus, we only have to uncover it ((RationalismRationalism)? )?

OROR

a.a. Are we born with a blank slate and, thus, knowledge is Are we born with a blank slate and, thus, knowledge is only attainablonly attainable through e through experienceexperience and and interaction withinteraction with the material world—i.e., through sense the material world—i.e., through sense perceptionperception (Empiricism)?(Empiricism)?

5.5. Method of acquiring knowledge.Method of acquiring knowledge.

a.a. Should knowledge be acquired Should knowledge be acquired intellectuallyintellectually in the mind through pure thought, in the mind through pure thought, contemplation,contemplation, and and logical analysis/reasoninglogical analysis/reasoning (Rationalism)(Rationalism)? OR? OR

3.3.Should it be acquired Should it be acquired experientiallyexperientially (via sense perception) through (via sense perception) through careful careful observationobservation, and experimentation , and experimentation (Empiricism)(Empiricism)??

History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of EpistemologyHistory of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

Plato (427-347 BC)Plato (427-347 BC)—Change in Permanence—Change in Permanence

1.1. A philosophical A philosophical idealistidealist and and rationalistrationalist

2.2. IntuitiveIntuitive//spiritual/mysticalspiritual/mystical (Notice his hand pointing to the heavens)(Notice his hand pointing to the heavens)

3.3. Believed that Believed that GodGod, being perfect and all good , being perfect and all good designed a perfect world,designed a perfect world,with each thing in its proper position/role in relation to other things.with each thing in its proper position/role in relation to other things.((Plato'sPlato's Great Chain of BeingsGreat Chain of Beings) . ) .

So, the entities of this real So, the entities of this real ““noumenal worldnoumenal world”” must be must be perfectperfect..

PlatoPlato calls these calls these perfect eternal prototypes/entities perfect eternal prototypes/entities ““Ideas/FormsIdeas/Forms””. .

1.1. EntitiesEntities created by God, in which material beings/objects partake. created by God, in which material beings/objects partake.Examples:Examples: Apple Apple ((universal idea of universal idea of ““applenessappleness””) vs this or that ) vs this or that particular appleparticular apple; virtue ; virtue vs virtuous individuals; beauty vs beautiful objects; etc.vs virtuous individuals; beauty vs beautiful objects; etc.

4.4. ““ParticularsParticulars”” in in ””phenomenal worldphenomenal world““, however,, however, are neither permanent nor perfect.are neither permanent nor perfect. There is multiplicity and diversity/variety amongThere is multiplicity and diversity/variety among““particularsparticulars”” of the same speciesof the same species (e.g., individual apples). Also, all (e.g., individual apples). Also, all ““particularsparticulars”” change/decay and are i change/decay and are imperfecmperfect.t. It is their imperfections that allow their multiplicity; there is only one perfect item in each It is their imperfections that allow their multiplicity; there is only one perfect item in each

species (i.e., the unchangeable eternal Idea of apple)species (i.e., the unchangeable eternal Idea of apple) That is, multiplicity/variety, change, & decay all That is, multiplicity/variety, change, & decay all rule out perfectionrule out perfection and, thus, and, thus,

undermine existence undermine existence (i.e., particulars must not be as real/must not really exist).(i.e., particulars must not be as real/must not really exist). TheThe IdeasIdeas are are unchangingunchanging/perfect//perfect/more permanentmore permanent and, thus, and, thus, more realmore real.. The “Good” is the supreme FormThe “Good” is the supreme Form; beauty/justice/truth all have some Good in them.; beauty/justice/truth all have some Good in them.

5.5. ““particularsparticulars”” , thus, cannot exist or be the real things, thus, cannot exist or be the real things (cannot constitute (cannot constitute ultimate realityultimate reality); they ); they only give an only give an appearance of existing appearance of existing or or appearance of being realappearance of being real..

They are mere They are mere illusory/shadowyillusory/shadowy copiescopies of their of their ““Forms Ideas”.Forms Ideas”.

16

Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens,

Raphael, Fresco, Vatican

17

6.6. Therefore, Therefore, experience-based understanding experience-based understanding of of ““particularsparticulars”” will be will be fallible/ fallible/ unreliable unreliable and and subject to disagreement.subject to disagreement.

““Particulars” change themselves; Particulars” change themselves; understandingunderstanding them is them is unstable/uncertainunstable/uncertain

Also, our Also, our senses are NOT reliable/trustworthysenses are NOT reliable/trustworthy to grasp the truth/reality behind to grasp the truth/reality behind the illusive physical appearances (e.g., seeing a mirage in the des. the illusive physical appearances (e.g., seeing a mirage in the des.

7.7. As such, insight/understanding gained from studying these As such, insight/understanding gained from studying these “particulars” “particulars” (material (material objects) with our senses amounts to no more than objects) with our senses amounts to no more than MERE OPINIONSMERE OPINIONS. .

OPINIONS OPINIONS are just are just assumptionsassumptions about the reality about the reality based on appearances.based on appearances.

8.8.TRUE KNOLEDGETRUE KNOLEDGE being being certain and infallible mustcertain and infallible must pertain pertain to the to the ultimate realityultimate reality represented by the represented by the Ideas/Forms Ideas/Forms (since there is (since there is only one truthonly one truth).).

This means that This means that real knowledge involvesreal knowledge involves understanding of understanding of the non-materiathe non-material/l/ abstractabstract concepts/definitionsconcepts/definitions, and , and NOT physical objectsNOT physical objects..

9.9.Since Since true knowledgetrue knowledge CANNOT be learned throughCANNOT be learned through experience/interactingexperience/interactingwith the with the natural/physical worldnatural/physical world (Empiricism)(Empiricism), . . . , . . . ::

10.10.It It must be must be deduced intuitively/intellectuallydeduced intuitively/intellectually (in the mind) through (in the mind) through pure pure thoughtthought, contemplation, and intellectual reasoning, as is done in mathematics , contemplation, and intellectual reasoning, as is done in mathematics (Rationalism(Rationalism))..

This will allow us to This will allow us to avoid being hand-strungavoid being hand-strung by the limitations of our by the limitations of our senses and perceptions.senses and perceptions.

17

b.b. Since knowledge does not come from experience, then it must beSince knowledge does not come from experience, then it must beinborn/inborn/a prioria priori—i.e., have already existed in our mind before birth —i.e., have already existed in our mind before birth and carried with us to this life and carried with us to this life from an earlier existencefrom an earlier existence..

ImplicationsImplications??

In shortIn short,,• PlatoPlato was prejudiced against studying the observable/material world was prejudiced against studying the observable/material world

Saw Saw realityreality as being as being intelligibleintelligible; ; notnot physical/ physical/sensiblsensible.e.

Dismissed validity of the sensesDismissed validity of the senses, and , and the role of observationsthe role of observations in studying in studying the real world (in advancing true knowledge). the real world (in advancing true knowledge).

• Saw knowledge as being Saw knowledge as being associated witassociated with h abstract conceptsabstract concepts, , NOT sensible objectsNOT sensible objects..

• His mystical philosophy had a His mystical philosophy had a profound influenceprofound influence on epistemology/ on epistemology/theory of theory of knowledge knowledge and in the formation of the and in the formation of the Islamic and Christian theologiesIslamic and Christian theologies..

History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology

We must have an We must have an immortal soulimmortal soul that that carries our carries our a-priori a-priori Knowledge Knowledge to this lifeto this life at birth from an earlier existence. at birth from an earlier existence.

The soul is exposed to reality before entering the body, but that knowledge gets The soul is exposed to reality before entering the body, but that knowledge gets blunted/blurred as soul transmigratesblunted/blurred as soul transmigrates into new corruptible bodies. into new corruptible bodies.

Thus, obtaining knowledge involves rediscovering what had already been known.Thus, obtaining knowledge involves rediscovering what had already been known. PlatoPlato’’ss belief in belief in immortalityimmortality and and transmigrationtransmigration of the soul shaped much of his of the soul shaped much of his

philosophical dualismphilosophical dualism regarding regarding body vs. soul/mindbody vs. soul/mind, , reality vs appearancereality vs appearance, , knowledge vs opinionknowledge vs opinion, , ideas vs sensible objectsideas vs sensible objects..

Soul is superior to bodily senses (it is eternal--the real thing) and belongs to the Soul is superior to bodily senses (it is eternal--the real thing) and belongs to the realm of Ideas/Forms and is, thus, capable of contemplating those ideas. realm of Ideas/Forms and is, thus, capable of contemplating those ideas.

18

Aristotle Aristotle (384 – 322 BC)(384 – 322 BC)

1.1.RationalRational (based on (based on logical necessitylogical necessity) ) & & NaturalisticNaturalistic (Note his hand…(Note his hand…))

2.2.Very Very professorial and scientificprofessorial and scientific in his approach to natural philosophy. in his approach to natural philosophy.

3.3.Introduced Introduced ““categoriescategories””10 basic characteristics10 basic characteristics through which objects/entities can bethrough which objects/entities can be

identified, described, compared, categorized, and understood: identified, described, compared, categorized, and understood:

o Matter/substanceMatter/substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time,, quantity, quality, relation, place, time,position, state, action, position, state, action, && affection affection

4.4.Independent existenceIndependent existence of matter (substance)of matter (substance)All other characteristics (including PlatoAll other characteristics (including Plato’’s s ““IdeasIdeas””) have ) have contingent existencecontingent existence..That is, they That is, they exist through a substanceexist through a substance, i.e., through , i.e., through concrete particulars.concrete particulars.oe.g., beauty through a beautiful object).e.g., beauty through a beautiful object).

No Universal can exist independent of particulars; they exist only through No Universal can exist independent of particulars; they exist only through particulars. The Idea of particulars. The Idea of red/redness existred/redness exists only because s only because red things exisred things exist. t.

5.5.So, it is So, it is material objects material objects (concrete (concrete ““particularsparticulars””) that represent ) that represent primary realityprimary reality. .

Thus, material things must be the basis for Thus, material things must be the basis for KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE (i.e., to understand an Idea/Forms, (i.e., to understand an Idea/Forms, you need to observe its concrete particulars)you need to observe its concrete particulars)

6.6.But, while acknowledging But, while acknowledging validity of the senses/observationvalidity of the senses/observation, he also, he alsobelieved in thebelieved in the ability to ability to discover the laws of nature by pure thought.discover the laws of nature by pure thought.

No real being is by nature aimlessNo real being is by nature aimless; there is a purpose for; there is a purpose foreverything’s existence.everything’s existence.

Thus, to understand the Thus, to understand the cause of anythingcause of anything, one should examine, one should examineits its ultimate purposeultimate purpose or or “Final Cause”.“Final Cause”.

Aristotle Aristotle (384 -322 BC)(384 -322 BC)

Plato & Aristotle in Plato & Aristotle in Academy of Athens,Academy of Athens,

Raphael, Fresco, VaticanRaphael, Fresco, Vatican

18

7.7. All beings have two All beings have two concurrent statesconcurrent states/modes in their existence./modes in their existence.They are essentially a mixture of They are essentially a mixture of becoming and beingbecoming and being, , potential and actual.potential and actual.

a.a. MatterMatter (constitutes the object’s material being, represents its (constitutes the object’s material being, represents its potentialitpotentialityy), and), and

b.b. FormForm (constitutes the object’s eventual state/structure that represents (constitutes the object’s eventual state/structure that representsits predeterminedits predetermined purpose for beingpurpose for being; what it was made to eventually; what it was made to eventuallybecome; its become; its actualityactuality). ).

8.8. All beings have a natural tendency to evolve toward realization/All beings have a natural tendency to evolve toward realization/actualizationactualizationof their predetermined purpose.of their predetermined purpose.—i.e., purpose of an acorn is to become an oak—i.e., purpose of an acorn is to become an oak

9.9. ChangeChange reflects the reflects the perpetual and natural struggleperpetual and natural struggle of matter toward perfection of matter toward perfection(i.e., moving toward its (i.e., moving toward its natural endnatural end and eventually realizing its predetermined destiny—its and eventually realizing its predetermined destiny—its eventual formeventual form..

10.10. PerfectionPerfection reflects actual (not potential) reality; it is actualization of reality.reflects actual (not potential) reality; it is actualization of reality.

Only finite/Only finite/imperfectimperfect beings are beings are perfectibleperfectible and thus have the capacity for change and and thus have the capacity for change and completion.completion.

OnlyOnly God God is immutable, eternal (without beginning or end), infinitely perfect/ complete, and is immutable, eternal (without beginning or end), infinitely perfect/ complete, and in its absolute form. Thus, Godin its absolute form. Thus, God is is the only the only form without matterform without matter..

• CONCLUSION:CONCLUSION: Understanding Understanding natural worldnatural world constitutes constitutes valid knowledgevalid knowledgeand it can be and it can be attainedattained by: by:

Pure rational thought/intellectPure rational thought/intellect OR OR

ObservationObservation and and categorization of “particularscategorization of “particulars”. (Experimentation was excluded because ”. (Experimentation was excluded because it was a much later innovation) it was a much later innovation)

19

Aristotle Aristotle (Continued)(Continued)::

•It is through the It is through the ability to reason & articulateability to reason & articulate that man that mantranslates observationstranslates observations into useful knowledge. into useful knowledge.

