Introduction to Sociology, 5/e © 2012 BVT Publishing.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

CHAPTER TWO

Introduction to Sociology, 5/e © 2012 BVT Publishing

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

• Creationism vs Evolution-illustrates the importance of theories in determining people’s perspectives on social issues and solutions to social problems

• Philosophers-not scientific• Industrial Revolution


AUGUSTE COMTE (1798–1857)

• Educated in Paris• Coined the term-considered the

“father” of sociology• Society can be studied using

the same methods practiced in the natural sciences

• Law of Human Progress: Society has gone through three stages: theological, metaphysical, and scientific


Auguste Comte

• (1) Theological-everything understood according to the supernational

• Family-model social unit• Priests and military dominate• (2) Metaphysical-abstract forces are

sources of explanation• State replaces family as the model social

unit

Auguste Comte

• Political dominance-clergy and lawyers• (3) Scientific/Positivist-scientific laws of

universe studies through observation and experimentation

• Entire human race is the model social unit• Political dominance=industrial

administrators and scientific moral guide• This state: just beginning in Comte’s day

Auguste Comte

• From now on-scientific methods would explain the workings of society

• Comte also viewed society as an “organism”-interrelated parts

• Sociology should focus on social statics (structure of an organism: & social dynamics (processes of an organism and how it changes

HERBERT SPENCER (1820–1903)

• A follower of Social Darwinism-societies evolve from simple-complex

• Coined the phrase “survival of the fittest”

• Argued for a policy of noninterference in human affairs and society


Herbert Spencer

• Opposed free public education• Ideas were supported by wealthy and

powerful; those who wanted to maintain their social status & keep majority poor and uneducated

• Ronald Reagan

KARL MARX (1818–1883)• Born in Germany; planned to

practice law; became involved with a radical anti-religious group

• Wrote for a radical publication; stressed inhumane social conditions

• Lost job; moved to Paris-met Engels-Communist Manifesto (1847)


Karl Marx

• Returned to Germany; pressured to leave; moved to London till death

• Stressed how the new industrial social order created problems for lower classes

• Social Conflict-at the core of society; source of all social change

• All history marked by economic determinism-all change based on $

Karl Marx

• Bourgeoisie vs proletariat (Haves vs Have Nots)

• Class consciousness-recognition that society is stratified; ultimately will lead to revolution

EMILE DURKHEIM (1858–1917)

• First French academic sociologist• 1892-first doctorate in sociology-

U of Paris• Responsible for sociology being

recognized as a science• Did not believe that social events

could be explained by rules of biology or psychology


Emile Durkheim

• Social phenomena-are social facts:external to the individual and endure over time

• Social facts=customs, laws, norms; followed without thinking; ex. Red light

• Individuals are more the products of socity than the creators of it

• Society-external to the individual; didn’t focus on individual attributes

Emile Durkheim

• Collective conscience: a common spirit resulting from blending many individual mentalities. Ex: whether God exists is secondary to people sharing that belief and practicing religion

• Books: The Division of Labor in Society; The Rules of Sociological Method; The Elementary Forms of Religious Life; Suicide

Emile Durkheim

• Suicide (1897)-established the model for social research

• Concluded that suicide was a social phenomenon

MAX WEBER (1864–1920)

Doctorate-age 25

Taught economics

Mentally ill

Wrote on power and authority

Before him-sociologists studies the larger structures of society; assumed society existed apart from the individual


Max Weber

• Did not believe that society could be studied “value-free”

• Sociology must study “social actions:-external objective behaviors

• Goal: a sympathetic understanding of the minds of others-called Verstehen: studying objective meanings people attach to their own behavior and the behavior of others

Max Weber

• Once motives and values were identified-then study objectively and scientifically

HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802–1876)

Studied social life in Great Britain

came to U.S. in 1834 to study social life

Published “Society in America” in 1837

Translated Comte’s book, “Positive Philosophy” into English in 1851


Harriet Martineau

• Introduced feminist sociological perspectives on issues like marriage, children, religious life, and race relations

• Often called the first female sociologist

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE UNITED

STATES• 1893-first sociology department-U of

Chicago• Shift from agricultural to industrial society• Industrialization, urbanization, immigration• Problems with growth of cities• Chicago School• U of Chicago-leader in sociology until late

1940s


Robert Park (1864-1944)

Studied in Germany

Studied effects of industrialization on people in urban areas

Wrote a sociology text and “The City” (1925)-urban communities involve both cooperation and competition-like habitats in nature

Approach came to be known as “social ecology”

