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Page 1: Introduction: What is social science research? What is its ... to Social Research...Introduction: What is social science research? What is its purpose? How is it done? General definition:
Page 2: Introduction: What is social science research? What is its ... to Social Research...Introduction: What is social science research? What is its purpose? How is it done? General definition:

Introduction: What is social science research? What is its purpose? How is it done?

General definition: Social science research (hereafter referred to as ‘social research’) means

studying in a scientific way how people act and interact in a society. In order to study these

issues, researchers usually study how people think, behave, and act in a particular context.

People here means either people as individuals or groups of individuals, or people as embodied

in institutions, associations, or any types of formal or informal organizations.

The social study of people is an activity that aims to produce a correct, true, and scientific

understanding of a situation or problem involving individuals or groups of people. Researchers

attempt to understand this situation or problem through direct experience.

Producing this correct, true, and scientific understanding requires working systematically and

rigorously based upon observations and data collected during the research. Observations and

data are collected by researchers who use social research methods that have been long

recognized by social researchers. The researcher then interprets both observations and data and

uses them as supporting details or research findings. The end result is a report that presents the

researcher’s understanding and analysis of a particular issue.

Purpose of social research: Social research aims to contribute to existing knowledge and to

generate new knowledge. It is important that this knowledge is shared and disseminated to a

broad audience. In doing so, social researchers participate in the general progress of the society.

In the case of social research applied to communities in need, researchers also formulate

recommendations which address social problems affecting these communities.

Types of social research: For clarifying purposes, social research is often divided into the

following three types of investigation:

• An exploratory type: this type of investigation is only concerned with topics that have

largely remained underexplored.

• A descriptive type: this type of investigation is concerned with a simple account of

observations and data.

• An explanatory type: this type of investigation is about establishing a relationship

between two situations: (1) a relational link and (2) a causal link. The relational link shows

a relationship between two situations and, possibly, how the significance of this

relationship. The causal link shows how specific factors from one situation influence the

other, or generate a problem.

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မတဆက။ ။ လမႈသေတသန၊ ရည႐ြယခကႏင ျပလပပ။

ေယဘယ ဖြငဆခက။ ။ လမႈသပၸသေတသန (ဤေနရာမစ၍ ‘လမႈသေတသန’ ဟ ေခၚဆပါမည) ဆသညမာ လ႔အဖြ႕အစညး

တစခအတြငးတြင လမားမညသ႔မညပ ျပမၾကပႏင [၄ငးတ႔အခငးအခငး] အျပနအလန ျပမၾကပတ႔က သပၸနညးက စးစမးေလလာ

ျခငးျဖစသည။ အဆပါ ကစၥရပမားအား ေလလာရနအလ႔ငာ သေတသမား ျပလပေလ႐သညမာ လအမား အေျခအေနတစရပအတြငး

မညသ႔မညပ ေတြးေခၚပ၊ ျပမပႏင လပ႐ားပတ႔က ေလလာေလ႐ၾကသည။ လမားဟ ဆရာတြင လပဂၢလ တစဥးတစေယာကခငးစ

ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ လပဂၢလအစအဖြ႕လကေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အစညးအ႐း၊ အသငးအပငးႏင မညကသ႔ေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးတြင

မဆ ပါဝငလက႐ေသာ လမားအား ဆလသည။

လမႈေရးေလလာခက ျပလပျခငး၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ လတစေယာကခငးစ (သ႔) လအပစမား ပါဝငေသာ အေနအထား (သ႔) ျပနာ

တစရပႏငစပလဥး၍ မနကနျပး သပၸနညးကေသာ သေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈ တစရပရ႐လာရန ျဖစသည။ သေတသတ႔သည

ဤအေနအထား (သ႔) ျပနာက တက႐ကအေတြ႕အၾကမတဆင နားလညေအာင ၾကးစားေလ႐ၾကသည။

မနကနျပး သပၸနညးကေသာ နားလညသေဘာေပါကမႈ တစရပထြကေပၚလာေစရနအတြက သေတသနျပလပစဥအတြငး စးစမး

ေလလာမႈႏင စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအေပၚအေျခချပး စနစတကႏင အားသြနခြနစက အလပလပရန

လအပသည။ လမႈသေတသမား ကာလအတနၾကာကတညးက အသအမတျပျပးျဖစသည လမႈသေတသနနညးလမးမား အသး

ျပသည သေတသမားက စးစမးေလလာမႈမားႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက စေဆာငးသည။ ၄ငးေနာက သေတသသည အဆပါ

စးစမးေလလာမႈမားႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက အဓပၸါယေကာကယျပး ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတ အခကအလကမား (သ႔)

သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမား အေနႏင အသးျပသည။ အဆးရလဒမာ သေတသ၏ နားလညမႈႏင ကစၥရပတစခအေပၚ

ေလလာဆနးစစခကျပထားေသာ အစရငခစာျဖစသည။

လမႈသေတသန၏ ရည႐ြယခက ။ ။ လမႈသေတသန၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ ႐ရငးစြ အသပညာဗဟသတက ျဖန႔ေဝရနႏင အသ

ပညာသစ ေပါကဖြားလာေစရန ျဖစသည။ အဆပါ အသပညာက မေဝရနႏင လထက ျဖန႔ေဝေပးရနမာလညး အေရးၾကးသည။

ဤသ႔ျပလပျခငးျဖင လမႈသေတသမားသည လ႔အဖြ႕အစညး၏ ေယဘယတးတကမႈ လမးေၾကာငးတြင ပါဝငၾကသည။ အေထာက

အက လအပေနေသာ ရပ႐ြာအဖြ႕အစညးမားအတြက လမႈသေတသနအား အသးခရာတြင အဆပါ ရပ႐ြာအဖြ႕အစညးမားက

ထခကေစမည လမႈျပနာမားက ေျဖ႐ငးေပးႏငမည အၾကျပေထာကခခကမား ေဖာထတေပးရမည။

လမႈသေတသန အမးအစားမား - ကြျပား႐ငးလငးေစရန အလ႔ငာ လမႈသေတသနအား အမားအားျဖင ေအာကပါအတငး စးစမးေလလာေရး နညးနာသးမးခြျခားထားပါသည။

• ပဏာမ စးစမးေလလာေရးနညးနာ။ ။ ဤအမးအစား စးစမးေလလာနညးမာ မညသမ ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ေလလာမႈ မျပရေသးသည အေၾကာငးအရာႏငသာ စပဆငသည။

• ေဖာျပညႊနးဆေရးနညးနာ။ ။ ဤအမးအစား စးစမးေလလာနညးမာ စးစမးမႈႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက ႐း႐း႐ငး႐ငး ေဖာျပျခငးႏင စပဆငသည။

• ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရးနညးနာ။ ။ ဤအမးအစား စးစမးေလလာနညးမာ (၁) ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈႏင (၂) အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ ႏစရပၾကား ဆကစပမႈ တညေဆာကျခငးျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈသည အေျခအေန ႏစရပၾကား ဆက စပမႈကသာမက ယငးဆကစပမႈ၏ အေရးပါမႈကပါ ျပသႏငေလသည။ အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ သည အေျခအေနတစရပ႐ တစတရာေသာ အေၾကာငးတရားမ အျခားတစခက မညသ႔လႊမးမးသကေရာကသည (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပ ျဖစေပၚလာေစသညက ျပသသည။

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The boundaries between these three main types of investigations, however, are not

strict. It is often the case that a research project may blend at least two of these three

types of investigations. Explanations on these three types will receive further

development in the first chapter.

Among all types of investigation above mentioned, it is probably the explanatory type

which is the most challenging.

One of the main problems of the explanatory type is confusion between relational and

causal links. In English-language textbooks, this confusion is summed up as follows:

“correlation does not imply causation”. Simply because one event follows another or two

factors vary at the same time does not mean that one causes the other (causal link) or

that they are even linked (relational link). It is one of the benefits of research to identify a

possible link between two events, factors, or situations and to clarify possible confusion.

Explanatory investigations also lead to a frequent misconception about causal links. This

misconception is the following: because a causal link is identified between two events,

two factors, or two situations does not mean that researchers have a strong basis upon

which to elaborate a broader pattern between events, factors, or situations of the same

nature. When trying to explain a causal link, it is sometimes difficult to access sufficient

information to precisely understand why a particular situation or problem arose. This

limitation makes it often impossible to observe and identify all causes within the time of

the research process. This means that researchers have sometimes to infer causes. In

other words, they have to draw a conclusion about why something happened by thinking

logically and rationally and based on assumed facts. In conducting social research, it is

critical to ensure that inferences that are not valid are avoided. This is achieved when (1)

the process by which researchers infer causes is logical and rational, and (2) the facts that

are assumed by the researchers are likely to have occurred. All this is to show that

researchers have to remain cautious about establishing causal links. In other words, it is

important to be alert to the danger of elaborating a broader social pattern on the basis of

a causal link.