•To avoid To avoid confusion/sophistry/fallacious discourse or faulty logicconfusion/sophistry/fallacious discourse or faulty logic, , reasoning must follow reasoning must follow strict and proper rules of correct logicstrict and proper rules of correct logic. .

• So, he developed the So, he developed the ““science of logicscience of logic””——the rules of scientific thinking/reasoningthe rules of scientific thinking/reasoning known as known as Aristotelian SYLLOGISMAristotelian SYLLOGISM--a formal form of --a formal form of deductive logicdeductive logic..

• DEDUCTIONDEDUCTION is a system of reasoning/ is a system of reasoning/logical argumentationlogical argumentation based on the premise based on the premise that that every truth follows logically from preceding statement of truthevery truth follows logically from preceding statement of truth and, thus, and, thus, every new truthevery new truth must be methodically derived must be methodically derived from one or more earlier links in the from one or more earlier links in the chainchain of arguments/statements of arguments/statements without missing any connecting linkswithout missing any connecting links (e.g., without (e.g., without jumping from truth A to truth C). jumping from truth A to truth C).

a.a. Start with Start with foolproof, self-evident axioms foolproof, self-evident axioms (basic, (basic, unmistakably-true, statementsunmistakably-true, statements).).

b.b. Combine them to arrive at Combine them to arrive at theoremstheorems ((proven propositionsproven propositions)) which are then used in which are then used in combination with other self-evident axioms and proven theorems to arrive at combination with other self-evident axioms and proven theorems to arrive at new new theorems that are not self=evidenttheorems that are not self=evident..

• SYLLOGISMSYLLOGISM is a is a formalformal form of form of deductive reasoningdeductive reasoning consisting of consisting of two premises two premises (axioms) (axioms) and and a conclusion (theorem) a conclusion (theorem) connected togetherconnected together following Aristotle’s following Aristotle’srules of correct logicrules of correct logic. A simple . A simple EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE:

(i) (i) Every person is a mortal. (Major Premise)Every person is a mortal. (Major Premise)

(ii) (ii) Every Greek is a person. (Minor Premise)Every Greek is a person. (Minor Premise)

(iii) (iii) Every Greek is mortal.Every Greek is mortal. (Conclusion) (Conclusion)

• Centuries later, used as the Centuries later, used as the basis forbasis for the development, initially, of the the development, initially, of the Islamic, Islamic, andanda couple of centuries later, a couple of centuries later, Christian Christian ““Scholastic Scholastic Theology. Theology.”” ? ? ? ? ? ?

20

Scholastic Theology: Scholastic Theology: Using Using AristotleAristotle’’s philosophy s philosophy andand system of logic system of logic as a as a means to justify and means to justify and develop rational explanations for religious dogma; develop rational explanations for religious dogma; placing placing philosophy in the service of religion philosophy in the service of religion ..

•Before the scholasticBefore the scholastic movement, movement, early Christianityearly Christianity’’ss Augustinian theologyAugustinian theology had been built on the more had been built on the more spiritual spiritual PlatonicPlatonic philosophy philosophy

Stressed Stressed primacy of the supernaturalprimacy of the supernatural world (City of God) world (City of God) − Thus, Thus, reverence forreverence for the the spiritual worldspiritual world, and value of understanding the, and value of understanding the

divinedivine//eternaleternal Platonic Platonic ““IdeasIdeas”” (e.g., (e.g., virtuvirtue, e, pietypiety, , godlinesgodliness, etc.), . . .s, etc.), . . .

− While While discountingdiscounting the significance of the temporary the significance of the temporary earthly life of the flesearthly life of the flesh, h, and value of the and value of the knowledge of natural/physical worldknowledge of natural/physical world. .

•ChristianityChristianity’’s later s later Aristotelian/scholasticAristotelian/scholastic perspective perspective shiftedshifted (after 12 (after 12thth century) its epistemological focus to the century) its epistemological focus to the primacy of the materialprimacy of the materialobjects of the natural worldobjects of the natural world ( (the particularsthe particulars) and, thus, legitimacy of the ) and, thus, legitimacy of the pursuit of worldly (and eventually secular) knowledge.pursuit of worldly (and eventually secular) knowledge.

How How did this did this transitiontransition from the from the Augustinian-PlatonicAugustinian-Platonic to the to the Aristotelian- ScholasticAristotelian- Scholastic theology come about theology come about??

A REVIEW OF THE A REVIEW OF THE HISTORICAL UNDERPININGS…. HISTORICAL UNDERPININGS….


21

HELLENISTICHELLENISTIC ERA, RISE OF DHRISTIANITY, FALL OF ROME, ERA, RISE OF DHRISTIANITY, FALL OF ROME,& THE DAWN OF EUROPE’S DARK AGES: & THE DAWN OF EUROPE’S DARK AGES:

•AlexanderAlexander’’s (356-323 BC) s (356-323 BC) conquest of conquest of EgyptEgypt, , Persian Empire Persian Empire and beyond.and beyond.

•His subsequent death ushered in His subsequent death ushered in widespread dissemination of Hellenistic culturewidespread dissemination of Hellenistic culture. .

•HellenisticHellenistic Era: Era:When Alexander died:When Alexander died:

– Under Under Ptolemaic DynastyPtolemaic Dynasty, the great , the great Library of Alexandria Library of Alexandria was built in 290 BC.was built in 290 BC.

– The The Intellectual centerIntellectual center of the world gradually moved to of the world gradually moved to Alexandria, EgyptAlexandria, Egypt..

– Emergence of AlexandriaEmergence of Alexandria’’s s specializedspecialized philosophy philosophy (e.g., Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, (e.g., Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, Galen, Plotinus, …, Hypatia)Galen, Plotinus, …, Hypatia)

•RomansRomans conquered Greece during the conquered Greece during the Punic Wars Punic Wars (264-146 BC).(264-146 BC).

•Greek rational philosophy was gradually replaced by new fatalistic, escapist, Greek rational philosophy was gradually replaced by new fatalistic, escapist, secular secular religionreligions/philosophies concerned primarily with s/philosophies concerned primarily with personal happinesspersonal happiness, , peace of mindpeace of mind, and, and individual ethics/virtueindividual ethics/virtue..

21

HELLENISTICHELLENISTIC ERA, RISE OF DHRISTIANITY, FALL OF ROME, ERA, RISE OF DHRISTIANITY, FALL OF ROME,& THE DAWN OF EUROPE’S DARK AGES: & THE DAWN OF EUROPE’S DARK AGES:

Birth of Christianity . . .Birth of Christianity . . .

Expansion of Christianity:Expansion of Christianity:InIn AD 312, AD 312, Emperor Constantine Emperor Constantine had a vision, had a vision, acceptedacceptedChristianityChristianity, , ended persecutionended persecution of Christians, and helped promulgate the of Christians, and helped promulgate theNicene Creed Nicene Creed (325) (325) through which through which orthodox Christianityorthodox Christianity was was defined and enforceddefined and enforced. .

•Establishment of the Establishment of the Eastern Empire Eastern Empire ((Byzantium) Byzantium) with with ConstantinopleConstantinople as its capital. as its capital.

The The ““persecutedpersecuted”” quickly turn into the quickly turn into the ““persecutor.persecutor.””

Library of Alexandria Library of Alexandria was attacked was attacked

The murder of The murder of HypatiaHypatia by the mob by the mob marked the end of philosophymarked the end of philosophy in the West. in the West.

Preoccupation with the after life, Preoccupation with the after life, individual salvationindividual salvationand individual ethics replaced intellectual curiosityand individual ethics replaced intellectual curiosityand communal concerns.and communal concerns.

Emperor ConstantineEmperor Constantine (272—337)(272—337)

Around 300

Around 450

22

Christianity, the Christianity, the Official ReligionOfficial Religion of the Empire, AD 395: of the Empire, AD 395:

•Catholic ChurchCatholic Church becomes Roman Empire becomes Roman Empire’’s s leading institutionleading institution.. The seed of mixing The seed of mixing religionreligion and and politicspolitics is sowed. is sowed.

The Fall of RomeThe Fall of Rome:: • InvasionsInvasions of of barbariansbarbarians (nomadic Germanic tribes) in 378-480. (nomadic Germanic tribes) in 378-480.

•Result: Result: Europe broke apartEurope broke apartinto kingdoms of variousinto kingdoms of variousGermanic tribes: Germanic tribes:


23

• Many Many blamed Christiansblamed Christians/Christianity for /Christianity for underminingunderminingRomeRome’’s s pagan Godspagan Gods and and Greco-Roman cultural valuesGreco-Roman cultural values..

• St. AugustineSt. Augustine’’ss (358-430) came to (358-430) came to Christianity’s defense.Christianity’s defense.

• His theology was inspired by His theology was inspired by Platonic Platonic and and Neo-PlatonicNeo-Platonic philosophies. philosophies.

PlatoPlato had stressed the Primacy of the eternal supernatural world (the after life) had stressed the Primacy of the eternal supernatural world (the after life) and its transcendental Forms/Ideas (e.g., virtue, piety, morality, etc.) and its transcendental Forms/Ideas (e.g., virtue, piety, morality, etc.)

Inferiority of the sensible natural world and the earthly lifeInferiority of the sensible natural world and the earthly life Immortality of the soulImmortality of the soul

• In the 3In the 3rdrd century, religious aspects of century, religious aspects of PlatoPlato’’ss philosophy had been revived and philosophy had been revived and amplified by amplified by Plotinus,Plotinus, (the pagan founder of (the pagan founder of Neo-PlatonismNeo-Platonism, Alexandria, Egypt), Alexandria, Egypt)

• Neo-PlatonismNeo-Platonism was the was the fusion offusion of PlatoPlato with with Eastern mysticismEastern mysticism e.g.,e.g., Buddhism’s asceticismBuddhism’s asceticism andand Persian Mithraism’sPersian Mithraism’s illumination illumination theology theology

• Neo-PlatonismNeo-Platonism influenced emergence & growth of influenced emergence & growth of monasticismmonasticism..

(Christian monasticism was born in Egypt in the 4(Christian monasticism was born in Egypt in the 4thth century). century).


23

• St. Augustine St. Augustine was also heavily was also heavily influencedinfluenced by by Persian Manichaeism,Persian Manichaeism,a gnostic, dualistic religion, from which he had converted.a gnostic, dualistic religion, from which he had converted.

• Building on all of the above traditions,Building on all of the above traditions, Augustine Augustine constructed hisconstructed hisdualisticdualistic defense of Christianitydefense of Christianity

• The heart of his Defense:The heart of his Defense: Distinction between Distinction between ““City of ManCity of Man”” & & ““City of GodCity of God””

• He called upon Christian Europe to build a He called upon Christian Europe to build a Heavenly City Heavenly City on the ruins of on the ruins of fallen Rome.fallen Rome.


25

A Shift in the Intellectual MindsetA Shift in the Intellectual Mindset AugustineAugustine’’s s EpistemologyEpistemology: :

• AugustineAugustine establishes his establishes his epistemologyepistemology on the foundation of his on the foundation of his theologytheology..

• Central to hisCentral to his theology was the Biblical notion of theology was the Biblical notion of ““Original SinOriginal Sin””..

((Adam’sAdam’s eating from the eating from the tree of knowledgetree of knowledge that that allowed evil intoallowed evil into God’s perfect world God’s perfect world and and cost mankind his innocencecost mankind his innocence, , and and as a resultas a result::

So So true knowledge true knowledge would only be possible would only be possible through divine gracethrough divine grace and interference and interference

• He warned against the He warned against the ““disease of curiositydisease of curiosity” ” (drive to “discover the secrets of nature”)(drive to “discover the secrets of nature”)

25

Faith, piety, and revelationFaith, piety, and revelation (NOT autonomous(NOT autonomousrational human reason) became the rational human reason) became the basis for abasis for anew epistemologynew epistemology..

Like Plato, said Like Plato, said UniversalsUniversals constitute constitute “True reality” “True reality”

Augustine’s Augustine’s Theory of knowledgeTheory of knowledge::““Have faith and you will see the truthHave faith and you will see the truth””

• Faith and piety required Faith and piety required full subordinationfull subordination to the will of God. to the will of God.

• No needNo need/urgency in studying//urgency in studying/understandingunderstanding the physical/ the physical/natural worldnatural world..The The impending end of the world impending end of the world made it made it futilefutile. .

26

True knowledge True knowledge of the worldof the world was was only known to Godonly known to God, and what man, and what manneeded to know of that knowledge was needed to know of that knowledge was in the Biblein the Bible..

The defeated and The defeated and devastated Christian Europe saw the alluredevastated Christian Europe saw the allure of the of the Heavenly City and Heavenly City and respondedresponded to to St. AugustineSt. Augustine’’ss call with zeal. call with zeal.

The long The long obsession with Godobsession with God began beganScriptureScripture the sole source of answers the sole source of answers TheologyTheology the only science practiced the only science practicedSecular/creative/intellectual thoughtSecular/creative/intellectual thought/activity simply stopped./activity simply stopped.

Western EuropeWestern Europe’’s 600-year s 600-year plunge into its plunge into its ““Dark AgesDark Ages”” (c 450-1000)(c 450-1000) began. began.

In the Eastern Empire:In the Eastern Empire:• In In 527, Emperor 527, Emperor JustinianJustinian came to power.came to power.