Robert Park

• Also known for his work on African-Americans

• Worked with Booker T. Washington at the Tuskegee Institute

Albion Small (1854-1926)

• Founder of the American Sociological Association

• Founder of the sociology department at the U of Chicago-chair for over 30 years

W. I. Thomas (1863-1947)

• Interested in the sociology of immigration• Formulated the “Thomas theorem” in

1928: “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences”

• The interpretation of the situation causes the action

• Actions-affected by subjective perceptions of situations

• Objectively correct interpretations-not important in guiding individuals’ behavior

JANE ADDAMS (1860–1935)• Traveled Europe• Didn’t call herself a sociologist• She and Ellen Starr opened Hull

House in Chicago-America’s first settlement house

• Served many immigrants• 1931-Nobel Peace Prize


W.E.B. DUBOIS (1868–1963)

• 1896-first African-American to receive Ph.D. from Harvard

• Taught sociology at the University of Pennsylvania

• 1896-published “The Philadelphia Negro”

• One of the founders of the NAACP

• Moved to Ghana; became a citizenIntroduction to Sociology, 5/e © 2012 BVT Publishing

SHIFT TO THE EAST• 1930s Chicago School began to lose

popularity; shift to Harvard and Columbia• Important figures: Parsons, Merton, Mills,

Dahrendorf, Goffman, etc.


MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

• Theory: a set of interrelated propositions• Based on assumptions and self-evident

truths


STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

• Early roots: Durkheim and Weber• Later: Parsons and Merton• Macro-level explanations• Structure=parts; function=purpose of a

structure• Social system: composed of many

interrelated parts or structures


Structural Functionalism

• Most societies: 5 major structures: family, religion, education, economy, government

• Robert Merton: manifest functions: intended and recognized; latent functions: unintended

• Dysfunctions-factors that lead to the breakdown of a social system

• Merton-functional alternatives: other ways to achieve intended goals

Structural Functionalism

• Example: alternative for child supervision-working mothers

CONFLICT THEORY• Society-best understood in terms of

conflict and power• Macro-level analysis• Exploitation of lower class; haves vs have

nots• Contemporary theorists: conflict is a

permanent fixture of social life resulting in a constant state of social change


Conflict Theory

• Can involve more than economics-ex: race, age

• Conflicts occur because power, wealth, and prestige are limited commodities-not available to everyone

• People try to maintain and improve position in life-conflicts occur

• Conflicts-can be constructive

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM• Human beings act toward things based on

the meanings they attach to them• Interaction between people is negotiated

through


EXCHANGE THEORY• We interact with the express purpose of

receiving some reward• Life is a series of exchanges involving

costs and rewards• Two schools of thought• George Homans• Peter Blau


EVOLUTIONARY THEORY• Society progresses through stages• Not all change is necessarily for the better• Complex society


SUMMARY OF MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY

Theory Level of Analysis

View of Society

Major Concepts

Pros and Cons of Theory

Functionalism Macro Society consists of interdependent parts, each fulfilling certain functions

Structure, function, manifest and latent function, dysfunctions

Pros: examines structures within society; examines the "big picture"; emphasizes the impact that structures in relation to consequences for societyCons: does not emphasize the interactions between individuals


Continued…



View of Society Major Concepts


Conflict Macro Conflict between diverse groups within society competing for valuable resources

Means of production, proletariats, bourgeoisie, social class, scarce resources

Pros: examines stratification and inequality and the reasons that they exist; examines who benefits from existing social relationshipsCons: does not explore competition within society as potentially beneficial


Continued…



View of Society Major Concepts


Interact-ionism

Micro Interaction between people in society is negotiated using symbols, gestures, and communication, including non-verbal

Symbols, social construction, definition of the situation

Pros: examines day-to-day interactions between people; examines relationship between identity and social interactionCons: does not emphasize the ways in which large-scale structures affect interaction


Continued…



View of Society

Major Concepts


Exchange Micro Actions are determined by weighing rewards and costs

Exchanges, rewards, costs, benefits, negotiation

Pros: examines day-to-day interactions between people; examines relationship between identity and social interactionCons: does not emphasize the ways in which large-scale structures affect interaction


Continued…



View of Society

Major Concepts


Evolutionary Macro Social systems evolve naturally from simple to complex

Organism, social arrangements social systems, simple, complex, survival of the fittest

Pros: looks at society as evolving naturally over time; brings in the possibility of social evolution as connected with biological evolutionCons: does not emphasize the potential negativity of "survival of the fittest" concept


Continued…

OTHER IMPORTANT THEORIES

• Humanist—focus should be on change• Feminist—differentiates between the

perceptions of men and women


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