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အဆပါ အဓက စးစမးေလလာနညး သးသြယအၾကား ျခားနားထားေသာ ၾကားခနယမာ တတပပ မ႐ေပ။ မားေသာအားျဖင

သေတသန စမကနးတစရပသည ဤစးစမးေလလာေရးနညးနာ သးမးထမ အနညးဆး ႏစမးက ေရာယကသးစြေလ႐သည။ အဆပါ

နညးလမးသးရပႏင စပလဥး၍ အကယခ႕႐ငးလငးခကမားအား လကစြစာအပပါ ပထမ အခနးတြင ဖတ႐ႏငပါသည။

ေဖာျပပါ စးစမးေလလာနညး အမးအစားမားတြင ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး အမးအစားမာ စနေခၚမႈ အ႐ဆး အခကအခဟ ဆရေပမည။

႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး နညးနာ အမးအစား၏ အဓက ျပနာရပမားထတြင တစခမာ ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈႏင အေၾကာငးတရား

ဆကႏြယမႈမားအၾကား ႐ပေထြးမႈ ျဖစသည။ အဂၤလပဘာသာျဖင ေရးသားထားေသာ [သေတသန] သင႐းမားတြင အဆပါ

႐ပေထြးမႈအား ဤသ႔အကဥးျခးေဖာျပထားသည။ “အျပနအလနဆကႏြယမႈတငးသည ျဖစေစသညအေၾကာငးတရားဟ ယဆ၍

မရေခ။” ၄ငးဆလရငးမာ လြနစြာ႐း႐ငးပါသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ျဖစရပတစခေနာကမာ ေနာကတစချဖစျခငး၊ သ႔တညးမဟတ

တစခနတညး၌ အေၾကာငးတရားႏစရပ ကြျပားသြားျခငးက ယျပး တစခေၾကာငတစချဖစသည (အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ) သ႔မဟတ

တစခႏင တစခဆကစပသည (ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈ) ဟ၍ ယဆ၍ မရေခ။ ဤသ႔ ျဖစရပႏစခၾကား (သ႔) အေၾကာငးတရား ႏစခၾကား

(သ႔) အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကား ျဖစတနရာေသာ ဆကႏြယမႈႏင ျဖစတနရာေသာ ႐ပေထြးမႈတ႔က ႐ာေဖြေဖာထတျခငးသည သေတသန၏

အကးအျမတတစခပင ျဖစသည။

႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး နညးနာမားသည အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈႏင ပတသကျပး အၾကမေတာေတာမားမား အေကာကအယ

လြသြားေစႏငသည။ ယငး အေကာကအယအလြမာ ေအာကေဖာျပပါအတငး ျဖစသည။ ျဖစရပႏစခၾကား (သ႔) အေၾကာငးတရား ႏစခၾကား

(သ႔) အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကား အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကစပမႈတစခ ေဖာထတေတြ႕႐ျခငးသည သေဘာသဘာဝ တညေသာ အဆပါျဖစရပမား

(သ႔) အေၾကာငးတရားမားၾကား (သ႔) အေျခအေနမားၾကားမ ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ [တညသည] အခငးအရာမားက ႐ငးထတရန သေတသ

အေနႏင အခငအမာ အေျချပစရာတစခ ႐လမမညဟ မယဆႏငေပ။ အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ တစခအား ႐ငးလငးတငျပရန

ၾကးပမးရာတြင အေျခအေနတစရပ (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပ ေပၚေပါကလာပက အတအကနားလညရန လေလာကေသာ သတငးအခက

အလကရ႐ေရးမာ တခါတရ၌ ခကခတတသည။ အဆပါ ကန႔သတခကေၾကာငပင မၾကာခဏဆသလ အေၾကာငးတရား အားလးက

သေတသန လပငနးစဥကာလအတြငး စးစမးေလလာျပး ႐ာေဖြေဖာထတရန အမားအားျဖင မျဖစႏငေတာေပ။ ဆလသညမာ

သေတသမားသည အေၾကာငးတရားမားက ဆငျခငမနးဆ၍ ေကာကခကခရသည။ တနညးဆေသာ ၄ငးတ႔အေနျဖင ယဆခကမားေပၚ

အေျချပျပး ယတေဗဒကကႏင ဆငဆငျခငျခငေတြးေခၚ၍ ကစၥတစရပမညသ႔မညပ ျဖစပြားခသညက ေကာကခကဆြေပးရနလအပသည။

လမႈသေတသနျပလပရာတြင တက႐ကသကဆငျခငးလညးမ႐၊ အကးလညးမဝငေသာ ေကာကခကမားက ေ႐ာင႐ားရနမာ အလြနတရာ

အေရးၾကးသည။ ဤသ႔ ျပလပႏငရနအလ႔ငာ (၁) သေတသတ႔ အေၾကာငးတရား ေဖာထတသည လပငနးစဥသည ယတယတာကရမည၊

(၂) သေတသတ႔ ယဆလကေသာ အခကအလကမားမာ ျဖစပြားခႏငစရာ အေၾကာငးလညး ႐ရမည။ ေဖာျပျပးအခကမားအားလးက စ႐း၍

ဆရလင အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈက တညေဆာကရာတြင သေတသတ႔အေနျဖင သတၾကးစြာထားရမည။ အေၾကာငးတရား

ဆကႏြယမႈက အေျချပျပး ပမ ကယျပန႔ေသာ လမႈျဖစစဥတစရပက ခ႕ထြင႐ငးလငးရာတြင ျဖစတတေသာ အႏရာယက သတမရနဟလညး

တစနညးမတရမည။

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Another important issue for explanatory investigation is the pitfall of simplistic

explanations about causal links. Simplistic explanations about why something

happened are those which give more weight to determinism than probability.

Causal links are explained in the same way as the rule of nature governs things

and beings in the field of natural sciences: for instance, whenever water is

heated to 100C, it always boils. This causal link is acceptable for the field of

natural sciences. But, in the field of social sciences which studies human

action and interaction, this type of explanation can’t be accepted. Causal links

do not invariably lead to the same outcome because human behavior is

complex. This is true even when pre-existing conditions appear the same.

Therefore causality in the social sciences is more about probability than about

determinism. In other words, researchers can say “a factor or a set of factors

increases (or decreases) the probability of a particular outcome”. But

researchers can’t say that “this factor or set of factors will inevitably lead to

this particular outcome”.

This overall approach to causality—both more probabilistic and sensitive to

context—will hopefully leads to a better understanding of a particular

problem or issue. It may also raise researchers’ awareness that a problem

should not be thought in “black” or “white” terms only. That is, a problem is

better approached by trying to identify the varying shades of grey of social

behavior. When researchers study social behavior, they have to develop their

‘tolerance for ambiguity’. This means to take into account someone’s ability to

have multiple and possibly conflicting views in his/her mind. These multiple

and possibly conflicting views are simultaneously upheld by the person who

does not deny any of them. One of the tasks of the researcher is to report

about all of them without making any judgment.

Scientific process and social research: a scientific understanding of a problem

or issue has two main characteristics: (1) it has to make sense and follows

some logical thought; and (2) it is consistent with all the research

observations.

In everyday life, people sometimes reason illogically. By contrast, as

researchers structure their thinking, they have to come up with a logical

reasoning. Also in everyday life, people often observe inaccurately and make

very general conclusions based on only few observations. By contrast,

researchers make careful observations. They also make large number of

observations. This large number ensures that the conclusions reached by

researchers take into account what was learned from all observations.