Philosophy was now considered corruptivePhilosophy was now considered corruptive; libraries were ransacked, book ; libraries were ransacked, book burned, and burned, and centers of learning closedcenters of learning closed (e.g., (e.g., Academy of AthensAcademy of Athens). ).


Justinian, 483-556

29

Shortly after . . .Shortly after . . .Birth of Islam (613 AD) & Expansion of the Islamic Empire:Birth of Islam (613 AD) & Expansion of the Islamic Empire:• Quickly expandsQuickly expands east and west (during 632-750) east and west (during 632-750) • Swept away enormous chunks of land Swept away enormous chunks of land including land from:including land from:


30

• Arab invaders were Arab invaders were not great fans of philosophynot great fans of philosophy and science. and science.

– By some historical accounts, they ransacked centers of learning in some conquered lands By some historical accounts, they ransacked centers of learning in some conquered lands (e.g., Iran, Egypt) and set their books/manuscripts on fire (e.g., Iran, Egypt) and set their books/manuscripts on fire (e.g., in Library of Alexandria)(e.g., in Library of Alexandria)..

• Now, with Now, with Roman EmpireRoman Empire falling to barbarians & falling to barbarians & Persian EmpirePersian Empire to Arabs, to Arabs, philosophy diedphilosophy died in most parts of the world (until mid-8 in most parts of the world (until mid-8thth century). century).

Transition to the Transition to the ““Golden Age of IslamGolden Age of Islam””::• In the mid 8In the mid 8th th Century, Century, a revolta revolt orchestrated by Iranians: orchestrated by Iranians:

• A A theologically more tolerant climate conducive to intellectual activitiestheologically more tolerant climate conducive to intellectual activities emerges:emerges:

• The new climate The new climate leads toleads to what is known as the what is known as the ””Golden Age of IslamGolden Age of Islam”” and and gives rise to:gives rise to:

The Second Knowledge ExplosionThe Second Knowledge Explosion


31

The Second Knowledge Explosion The Second Knowledge Explosion (Mid 8(Mid 8thth- 13- 13thth century): century):

i.i.The Golden Age of Islam and Persian Revival: The Golden Age of Islam and Persian Revival:

•Emergence of Emergence of a a ““rationalrational”” theosophical/philosophical theosophical/philosophical movement movement Stressed the role of human reason/discretion in interpreting the scripture Stressed the role of human reason/discretion in interpreting the scripture

Adhered to Adhered to liberal theological interpretationsliberal theological interpretations to justify to justifyscientific/philosophical workscientific/philosophical work

Gathered Gathered Books and scholars Books and scholars from all over the world tofrom all over the world toengage in scientific & philosophical works.engage in scientific & philosophical works.

•Translation into ArabicTranslation into Arabic of texts especially from Greek, Persian, Soryani/Syriac, Indian, of texts especially from Greek, Persian, Soryani/Syriac, Indian, and Byzantine civilizations. and Byzantine civilizations.

•Rediscovery ofRediscovery of Aristotle Aristotle’’ss works by Muslim scholars works by Muslim scholars who wrote who wrote extensive extensive commentariescommentaries on them. on them.


32

• MuslimMuslim scholars worked to elevate philosophy to its rightful scholars worked to elevate philosophy to its rightful place place (e.g., Farabi, Avicenna, Razi, Khwarazmi, Biruni, Khayyam, (e.g., Farabi, Avicenna, Razi, Khwarazmi, Biruni, Khayyam, Averroes, Al-Kindi):Averroes, Al-Kindi):

a.a. Revival of Revival of AristotleAristotle’’ss rational philosophyrational philosophy & his & his focus on focus on science of nature.science of nature.

• Development ofDevelopment of a a rational theology,rational theology, reconciling faith with reconciling faith with reasonreason & giving religious legitimacy for philosophical and & giving religious legitimacy for philosophical and scientific work.scientific work.

a.a. More importantly, over a period of More importantly, over a period of 300-400 years300-400 years, production, productionof a wealth of new of a wealth of new philosophicaphilosophical, l, scientificscientific, & , & encyclopedicencyclopedic worksworks in:in:

o logic, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, chemistry,logic, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, chemistry, astronomy, mineralogy, geology, geography, optics, music, astronomy, mineralogy, geology, geography, optics, music, politics, and psychology. politics, and psychology.

o e.g., e.g., The Book of Healing, The Cannon of MedicineThe Book of Healing, The Cannon of Medicine, etc. , etc.

LetLet’’s see some examples of such contributions…s see some examples of such contributions…


36

ii.ii.The Demise of Science & Philosophy in the Muslim World:The Demise of Science & Philosophy in the Muslim World:

Developments leading to the demiseDevelopments leading to the demise::

1.1.More conservative rulersMore conservative rulers in Baghdad who in Baghdad who supportedsupported the agenda of the agenda of fundamentalist clericsfundamentalist clerics::

a.a. Strict interpretation of the scripture, andStrict interpretation of the scripture, and

• Emergence of Emergence of dogmatic scholasticismdogmatic scholasticism through speech/dialectic (“Kamaam”) through speech/dialectic (“Kamaam”)

• A A ““theological philosophytheological philosophy““ that used that used Aristotelian deductive reasoningAristotelian deductive reasoning and and semantic argumentssemantic arguments to confirm orthodox religious dogma. to confirm orthodox religious dogma.

• Net Results:Net Results:

a.a.Denying any role for human reason/discretion in interpreting Denying any role for human reason/discretion in interpreting theological edicts theological edicts

b.b.A A complete bancomplete ban on all secular philosophical/scientific on all secular philosophical/scientific endeavors endeavors


37

3.3.By the 10By the 10th th -11-11thth century, virtually all philosophical & scientific activity had century, virtually all philosophical & scientific activity had migrated to Iranmigrated to Iran where it flourished for where it flourished for another 300 years.another 300 years.

Under the countryUnder the country’’s s hospitable intellectual climatehospitable intellectual climate and and

4.4.1111thth and 12 and 12thth century century invasionsinvasions of both, of both, the Islamic and Byzantine the Islamic and Byzantine empires empires by by Turkish tribesTurkish tribes of Central Asia. of Central Asia.

• 1313thth & 14 & 14thth century century attacksattacks by by MongolMongol and and Tatar Tatar herds herds totally obliteratedtotally obliterated remnants of scientific/philosophical traditions of the remnants of scientific/philosophical traditions of the ““Golden Age.Golden Age.””

Spiritual Spiritual mysticismmysticism and and SufismSufism replaced philosophy and science. replaced philosophy and science.

As the As the Muslim worldMuslim world was gradually was gradually leaving its Golden Age behindleaving its Golden Age behind,,the the Latin EuropeLatin Europe was showing was showing signs of waking upsigns of waking up from its long intellectual from its long intellectual hibernation and slowly hibernation and slowly leaving its Dark Ages behindleaving its Dark Ages behind..


40

EUROPEEUROPE’’S AWAKENING & TURNING POINT--THE NEW MILLENIUM:S AWAKENING & TURNING POINT--THE NEW MILLENIUM:

•New hope and optimism:New hope and optimism: surviving the surviving the millenniummillennium

•Agricultural innovations Agricultural innovations Enormous rise in education among clergy (boosting their power vs the public). Enormous rise in education among clergy (boosting their power vs the public).

•Rediscovery & revival of Rediscovery & revival of secularsecular Roman Law, the Justinian Code Roman Law, the Justinian Code

CrusadesCrusades •

a)a)EMERGENCE OF EMERGENCE OF WESTERN/CHRISTIAN SCHOLASTICISMWESTERN/CHRISTIAN SCHOLASTICISM::

• Translations from Arabic to Latin: Translations from Arabic to Latin: In the 12In the 12thth Century Century, Christian Scholars , Christian Scholars from Europe from Europe visited Constantinople and Muslim librariesvisited Constantinople and Muslim libraries in Toledo (Spain) in Toledo (Spain)

• Scholasticism: Scholasticism: Latin translations Latin translations spread in Europe spread in Europe and became the basis and became the basis for development of for development of ChristianityChristianity’’s Scholastic Theology (12s Scholastic Theology (12thth-16-16thth century). century).


41

• Rise of Gothic Cathedrals in the CitiesRise of Gothic Cathedrals in the Cities

• Formation of Formation of Cathedral SchoolsCathedral Schools in cities (vs monasteries) and popularity of in cities (vs monasteries) and popularity of ScholasticismScholasticism led to Emergence of Church-Sponsored led to Emergence of Church-Sponsored UniversitiesUniversities——Outcome: the Outcome: the spread of learning/literacyspread of learning/literacy to people outside of the church. to people outside of the church.

• Establishment of Inquisition Establishment of Inquisition (1184) to combat many (1184) to combat many emerging heresiesemerging heresies

prompted by popularity of/curiosity in religious doctrine. prompted by popularity of/curiosity in religious doctrine.

• Creation and rivalry of the two leading orders of friarsCreation and rivalry of the two leading orders of friars (early 1200s) (early 1200s)

Franciscans Franciscans (Platonist)(Platonist) Dominicans Dominicans (Aristotelian)(Aristotelian)


42

Western Scholasticism & Schoolmen:Western Scholasticism & Schoolmen:

• A movement to A movement to reconcile faith with reason/philosophyreconcile faith with reason/philosophy..

• PREMISEPREMISE:: Nothing in the revelation is contrary to reason. Nothing in the revelation is contrary to reason. •

• St. AquinasSt. Aquinas instigated a instigated a departure fromdeparture from the anti-physical, the anti-physical,Augustinian-Platonic thinkingAugustinian-Platonic thinking that had dominated Christian theology. that had dominated Christian theology.


43

• St. THOMAS AQUINAS St. THOMAS AQUINAS (1224-1274):(1224-1274): A A Dominican PriestDominican Priest and andChristianityChristianity’’s s greatestgreatest scholastic theologian scholastic theologian

Deeply influenced by Muslim philosophy, especially earlierDeeply influenced by Muslim philosophy, especially earlierworks of the works of the PersianPersian schoolmenschoolmen Ghazali Ghazali and Philosopher and Philosopher AvicennaAvicenna..

• Aquinas Aquinas is credited for is credited for converting converting AristotleAristotle to Christianity, to Christianity, and and ChristianityChristianity to Aristotelian values. to Aristotelian values.

RESULT: RESULT: A A marriagemarriage was forged between a was forged between a ””Medieval odd coupleMedieval odd couple””::

a.a.The Catholic Church, EuropeThe Catholic Church, Europe’’s s dogmatic religious institutiondogmatic religious institution, and, andb.b.The pagan The pagan AristotleAristotle with his with his secular ideas.secular ideas.


45


46

Separation of Theology & Philosophy—On the Path to Secularization Separation of Theology & Philosophy—On the Path to Secularization of Philosophy and Science, 14of Philosophy and Science, 14thth Century: Century:

•Proliferation of scholastic works and Proliferation of scholastic works and irreconcilable conflictsirreconcilable conflicts between betweensome some philosophical reasonsphilosophical reasons with with Christian doctrine. Christian doctrine.

•Two centuries earlier, Two centuries earlier, Averroes Averroes (a prominent Muslim philosopher) (a prominent Muslim philosopher) had proposed a had proposed a doctrine ofdoctrine of ””double-truth universe.double-truth universe.””

That perhaps That perhaps the realm of reason is outside the sphere ofthe realm of reason is outside the sphere oftheologytheology (the two are mutually exclusive). (the two are mutually exclusive).

•14 the century marks the strong appeal and following of 14 the century marks the strong appeal and following of Averroism Averroism among Christian Scholastics, notablyamong Christian Scholastics, notablyWilliam of Ockham (Occam)William of Ockham (Occam)..

A A FranciscanFranciscan friar who was a leading and outspoken friar who was a leading and outspoken critic ofcritic of the Papacythe Papacy’’s claim to political powers claim to political power

Regarded as being responsible for Regarded as being responsible for breakdown of scholasticismbreakdown of scholasticism


47

• Best known for a principle of economy,Best known for a principle of economy, ““OccamOccam’’s Razors Razor””??− ““Nature loves simplicity.Nature loves simplicity.””− ““Do not multiply entities beyond necessity.”Do not multiply entities beyond necessity.”− Called for disposing of unnecessary assumptions and concepts, and Called for disposing of unnecessary assumptions and concepts, and

accepting the first/simplest sufficient explanation or cause.accepting the first/simplest sufficient explanation or cause.

OckhamOckham’’s Epistemologys Epistemology & Secularization of Science/philosophy & Secularization of Science/philosophy

William of Ockham William of Ockham was a philosophicalwas a philosophical ““NominalistNominalist””: :

Believed Believed only only ““particularsparticulars”” are are realreal and and existexist..

•The The Platonic Platonic ““Forms/UniversalsForms/Universals”” are are NOT realNOT real entities; they are entities; they are names/ names/ mental concepts/conceptual fictionsmental concepts/conceptual fictions that that exist only in the human mindexist only in the human mind and and are abstracted by the mind on the basis of empirical observations. are abstracted by the mind on the basis of empirical observations. PlatoPlato’’ss ““IdeaIdea”” of of ““applenessappleness”” is is NOT a distinct real entityNOT a distinct real entity in which all individual apples in which all individual apples

participate. Only individual apples exist. participate. Only individual apples exist.

Rather, Rather, ““appleapple”” is just is just a term a term referring to a referring to a shared similarityshared similarity among many individual among many individual apples, apples, as perceivedas perceived by the human mind. by the human mind.

