Introduction to Research Methodology Final

8/11/2019 Introduction to Research Methodology Final

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INTRODUCTIONSearch of knowledge

It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on

specific topic

According to Oxford Dictionary (1952, p1069), A careful inquiry

specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge

According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and

redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solution;

collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions andreaching conclusion; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to

determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.


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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular

individual, situation or a group

To determine the frequency with which something occurs

or with which it is associated with something else

To identify the causal relationship between variables


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Research MotivesDesire to get a research degree along with itsconsequential benefits;

Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolvedproblems, i.e., concern over practical problemsinitiates research;Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative

work;Desire to be of service to society;Desire to get respectability.


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TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. Descriptive research Vs Analytical research2. Applied research Vs Basic research

3. Quantitative research Vs Qualitative research4. Conceptual research Vs Empirical research5. Exploratory Vs Formalised


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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Surveys & fact finding enquiries of different kindsPurpose is description of the state of affairs as it existsat present.Researcher has no control over the variables; he can

only report what has happened or what is happening.E.g. frequency of shopping, preference of people etc.


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ANALYTICAL RESEARCHInvolves in-depth study and evaluation of availableinformation in an attempt to explain complexphenomenon.The researcher has to use facts or information already

available and analyze these to make a criticalevaluation of the material.


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Descriptive Vs AnalyticalDescriptive research attempts to determine, describe,or identify what is, while analytical research attemptsto establish why it is that way or how it came to be.The descriptive research uses description,classification, measurement, and comparison todescribewhat phenomena are. The analytical research

usually concerns itself with cause-effect relationships

K. SYED, MPT (ortho)


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Descriptive Vs AnalyticalExamples. Examining the fluctuations of U. S. international tradebalance during 1974-1995 is an example of descriptive research; whileexplaining why and how U.S. trade balance move in a particular way overtime is an example of analytical research. Another example: Starting from late 1986, the value of U.S. dollar valuehas steadily increased against the Japanese yen and German Mark.Examining the magnitude of this trend in the value of U.S. dollar isanother example of descriptive research; whileexplaining how and why this surge in the value of the U.S. dollar isoccuring. If one attempts to explain how and why this surge in the valueof U.S. dollar is going to affect the U.S. economy,as well as the economiesof Japan and Germany, this is another example of analytical research.

K. SYED, MPT (ortho)


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APPLIED / ACTION RESEARCH

Finding a solution for an immediate problemSay, a solution for a concrete social or business

problemE.g. Marketing research, research for social, political &economic trendsE.g.assist and cure a health disease, make better

energy efficient things for the homes, and behavioralinterventions for autistic children.


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BASIC /PURE/ FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

Concerned with generalization and formulation oftheory

Natural phenomenon and mathematics are theexamples of basic researchFinding information having broad base of applicationand adding to existing scientific knowledge


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Basic and Applied Research

Basic Research aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory or attempting todiscover more about a certain concept (non-specificity)

Example: How does motivation affect employee performance?

Applied Research focusses on a real-life problem or situation with a view tohelping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity)

Example: Should Corporation X adopt a paperless office environment?


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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Based on measurement of quantity or amount Weighing, measuring are the examples of quantitative

research


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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Phenomena relating quality or kindThis type of research is often useful in the socialsciences, where raw numbers fail to paint a complete

picture.Character, personality and man kind are the examplesof variable used to measure the qualitative researchDiscovering the underlying motives using in depthinterviews Word association test, Sentence completion test arethe examples of qualitative researchE.g. attitude or opinion research


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Observation (Videoed, non-participant, semi-participant and participant observation, field notes)

Interviews (individual and group - known as focus groups,

tape recorded and transcribed, field notes) Secondary data analysis (using written material collected for

purposes other than research) Questionnaires (unstructured, postal, interviews)

A mixture of all four

Data Collection in QualitativeResearch


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Quantitative ResearchMethods for obtaining dataSurvey research (all require a structured questionnaire, where each observation unit is posed with the exact same

questions)postal questionnaire surveye-mail questionnaire survey(Internet polls)face-to-face interviews

telephone interviewsSystematic observationText analysisStatistical data (secondary analysis)


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Qualitative vs QuantitativeIn qualitative research, a hypothesis is not needed to beginresearch.However, all quantitative research requires a hypothesis beforeresearch can begin.

A good example of qualitative research would be a study where asurveys show elevated rates of child abuse in a given area.This data is quantitative, and therefore says nothing about theunderlying causes of the abuse. Qualitative researchers would thenconduct in-depth interviews, observe individuals and ask childrento tell their stories to illuminate their conditions.Qualitative research goes hand-in-hand with quantitative research.In isolation, qualitative data gives a narrow view and quantitativedata gives a wide and impersonal view. Together, both the what'

and the how and why' are revealed.