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အေၾကာငးတရားဆကႏြယမႈမားက ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးရာတြင ႐းစငးလြနး၍ ျဖစေလ႐သည သတမမ ဂမျမငတတေသာ အမားမးမာ

လညး ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး နညးနာ၏ ေနာကထပ အေရးၾကးေသာ ကစၥရပျဖစသည။ ကစၥတစရပ အဘယေၾကာင ျဖစပြားရသညက

႐းစငးလြယကစြာ ႐ငးလငးျပဆခကမားသည ျဖစတနရာထက အတအလငး ဆးျဖတသတမတခကက အသားေပးေလ႐ၾကသည။

သဘာဝသပၸ ဘာသာရပမားတြင အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယခကမားက သက႐မားႏင အရာဝတမားတြင လႊမးမးခပကငထားသည

သဘာဝဓမၼကသ႔ ႐ငးလငးျပဆေလ႐သည။ ဥပမာ မညသည အခန၌မဆ ေရအား အပခန ၁၀၀ C ေပးလကပါက ဆပြကလာမည။

ဤသ႔ေသာ အေၾကာငးတရားဆကႏြယမႈမာ သဘာဝသပၸ ဘာသာရပမားတြင လကခႏငစရာ႐သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး လသားတ႔၏

လပေဆာငခကႏင အျပနအလန တန႔ျပနေဆာင႐ြကခကမားက ေလလာသည လမႈသပၸဘာသာရပတြငမ ၄ငးအမးအစား ႐ငးလငး

ခကမာ လကခႏငစရာ မ႐ေပ။ လသားတ႔၏ ျပမေဆာင႐ြကပမာ ႐ပေထြးနကနလြနးလသညအတြက အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ

မားသည တညေသာ ရလဒတစခတညးကသာ မလြမေသြ ဥးတညသြားေလမ႐ေပ။ နဂ႐ရငးစြ အေျခအေနမား တညဟန႐သညတင

ဤအခကမာ မနကနေနဆပငျဖစသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင လမႈသပၸဘာသာရပမား႐ ကးေၾကာငးျပဆမႈမာ အတအလငး ဆးျဖတသတ

မတခကထက ျဖစတနရာအေၾကာငးတရားသာ ျဖစရန႐သည။ တနညးဆရပါမ သေတသမားအေနျဖင “အေၾကာငးတရားတစခ (သ႔)

အေၾကာငးတရား အစအေဝးတစရပသည တစတရာေသာ ရလဒတစခ၏ ျဖစတနစြမးရညက ျမငတက (သ႔မဟတ ေလာပါး)

ေစသည” ဟ ဆႏငသည။ သ႔ေသာ “၄ငးအေၾကာငးတရား (သ႔) အေၾကာငးတရား အစအေဝးတစရပသည တစတရာေသာ ရလဒက

မလြမေသြ ဥးတညျဖစေပၚေစသည” ဟ၍ကား မဆႏငေခ။

ဤကသ႔ ျဖစႏငေခ႐မႈက အသားေပး၍ အေျခအေနအလက စးစမးေလလာေသာ ေယဘယ ခဥးကပပသည ျပနာ (သ႔)

ကစၥရပတစခက ပမနားလညေစမညဟ ေမာလငရသည။ ထ႔ျပငျပနာတစရပအား “အျဖ” ႏင “အမညး” ခညးသာ မစဥးစားရန

သေတသမားအား သတျပမေစသည။ ဆလသညမာ ျပနာက ခဥးကပရာတြင လမႈေရးအျပအမ၏ မးခးေရာင အႏအရင အလက

႐ာေဖြေဖာထတရန ၾကးစားသညနညးကသာ သာလြနေကာငးမြနသည။ သေတသမားအေနျဖင လမႈေရး အျပအမမားက

ေလလာသညအခါတြင ‘႐ငးလငးျပတသားျခငးမ႐သညအေပၚ သညးခႏငစတ’ က ၾကးစားေမြးျမသငသည။ ဆလသညမာ

လတစဥး၏ စတတြင ႐ႏငသည ေျမာကျမားစြာေသာ အျမငမားက ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ အဆပါ ျမားေျမာငသေလာက

တစခႏငတစခ ပဋပကၡျဖစေနေလာကသည အျမငမားသည လတစေယာက၏ စတတြင ၄ငးတ႔က တစခမလညး ျငငးပယျခငးမ႐ပ

ျပငတတည႐ေနတတသည။ သေတသ၏ တာဝနတစရပမာ ၄ငးအျမငအလးစက ထငျမငဆးျဖတခကမေပးဘ အ႐အတငး

တငျပရနျဖစသည။

သပၸနညးက လပငနးစဥႏင လမႈသေတသန ။ ။ ျပနာတစရပ (သ႔) ကစၥတစရပအေပၚ သပၸနညးက သေဘာေပါက

နားလညမႈတြင အဓက လကၡဏာႏစရပပါဝငသည။ (၁) အဓပၸါယ႐ျပး ယတေဗဒအေတြးစဥအတငးျဖစရမည၊ (၂) သေတသန

စးစမးေလလာမႈမားအားလးႏင ေ႐႕ေနာကညရမည။

ေန႔စဥဘဝတြင လမားသည တခါတရ ယတေဗဒမ လြေခာ၍ ဆငျခငေတြးေတာေလ႐ၾကသည။ သေတသမားကမ ယငးႏင

ဆန႔ကငစြာပင ၄ငးတ႔၏ စဥးစားပအား ပစခထားသညျဖစ၍ ၄ငးတ႔အေနႏင ယတေဗဒကက ဆငျခငနညးကသာ အသးျပၾကသည။

ေန႔စဥဘဝမာပင လတ႔သည တကေရရာမႈမ႐သည စးစမးမႈမားျပလပျပး ေလလာခကအနညးငယမကသာ အေျခခ၍ အလြနတရာ

ေယဘယ ကေသာ ေကာကခကမား ခမတေလ႐ၾကသည။ သေတသမားက ၄ငးႏင ဆန႔ကငဘက ေသေသခာခာ

စးစမးေလလာမႈမား ျပလပၾကသည။ အေရအတြကအားျဖငလညး စးစမးေလလာမႈ ေျမာကျမားစြာ ျပလပၾကသည။ ဤသ႔

အၾကမေရမားသညအတြက သေတသမား ဆြသားလကသည ေကာကခကမားမာလညး စးစမးေလလာမႈမားအားလးက

အေျခခေၾကာငး ေသခာေစသည။

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Developing a scientific understanding of an issue based on these two characteristics can be done in

two ways: an inductive approach and a deductive approach.

The inductive approach means that the research process moves from the particular to the general.

The researcher uses the observations collected during the field research. The researcher then tries

to identify a social pattern based on a number of observations as large as possible. To identify a

social pattern means to identify some regularity and order in all the observations made. This social

pattern is linked to a larger reasoning about why the issue or problem emerged. When linking this

pattern to a larger reasoning, researchers produce some generalizing principles about the issue or

problem. This inductive approach is the way that researchers with little experience frequently use.

The deductive approach means that the research process moves from the general to the particular.

The researcher tests concepts and patterns known from theory. Before testing these concepts and

patterns, the researcher formulates a hypothesis that will be confirmed or rejected by research

findings. A hypothesis is a statement of what the research expects to observe in reality when

conducting the research if the theory is correct. After collecting observations and data, the

researcher determines whether the results are consistent with the initial hypothesis. If research

findings do not support the initial hypothesis, this should not be seen as a problem at all. It simply

shows that research was critical in clarifying some misconceptions made about the issue or problem

addressed.

These two approaches, inductive and deductive, are the two most frequent approaches of

conducting research. It is usually recognized that the interaction of the two approaches into a

cyclical model usually produce the most sound and comprehensive research. There also exist other

ways of conducting research which are not introduced here.

Again, whether deductive or inductive, both approaches must have the two above-mentioned

characteristics: (1) make sense and follow some logical thought; (2) use the observation and data

made during the research process.

Measurement and Research methods

It was said earlier that social research is about studying in a scientific way how people act and

interact in a society. Applied social research, it was also mentioned, is about understanding a

problem or an issue that affects communities.

Whatever the type of social research (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory) and the scientific

approach chosen to conduct research (deductive or inductive), research requires measuring and

observing human activity and human behavior.