•KnowledgeKnowledge/science/science only pertains to only pertains to sensible things.sensible things.

And, only individuals (And, only individuals (particularsparticulars) are sensible.) are sensible.


48

• Scholasticism had tried to offer Scholasticism had tried to offer rational reasonsrational reasons for religious dogma. for religious dogma.

OckhamOckham, on the other hand, , on the other hand, stressedstressed::

• There is There is no obligatory connection/resemblanceno obligatory connection/resemblance between God between God’’s s freely freely created universecreated universe and and manman’’s desires desire for a perfect rational world. for a perfect rational world.

Mixing the two constitutes Mixing the two constitutes imposing manimposing man’’s mental limitationss mental limitations onto God. onto God.

• Man was given Man was given two distinct realitiestwo distinct realities, each with its own distinct logic:, each with its own distinct logic:

The reality of The reality of GodGod, given , given by revelationby revelation, and, and The reality of the The reality of the nature/empirical worldnature/empirical world, as , as experiencedexperienced by man. by man.

• Reason & rational analysisReason & rational analysis are are NOT the right meansNOT the right means for drawing for drawing conclusions about conclusions about the things beyond the sensesthe things beyond the senses (they are (they are metaphysicametaphysical l issues)issues)

e.g., existence of god, story of genesis, dilemma ofe.g., existence of god, story of genesis, dilemma of theodicytheodicy (i.e., existence(i.e., existenceof evil/suffering in the world, man’s fall from grace, matters of universal truthof evil/suffering in the world, man’s fall from grace, matters of universal truth


48

50

Decline of Church Influence & Start of a Trend Toward Decline of Church Influence & Start of a Trend Toward SecularizationSecularization::

• Challenges to Political Power of the PopeChallenges to Political Power of the Pope (13 (13thth Cent.) Cent.)

• The Black Plague The Black Plague (1347-1352)-- 30%-50% of population dead(1347-1352)-- 30%-50% of population dead

1)1) Transition to Transition to rag paperrag paper

• Empowerment of people with greater role in religionEmpowerment of people with greater role in religion

• Migration of farm workers, Migration of farm workers, weakening of the land-based feudal weakening of the land-based feudal economic systemeconomic system. .

1)1)The Great Schism (1377-1417) and Decline of PapacyThe Great Schism (1377-1417) and Decline of Papacy’’s Moral Authority:s Moral Authority:


51

The Broadening of the Secularization Trend:The Broadening of the Secularization Trend:

• Rebirth of Rebirth of HumanismHumanism (1300s) (1300s)??????

a.a.Initially focused on knowledge of the Greco-Roman Initially focused on knowledge of the Greco-Roman literary classicsliterary classics

It began with It began with Petrarch--Petrarch--he coined the termhe coined the term ““Dark Ages.Dark Ages.””

b.b.Eventually, in the 1500s, developed into the works of Eventually, in the 1500s, developed into the works of socio-political socio-political (Christian) humanists(Christian) humanists

Man was not placed on the earth to suffer.Man was not placed on the earth to suffer.

No conflictNo conflict between piety and desire to live a good life, between piety and desire to live a good life,live in a just society, pursue fulfillment and success, live in a just society, pursue fulfillment and success, be intellectually active, appreciate beauty, etc.be intellectually active, appreciate beauty, etc.

Man was a Man was a rational beingrational being with a natural with a natural sense of moralitysense of morality and anddid not need to be did not need to be ““shepherdedshepherded”” all the time. all the time.


52

• Invention of the printing press Invention of the printing press (around 1440) (around 1440) The Gutenberg BibleThe Gutenberg Bible

• Fall of Constantinople & Creation of Ottoman Empire Fall of Constantinople & Creation of Ottoman Empire (1453)(1453)

• ““Donation of ConstantineDonation of Constantine”” proven a proven a ForgeryForgery ((Lorenzo Valla,Lorenzo Valla, 1400s)1400s)

• Rise of Nationalism and Modern Nation-StatesRise of Nationalism and Modern Nation-States (1400-1500s) due to: (1400-1500s) due to:

Introduction of Introduction of longbowlongbow, , heavy canonheavy canon, and , and riflesrifles to warfare, to warfare, consolidation of smaller communities, emergence of national armies consolidation of smaller communities, emergence of national armies

Weakening of the Weakening of the feudal system,feudal system, a new a new rich merchant classrich merchant class, and emergence of, and emergence of absolute monarchies absolute monarchies


53

• Voyages of Discovery,Voyages of Discovery, conquering the New World (late 1400s-1500s) conquering the New World (late 1400s-1500s)

(a)(a)Discovery of Discovery of new landsnew lands with valuable with valuable commoditiescommodities (e.g., gold, silver sugar, etc.), (e.g., gold, silver sugar, etc.),(b)(b)Explosion in Explosion in world tradeworld trade,,(c)(c)transfer of transfer of information/ideas information/ideas (e.g., guns)(e.g., guns)(d)(d)beginning of beginning of colonialismcolonialism, & , & (e)(e)African slave tradeAfrican slave trade (to meet labor shortages in Europe (to meet labor shortages in Europe’’s new sugar plantations in s new sugar plantations in

Caribbean islands and Central America). Caribbean islands and Central America).


54

The Arrival of The Arrival of RenaissanceRenaissance (Mid 1400s) and Birth of (Mid 1400s) and Birth of ModernityModernity::

A A synthesis of the abovesynthesis of the above philosophical, theological, political, social, and philosophical, theological, political, social, and economic forces/changes, economic forces/changes, culminated inculminated in::

1. The Italian Renaissance 2. Reformation 1. The Italian Renaissance 2. Reformation 3. Scientific Revolution 3. Scientific Revolution 4. The Third Knowledge Explosion 4. The Third Knowledge Explosion

TheThe RenaissanceRenaissance started in Italy started in Italy’’s s independent city-statesindependent city-states

• Initially about the Initially about the ““rebirthrebirth”” of the of the classical cultureclassical culture

•Renaissance Renaissance celebrated suchcelebrated such Humanist values Humanist values as as youthyouth, , beautybeauty, dignity, , dignity, success/fulfillmentsuccess/fulfillment. .

Man was fast becoming the Man was fast becoming the source of all values.source of all values. Renaissance revived Renaissance revived Protagoras’ Protagoras’ (480-411 BC) (480-411 BC) declaration hat declaration hat ““Man is the measure of all things”Man is the measure of all things”..

• Renaissance also became about Renaissance also became about celebrating the individualcelebrating the individual. . New forms of art/literature (e.g., New forms of art/literature (e.g., portrait paintingsportrait paintings, , autobiographiesautobiographies) become ) become

popular among the rich/successful as ways to popular among the rich/successful as ways to glorify their own achievementsglorify their own achievements..


55


• Filippo BrunelleschiFilippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) (1377-1446) revolutionized painting by inventingrevolutionized painting by inventing““linear perspectivelinear perspective”” based on based on Alhazen's Alhazen's discoveries in optics.discoveries in optics.

Renaissance Transformed Artistic & Intellectual Expressions: Renaissance Transformed Artistic & Intellectual Expressions: Renaissance, inspired by Renaissance, inspired by Classical aesthetic standardsClassical aesthetic standards, quickly became the, quickly became the greatest age of greatest age of artistic creativityartistic creativity. .

• MasaccioMasaccio (1401-1428)(1401-1428) revived the Roman revived the Roman’’s s ““atmospheric perspectiveatmospheric perspective””. .

• BrunelleschiBrunelleschi also revolutionized architecture also revolutionized architecture

• DonatelloDonatello (1386-1466)(1386-1466) revolutionized sculpturerevolutionized sculpture by making the by making thefirst free-standingfirst free-standing human figure in the human figure in the nudenude since the antiquity. since the antiquity.

•Painting and sculpturePainting and sculpture became became independent art forms.independent art forms.

•Art & literature began to reflect Art & literature began to reflect secular subjects.secular subjects. Man was once again Man was once again claiming the center stageclaiming the center stage in human affairs. in human affairs.

•With Renaissance manWith Renaissance man’’s s creativity, genius,creativity, genius, and and intellectual independenceintellectual independence were wereset free to blossom. The set free to blossom. The ““Modern man”Modern man” was on its way to being born. was on its way to being born.

57

• Renaissance also transformed Papacy Renaissance also transformed Papacy into a virtually into a virtually secular institution.secular institution.

This greatly contributed to a This greatly contributed to a backlashbacklash against the Papacy and the Church. against the Papacy and the Church.

• End of Italian Renaissance: End of Italian Renaissance: Renaissance Renaissance peters out in Italypeters out in Italy..

ReformationReformation Sack of RomeSack of Rome Counter-Reformation: Counter-Reformation: Revival of InquisitionRevival of Inquisition,, the the IndexIndex of forbidden books, of forbidden books,

suppression of free thoughtsuppression of free thought

Scientific and intellectual Scientific and intellectual supremacy gradually moved tosupremacy gradually moved to the the more more toleranttolerant/hospitable climate of /hospitable climate of northern states.northern states.

Holland, England, and France.Holland, England, and France.


• Reformation (1517) Reformation (1517) sstressed tressed ““personalpersonal”” spirituality spirituality”” & opened the way to & opened the way to religious skepticismreligious skepticism..

New culture of New culture of ““spiritual autonomy/individualismspiritual autonomy/individualism”” in in religious discourse religious discourse gradually gradually spilled overspilled over into a quest for into a quest for ““self-determination/ independenceself-determination/ independence”” in thein the intellectuaintellectuall realm, as well as in social, political, and economic realm, as well as in social, political, and economic affairsaffairs..

59

• Epistemologically,Epistemologically, LutherLuther had been had been educatededucated in the in the nominalistnominalist tradition. tradition.

− Nominalism:Nominalism: UniversalsUniversals are are NOT realNOT real entities. They are entities. They are conceptual fictionsconceptual fictions that that are abstracted in the human mind based on empirical observation.are abstracted in the human mind based on empirical observation.

− Realm of scienceRealm of science only includes only includes ““particularsparticulars”” (observable objects). (observable objects).

− LutherLuther (like (like OckhamOckham)) believed in the believed in the separationseparation of of realm of reasonrealm of reason from from sphere of faithsphere of faith, and , and rejectedrejected AquinasAquinas’’ Scholasticism Scholasticism (mixing the two). (mixing the two).

– ProtestantismProtestantism became a force became a force favoring secularization of philosophy/sciencefavoring secularization of philosophy/science..

• Creation of Independent Country Churches Creation of Independent Country Churches (in (in EnglandEngland, , GermanyGermany, , ScandinaviaScandinavia, & , & HollandHolland))

Western Christianity no longer exclusively CatholicWestern Christianity no longer exclusively Catholic The Church no longer a unifying cultural/political forceThe Church no longer a unifying cultural/political force Bible no longer only in LatinBible no longer only in Latin More powerful monarchs (at the expense of the Pope, & the emperor)More powerful monarchs (at the expense of the Pope, & the emperor)

• Catholic/Spanish Counter Reformation:Catholic/Spanish Counter Reformation: Internal reformsInternal reforms initiated by the initiated by the Church Church to stop the spread of Protestantismto stop the spread of Protestantism..


60

• Counter Reformation and Jesuit Education: Counter Reformation and Jesuit Education: To win back the skeptic To win back the skeptic believers and believers and create a new Catholic elitecreate a new Catholic elite, , Ignatius LoyolaIgnatius Loyola founded the founded the Society of JesusSociety of Jesus (or the (or the JesuitsJesuits). ).

Established Established schools all over Europeschools all over Europe.. Ended up training Ended up training many notablemany notable1717thth century century philosophers/scientistsphilosophers/scientists and and 18 and and 18thth

century Enlightenment thinkers:century Enlightenment thinkers:Descartes, Galileo, Voltaire, Condorcet, Buffon, Helvetius, Turgot, and DiderotDescartes, Galileo, Voltaire, Condorcet, Buffon, Helvetius, Turgot, and Diderot..

• EuropeEurope’’s s Religious Wars (1525-1650)Religious Wars (1525-1650) provoked emergence of provoked emergence of secularsecular political philosophies:political philosophies:

• 1524-1525, Germany1524-1525, Germany’’s s peasant revoltpeasant revolt following Luther following Luther’’s Reformations Reformation

• 1562-1589, 1562-1589, FranceFrance’’s 9 civil warss 9 civil wars between Catholics and Calvinist between Catholics and Calvinist ““HuguenotsHuguenots”” (e.g., 1572 (e.g., 1572’’s s ““St. BartholomewSt. Bartholomew’’s Days Day,,”” massacre of 3,000 Protestants,massacre of 3,000 Protestants, in Paris alone; throughout Franc in Paris alone; throughout France, 50,000 e, 50,000 were slaughtered in 40 days).were slaughtered in 40 days).

• 1544-1555, German 1544-1555, German Holy Roman EmperorHoly Roman Emperor waged war vs Germany waged war vs Germany’’s Protestant princes. s Protestant princes.

• 1568-1578 1568-1578 Dutch revoltDutch revolt against Spanish king (resulted in Indep. of Netherland) against Spanish king (resulted in Indep. of Netherland)

• 1580- 1580- SpainSpain’’ss Catholic king Catholic king seized Portugalseized Portugal & & waged warwaged war against the against the non-Catholic England.non-Catholic England.