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Research ApproachQuantitativeInferential

Purpose is to form data base to infer characteristics ofpopulationUsing survey where sample is studied and then inferred thatpopulation has the same characteristics

ExperimentalSome variables are manipulated to observe their effect onothers

SimulationCreation of artificial environment and observation of

behaviour under controlled condition.


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Research ApproachQualitativeSubjective assessment of attitudes, opinions andbehaviours.Group interviews, projective techniques and depthinterviews.


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CONCEPTUAL Vs EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

Related to some abstract ideas / theory experimentGenerally used by philosophers and thinkers todevelop new concepts or reinterpret existing ones.

Vs

Attempt to establish cause and effect relationshipRelies on experience or observation alone. Also called experimental research


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EXPLORATORY Vs FORMALISED RESEARCH

In Exploratory purpose is formulation of hypothesisrather than testing it.Formalised are with specific hypothesis to be tested.


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Different Purposes of Research

(1)Exploratory

Goal is to generate many ideas.

Develop tentative theories and conjectures.Become familiar with the basic facts, people andconcerns involved.Formulate questions and refine issues for future

research.Used when little is written on an issue.It is the initial research.Usually qualitative research.


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(2)Descriptive research

Presents a profile of a group or describes a process,mechanism or relationship or presents basic background

information or a context.Used very often in applied research.E.g.: General Household survey describes demographiccharacteristics, economic factors and social trends.Can be used to monitor changes in family structure andhousehold composition.Can also be used to gain an insight into the changing socialand economic circumstances of population groups.Often survey research.


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(3)Experimentationcharacterised by the focus on collecting data toascertain the effects of some form of planned change.Used in applied research to evaluate a policy initiativeor social programme to determine if it is working.Can be small or large scale, e.g.: effectiveness of a crimeprevention programme in a local housing estate.


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SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF PROBLEM SOLVING /RESEARCH PROCESS

Formulating research problemReview of literatureDeveloping hypothesisPreparing research and sample designCollecting dataExecution of project Analysis of dataHypothesis testingInterpretationPreparation of report or thesis


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FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEM

Problems are divided two typesProblems which relate to state of natureThose which relate correlation between variables

Subject of interest to be selected as a problem Always select unsolved problem Initially, may propose in Broadway and ambiguities may

resolved Feasibility


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FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEM

Understanding the problem thoroughlyRephrasing the same into meaningful termDiscuss the problems with colleaguesStaff members and guideTake a view of old reviewsThe final question should be precise andgrammatically correct and should state exactly what

you expect to learn as a result of a study.


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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

JournalsReferences

ReportsBooksLibrary is good friendInternet and websites


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DEVELOPING HYPOTHESIS

It should be very specific and limited to the piece ofresearch in hand because it has to be tested.The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher bydelimiting the area of research and to keep him on theright track.


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DEVELOPING HYPOTHESISDiscussion with colleagues and experts about theproblem, its origin and the objectives in seekingsolutionExaminations of data and recordsReview of similar studies in the area or of the studieson similar problems

Personal investigation which involves original fieldinterviews.


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PREPARING RESEARCH DESIGN

State the conceptual structure within which research wouldbe conductedPopulationCriteria for selection VariablesSample selection


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Experimental Research

Step 1. Research Approaches

Observational Research

Gathering data by observing people,actions and situations

(Exploratory)

Survey Research

Asking individuals aboutattitudes, preferences or

buying behaviors(Descriptive)

Using groups of people todetermine cause-and-effect

relationships

(Causal)


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Step 2. Contact Methods

M ail T e le p h o n e P e rs o n a l O n lin e

F le x ib ili ty P o o r G o o d E x c e lle n t G o o d

Q u a n t it y o f D a t a C o l le c t e d G o o d F a ir E x c e lle n t G o o d

C o n t ro l o f I n t e r v i e w e r

E x c e lle n t F a ir P o o r F a ir

C o n t ro l o f S a m p l e

F a ir E x c e lle n t F a ir P o o r

S p e e d o f D a t a

Col l ec t i on

P o o r E x c e lle n t G o o d E x c e lle n t

R e s p o n s e R a te F a ir G o o d G o o d G o o d

C o s t G o o d F a ir P o o r E x c e lle n t

Contact Methods


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Step 3. Developing a Sampling Plan

Who is to besurveyed?

How manyshould besurveyed?

How should thesample be

chosen?

Probability orNon-probability

sampling?Sample -

representativesegment of the

population


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Step 4. Research Instruments

Mechanical Devices People Meters Grocery Scanners

Galvanometer Tachistoscope

Questionnaire What to ask? Form of each

question? Wording? Ordering?