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အဆပါ လကၡဏာရပႏစခေပၚ အေျခခသည သပၸနညးက သေဘာေပါက နားလညမႈက ရ႐ရန ျခယဆငျခငနညးႏင

ထတယဆငျခငနညးဟေသာ နညးလမးႏစသြယျဖင ျပလပႏငသည။

ျခယဆငျခငနညးဟသည သးသန႔တစစတစရာမ ေယဘယသ႔သြားသည သေတသန လပငနးစဥဆလသည။ သေတသသည

ကြငးဆငးသေတသန ျပလပစဥ စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ စးစမးေလလာမႈမားက အသးျပေလ႐သည။ ယငးေနာက စးစမးေလလာမႈ

မားႏငသမ မားမားေပၚတြင အေျခချပး လမႈေရး ျဖစစဥက ေဖာထတေလ႐သည။ လမႈေရး ျဖစစဥက ေဖာထတျခငးဟသည

ျပလပထားသမေသာ စးစမးေလလာမႈမားမ ပမနအခငးအရာ ႏင အစဥအတနးျဖစစဥအခ႕က ေဖာထတျခငးက ဆလေပသည။

အဆပါ ျခယဆငျခငနညးအား အေတြ႕အၾကနညးပါးေသးသည သေတသမား မၾကာခဏ အသးျပေလ ႐ၾကသည။

ထတယဆငျခငနညးမာမ သေတသနလပငနးစဥသည ေယဘယမ သးသန႔တစတရာဆသ႔ သြားသည။ သေတသသည သအရမ

ေလလာသ႐ထားသည သေဘာတရားႏင ျဖစစဥလမးေၾကာငးမားအား စမးသပသည။ ၄ငးတ႔အား မစမးသပမ သေတသသည

အဆၾကမးတစခက သတမတထေထာငျပး သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားျဖင အတညျပျခငး (သ႔) ျငငးပယျခငးမား ျပလပသည။

အဆၾကမးဟသည သေတသနျပလပရာတြင သအရမနကနပါက လကေတြ႕႐ျမငလသည အဆျပခကတစရပျဖစသည။

စးစမးေလလာမႈမားႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက စေဆာငးျပးပါက သေတသအေနျဖင ရလဒသည မလအဆၾကမးႏင ညညြတမႈ

႐မ႐က ဆးျဖတေပးရသည။ အကယ၍ သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည မလအဆၾကမးက ေထာကပျခငး မ႐ပါကလညး

ျပနာဟ မဆႏငပါ။ ဤသညမာ ကငတြယေနသည ကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာရပႏင ပတသကသည အေကာကအယအလြမားအား

႐ငးလငးရာတြင အလြနတရာ စစစသည သေတသနျဖစေၾကာငး ျပသရာသာ ေရာကပါသည။

အဆပါ ျခယဆငျခငနညးႏင ထတယဆငျခငနညးႏစရပမာ သေတသနျပလပရာတြင အသးအမားဆး ခဥးကပေလလာနညး

ႏစသြယ ျဖစၾကပါသည။ ၄ငးနညးလမးႏစသြယက အျပနအလနခတဆကျပး အဖနတလလ အသးျပသည ပစသည အခငမာဆးႏင

ျခငမႈ အ႐ဆး သေတသနက ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ ယခ ေဖာျပထားျခငးမ႐သည အျခားသေတသနျပလပနညးမားလညး ႐ပါေသးသည။

ထပမေျပာလသညမာ ထတယဆငျခငနညးျဖစေစ၊ ျခယဆငျခငနညးျဖစေစ အဆပါ ခဥးကပေလလာမႈ ႏစရပစလးသည

ေ႐႕ေဖာျပပါ လကၡဏာႏစရပစလး ပါ႐ရမည။ (၁) အဓပၸါယ႐ျပး ယတေဗဒအေတြးစဥအတငးျဖစရမည၊ (၂) သေတသန

လပငနးစဥအတြငး ရ႐ေသာ စးစမးေလလာမႈႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက အသးျပရမည။

တငးတာမႈႏင သေတသနနညးလမးမား

ေဖာျပခသညမာ လမႈသေတသနသည လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးအတြငးတြင လအမား မညကသ႔ ျပမပႏင မညကသ႔ အျပနအလနျပမပတ႔က

သပၸနညးက ေလလာျခငးျဖစေၾကာငးက ေ႐႕တြင ေဖာျပချပးျဖစသည။ အသးခ လမႈသေတသနမာ ရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕မားအေပၚ

သကေရာကမႈ႐သည ျပနာတစရပ (သ႔) ကစၥတစရပက နားလညသေဘာေပါကျခငးျဖစေၾကာငးကလညး ေဖာျပချပးျဖစသည။

မညကသ႔ေသာ လမႈသေတသန အမးအစား (ပဏာမ စးစမးေလလာနညး၊ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆနညး၊ ႐ငးလငးတငျပနညး) ႏင

သေတသနအတြက မညသ႔ေသာ သပၸနညးက ခဥးကပေလလာမႈ (ထတယဆငျခငနညး သ႔မဟတ ျခယဆငျခငနညး) က

ေ႐ြးခယေစကာမ သေတသနလပရာတြင လမား၏ လပ႐ားေဆာငခကပႏင အျပအမမားက တငးတာရန လအပသည။

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Measurement and observation about human activity, behavior, mindset, and social problems

involve identifying the extent, frequency, or degree of this activity, behavior, mindset, or

problem. Social researchers must constantly ask themselves the following: how frequently (not

frequently, rather frequently, very frequently), how seriously (not seriously, rather seriously, very

seriously), how widespread (not widespread, rather widespread, very widespread), …. activities,

behaviors, mindsets, or problems are.

To answer these questions, qualitative or quantitative measurements are conducted.

Researchers decide which ones, quantitative or qualitative, are most appropriate based on the

research topic and the human resource and financial capacity available for the research.

Sometimes, it may be possible to conduct both qualitative and quantitative measurements.

The selection of either quantitative or qualitative measurement for the research also means the

selection of different social research methods. The present volume addresses this question. It

introduces a variety of qualitative and quantitative research methods that are used to measure

human activities, behaviors, mindsets, or social problems.

For conducting social research in a scientific way, researchers think not only about the type of

measurement (qualitative or quantitative) but also how to measure. The success of a research

project and its scientific value are primarily based on the choice of the research methods and the

quality of measurement.

The quality of measurement includes, but is not limited to, validity and reliability of the

measurement. These two technical considerations of measurement are complex yet crucial for

understanding how social research is conducted. They are introduced here but will receive

further development in the chapters.

To ensure validity of the measurement, it is important to ask oneself the following question: does

the way I measure this activity, behavior, mindset, or problem include all the aspects ofthis

activity, behavior, mindset, or problem that are measured for this particular research project?

There are other relevant questions to ask oneself about validity of measurement but they are not

introduced in the present volume.

To ensure reliability of the measurement, it is important to ask oneself the following question:

does the way I measure this activity, behavior, mindset, or problem produce the same accurate

and consistent results each time I measure this activity, behavior, mindset, or problem? Similarly,

there are other relevant questions to ask oneself about reliability of measurement but they are

not introduced in the present volume.

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လမား၏ လပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကပ၊ အျပအမ၊ စတသေဘာထားႏင လမႈေရး ျပနာမားက တငးတာျခငးႏင စးစမးေလလာျခငးတြင

၄ငးလပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကပ၊ အျပအမ၊ စတသေဘာထားႏင ျပနာတ႔၏ အတမအနက၊ အၾကမေရႏင ဒဂရတ႔ ပါဝငေပသည။

လမႈသေတသမားသည ေအာကပါ ေမးခြနးမားက မမကယက မျဖစမေနေမးျမနးရမည။ လပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကမႈမား (သ႔) အျပအမမား

(သ႔) စတသေဘာထားမား (သ႔) ျပနာမားသည . . . အၾကမေရမညမနညး (အၾကမေရ မမား၊ အၾကမေရ နညးနညးမား၊

အၾကမေရ အလြနမား)၊ မညမျပငးထနသနညး (မျပငးထန၊ အတနငယျပငးထန၊ အလြနျပငးထန)၊ မညမ ျပန႔ႏ႔သနညး (မျပန႔ႏ႔၊

အနညးငယျပန႔ႏ႔၊ လြနစြာျပန႔ႏ႔)။

ထေမးခြနးမားအား ေျဖဆရနအတြက အရညအခငး ႏင အေရအတြက တငးတာမႈမားအား လပေဆာငရသည။ သေတသန

အေၾကာငးအရာႏင သေတသနအတြက ရႏငသမ လအငအား ေငြအငအားေပၚတြင အေျခချပး အရညအခငး ႏင အေရအတြက

မညသည နညးလမးအား အသးျပျခငးသည အသငေတာဆး ျဖစမညက သေတသအေနျဖင ဆးျဖတရသည။ တခါတရ၌မ

အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက အတငးအတာႏစမးလး အသးျပႏငေလသည။

အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက တငးတာနညးတစရပရပက ေ႐ြးခယရျခငးမာ သေတသန နညးလမးအဖဖက

စစညးေ႐ြးခယရျခငးပငျဖစသည။ လက႐စာအပတြင ဤေမးခြနးအား ေဆြးေႏြးတငျပထားသည။ လမား၏ လႈပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကပမား၊