• 1618-1648 German 1618-1648 German 30 years war30 years war against Holy Roman Emperor against Holy Roman Emperor

74

• The Concepts of Social Contract & State Sovereignty:The Concepts of Social Contract & State Sovereignty:

• New political thinkers and reformists (e.g., New political thinkers and reformists (e.g., LockeLocke, , RousseauRousseau) argued that since ) argued that since government results from a government results from a social contracsocial contract between a ruler and his people, t between a ruler and his people, sovereignty rests with the peoplesovereignty rests with the people..

• Religious wars and secular political views resulted in a Religious wars and secular political views resulted in a call for religious tolerancecall for religious tolerance which eventually led to the notion of which eventually led to the notion of separation of Church and Stateseparation of Church and State and emergence and emergence of secular democratic governments. of secular democratic governments.

Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of ScienceScientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science

The Third Knowledge Explosion & The Scientific Revolution:The Third Knowledge Explosion & The Scientific Revolution:

• The Widening Gap Between Philosophy and Theology Continues:The Widening Gap Between Philosophy and Theology Continues:

New Discoveries in Astronomy New Discoveries in Astronomy kicked offkicked off a a full-fledged full-fledged scientific revolution.scientific revolution.

• CopernicusCopernicus’’ work rejected the complex work rejected the complex ““Geocentric UniverseGeocentric Universe”” ofofAristotle & Ptolemy Aristotle & Ptolemy (i.e., (i.e., Earth being the stationary center of the UniverseEarth being the stationary center of the Universe))

PtolemyPtolemy had explained the observed had explained the observed retrograderetrograde motion motion (and (and changing brightnesschanging brightness)) of of planets (e.g., Mars), by attaching the planets to planets (e.g., Mars), by attaching the planets to EpicyclesEpicycles (i.e., circles attached to (i.e., circles attached to rotating concentric spheres called rotating concentric spheres called DeferentsDeferents).).

CopernicusCopernicus’’ss much much simpler modelsimpler model explained the explained the changing brightnesschanging brightness and and retrograde retrograde motionmotion of planets by of planets by (a)(a) their changing distance from the earth and their changing distance from the earth and (b) (b) the faster motion of planets the faster motion of planets with smaller orbits.with smaller orbits.

Both Both CopernicusCopernicus and and PtolemyPtolemy erroneously assumederroneously assumed planets planets’’orbits as orbits as perfect circlesperfect circles..

KeplerKepler’’ss 3 laws of planetary motion 3 laws of planetary motion later proved that the orbit of every planet is an later proved that the orbit of every planet is an ellipseellipse (oval) with the Sun at a focus. (oval) with the Sun at a focus.

70

Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of ScienceScientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642):Galileo Galilei (1564-1642):

• His mathematical proofs and his astronomical discoveriesHis mathematical proofs and his astronomical discoveriesprovided support for provided support for the the Copernican Theory (Copernican Theory (heliocentric cosmologyheliocentric cosmology).).

““The The SunSun is the center of the solar system and is the center of the solar system and EarthEarth and andother planets revolve other planets revolve around it.around it.””

• GalileoGalileo’’s work s work contradicted the established religious belief contradicted the established religious belief regarding the regarding the structure of the universe. structure of the universe.

• In 1616In 1616, the cardinals of the , the cardinals of the “Inquisition” “Inquisition” declared the declared the Copernican theory as Copernican theory as falsefalse, and , and forbade Galileo from holding Copernican viewsforbade Galileo from holding Copernican views..

• When he When he continuedcontinued his writings/pronouncements on such issues, he was his writings/pronouncements on such issues, he wasfound guilty of heresy found guilty of heresy and condemned to lifelong imprisonment.and condemned to lifelong imprisonment. His actual punishment amounted to house arrest. He died in 1642.His actual punishment amounted to house arrest. He died in 1642.

• Almost 350 years after Galileo’s death, in Almost 350 years after Galileo’s death, in 19921992, , Pope John Paul IIPope John Paul II admitted admittedthat that ““errors had been madeerrors had been made”” and and declared his case closeddeclared his case closed. .

62

Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of ScienceScientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science

Profound implications of the above works?Profound implications of the above works?

a.a. DispelledDispelled the the AristotelianAristotelian notion of notion of infallibility/constancyinfallibility/constancy of the of the heavens.heavens. EARTH was EARTH was just another planetjust another planet subject to the same universal laws of physics. subject to the same universal laws of physics.

b.b. Undermined the Undermined the ““specialspecial”” status of status of Man Man (as the (as the ““crown jewelcrown jewel”” of creation) and of creation) and his homehis home, , Earth, Earth, (as (as centercenter of the universe). of the universe).

c.c. Disproved Disproved PlatoPlato’’s & Aristotles & Aristotle’’s s metaphysics metaphysics attributing movement attributing movement of living of living things to their things to their ““soulsoul””..

And, by extension, attributing the And, by extension, attributing the unending circular movement of the planets tounending circular movement of the planets to an eternal an eternal ““Unmoved MoverUnmoved Mover””. .

d.d. UniverseUniverse had a had a secularsecular, , mechanistimechanisticc/impersonal/impersonal nature and nature and sciencescience was an was an objective/ objective/impersonal wayimpersonal way to study how it worked. to study how it worked.

63

The 17The 17thth Century Scientific Revolution: Century Scientific Revolution:

•Shortly after, a full-fledged Shortly after, a full-fledged Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution was brought about by 16 was brought about by 16thth & 17 & 17thth century philosophers. They were intellectual reformers who: century philosophers. They were intellectual reformers who:

a.a.Believed that Believed that naturenature is is profoundly lawfulprofoundly lawful, and its laws are , and its laws are intelligibleintelligible..

b.b.The causes of The causes of natural phenomenanatural phenomena are entirely are entirely impersonal and physicalimpersonal and physical.. Thus, excluding Thus, excluding all supernatural forcesall supernatural forces from explanation of worldly events. from explanation of worldly events.

c.c.Called for Called for abandoning the abandoning the AristotelianAristotelian scholastic scholastic method and method and his his ““final causefinal cause””..

d.d.DismissedDismissed the value of worldly the value of worldly knowledgeknowledge derived from derived from traditiontradition, , faithfaith, , authorityauthority, , and and irrational intuition.irrational intuition.

• They advocated the use of the human They advocated the use of the human capacity to think rationallycapacity to think rationally, and , and to learn from to learn from experienceexperience as the chief criteria for distinguishing fact from fiction, true as the chief criteria for distinguishing fact from fiction, true fromfrom false, false,reality fromreality from. . fallacy, right fallacy, right from from wrong, real wrong, real fromfrom imagined, etc. imagined, etc.

Two Competing Philosophical Schools of Thought:Two Competing Philosophical Schools of Thought:

11. . RationalistRationalist: : Rene Rene DescartesDescartes (the father of modern philosophy) (the father of modern philosophy) was was the firstthe first to promote the new to promote the new rationalist philosophyrationalist philosophy. .

• DescartesDescartes proposed proposed a new theory of knowledge based entirely ona new theory of knowledge based entirely on the the

foundation of foundation of radical skepticismradical skepticism. .

•

63

• DescartesDescartes stressed the need to stressed the need to rid the mind of all preconceptionsrid the mind of all preconceptions and to and to reestablishreestablishthe truth of all knowledge the truth of all knowledge from scratchfrom scratch. .

““Everything must be doubted,Everything must be doubted,”” he declared.he declared.

•As such, his As such, his first rule of logicfirst rule of logic was: was: ““to to accept nothing as trueaccept nothing as true until it was established until it was established beyond doubtbeyond doubt..””

• He began his with the premise of He began his with the premise of doubting everything he knewdoubting everything he knew and, then, and, then, searched for the searched for the one foundational axiomone foundational axiom that he could believe as true with that he could believe as true with absolute certainty.absolute certainty.

• This led him to the certainty of his own existence, summed up as:This led him to the certainty of his own existence, summed up as: ““I think, therefore I am.I think, therefore I am.””

• He then He then proceeded to proceeded to establish a method of achieving similar certainty in establish a method of achieving similar certainty in

other domainsother domains..

• He used this method to prove the He used this method to prove the existence of a God who had created a existence of a God who had created a world and then left it alone to run on its own like a machine world and then left it alone to run on its own like a machine without his without his interference.interference.

63

•To To DescartesDescartes, just as Galileo had said: , just as Galileo had said: “the book of nature was written in “the book of nature was written in mathematics.”mathematics.”

•So, So, he inventedhe invented analytic geometry analytic geometry through which through which natural phenomena could natural phenomena could be reduced to a set of formulaebe reduced to a set of formulae and numbers. and numbers.

•His work instigated a His work instigated a sudden surge of curiosity and interest in the material sudden surge of curiosity and interest in the material world.world.

•He was He was accused of multiple heresies accused of multiple heresies and his work was placed on the and his work was placed on the Church’s Church’s Index of forbidden booksIndex of forbidden books..

So, a complete So, a complete epistemological shift got underwayepistemological shift got underway

fromfrom St. AugustineSt. Augustine’’ss faith-based certitude:faith-based certitude:

““Believe and you will understand.Believe and you will understand.””

toto DescartesDescartes’’ rational philosophy & rational philosophy & radical skepticismradical skepticism::

““Everything must be doubted.Everything must be doubted.””

• DescartesDescartes became became the firstthe first to present to present a view of the worlda view of the world that was that wasa a break withbreak with the the Aristotelian-Christian traditionAristotelian-Christian tradition..

The tradition that viewed The tradition that viewed nature as havingnature as having motives/purposemotives/purpose and andfeelingsfeelings of love and hate. of love and hate.

Descartes Descartes and his followers viewed the world as an and his followers viewed the world as an impersonal/mechanicalimpersonal/mechanical machine machine in perpetual motion following in perpetual motion following mathematical rulesmathematical rules..

• The The Aristotelian Aristotelian deductive method, deductive method, was verbalwas verbal and implied that the and implied that thenatural world can natural world can onlyonly be described be described in general terms.in general terms.

It assumed that nature is It assumed that nature is too subtletoo subtle for for exact descriptionexact description and, thus, and, thus,its details would always its details would always elude precise analysiselude precise analysis. .

• DescartesDescartes saw nature as saw nature as a mechanical systema mechanical system, which can be , which can be described with described with precisionprecision using using exactexact mathematical formulas.mathematical formulas.

All All scientific knowledgescientific knowledge (being about the natural world) can be (being about the natural world) can be expressed in expressed in mathematical termsmathematical terms..

• He advocated He advocated breaking down problems into piecesbreaking down problems into pieces and methodically and methodicallyexamining them, examining them, from the simplest through the most complexfrom the simplest through the most complex..


64


In short, the In short, the rationalistrationalists of the scientific revolution (s of the scientific revolution (DescartesDescartes, , SpinozaSpinoza, , LeibnizLeibniz) ) believedbelieved that: that:

•LawsLaws connecting fundamental elements of the universe are connecting fundamental elements of the universe are self-evidentself-evident (e.g., (e.g., mathematical realities)mathematical realities)

•We do We do NOTNOT learn them through learn them through experienceexperience, but have , but have innate/inborn ideasinnate/inborn ideas ((a priori knowledgea priori knowledge) about them etched in the fabric of our minds.) about them etched in the fabric of our minds.

•Thus, the Thus, the world is knowableworld is knowable through through rational/logical analysisrational/logical analysis of these innate ideas. of these innate ideas.

•DeductivelyDeductively applying basic applying basic principles of logicprinciples of logic, and , and systematic/rational reasoningsystematic/rational reasoning, as is , as is done in done in geometrygeometry, is the best way to derive knowledge in all scientific disciplines., is the best way to derive knowledge in all scientific disciplines.

•Search for new knowledge should start with, and build on, Search for new knowledge should start with, and build on, basic, foolproof, self-evident basic, foolproof, self-evident axiomsaxioms that would then, in combination with other axioms, lead to that would then, in combination with other axioms, lead to more complex and more complex and less evident new theoremsless evident new theorems..

Example--Example--EuclidEuclid’’s s first self-evident axiom of mathematical reasoning:first self-evident axiom of mathematical reasoning: ““Things that are Things that are equal to the same thinequal to the same thing are g are equal o each otherequal o each other..””

• DescartesDescartes’’ rationalism rationalism conquered Franceconquered France, but , but not Englandnot England, where the, where the scientific outlookscientific outlook was shaped by was shaped by empiricistsempiricists like like Francis BaconFrancis Bacon andand John Locke.John Locke.

66


2.2. EmpiricistsEmpiricists believed that all believed that all knowledgeknowledge comes from comes from experienceexperience..

• Thus, any claims to Thus, any claims to understandingunderstanding a phenomenon must be measured against the a phenomenon must be measured against the empirical empirical reality of concrete particularsreality of concrete particulars..

• They They discounteddiscounted the the deductive methoddeductive method..

Francis BaconFrancis Bacon called it a called it a ““dead enddead end””. . It is It is based on intuitive assumptionsbased on intuitive assumptions that may be that may be logically logically correct, but not true in reality/naturecorrect, but not true in reality/nature (e.g., earth is flat/ stationary) (e.g., earth is flat/ stationary)

GalileoGalileo stated: stated: ““Does Aristotle not declare that what sensible experience shows ought to be Does Aristotle not declare that what sensible experience shows ought to be preferred over any deductive argument, even one that seems extremely well founded?preferred over any deductive argument, even one that seems extremely well founded?””