Research Instruments


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COLLECTING DATA

Several ways are there to collect the appropriate dataPrimary data and secondary data

By observationPersonal interviewTelephone interviewQuestionnairesSurvey


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EXECUTION OF PROJECT

It is a very important step in research processIf it is proceeds on correct lines, the data to becollected would be adequate and dependable.The step should be taken that the data should be in

the control of statistics so that the collectedinformation is in accordance with the pre defineddesigned to tackle this problem


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ANALYSIS OF DATA

The analysis of data requires a number of closelyrelated operations such as establishment of categories,the application of theses categories to raw datathrough tabulation, coding and editing like statistical

interference.


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HYPOTHESIS TESTING

After analyzing the data, the researcher is in positionto test the hypothesis.InferenceStudent t test, Chi -square, F- test are the examples of

statistical techniques At end, researcher will reject or not reject the nullhypothesis.


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INTERPRETATIONChapter or section of a research report that explains what the results mean.Its very important section to add the appropriatesupportive literatures.


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CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCHThe purpose of the research should be clearlydefined and common concepts be usedThe research procedure used should be describedin sufficient detail to permit another researcher torepeat the research for further advancement,keeping the continuity of what has already beenattained.The procedure design of the research should becarefully planned to yield results that are asobjectives as possible


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CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH

The researcher should report with complete frankness,flaws in procedural design and estimate their effectsupon the findings.The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate toreveal its significance and the method of analysis usedshould be appropriate. The validity and reliability ofthe data should be checked carefully.


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CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH

Conclusions should be confined to those justified bythe data of the research and limited to those for whichthe data provide an adequate basis.Greater confidence in research is warranted if theresearcher is experienced, has a good reputation inresearch and is a person of integrity.


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General Business Conditions andCorporate Research

Short- & Long-Range Forecasting,Business and Industry TrendsGlobal EnvironmentsInflation and PricingPlant and Warehouse Location

Acquisitions

Financial and Accounting Research

Forecasts of financial interest ratetrends,Stock,bond and commodity valuepredictionscapital formation alternativesmergers and acquisitionsrisk-return trade-offsportfolio analysisimpact of taxesresearch on financial institutionsexpected rate of returncapital asset pricing modelscredit risk

cost analysis

Fields Where Business Research is Often Used (1)

Management and OrganizationalBehaviour Research

Total Quality Management Morale and Job Satisfaction Leadership Style Employee Productivity Organizational Effectiveness Structural ssues Absenteeism and turnover Organizational Climate


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Sales and Marketing Research

Market PotentialsMarket ShareMarket segmentationMarket characteristicsSales AnalysisEstablishment of sales quotas

Distribution channelsNew product conceptsTest markets Advertising researchBuyer behaviourCustomer satisfaction Website visitation rates

Information Systems Research

Knowledge and information needsassessmentComputer information system use andevaluationTechnical suppot satisfactionDatabase analysisData miningEnterprise resource planning systemsCustomer relationship managementsystems

Corporate Responsibility Research

Ecological ImpactLegal Constraints on advertising andpromotionSex, age and racial discrimination / worker equitySocial values and ethics

Fields Where Business Research is Often Used (2)


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Selected Examples of Real-Life Situations in WhichBusiness Research Methods are Used

A firm wants to produce and market a new product but first wants to ascertainif there is a potential consumer demand for this product in markets x,y and z a multinational firm wants to establish a production facility in another countryafter determining its technical and economic feasibility

A government agency wants to ascertain the satisfaction level of its employees,the causes for any possible discontent, and propose a scheme for enhancingthis level A financial institution wants to invest in commodities and commissions a studyto determine the past trends and forecast future returns in a portfolio ofcommoditiesThe CEO of a firm wants to undertake a SWOT-Analysis as part of his plan toredefine his organizations priorities


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Contents of Research ProposalProblem StatementResearch ObjectiveLiterature Review

Research DesignData AnalysisNature and Form of ResultBudgetScheduleFacilities and Special ResourcesBibliography

Appendices/Glossary of Terms


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Exploratory Research Designs1. Study of secondary source of information.

2. Survey of individuals who are apt to have idea on thegeneral subject.

3. Analysis of selected case.


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Secondary source of information

Reports from research organizationLibraries

Books NewspapersGovernment data

Published or Unpublished ideas & data


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Survey of individuals with

IDEASDepth interviews

Projective techniques

Focus group interviews


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Analysis of selected caseReal event or situation, where the data are more accurate.Comprehensive study of one or a few specific situations.

Emphasis is on the complete description andunderstanding of the factors.


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Descriptive Research DesighnDescriptive research as the name suggests is designed to describesomething- for example, the characteristics of users of a givenproduct; the degree to which product use varies with income, age, sexor other characteristics; or the number who saw a specific televisioncommercial.