အျပအမမား၊ စတေနစတထားမားႏင လမႈေရး ျပနာမားအား တငးတာရန အသးျပသည အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက

သေတသန နညးလမး ေျမာကျမားစြာကလညး မတဆကေပးထားသည။

လမႈသေတသနအား သပၸနညးက ျပလပရာတြင သေတသတ႔အေနႏင တငးတာမႈ အမးအစား (အရညအခငး သ႔မဟတ

အေရအတြက) ကသာမက မညသ႔တငးတာမညကပါ စဥးစားရမည။ သေတသန စမကနး၏ ေအာငျမငမႈႏင သပၸနညးက

ဂဏသတမာ သေတသန နညးလမးေ႐ြးခယမႈႏင တငးတာမႈ အရညအေသြးေပၚတြင အမားဆး မတညသည။

တငးတာမႈ၏ အရညအေသြး ျမငမားမႈ ဂဏအဂၤါရပတြင အကးဝငမႈႏင ကးစားႏငမႈတ႔ပါဝငသည။ (ယငး အရညအေသြး

အဂၤါရပႏစမးတညးႏငသာ ကန႔သတထားသညေတာ မဟတေပ။) အဆပါ ပညာရပပငးဆငရာ စဥးစားေတြးေခၚစရာ ႏစခမာ

႐ပေထြးေသာလညး လမႈသေတသန မညသ႔ျပလပသညက နားလညသ႐ရန အလြနတရာ အေရးၾကးသည။ ဤေနရာတြင

၄ငးတ႔အား မတဆကေပးသြားမည ျဖစေသာလညး အကယက [သကဆငရာ] အခနးမားတြင ဖတ႐ႏငပါသည။

တငးတာခက၏ အကးဝငမႈက ခငမာေစရန မမကယက ေအာကပါအတငး ေမးခြနးထတရန အေရးတၾကးလအပပါသည။ ဤ

သေတသန စမကနးအတြက လပေဆာငခက (သ႔) အျပအမ (သ႔) စတေနစတထား (သ႔) ျပနာရပအေပၚ ျပလပလကေသာ

တငးတာခကတြင ယငး လပေဆာငခက (သ႔) အျပအမ (သ႔) စတေနစတထား (သ႔) ျပနာရပ၏ ႐ေထာငေပါငးစ

ပါဝငပါသေလာ။ တငးတာမႈ၏ အကးဝငမႈႏင ပတသက၍ မမကယက ေမးရန ေကာငးသည အျခားေမးခြနးမား ႐ေသးေသာလညး

ဤစာအပတြင မတဆကမထားေတာပါ။

တငးတာခက၏ ကးစားႏငမႈက ခငမာေစရန မမကယက ဤအတငး ေမးခြနးထတရန အေရးၾကးပါသည။ သေတသန

စမကနးအတြက လပေဆာငခက (သ႔) အျပအမ (သ႔) စတေနစတထား (သ႔) ျပနာရပအေပၚ ျပလပလကေသာ

တငးတာခကသည ဤကသ႔ တငးတာမႈ ျပလပလကတငး တကျပး တသမတတညးျဖစေသာ ရလဒမား ထြကေပၚပါေစ။

အလားတပင တငးတာခက၏ ကးစားႏငမႈႏင ပတသက၍ မမကယက ေမးရန ေကာငးသည အျခားေမးခြနးမား ႐ေသးေသာလညး

ဤစာအပတြင မတဆကမထားေတာပါ။

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This introduction has shown that social research is a scientific way of understanding

how people act and interact in society and how problems often emerge because of

people’s actions and interactions. Depending on the existing knowledge about a

specific topic, researchers may choose to study it in an exploratory, descriptive, or

explanatory way. This last way is the most challenging because it involves identifying a

link between two factors or situations and defining the nature of this link. If there exist

a causal link between two factors or situations, caution was given to avoid establishing

a causal link that determines a particular outcome.

Conducting social research as a scientific activity includes two necessary features. First,

the researcher develops broad and logical reasoning. Second, the researcher interprets

all observations and data from the research and frames them within this broader

reasoning. Depending on how these two points are articulated by the researcher, the

scientific process can go from the general to the particular: this is the deductive way.

Or it can go from the particular to the general: this is the inductive way. Lastly, as a

scientific process, social research involves measurement of the extent, frequency, or

degree of an activity or problem. Social measurement is either quantitative or

qualitative. The decision by the researcher to opt for either a quantitative or qualitative

measurement depends on many factors such as research topic, time, funding, human

resources, …. The scientific value of this qualitative or quantitative measurement is

based on quality criteria such a precision, validity, and reliability.

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လမႈသေတသနဟသည လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးတြင လမား မညသ႔ ျပမပ၊ အျပနအလန ျပမပႏင လတ႔၏ လပေဆာငခကႏင အျပနအလန

ျပမေဆာင႐ြကခကမားေၾကာင ျပနာရပမား မညသ႔ထြကေပၚလာေလ႐ပက သပၸနညးက နားလညသေဘာေပါကျခငးျဖစေၾကာငး

က ဤမတဆကတြင ေဖာျပခသည။ အေၾကာငးအရာတစရပႏင စပလဥးသည နဂ႐ျပးသား အသပညာ ဗဟသတအေပၚ မတညျပး

သေတသတ႔အေနႏင ၄ငးအေၾကာငးအရာက ပဏာမ စးစမးေလလာနညးျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆသည

နညးျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ႐ငးလငးတငျပသည နညးျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး လအပသလ ေ႐ြးခယေလလာႏငသည။

ထနညးသးနညးအနက ေနာကဆးနညးလမးမာ အေၾကာငးတရားႏစရပ (သ႔) အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကားမ ဆကႏြယမႈက ႐ာေဖြရျပး

၄ငးဆကႏြယမႈ၏ သေဘာသေဘာဝကပါ ႐ာေဖြရေသာေၾကာင အခကခဆးျဖစသည။ အေၾကာငးရငးႏစရပ (သ႔)

အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကားတြင အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈတစခ တည႐ပါက ရလဒတစခထြကေပၚျခငးက ဆးျဖတသတမတေပးသည

အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ တစရပ ဖနတးျခငးက သတထား ေ႐ာင႐ားရသည။

သပၸနညးက လပေဆာငခကတစရပျဖစေသာ လမႈသေတသန ျပလပရာတြင လအပေသာ အခကႏစခက႐သည။ ဥးစြာပထမ

သေတသအေနႏင ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ႏင ယတေဗဒကက ေတြးေခၚမႈက ဖနတးရမည။ ဒတယအေနျဖင သေတသသည

သေတသနမ ရ႐လာသည စးစမးေလလာမႈႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက အဓပၸါယေကာကယျပး ၄ငးတ႔အား ေဖာျပပါ

ကယျပန႔သည စဥးစားေတြးေခၚမႈ ေဘာငထတြင ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ ထအခကႏစခကအား သေတသအေနျဖင မညသ႔မညပ

ေဖာျပသညက မတည၍ သပၸနညးက လပငနးစဥသည ေယဘယမ တစတရာဆသ႔ သြားသည။ ဤသညမာ

ထတယဆငျခငနညးျဖစသည။ သ႔တညးမဟတ တစတရာမ ေယဘယသ႔လညး သြားႏငသည။ ၄ငးမာ ျခယဆငျခငနညးျဖစသည။

ေနာကဆးအေနျဖင သပၸနညးက လပငနးစဥတစရပအေနျဖင လမႈသေတသနတြင လပေဆာငခကတစခ (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပ၏

အတမအနက၊ အၾကမေရႏင ဒဂရ တငးတာခကတ႔က ထညသြငးစဥးစားထားသည။ လမႈေရးတငးတာခကသည

အရညအခငးအရေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အေရအတြကအရေသာလညးေကာငး ျဖစႏငသည။ အရညအခငး

တငးတာခကေသာလညးေကာငး အေရအတြက တငးတာခကေသာလညးေကာငး မညသညက အသးျပမညက သေတသအေနႏင

ဆးျဖတရနမာ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာ၊ အခန၊ ဘ႑ာေရး၊ လအငအား စသည အေၾကာငးရငး ေျမာကျမားစြာေပၚတြင

အေျခခသည။ ထ အရညအခငး သ႔မဟတ အေရအတြက တငးတာခက၏ သပၸနညးက အရညအေသြး ဂဏသတမာ တကမႈ၊

အကးဝငမႈႏင ကးစားႏငမႈ စေသာ ဂဏအငလကၡဏာ စႏနးမားေပၚတြင မတညသည။

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Defining a Research Problem Basic 1.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Basic 2.