• BaconBacon insisted that the way insisted that the way to understand natureto understand nature is to is to consult natureconsult nature,,and not rely on writings of and not rely on writings of ancient authority figuresancient authority figures (e.g., (e.g., AristotleAristotle))

• Bacon Bacon called for called for a new science grounded ina new science grounded in inductive principlesinductive principles.. Uncovering Uncovering secrets of naturesecrets of nature through through observationobservation and and experimentationexperimentation,,

followed by judicious interpretation of the results.followed by judicious interpretation of the results.

− ByBy induction induction it was meant: Careful examination of it was meant: Careful examination of shared patternsshared patterns, , regularitiesregularities, , similaritiessimilarities, , and and differencesdifferences in multiple observations/occurrences of a phenomenon in multiple observations/occurrences of a phenomenon


Thomas HobbesThomas Hobbes the the firstfirst to propose a to propose a materialistic theory of causalitymaterialistic theory of causality..

•He viewed the He viewed the world as world as an an endless chainendless chain of of material causes & effects.material causes & effects.

In the medieval mindIn the medieval mind, world was sustained by , world was sustained by a perpetual chain of miraclesa perpetual chain of miracles..

•He proclaimed every effect has a He proclaimed every effect has a material causematerial cause, so that , so that effects alwayseffects always““have their necessity in things antecedenthave their necessity in things antecedent..””

• Therefore, every occurrence in nature is Therefore, every occurrence in nature is explainable by explainable by mechanistic/impersonal natural lawsmechanistic/impersonal natural laws..

•To understandTo understand a natural phenomenon, one has to a natural phenomenon, one has to focus onfocus on its itstemporal/material causetemporal/material cause..

72


John Locke John Locke dismisseddismissed the rationalist view that man comes to the world with the rationalist view that man comes to the world with a a prioripriori (inborn) knowledge (inborn) knowledge..

• He maintains: The He maintains: The mind arrivesmind arrives at the world stage at the world stage entirely blankentirely blank and and all all true knowledgetrue knowledge is to be is to be discovered only through discovered only through experienceexperience..

• Traditionally, Traditionally, philosophyphilosophy had been about developing holistic had been about developing holistic speculative/ speculative/ metaphysical systems metaphysical systems of thought that presented of thought that presented all-embracingall-embracing explanations for many issues (e.g., ontology, ethics, natural philosophy, explanations for many issues (e.g., ontology, ethics, natural philosophy, epistemology, cosmology, etc.).epistemology, cosmology, etc.).

• LockeLocke, and other empiricists (e.g., , and other empiricists (e.g., NewtonNewton), on the other hand, advocated ), on the other hand, advocated “philosophical modesty”“philosophical modesty”

• They called on scientists to They called on scientists to seek less ambitiousseek less ambitious, but more , but more realisticrealistic, , empirically-groundedempirically-grounded ( (verifiable)verifiable) explanations that were explanations that were more relevantmore relevant in in their applications.their applications.

71

Isaac Newton (Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

• Newton Newton was one of the preeminent genius minds of all time. was one of the preeminent genius minds of all time.

• His genius mind essentially integrated the following works:His genius mind essentially integrated the following works: Gilbert’sGilbert’s work had postulated that the work had postulated that the earth worked like a giant magnetearth worked like a giant magnet, ,

demonstrating an attractive force.demonstrating an attractive force.

Galileo’sGalileo’s work had examined the work had examined the path and speed of falling objectspath and speed of falling objects, and had measured , and had measured the gravitational force at the sea level.the gravitational force at the sea level.

Kepler’sKepler’s work had shown that work had shown that planetary orbits were ellipticaplanetary orbits were elliptical, and not circular.l, and not circular.

Descartes’sDescartes’s analytical geometry had paved the way for analytical geometry had paved the way for applying mathematical applying mathematical equations in describing natural phenomenaequations in describing natural phenomena..

• But,But, Descartes’ Descartes’ analytic geometryanalytic geometry dealt only with a static universe. dealt only with a static universe.

• NewtonNewton , instead, founded a new branch of mathematics, the, instead, founded a new branch of mathematics, the differential and differential and integral calculusintegral calculus, , for measuring for measuring and and describing objectdescribing objects (e.g., planets or anything s (e.g., planets or anything else) that involved else) that involved motion/changemotion/change. .

• He then applied his new calculus to the monumental task of combining the above He then applied his new calculus to the monumental task of combining the above works of the giants before him.works of the giants before him.

Isaac Newton (Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

• The results were his The results were his universal laws of motionuniversal laws of motion..

• Newton’s, thus, put an end to the centuries of metaphysical speculationsNewton’s, thus, put an end to the centuries of metaphysical speculationsas to as to how and why the physical universe workedhow and why the physical universe worked the way it did. the way it did.

• His findings once and for all His findings once and for all liberated scientistsliberated scientists from supernatural forces from supernatural forces(e.g., prime mover, soul) in explaining how the physical world worked. (e.g., prime mover, soul) in explaining how the physical world worked.

• His work proved that the natural world was entirely mechanical, impersonal, and morally His work proved that the natural world was entirely mechanical, impersonal, and morally neutral.neutral.

• His 4His 4thth rule of scientific reasoning stated: rule of scientific reasoning stated:

““Explanations inferred from observation should be viewed as accurate (or nearly true) Explanations inferred from observation should be viewed as accurate (or nearly true) until other phenomena either make them more true or contradict them”.until other phenomena either make them more true or contradict them”.

• Newton also showed that the new empirically-based scientific method was, indeed,Newton also showed that the new empirically-based scientific method was, indeed,the only reliable the only reliable way to gain objective way to gain objective knowledgeknowledge about the about the natural worldnatural world..

73

Epistemology in the 18Epistemology in the 18thth Century Enlightenment—The Age of Reason: Century Enlightenment—The Age of Reason:

David Hume David Hume (1711-1776)(1711-1776) dismissed all metaphysical explanationsdismissed all metaphysical explanations..

•Hume took Hume took skepticismskepticism to new heights. to new heights.Skepticism is the assertion that Skepticism is the assertion that attaining true knowledgeattaining true knowledge

with certitude is impossiblewith certitude is impossible. .

•He also argued that He also argued that all empirical knowledge isall empirical knowledge is only probableonly probable..

•With Hume With Hume modern theories of modern theories of causationcausation began. began.

•Hume asserted that Hume asserted that cause-effeccause-effect connections that we t connections that we observeobserve do not do not necessarily necessarily reflect how things actually are (in nature)reflect how things actually are (in nature)

•That is, the That is, the true mechanismtrue mechanism by which occurrence of one thing results in by which occurrence of one thing results in occurrence of another (i.e., causation) cannot occurrence of another (i.e., causation) cannot knownknown..

•The The perceived causal connection perceived causal connection between two events simply reflects between two events simply reflects an an expectationsexpectations shaped by our repeated observation of one of the two events shaped by our repeated observation of one of the two events being being consistentlconsistently followed by the other.y followed by the other.

73

• In other words, cause-and-effect connections In other words, cause-and-effect connections are psychological/ perceptualare psychological/ perceptual and simply reflect what we and simply reflect what we learn to expectlearn to expect););they do they do NOTNOT represent the represent the realities of naturerealities of nature..

HIS CONCLUSIONS:HIS CONCLUSIONS:

• All knowledge produced by inductive inferences is All knowledge produced by inductive inferences is probable knowledgeprobable knowledge..

Natural laws (governing how the world actually works) are not really discoverable. Natural laws (governing how the world actually works) are not really discoverable.

Therefore, in science we have no basis for concluding that A must be followed by B; Therefore, in science we have no basis for concluding that A must be followed by B; we can only say that, based on observational data, A will we can only say that, based on observational data, A will probablyprobably be followed by B. be followed by B.

Nevertheless, empirical knowledge from observation/experimentation, (despite their Nevertheless, empirical knowledge from observation/experimentation, (despite their shortcomings) is the shortcomings) is the best that we havebest that we have in our arsenal for understanding natural in our arsenal for understanding natural phenomena.phenomena.

78

Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of ScienceScientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of ScienceImmanuel Kant Immanuel Kant ((1818thth Century Century IdealistIdealist German Philosopher) German Philosopher)

•Most influentialMost influential philosopher of modern times. philosopher of modern times.

•EpistemologicallyEpistemologically, , bridged the gapbridged the gap between between RationalistsRationalists and and EmpiricistsEmpiricists and, as a and, as a result of his work, result of his work, todaytoday’’s scientific enterprises scientific enterprise can be described as can be described as ””logico-empirical.logico-empirical.””

•He believed that He believed that only the natural world is knowable.only the natural world is knowable. And, it is knowable And, it is knowable through observationthrough observation/sense perception./sense perception.

•Thus, Thus, scientific knowledgescientific knowledge pertains only to the pertains only to the natural/perceptible world.natural/perceptible world.Events and objects that are in Events and objects that are in timetime and and spacespace..

•But, Like But, Like PlatoPlato, believed in the duality of , believed in the duality of NoumenalNoumenal vs vs Phenomenal Phenomenal world.world.

There exists a There exists a reality which is independentreality which is independent of man of man’’s mind/perceptions and is s mind/perceptions and is NOT NOT experientially knowableexperientially knowable (a (a ““thing-in-itselfthing-in-itself””))..

•While our knowledge is empirical and the result of experience, it is While our knowledge is empirical and the result of experience, it is not directly and not directly and passivelypassively inferred inductively from our impressions of the outside world; inferred inductively from our impressions of the outside world; it is in part it is in part a a prioripriori and has a basis other than experience and has a basis other than experience

Like in mathematics, where the confirmation/proof of (a+b)Like in mathematics, where the confirmation/proof of (a+b)22 = a = a22 + b + b22 + 2ab + 2ab does not require observation; it has a certainty that cannot be established by does not require observation; it has a certainty that cannot be established by induction.induction.

Our Our mind helps give meaningmind helps give meaning to our observations/experiences. to our observations/experiences.

HOW does it do that?HOW does it do that?

• Nature's behavior presupposes/is constrained by some underlying inner necessitiesNature's behavior presupposes/is constrained by some underlying inner necessitieswithout which nature will not work (e.g., necessities of without which nature will not work (e.g., necessities of time and spacetime and space).).

− EXAMPLES: Implausibility of traveling back in time, being in two places at the same time, EXAMPLES: Implausibility of traveling back in time, being in two places at the same time, mutually exclusive propositions, or mutually exclusive propositions, or ““beingbeing”” and and ““not beingnot being”” at the same time. at the same time.

• We are born with We are born with an an innateinnate rational system of thought rational system of thought that is aware of nature’sthat is aware of nature’s inner necessities: inner necessities:

Helps Helps reconcilereconcile our various our various sense impressionssense impressions and put them in and put them in proper contextproper context, by , by taking into account the nature' taking into account the nature' inner necessities/constraintsinner necessities/constraints, and . . ., and . . .

Thereby, helps us accurately Thereby, helps us accurately interpret our experiencesinterpret our experiences and give correct and give correct meaning to meaning to our empirical knowledgeour empirical knowledge..

•Contact with the physical world causes Contact with the physical world causes sensationssensations (the raw materials) which are (the raw materials) which are combined together to produce combined together to produce perceptionsperceptions, and are then ordered/arranged by our mind , and are then ordered/arranged by our mind in time and space and made into in time and space and made into concepts and ideasconcepts and ideas which we can understand and, which we can understand and, thus, thus, make sense of the experiencemake sense of the experience..

•Kant believed that it is Kant believed that it is impossibleimpossible to have to have true knowledge of the supernaturaltrue knowledge of the supernaturalworld (beyond the realm of time and space).world (beyond the realm of time and space).

Therefore, any attempt Therefore, any attempt to intellectually prove or explain to intellectually prove or explain existence of God would result existence of God would result in in fallaciesfallacies..

79


• CONCLUSION: CONCLUSION: Since Since knowledgeknowledge results from the results from the interactioninteraction between the between the knower and the known, the rational knower and the known, the rational mind of the knower must be given a mind of the knower must be given a rolerole in the process of undertaking scientific investigations. in the process of undertaking scientific investigations.

Result of KantResult of Kant’’s influence:s influence: Scientific method is Scientific method is an an interactive process interactive process that that rests on the rests on the interplay of bothinterplay of both::

The The new inductive empiricismnew inductive empiricism (i.e., observation/experimentation), & (i.e., observation/experimentation), &

The The old deductive reasoning old deductive reasoning (i.e., rational analysis/inquiry)(i.e., rational analysis/inquiry)

• If science is to beIf science is to be both both realisticrealistic & & orderlyorderly, then . . ., then . . .

Scientific explanations must be supported by both, Scientific explanations must be supported by both, ““soundsound”” empirical evidence empirical evidence, and , and also by also by rational/reasoned analysisrational/reasoned analysis..

80


82

Empiricism in Empiricism in social/behavioral sciencessocial/behavioral sciences::

Result of pioneering works of:Result of pioneering works of:• Auguste ComteAuguste Comte , the , the founder of founder of PositivismPositivism in social sciences: in social sciences:

PositivistsPositivists believe that scientific research should believe that scientific research should NOT be compelledNOT be compelledto to start with a deductivestart with a deductive theory-building process. theory-building process.