To be of maximum benefit, a descriptive study must only collect, datafor a definite purpose. Your objective and understanding should beclear and specific. Descriptive studies vary in the degree to which aspecific hypothesis is the guide. It allows both implicit and explicithypotheses to be tested depending on the research problem.

For Example: A cereal company may find its sales declining. On the basis of marketfeedback the company may hypothesise that teenage children do noteat its cereal for breakfast. A descriptive study can then be designedto test this hypothesis.


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Stringent in DesignFormal design is required to ensure that description covers allphases desired.

Researcher takes out sample and then wishes to make statementabout the population on the basis of the sample analysis.

The study must provide for the collection of information.

Without which information collected might be inaccurate orinappropriate.


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Types of Descriptive Research There are two basic types of descriptive research:Longitudinal StudiesLongitudinal studies are time series analyses that make repeatedmeasurements of the same individuals, thus allowing you to monitorbehaviour such as brand switching. However, longitudinal studiesare not necessarily representative since many people may refuse toparticipate because of the commitment required.

Cross-sectional StudiesCross-sectional studies sample the population to makemeasurements at a specific point in time. A special type ofcrosssectional analysis is a cohort analysis, which tracks an aggregateof individuals who experience the same event within the same timeinterval over time. You can use Cohort analyses for longforecastingof product demand.


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Methods of Data CollectionThere are many methods available for DescriptiveResearchObservationQuestionnaireInterviewExamination of Records


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Experimental DesignThe researcher manipulates selected independent

variables under conditions which permit collectionof data which show the effects, if any, of these variables on the dependent variables

Based on the principle of causality a relationship exists between twoevents


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Experimental MethodMany of the important decisions facing the marketing executives cannot be settled bysecondary research, observation or by surveying the opinions of customers or experts.Experimental method may be used in the following situations:i. What is the best method for training salesmen?ii. What is the best remuneration plan for salesmen?iii. What is the best shelf arrangement for displaying a product?iv. What is the effectiveness of a point-of-purchase display? v. What package design should be used? vi. Which copy is the most effective? vii.What media are the most effective? viii.Which version of a product would consumers like best?In a marketing experiment, the experimental units may be consumers, stores, salesterritories, etc.\Factors or marketing variables under the control of the researcher which can be studied are price, packaging, display, sales incentive plan, flavor, colorshape,Competitors actions, weather changes, in cooperative dealers, etc. are environmentalfactors.


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Principles of Experimental DesignsReplicationRandomisationLocal control


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Types of experimental designsType of design DescriptionAfter-Only Design Two areas are selected. The

experimental groups responsemeasured after and only after theexperiment

Before-After with Control Two areas are selected. Dependentvariable is measured.The differenceof the control group and theexperimental group gives the extentof uncontrollable factors

Before-After without Control A single test area is selected.Measuring the test unit before andafter the treatment


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Type of Design Description

Latin Square Design To study the effect of a single variableover different time periods & differentgeographic locations. It takes intoaccount the various possiblecombinations studies, differences

arising either due to the time periodstudied or the geographic location


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Historical Study

The historical method of research applies to all fields of study because it encompasses their:origins, growth, theories, personalities, crisis, etc. Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in the collection of historical information.Once the decision is made to conduct historical research, there are steps that should befollowed to achieve a reliable result. Charles Busha and Stephen Harter detail six steps forconducting historical research:

the recognition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain historicalknowledge.the gathering of as much relevant information about the problem or topic as possible.if appropriate, the forming of hypothesis that tentatively explain relationships between historicalfactors.

The rigorous collection and organization of evidence, and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of information and its sources.The selection, organization, and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence, and the drawingof conclusions; andthe recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative.


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Historical StudyIn the field of library and information science, there are a vast array of topics that may beconsidered for conducting historical research.

For example, a researcher may chose to answer questions about the development ofschool, academic or public libraries, the rise of technology and the benefits/ problems itbrings, the development of preservation methods, famous personalities in the field,library statistics, or geographical demographics and how they effect library distribution.

Primary Sources are the most sought after in historical research. Primary resources arefirst hand accounts of information. Finding and assessing primary historical data is anexercise in detective work. It involves logic, intuition, persistence, and commonsense(Tuchman, Gaye in Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry, 252). Some examples ofprimary documents are: personal diaries, eyewitness accounts of events, and oralhistories.


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Action Research Action research or participatory

action research is a reflective processof progressive problem solving led byindividuals working with others in teamsor as part of a "community of practice" toimprove the way they address issues andsolve problems. Action research involves the process ofactively participating in an organizationchange situation whilst conductingresearch. Action research can also be undertakenby larger organizations or institutions,assisted or guided by professionalresearchers, with the aim of improvingtheir strategies, practices, andknowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers andstakeholders, researchers work withothers to propose a new course of action

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Introduction to Research Methodology Final

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