Baseline Study Basic 3.

Survey Research (1) Basic 4.

Survey Research (2) Basic 5.

Sampling: Non-Probability Sampling Basic 6.

Sampling: Probability sampling Basic 7.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Basic 8.

In-depth Interviews Basic 9.

Participatory Learning Appraisal and its Tools Basic 10.

Participatory Action Research (PAR) Basic 11.

Research and Ethics Basic 12.

Research and Project Design Intermediate 13.

Case study Intermediate 14.

Quantitative Data Analysis Intermediate 15.

Qualitative data analysis Intermediate 16.

Using Secondary Sources or Existing Data Intermediate 17.

Evaluation Research Intermediate 18.

Supporting Details Intermediate 19.

Writing a Report Intermediate 20.

Policy and Advocacy brief Writing Intermediate 21.

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သေတသနျပနာအားအဓပၸါယဖြငဆျခငး - အေျခခအဆင၁အရညအေသြးစျပႏငအေရအတြကစျပသေတသန - အေျခခအဆင၂ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ - အေျခခအဆင ၃ စစတမးသေတသန ( ၁ ) - အေျခခအဆင ၄စစတမး ေကာကယသေတသနျပျခငး (၂ ) - အေျခခအဆင ၅ျဖ စတနစြမးနညး (န) နမနာေကာကယျခငး - အေျခခအဆင ၆နမနာေကာကယနညး - အေျခခအဆင ၇ သးသန႔စကားဝငး - အေျခခအဆင ၈အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမျပျခငး - အေျခခအဆင ၉ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥႏင၄ငး၏ကရယာမား - အေျခခအဆင ၁၀ အလပျဖငပးေပါငးေဆာငရြကေသာသေတသန - အေျခခအဆင ၁၁သေတသနနငကင၀တ - အေျခခအဆင ၁၂သေတသနႏငစမကနးပစ - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၃နမနာျဖစရပ - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၄

အေရအတြကဆငရာေဒတာအခကအလကစစစေလ႔လာမႈ - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၅အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၆တဆငခအရငးျမစမားသ႔မဟတ႐ျပးသားအခကအလကမား - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၇အကျဖတသေတသန - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၈ေထ ာက ကျ ပအေသးစတအခကအလကမား - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၉ အစရငခစာေရးသားျခငး - အလယအလတအဆင ၂၀မဝါဒနငလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပေရးသားျခငး - အလယအလတအဆင ၂၁

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BASIC 1. DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The research steps to define a problem; • The problem trees as a tool for gaining better understanding of an issue, its

causes, and its consequences; • The definition of an issue or problem affecting communities in five questions:

What, Who, Why, Where, and How? ______________________________________________________________________ This chapter introduces readers to the preliminary steps that researchers should follow when defining a research problem. These are the first steps of the research design, which will receive a comprehensive treatment in the ‘intermediate level’ section of the manual.

RESEARCHAND EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AN ISSUE When implementing social projects centered on an issue or problem, research produces new knowledge about this issue or problem that impacts certain groups of the population. This new knowledge often leads researchers to put into question what theythink they know already about this issue or problem. Therefore, conducting social research is about two points. The first point is about investigating the issue or problem in an open-minded way. The second point is about gaining a deep understanding of the issue or problem. When they investigate the issue or problem, researchers produce new information about this issue or problem based on the data collected during the research process. This information is new: this is not some information that can be entirely taken from the work done by other researchers.

The research process helps the researcher acquire an informed view of the issue that is under study. When the researcher disseminates the findings, more people can gain an informed view of the issue or problem.

Very often, people are confused between the root causes and the consequences of the problem. This happens because they lack an informed view of problem. By doing research, the researcher can know more precisely what the root causes and consequences of a problem are.

Researchers study “Child Drop-out in Hlaing Townshi p”. They may include some statistical data provided by the Minis try of Education about drop-out rate nationwide or specifi cally in Hlaing Township. But this data is not sufficient. It is crucial that the researchers also include data collected from the fi eld work conducted in Hlaing Township. This data is the new information that organizations tackling child drop-out may use for their own projects.

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အေျခခအဆင၁ - သေတသနျပနာအားအဓပၸါယဖြငဆျခငး

ဤအခနးတြင • ျပနာရပအားအဓပၸါယဖြငဆပသေတသနလပငနးအဆငဆင • ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ယငး၏အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမား၊အကးဆကမားအားပမနားလညႏငေရးအတြကျပနာအေျခအျမစ

ျပပ ( Problem tree ) အားတနဆာပလာအျဖစအသးျပပ • အဘယအရာ၊အဘယသ၊အဘယေၾကာင႔၊အဘယေနရာႏင႔အဘယက႔သ႔ဟေသာေမးခြနးငါးရပျဖင႔လထအဖြ႔အစ

ညးမားအေပၚသကေရာကမႈရေသာကစၥရပ ( သ႔ ) ျပနာတစရပအားေဖာထတျခငးတ႕ပါ၀ငသည။ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ဤအခနးတြငစာဖတသမားအားသေတသနျပနာရပအားအဓပၸါယဖြငဆရာတြငလကနာရမညပဏာမအဆငမားကမတဆကေပးထားသည။၄ငးတ႔မာသေတသနပစ၏ကနဥးအဆငမားျဖစၾကျပးစာအပပါ ‘အလယအလတ အဆင’ အတြကေရးထားသားေသာအပငးမားတြငျပညျပညစစေဖာျပသြားမညျဖစသည။

ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔သကဆငေသာအသပညာအားျဖန႔ကကျခငးႏင႔သေတသန ကစၥတစရပသ႔မဟတ ျပနာတစခကအရငးျပျပးလမႈစမကနးမား ေဖာေဆာငရာတြငသေတသနသည [လဥးေရ တစရပလးတြငမ] တစတရာေသာလအပစမားအေပၚအကးသကေရာကမႈရေသာ ျပနာႏငစပလဥးျပး အသပညာ သစတစခက ေပးစြမးႏငေလရသည။ယငးအသပညာသစေၾကာငသေတသတ႔သည ျပနာရပႏငပတသက၍ ၄ငးတ႔သႏငျပး ျဖစသညဟထငျမငယဆထားေသာအခကက၄ငးတ႔ဘာသာ၄ငးတ႔ ျပနလည ေမးခြနးထတစရာ ျဖစလာေလရသည။

သ႔အတြကလမႈသေတသနကလပေဆာငရာ၌အခကသးခကရပါသည။ပထမအခကအေနျဖင႔ကစၥရပ ( သ႕) ျပနာ အားပြင႔လငးေသာအျမငစတထားျဖင႔စစမးေဖာထတျခငးျဖစသည။ဒတယအခကသညအဆပါကစၥရပ ( သ႔ ) ျပနာ အားနကနကရႈငးရႈငးနားလညေရးျဖစသည။တတယအခကမာအဆပါကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာမားမသကေရာကမႈ ရသည႔ လထအဖြ႔အစညးမားအေပၚအျပသေဘာေဆာငသည႔ေျပာငးလမႈတ႔ေပၚေပါကလာေစေရး၄ငးကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာ ရပႏင႔ယငး၏အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားအားကငတြယေျဖရငးရနျဖစသည။ သေတသမားမကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာတစရပ အားစစမးေဖာထတသည႔အခါသေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြငးစေဆာငးရရသည႔အခကအလကမားကအေျခခ၍ အဆပါ ကစၥရပ ( သ႔ ) ျပနာရပႏင႔သကဆငေသာသတငးအခကအလကအသစမား ျပစေဖာထတရပါသည။ ၄ငးသတငး အခကအလကမားမာအသစျဖစျပးအျခားသေတသတ႔၏သေတသန ျပခကမားမထတယထားျခငးမး မဟတပါ။