Maintained that the Maintained that the goal of knowledgegoal of knowledge is simply to is simply to describedescribe the phenomenon the phenomenonas it is observedas it is observed, and NOT not how it , and NOT not how it should bshould be.e.

Maintained that Maintained that metaphysicalmetaphysical propositions are propositions are untestable/unverifiableuntestable/unverifiable and, thus, and, thus,without meaning.without meaning. As such, they do As such, they do notnot belong to the belong to the domain of sciencedomain of science. .

That is, scientific knowledge must receive its That is, scientific knowledge must receive its positive affirmation only from facts and positive affirmation only from facts and observational observational evidence.evidence.

- Metaphysical conceptMetaphysical concepts (e.g., Aristotle’s final cause) and such presupposed s (e.g., Aristotle’s final cause) and such presupposed ethical/aesthetic ethical/aesthetic considerationsconsiderations/assumptions as to infallibility of the heavens (that had been a constituent part of /assumptions as to infallibility of the heavens (that had been a constituent part of natural philosophy since the dawn of Greek philosophy) must be stripped away from scientific natural philosophy since the dawn of Greek philosophy) must be stripped away from scientific inquiry and scientific explanations.inquiry and scientific explanations.

Sought to apply Sought to apply observationobservation and and experimentationexperimentation to research to research in what we today know as in what we today know as sociologysociology..

•GaltonGalton developed a mathematical formula for measuring developed a mathematical formula for measuringcorrelations, correlations, thereby thereby facilitating empiricism in behavioral/socialfacilitating empiricism in behavioral/socialsciencessciences that do not easily lend themselves to experimentation. that do not easily lend themselves to experimentation.

Was the inventor of Was the inventor of fingerprintingfingerprinting, & cousin of Charles Darwin. , & cousin of Charles Darwin.

Auguste Comte(French,

1798-1857

Francis Galton19th Century

English Researcher

1919thth century century Empiricism in BiologyEmpiricism in Biology and the and the descent of Mandescent of Man

• Darwin (1809-1882) Darwin (1809-1882) was a British naturalist whose empirical work onwas a British naturalist whose empirical work onbiological evolution was based on observation of fossil records,biological evolution was based on observation of fossil records,biological similarities/difference among species of plants and animals,biological similarities/difference among species of plants and animals,as well as the characteristics of their living environments. as well as the characteristics of their living environments.

• His studies led him to conclude that:His studies led him to conclude that:

““All species evolve from earlier species through natural selection.” All species evolve from earlier species through natural selection.”

• To be more specific:To be more specific:

a.a. Members of all living species occasionally experience random genetic Members of all living species occasionally experience random genetic mutationsmutations..

b.b. Those mutations/changes that hurt an organism’s ability to adapt to its environment Those mutations/changes that hurt an organism’s ability to adapt to its environment and, as a result, reduce its chances of survival, tend to die out.and, as a result, reduce its chances of survival, tend to die out.

c.c. Whereas those changes that enable an organism to better overcome the prevailing Whereas those changes that enable an organism to better overcome the prevailing challenges of its environment and increase its chances of survival, tend to get a leg challenges of its environment and increase its chances of survival, tend to get a leg up relative to the environmentally “less fit” counterparts up relative to the environmentally “less fit” counterparts (natural selection)(natural selection) ..

d.d. That means, they get a That means, they get a greater chance to reproducegreater chance to reproduce, , pass along pass along their genetic change their genetic change to their offsprings and, over successive generations, successfully to their offsprings and, over successive generations, successfully increase their species’ populationincrease their species’ population. .

Charles Darwin1809-1882

English Naturalist

Source: Source: Richard DawkinsRichard Dawkins, , River Out of EdenRiver Out of Eden, 1995, 1995

• Today, there are Today, there are 30 million30 million living species of animals, which represent living species of animals, which representonly only 1% of the 3 billion 1% of the 3 billion species that have ever come to existence. species that have ever come to existence.

• According to According to Richard DawkinsRichard Dawkins, an evolutionary biologist, there are, an evolutionary biologist, there are1 mil x 1mil x1 mil x 1mil x 1 mil1 mil x 1mil x1 mil x 1mil x 1 mil possible genetic code combinations. possible genetic code combinations.

• Yet, the Yet, the genetic code of all living thinggenetic code of all living things (plants, bacteria, s (plants, bacteria, and the 30 million living species of animals) is land the 30 million living species of animals) is literally identicaliterally identical..

• This suggests, This suggests, DawkinsDawkins says, that says, that all creatures must have had a common ancestoall creatures must have had a common ancestor.r.

• ““Genetically all animals are Genetically all animals are pretty close relativespretty close relatives of one another and even of plants”. of one another and even of plants”.

• While the science behind While the science behind Darwin’sDarwin’s theory of evolution has been solid and unquestionable, theory of evolution has been solid and unquestionable, the theory because of its huge religious and theological ramifications, has been (and the theory because of its huge religious and theological ramifications, has been (and continues to remain) a continues to remain) a source tremendous contentionsource tremendous contention. .

a.a. Earlier Earlier astronomical/astrophysicaastronomical/astrophysical findings had indicated that the universe was governed by l findings had indicated that the universe was governed by impersonal natural laws and operated without outside interference.impersonal natural laws and operated without outside interference.

b.b. Our Earth was just a tiny planet among billions of much larges celestial bodies in one of the Our Earth was just a tiny planet among billions of much larges celestial bodies in one of the billions of galaxies that was located in a small corner of a vast universe.billions of galaxies that was located in a small corner of a vast universe.

• Now, Darwin had come along with findings that reaffirmed the relative Now, Darwin had come along with findings that reaffirmed the relative insignificance of the insignificance of the human race human race (once thought to be the (once thought to be the crown jewel of creationcrown jewel of creation) and was implying man was ) and was implying man was just another creature that had descended from lower species of animals. just another creature that had descended from lower species of animals.

Charles Darwin1809-1882

English Naturalist

81

CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCEEmpiricismEmpiricism• Science is Science is NOT a belief systemNOT a belief system; scientific explanations must be ; scientific explanations must be anchored in realityanchored in reality, NOT just , NOT just

in beliefs/intuition/common sense/casual subjective judgment.in beliefs/intuition/common sense/casual subjective judgment. That is:That is:– Propositions must Propositions must appeal to evidenceappeal to evidence, and not just to beliefs or even , and not just to beliefs or even reason.reason.

• NewtonNewton’’ss ““44thth rule of reason in science rule of reason in science”” states: states:– ““We are to look upon propositions inferred by general We are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomenoninduction from phenomenon as as

accurately or very true, . . . till such time as other phenomena occur, by which they accurately or very true, . . . till such time as other phenomena occur, by which they may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptionsmay either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions..

• John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill argues that:argues that:– The The only groundsonly grounds that we have that we have for inferring for inferring from a sample to a population, or from the from a sample to a population, or from the

past to the future, are given by past to the future, are given by present experience or memorypresent experience or memory. .

• Francis Bacon Francis Bacon who was an advocate for who was an advocate for a worldly utilitarian sciencea worldly utilitarian science argued: argued: – The only The only knowledge of importanceknowledge of importance to man is knowledge that is to man is knowledge that is rooted in the rooted in the

natural/physical worldnatural/physical world (which can be experienced in (which can be experienced in timetime andand spacespace).). o As opposed to the As opposed to the meta-physical/supernaturalmeta-physical/supernatural phenomena phenomena that that

pertain topertain to the realm of the realm of forces beyond this world forces beyond this world

• BaconBacon declared that using declared that using scientific methodscientific method to obtain such knowledge would assure to obtain such knowledge would assure man's man's masterymastery over the world. over the world.

83

• Propositions must be Propositions must be testable/verifiabletestable/verifiable against against observed evidenceobserved evidence..

• Science is Science is NOT a belief systemNOT a belief system!!

✓ It It seeks objective knowledgeseeks objective knowledge about about naturalnatural phenomena phenomena(i.e., phenomena that are o(i.e., phenomena that are observable/testable in space and timebservable/testable in space and time.).)

¯ As such: If As such: If NOT testableNOT testable, then , then NOT scientificNOT scientific

• Speculative propositionsSpeculative propositions/explanations that delve into /explanations that delve into the the supernatural supernatural (issues beyond this world) have (issues beyond this world) have no place in scienceno place in science..

Metaphysical speculations Metaphysical speculations are about are about abstractabstract ssupernaturalupernaturalideasideas that that cannot be measuredcannot be measured, quantified, tested, , quantified, tested, confirmed/disconfirmeconfirmed/disconfirmed d by observationby observation..

Therefore, they remain in Therefore, they remain in the realm of pure thoughtthe realm of pure thought. .

CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE

TestabilityTestability

84


Rigor & Regulated MethodologyRigor & Regulated Methodology• Science is a Science is a deliberatedeliberate and and disciplineddisciplined intellectual processintellectual process based on based on

carefully carefully planned observationsplanned observations, that is: , that is: WhatWhat is observed, is observed, howhow, and , and how many timeshow many times, are all carefully planned., are all carefully planned.

• QuantificationQuantification of variables, of variables, precise measurementprecise measurement based on appropriate ground based on appropriate ground rules, carefully designed rules, carefully designed instruments/procedureinstruments/procedures that enhance the range of ones that enhance the range of one’’s s senses, appropriate senses, appropriate mathematical/statistical analysismathematical/statistical analysis methods, and use of methods, and use of probabilityprobability theory in inferences are all aimed at theory in inferences are all aimed at providing clarity/precisionproviding clarity/precision and and minimizing vagueness.minimizing vagueness.

Precise Language/RhetoricPrecise Language/Rhetoric• People People understand words in slightly different waysunderstand words in slightly different ways..

This can lead to This can lead to distortionsdistortions and flaws and flaws in knowledgein knowledge..

• Thus, scientists prefer to communicate in an Thus, scientists prefer to communicate in an exact and universal exact and universal languagelanguage, such as , such as mathematics/statisticsmathematics/statistics..

The standard of writing scientific works in The standard of writing scientific works in clear/simple and straightforward clear/simple and straightforward languagelanguage was also established by the founding members of the was also established by the founding members of the Royal Society Royal Society shortly after it was officially established in 1660.shortly after it was officially established in 1660.

85

CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCEAssumption of DeterminismAssumption of Determinism

86


3.3.Modern/Scientific Outlook (A Deterministic Perspective):Modern/Scientific Outlook (A Deterministic Perspective):

There is order in nature and the world around us does There is order in nature and the world around us does NOTNOT operate operate randomlyrandomly/accidentally./accidentally.

Baruch Spinoza: Baruch Spinoza: ““Everything that happens occurs Everything that happens occurs through the operation through the operation of of NECESSITYNECESSITY,,””??

3.3.Everything Everything must necessarily happenmust necessarily happen the way that it does. the way that it does. Every object/phenomenon has Every object/phenomenon has explainable causesexplainable causes

inherent in the natureinherent in the nature of that object/phenomenon. of that object/phenomenon.

• Nature is lawfulNature is lawful and all phenomenon is governed by and all phenomenon is governed by logicallogical and intelligible and intelligible LAWS OF NATURELAWS OF NATURE..

3.3.Human intellectHuman intellect and judgment is capable of discovering nature and judgment is capable of discovering nature’’s order.s order.

CONCLUSION: We are not at the mercy of nature.CONCLUSION: We are not at the mercy of nature. By discovering the laws of nature, we By discovering the laws of nature, we find mastery over our find mastery over our

worldworld and control over our destiny. and control over our destiny.

As As FrancisFrancis BaconBacon stated: stated: The The universeuniverse must be viewed must be viewed as a problem to be solvedas a problem to be solved, , ““rather than as an rather than as an eternally fixed stageeternally fixed stage, upon which man walked, upon which man walked””..

•

87

• Scientific Determinism is Scientific Determinism is NOT exactNOT exact, but , but statistical/probabilisticstatistical/probabilistic..

• Recall that Recall that insight gained from observationinsight gained from observation reflects our reflects our PERCEPTIONPERCEPTIONof a phenomenon, of a phenomenon, NOTNOT necessarily its necessarily its REALITYREALITY (e.g., Hume)(e.g., Hume) and, thus, and, thus,it can be wrongit can be wrong..

• But, But, the more frequently the same effect is seen to follow from thethe more frequently the same effect is seen to follow from thesame causesame cause (especially under a variety of circumstances) (especially under a variety of circumstances), the greater , the greater will be the confidencwill be the confidence that we will be able to place e that we will be able to place on the plausibility of our on the plausibility of our results/conclusions.results/conclusions.

As As John Locke John Locke maintains:maintains:

It is It is often NOT possibleoften NOT possible to establish knowledge/truth to establish knowledge/truth with absolute certainty.with absolute certainty.

Thus, Thus, truthtruth is is a function of the strength of the supporting reason/evidencea function of the strength of the supporting reason/evidence..

Therefore, the Therefore, the ““degree of assentdegree of assent”” that we give to a proposition should depend that we give to a proposition should depend on the on the grounds of probabilitygrounds of probability in its favor. in its favor.


88

TentativenessTentativeness• Unlike religion or ideology, science is NOT a belief system. It has a Unlike religion or ideology, science is NOT a belief system. It has a dynamic naturedynamic nature

and, thus, does NOT subscribe to and, thus, does NOT subscribe to certitude and absolutismcertitude and absolutism. .