ဥပမာ သတသတ႔သည " လငျမ႕နယအတြငးရကေလးမား ေကာငးထြကမႈကေလ႔လာၾကသည။၄ငးတ႔အေနျဖင႔ပညာေရး၀နၾကးဌာနမ ထတ ျပနထားေသာတစတငးျပညလးအတငးအတာအရ ေကာငးထြကႏႈနး ( သ႕ ) အထးသျဖင႔လႈငျမ႕နယရ ေကာငးထြကႏႈနးစာရငးအငးအခကအလကအခ႕ရရေကာငးရရႏငပါသည။ " သ႔ေသာဤအခကအလကတ႔မာမလေလာကပါ။သေတသတ႔အေနျဖင႔လႈငျမ႕နယအတြငးကြငးဆငးစေဆာငးရရေသာအခကအလကမားပါ၀ငရနအေရးၾကးပါသည။ယငးအခကအလကတ႕မာကေလးမားေကာငးထြကမႈႏင႔ပတသကေသာလပငနးမားေဆာငရြကေနၾကသည႔အဖြ႔အစညးမားမ၄ငးတ႔၏စမကနးမားကအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးႏင႔တးျမင႔ေဆာငရြကႏငေရးတ႔အတြကအသးျပႏငေသာသတငးအခကအလကအသစမားျဖစပါသည။ သေတသနလပငနးစဥအေနျဖင႔သေတသအား ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပေသာကစၥရပႏင႔ပတသကသည႔ အခကအလက အေျချပ ထထ၀င၀ငနားလညသည႔အျမင (informed view) ကရရသေဘာေပါက ေစရနအေထာကအက ေပးသည။ သေတသ အေနျဖင႔ယငး၏ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးသည႔အခါလအမားအေနျဖင႔လညး အဆပါကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာရပႏင႔သကဆငေသာထထ၀ငနားလညသည႔အျမင (informed view) တစရပက ရရ သြားၾကသည။

မၾကာခဏဆသလပငလအမားအေနျဖင႔ျပနာျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔စမကနးမကငတြယေျဖရငးသည႔ ျပနာ၏အကးဆကမားႏစခအၾကားေရာေထြးေလ႔ရသည။ဤသ႔ျဖစရသညမာျပနာရပႏင႔ပတသကေသာအခက အလက အေျချပထထ၀င၀ငနားလညသည႔အျမငမရေသာေၾကာင႔ျဖစသည။ သေတသနလပေဆာငျခငးအားျဖင႔ သေတသ အေနျဖင႔ျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ျပနာတစရပ၏အကးဆကမားႏင႔ပတသက၍ပမတတကကသရႏငသည။

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DRAWING A PROBLEM TREE Even before drawing a problem tree, it is recommended to read available reference materials about the problem investigated. The more materials that are read, the better.This may help one have a clearer view of the problem. One effective way to try to identify the root causes and consequences of a problem is to draw a problem tree:

(1) when drafting the project proposal or atthe beginning of the project;

(2) at the end of the project. The first problem tree presents the level of understanding of the specific issue. Because people at the beginning of the project may not have a thorough knowledge of the issue, its root causes, and consequences, the problem tree is not very precise. It may also include preconceived ideas. After the research project is complete, a second problem tree has to be drawn again. At this time, it is expected that the new problem tree will have much more information than the first problem tree: For example, the number of causes and effects about the issue will be larger. Also, all preconceived ideas hopefully will have disappeared!

First problem tree Second problem tree

The second problem tree drawn after research usually offers a good summary of the research findings. In some cases, it may be a good option to place this second problem tree in the final research report.

The root causes of the issue and the impact of the issue on the communities are not well identified. The knowledge of the researchers is limited. Some of the root causes and impact can often be blurred and mistaken for one another. The problem tree before research remains quite vague and featuresgeneralities.

The root causes and the impact of the issue are clearly identified and rightly placed in relation to the issue that is studied. Furthermore, the number of root causes and the consequences linked to the issue or problem under study is much larger than those in the first problem tree. The research process may also question some preconceived ideas that were featured in the problem tree before research.

After research

Consequences

Issue or Problem

Root Causes

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ျပနာအေျခအျဖစျပပ Problem Tree တစရပအားစမကနးအစပငးကာလႏင႔အဆးသတကာလတ႕တြင ေရးဆြျခငး ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပတစရပအားမဆြသားမကပငရႏငသမေသာစာအပစာတမးအကးအကားမားကဖတရေလလာထားရနလအပသည။စာအပစာတမးမားမားဖတေလ၊ပမေကာငးမြနေလ၊ျပနာရပအေၾကာငးပမျပးရငးရငးလငးလငးနားလညေလျဖစသည။

ပနာျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးအရငးျမစမားႏင႔ထျပနာ၏အကးဆကမားအေၾကာငးသရႏငရနထေရာကသည႔နညးလမးတစခမာျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ Problem Tree အား

(၁) စမကနးပနၾကားလႊာအၾကမးေရးသားေနစဥ (သ႔) စမကနးအစပငးကာလႏင႔ (၂) စမကနးအဆးသတကာလတ႔၌ ေရးဆြရန ျဖစသည။

စမကနးအစပငးကာလ၌ ေရးဆြေသာပထမ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ Problem Tree သညကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ ပတသကသည႔သေဘာေပါကနားလညသည႔အေျခအေနတစရပအားကယစားျပသည။စမကနးအေစာပငးကာလ၌လအမားအေနျဖင႔ ျပနာျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမား၊အကးဆကမားႏင႔ ျပနာရပတ႕အေၾကာငးထထ၀င၀င နားလညျခငးမရေသးသျဖင႔ ျပနာအေျခအျမစ ျပပတြငတငၾကယဆသည႔စတကမားမၾကာခဏပါ၀ငေလ႔ရသည။ သ႔ေသာသေတသနစမကနးျပးဆးသြားသည႔အခါဒတယျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ Problem Tree အသစတစရပထပမ၍ ေရးဆြရနလပါသည။ဤတစၾကမတြငမျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပအသစသညပထမပထကသတငးအခကအလကပမစလငလမမညျဖစသည။ဥပမာ - ျပနာတစရပ၏ျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင႔အကး သကေရာကမႈမားတြင အခက အလကအေရအတြကပမစလငလာေပလမ႔မည။တငၾကစတကးထားသည႔ယဆခကမားလညးေပာကကြယေကာငးေပာကကြယသြားမည။

သေတသန ျပလပျပးသကာလ ေရးဆြထားေသာဒတယ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပသညသေတသနလပငနး၏ ေတြ႔ရခကမားက ေကာငးစြာအႏစခပတငျပႏငေလ႔ရသည။အခ႕ကစၥရပမား၌ ဤဒတယျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပအား သေတသန၏အျပးသတအစရငခစာတြငတငျပႏငလငေကာငးေပသည။

ျပနာျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ထျပနာရပ၏လထအေပၚအကးသကေရာကမႈတ႕အား ေကာငးစြာ ေဖာထတထားျခငးမရေပ။သေတသ၏အသတရားမာလညးအကန႔အသတျဖင႔သာရ၏။အခ႕ေသာအေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔အကးသကေရာကမႈတ႕ႏင႔ပတသကေသာအျမငမာမႈန၀ါးလကရျပးတစခႏင႔တစခ ေရာ ေထြးမားယြငးေလ႔ရသည. သေတသန မလပေဆာငမေရးဆြေသာ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပသည ပပျပငျပင မရပ တငၾကယဆခကမားႏင႔ ေယဘယ သေဘာတရားမား ပါ၀ငေလ႔ရသည။

ျပနာျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ျပနာရပ၏အကးသကေရာကမႈတ႕အားရငးလငးစြာေဖာထတႏငျပးေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငသည။၄ငးအျပငေလ႔လာမႈ ျ ပသည႔ကစၥရပ (သ႕ ) ျပနာရပ၏ျဖစရသည႕အေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင႔အကးသကေရာကမႈအခကအလကအေရအတြကတ႕သညလညးပထမျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပထကပမစလငသည။ သေတသနမျပလပမက ေရးဆြခေသာျပနာ အေျခအျမစ ျပပ တြငပါ၀ငသည႔တငၾကယဆခကမားကလညး ယခသေတသနလပငနးစဥတြင ေမးခြနးထတေကာငး ထတလာႏငသည။

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Below is an example of a problem tree created after research is conducted. The problem is related to health issues and does not directly address social issues. But it is nevertheless instructive because it shows more easily the link between the problem, its causes, and its effects or consequences. It is also important to note that after research, the problem tree may also identify some primary effects or consequences, and some secondary (indirect) effects or consequences.

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ေအာကေဖာျပပါပဥပမာသညသေတသနျပလပျပးေနာက ေရးဆြထားေသာ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပျဖစသည။ ျပနာ ရပမာကနးမာေရးကစၥႏငဆကႏြယျပးလမႈေရးကစၥရပမားကတကရကေဖာျပထားျခငးမရေပ။သ႔ေသာလညး၄ငးပမာ ျပနာကြငးဆက၊ ျဖစစဥႏငအကးအေၾကာငးမားကလြယလငတကတငျပထားသညျဖစ၍ သငေထာကက အျဖစ အသးျပထားသည။ ၄ငးအျပငမတသားရနမာလညးသေတသနအျပးတြင ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပသညမလအကးတရားအခ႕ႏငတဆငခ

(သြယဝက) အကးတရားမားက ေဖာျပႏငသည။

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WHAT, WHO, WHY, WHERE, AND HOW?