Scientific findings are Scientific findings are NOTNOT to be considered to be considered final/completefinal/complete ( (Hume’sHume’s skepticism?). skepticism?).

You can never be sure that the next observation will not contradict the theory.You can never be sure that the next observation will not contradict the theory.

Thus, human Thus, human knowledge is considered relative and fallibleknowledge is considered relative and fallible and must be and must be constantly constantly revisedrevised in light of new evidence; it is in light of new evidence; it is always provisional.always provisional.

• KantKant had had stressed the mindstressed the mind’’s active roles active role in giving meaning in giving meaningto human experiences/observations. to human experiences/observations.

• Karl Popper Karl Popper took the argument to its took the argument to its logical conclusionlogical conclusion:: Science CANNOT produceScience CANNOT produce knowledge that is knowledge that is certain or absolutecertain or absolute..

• Corroborating dataCorroborating data CANNOT confirm a theoryCANNOT confirm a theory since sincethere may always be there may always be another theory which could trumpanother theory which could trump the current explanation.the current explanation.

– PopperPopper states: states: ““Corroboration gives only the comfort that the theoryCorroboration gives only the comfort that the theoryhas been tested and has been tested and survived the testsurvived the test that even after the most impressive that even after the most impressive corroborations of predictions, it has corroborations of predictions, it has only achieved the status of not yet disconfirmedonly achieved the status of not yet disconfirmed..““

– ““Not proven falseNot proven false" is NOT the same as “" is NOT the same as “Being trueBeing true..““


89

• Popper maintains that:

"The only process available for establishing a scientific theory is one of eliminating plausible rival hypotheses.“

• As such, scientific enterprise As such, scientific enterprise should beshould be a continuous attempt a continuous attemptto to falsify prevailing theoriesfalsify prevailing theories (i.e., (i.e., rule out rule out existing explanations) existing explanations)

• By ruling out competing plausible explanationsBy ruling out competing plausible explanations, one continues to learn , one continues to learn more about a subject and more about a subject and get increasingly closer to the truth.get increasingly closer to the truth.

• The assumption of The assumption of tentativenesstentativeness is the reason why, is the reason why, even undisputable even undisputable explanationsexplanations (i.e., strongly corroborated by evidence) (i.e., strongly corroborated by evidence) are still referred are still referred to as ato as a ““THEORYTHEORY”” (e.g., Gravity Theory, Theory of Evolution, etc.). (e.g., Gravity Theory, Theory of Evolution, etc.).

• Therefore, in science, use of the term Therefore, in science, use of the term ““Theory,Theory,”” does NOT mean does NOT mean ““pure pure conjectureconjecture”” as some, outside of scientific circles suggest. as some, outside of scientific circles suggest.


Karl PopperKarl PopperAustrian-British (1902-1994) Austrian-British (1902-1994)

90

FalsifiabilityFalsifiability

• Investigations must Investigations must start WITHOUTstart WITHOUT any any pre-suppositions/beliefpre-suppositions/beliefregarding the regarding the truth/falsitytruth/falsity of the proposition/explanation of the proposition/explanation. .

• Propositions must Propositions must not onlynot only have the potential to have the potential to be verifiedbe verified, but also the , but also the potential to be falsified/refutedpotential to be falsified/refuted..

• Science must be an honest attempt to Science must be an honest attempt to search for answers that we donsearch for answers that we don’’t havet have..

• In science, it is the In science, it is the evidenceevidence that is supposed to that is supposed to drive the findings and drive the findings and determine the conclusions,determine the conclusions, whatever those conclusions may be whatever those conclusions may be..

Theology (like other ideologies)Theology (like other ideologies) pursue questions for which pursue questions for which answers are answers are already assumed already assumed with absolute certainty (truth is seen as already at hand. with absolute certainty (truth is seen as already at hand.

Dogmatic ideologies Dogmatic ideologies dondon’’t tolerate rejectiont tolerate rejection of their assumptions/beliefs. of their assumptions/beliefs.

Thus, whenever we believe Thus, whenever we believe answers/explanationsanswers/explanations are: are:

known known (i.e., (i.e., completecomplete and and finalfinal vs tentative), and/or vs tentative), and/or externally fixedexternally fixed (i.e., are (i.e., are absoluteabsolute and and not refutablenot refutable),),

the question being considered the question being considered will NOT be a scientific onewill NOT be a scientific one..

Example:Example: Intelligent Design/Creationism vs. Evolution Intelligent Design/Creationism vs. Evolution

In Short:In Short: If If NOT testableNOT testable, , refutablerefutable, or considered , or considered tentatively plausibletentatively plausible, , then then NOT scientificNOT scientific


91


Parsimony Parsimony • Is based on the notion that the Is based on the notion that the elegance, beauty , and harmonyelegance, beauty , and harmony

ofof nature nature emanates from its emanates from its simplicitysimplicity..

• This principle was This principle was originally expressedoriginally expressed in the 14 in the 14thth century by century byWilliam of OckhamWilliam of Ockham and is known as the and is known as the ““OccamOccam’’s/Ockhams/Ockham’’s Razor.s Razor.”” It stated:It stated:

““What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more.What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more.”” • NewtonNewton’’ss ““first rule of reasoning in Sciencefirst rule of reasoning in Science”” is is a restatement a restatement

of Occamof Occam’’s Razor:s Razor:

““Nature does nothing in vainNature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain when less will serve;, and more is in vain when less will serve; for for nature is pleased with simplicitynature is pleased with simplicity, and affects not the pomp of, and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes. superfluous causes.””

• Therefore, Therefore, theories and explanationstheories and explanations of natural phenomena of natural phenomena should notshould notbe made more complicatedbe made more complicated than necessary (frugality/succinctness). than necessary (frugality/succinctness).

• This means, This means, what is superfluouswhat is superfluous and unnecessary in the intellectual and unnecessary in the intellectualjudgment of the scientist judgment of the scientist should be cut awayshould be cut away..

That is, if you have two competing theories for explaining the observed facts,That is, if you have two competing theories for explaining the observed facts,the simplest one (i.e., the one with fewer assumptions) should be usedthe simplest one (i.e., the one with fewer assumptions) should be useduntil more evidence comes along.until more evidence comes along.

CopernicusCopernicus applied the principle in proposing his heliocentric model of universe.applied the principle in proposing his heliocentric model of universe. Kepler Kepler repeatedly writes: repeatedly writes: ““Nature loves simplicity.Nature loves simplicity.”” NewtonNewton’’ss single law of gravitationsingle law of gravitation holding each planet to the sun represents holding each planet to the sun represents ““simplicitsimplicit

yy ””..

Sir Isaac Newton(1643-1727)

William of Ockham(England, 1288-1348)

92


NOTE: NOTE: Method of scienceMethod of science is often (especially in more mature stage is often (especially in more mature stage of a fields) of a fields) based on thebased on the NomotheticNomothetic (rather than(rather than IdiographicIdiographic))method of explaining phenomenamethod of explaining phenomena..

•Idiographic ResearchIdiographic ResearchIs concerned with examining and identifying Is concerned with examining and identifying many uniquemany unique

considerations that lie behind considerations that lie behind a particular phenomenona particular phenomenon/ event/action / event/action (e.g., case studies, archival studies, historical research).(e.g., case studies, archival studies, historical research).

•Nomothetic ResearchNomothetic ResearchIs aimed at discovering the Is aimed at discovering the relatively fewrelatively few, but very important, , but very important,

considerationsconsiderations that explain that explain a general class of events/actionsa general class of events/actions..

93

CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCECHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCEGeneralizabilityGeneralizability

• AsAs Newton Newton’’s s 22ndnd rule of reason in science asserts: rule of reason in science asserts:

““To the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.To the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes. As to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in Europe and in As to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in Europe and in America…. America….””

Built-in Self-Correcting Mechanisms—Built-in Self-Correcting Mechanisms—Checks and balances that provide an Checks and balances that provide an objective objective and fair playing fieldand fair playing field..

• Public scrutiny:Public scrutiny: Public dissemination of scientific works and their Public dissemination of scientific works and their independent independent reviewreview by other scientists is a by other scientists is a 1717thth century invention century invention..

It was initiated by the founding members of the It was initiated by the founding members of the British Royal SocietyBritish Royal Society..

•Replications:Replications: To be considered valid, scientific findings must be To be considered valid, scientific findings must be reproducible/confirmablereproducible/confirmable under similar conditions by other scientists. under similar conditions by other scientists.

This is why replications are encouraged.This is why replications are encouraged. And, this is why researchers are required to clearly, and in details, articulate all their And, this is why researchers are required to clearly, and in details, articulate all their

proceduresprocedures. .

94

Functions/Objectives of Science

To Describe:To Describe:Specifying Specifying whatwhat makes a phenomenon occur and makes a phenomenon occur and howhow..What are the factors contributing to its occurrence, and how?)What are the factors contributing to its occurrence, and how?)

To Explain:To Explain:WhyWhy? What are the reasons? What are the underlying logic and ? What are the reasons? What are the underlying logic and

dynamics?dynamics?

To Predict:To Predict:What is the likelihood of the phenomenon occurring under a given What is the likelihood of the phenomenon occurring under a given

condition? condition? Under what conditionsUnder what conditions is a phenomenon likely to occur?) is a phenomenon likely to occur?)

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:? ? ?SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:? ? ?““ScientificScientific”” knowledge is our knowledge is our tentativetentative and and falsifiable explanationsfalsifiable explanations about about naturalnatural phenomena developed on the basis of careful phenomena developed on the basis of careful logical logical analysisanalysis and objective and objective examination examination of of publically reviewablepublically reviewable observational evidenceobservational evidence..

FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE: ? ? ?FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE: ? ? ?

95

• EconomistEconomist Bradford DelongBradford Delong estimates that in the 10,000 years estimates that in the 10,000 years between when we werebetween when we werehunter-gatherershunter-gatherers and and year 1year 1 (birth of Christ), the (birth of Christ), the world annual per capita GDPworld annual per capita GDP (in 1990 fixed dollars) (in 1990 fixed dollars) grew from $90 to $109grew from $90 to $109. .

GDP is the market value of all products and services produced (used as a proxy for income).GDP is the market value of all products and services produced (used as a proxy for income).

• Then between Then between year 1 and 1750year 1 and 1750, per capita GDP , per capita GDP rose from $109 to $180rose from $109 to $180..

That isThat is, it took , it took 12,000 years12,000 years for per capita GDPfor per capita GDP to doubleto double to $180. to $180.

• By contrast, in only the 250 years By contrast, in only the 250 years between 1750between 1750and 2000and 2000, per capita GDP rose , per capita GDP rose more than 36 foldsmore than 36 folds,,from $180from $180 to to over $6,500over $6,500. .

Despite the worldwide Despite the worldwide population explosionpopulation explosionfrom 720 millions in 1750, to 6.3 billions in 2000. from 720 millions in 1750, to 6.3 billions in 2000.

But, it is fair to ask if this But, it is fair to ask if this material prosperitymaterial prosperity been achieved at the expense of a been achieved at the expense of a diminishing quality of lifediminishing quality of life? ?

Did the Medieval life involve greater Did the Medieval life involve greater richnessrichness, , spiritualityspirituality, higher , higher general happinessgeneral happiness, or a higher , or a higher sense of subjective sense of subjective wellbeingwellbeing? ? LetLet’’s examine the evidence s examine the evidence . . . .. . . .

Scientific Revolution and the Subsequent Socio-Economic Progress

What has been the What has been the contributionscontributions of this of this new sciencenew science to our to our prosperityprosperity and socio- and socio-economic and technological economic and technological progressprogress??

96

Historians (e.g., William Manchester, 1993), describes Europe’s Medieval period as:

•A time of “incessant warfare, corruption, lawlessness, obsession with strange myths, and an almost impenetrable mindlessness.”•A time when societies were “anarchic, formless, and appallingly unjust.” •People were primitive lacking in elegance and refinement.•Few could read, write or do sums.•The median life expectancy of Europeans was 30 years (up to end of 18th century).For females, only 24 years (since many would die during childbirth).•Malnutrition was rampant.•Water was unclean (forcing the poor to drink ale/cider, and the rich to drink wine).•Illnesses and diseases were rampant, mostly due to the lack of sanitation. •Peasants or Serfs had to work for free on their lord's land 2-3 days per week and make payments to him (either in money or in grain, honey, eggs, etc.).•Surfs were fixed to the land and were sold with it into the service of whoever purchased the land. •Lords exercised judicial powers over their vassals and peasants.•The following forms of torture were routinely used as a legitimate means of punishment (and for obtaining confessions/testimonies). Ripping out teeth/nails, beating, blinding, boiling, bone breaking, branding and burning, castration, choking, cutting, disfigurement, dislocation, drowning, flagellation, whipping and beating, flaying, roasting, genital mutilation, limb/finger removal, starvation, and tongue removal (http://www.middle-ages.org.uk)

Do these strike anyone as conditions reflecting high spirituality, great ethics, or abundant happiness? ? ?

Scientific Revolution and the Subsequent Socio-Economic Progress

97

QUESTIONS OR QUESTIONS OR COMMENTSCOMMENTS

Date post:	02-Jan-2016
Category:	Documents
Upload:	hadassah-rivas
View:	131 times
Download:	12 times

Introduction to Research Methodology

Documents