Drawing the first problem tree is also a preliminary step in answering five questions. Answering these five questions is essential in implementing a project and defining the research component of the project. More generally, these five questions are the basic questions that need to be answered in the preliminary phase of the research design. A comprehensive treatment of ‘Research design’ is given in the‘intermediate level’ section of this manual. What? Answering the ‘What?’ question means to define the issue or problem addressed. One big difficulty for local CSOs and NGOs is the definition of an issue or a problem that can be realistically addressed based on the human resources and financial capacity of the organization. Issues like ‘poverty’, ‘livelihood’, or ‘discrimination’ are too big if they are addressed by only one NGO or CSO. All these issues have a wide range of causes that cannot be resolved by one specific project implemented by one single organization.

This, however, should not prevent researchers or organizations from gaining a broad understanding of the problem, its root causes, and consequences. Even though the organization may address only one root cause of the problem as its project, there are benefits in doing research on its many root causes. Who? Another crucial issue is defining the type of population that the research team examines. This issue is addressed several times in this manual because it depends on whether the research team uses quantitative data based on surveys or qualitative data based on qualitative interviews. The ‘Who?’ question also means that the research team has to decide whether the issue or problem is linked to (1) individuals, (2) households, or (3) groups of people (legal associations, self-help groups, etc…). It would be wrong for a research team to investigate an issue by using two or three of the three categories mentioned above at the same time and for the same project. Only one category should be selected for a specific topic.

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အဘယအရာ၊အဘယသ၊အဘယေၾကာင႔၊အဘယေနရာႏင႔အဘယက႔သ႕?

ပထမျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပအားေရးဆြျခငးမာေမးခြနးငါးရပကေျဖဆရာ၌ေရ႕ေျပးအဆင႔လညးျဖစသည။ဤေမးခြနးငါးရပကေျဖဆရျခငးမာစမကနးတစရပအားအေကာငအထညေဖာရာ၌ေသာလညး ေကာငး၊စမကနးႏင႔ သကဆငေသာ သေတသနလပငနးအပငးအား ေဖာထတသတမတရာ၌ေသာလညးမရမျဖစအေရးပါပါသည။ထ႔ထကပ၍ ေယဘယ ကကဆရလငအဆပါ ေမးခြနးငါးရပသညသေတသနပစ ေ႐႕ေျပးအဆငတြင ေျဖဆရနလအပသညအေျခခကေသာ ေမးခြနးမားျဖစၾကသည။ ‘သေတသနပစ’အေၾကာငးကအျပညအစကဤလကစြစာအပပါ ‘အလယအလတအဆင’တြင ေဖာျပထားသည။

အဘယအရာ ? "အဘယအရာ " ဟသည႔ေမးခြနးအား ေျဖဆရျခငးမာစမကနးအေနျဖင႔မညသည႔ကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာ ရပက ကငတြယေျဖရငးျခငး ျဖစေၾကာငး ေဖာထတသတမတရျခငးျဖစသည။ျပညတြငးစအက (စ) အမားႏင႔ အငနဂအမား အတြကၾကးမားေသာအခကအခတစရပမာ၄ငးတ႕အဖြ႔အစညး၏ဘ႑ာေရးအေျခအေနႏင႔လ႔စြမးအားအရငးအျမစ အင အားတ႔ ျဖင႔ကငတြယ ေျဖရငးႏငမည႕ကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာတစရပအားလကေတြ႕ ကက ေဖာ ထတ သတမတရျခငးျဖစသည။

“ဆငးရမြေတမႈ”၊ “အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈ”၊ “ခြျခားဆကဆျခငး”စသညက႔သ႔ေသာကစၥရပမားအငနဂအ ( သ႕ ) စအကစအတစခတညးအတြကအလြနပငၾကးမားေသာကစၥရပမား ျဖစသည။အဆပါကစၥရပမားကအလြန ပငကယ ျပန႔ေသာ ေနာကခအေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားရၾကျပးအဖြ႔အစညးတစရပတညးမ ေဖာေဆာငေသာစမကနးတစရပတညးျဖင ေျဖရငးႏငလမ႔မညမဟတေပ။

သ႔ေသာလညးယငးအတြကေၾကာငသေတသမား (သ႔) အဖြ႕အစညးမားအေနျဖင ျပနာရပ၏မလဇစျမစႏင အကးဆကမား ကကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔နားလညေအာင ျပလပေရးအတြကအဟန႔အတားမျဖစေစသငေပ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနႏငစမကနးအရ ျပနာဇစျမစတစခတညးသာတငျပႏငေစကာမဇစျမစေျမာကျမားစြာကသေတသနလပျခငးေၾကာငအကးေကးဇး႐စျမပငျဖစသည။ အဘယသ ? သေတသနအဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပမည႔လအပစအားသတမတရျခငးသညအေရးပါေသာအျခားအခက တစရပ ျဖစပါသည။ဤကစၥႏင႔ပတသက၍ဤလကစြစာမတြငအၾကမအေတာမားမား ေဖာျပသြားမည ျဖစသည။ အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာ၄ငးသညသေတသနအဖြ႔မစစတမးမားအေပၚအေျခခသည႔အေရအတြကစထား ေဒတာ အခကအလကမားကအသးျပသညလား၊သ႔တညးမဟတအရညအေသြးစထားအငတာဗးမားအေပၚအေျချပသည႔အရည အေသြးစထား ေဒတာအခကအလကမားကအသးျပသညလားဆသည႔အခကအေပၚမတည ေသာ ေၾကာင႔ ဤ “ အဘယသ”ဟေသာေမးခြနးသညသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာမည႔ကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာရပသည ( ၁ ) လပဂၢလမား ( ၂ ) အမေထာငစမား ( ၃ ) လအပစမား ( အသငးအဖြမား၊ကယထကယထအဖြ႔မားစသည ) ဟ၍မညသတ႕ႏင႔ပတသကလကရသညကလညးဆးျဖတရန ျဖစသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔အထကတြင ေဖာျပခ႔ေသာအပစသးခမႏစစ ( သ႕ ) သးစကစမကနးတစခတညးတြငတစခနတညး ေလ႔လာစးစမးရနအသးျပပါက မားယြငး ေပလမ႔မည။ကစၥရပတစခအတြကအပစတစစကသာ ေရြးခယသငပါမည။

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After deciding whether the research issue is linked to individuals, households, groups of people, etc…., the research team defines more precisely the criteria associated with the category of population which is studied. For instance, if the research project studies individuals, the team may select the following criteria: age of the individuals, gender of the individuals, educational background of individuals, etc… The decision to include one or more of these criteria depends on how each criterion is relevant to the research topic. The same is valid whether the research project studies households or groups of people, although the criteria may be different.

Why? The research team has to answer the ‘Why?’ question. This means: why does the research team focus on this issue or problem? The main reason, of course, is that this issue affects the communities that are targeted by the project. The research team may have some ideas about why the issue or problem emerges at a specific time and in particular place or is already so acute at a specific time and in particular place. In this case, the research team conducts research in order to check whether these ideasare valid and how solutions to the issue can be found. When answering the ‘Why?’ question, concrete examples of how the issue affects these communities should be given. There may also be many other reasons that explain why an organization conducts projects in a certain field of activities and why the organization conducts research about this problem before implementing the project itself. These reasons have to be clearly stated in any documents produced by the organization.

A research team examines the issue of child drop ou t. The population selected for the research is a large num ber of children who dropped out of school. These children are all (1)individuals . The team may contact parents, teachers, and school directors for the study. But the population that is exclusively examined here consists of drop-out kids . For a research project focusing on access to water, it is relevant to study the (2) household . Because access to water is shared within one household or one family, it makes sense to study this issue among households only.

A research project studies how community forestry i s managed among (3) self-organized groups of villagers in a mountainous area. The research team contacts heads of villages, villagers, government authorities, and other stakeholders. The research, however, uses groups of villagers as category of po pulation that is under study because it studies how these differe nt groups interact with each other in order to manage communi ty forestry collectively and sustainably.

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ဥပမာ သေတသနအဖြ႔တစဖြ႕သညကေလးမား ေကာငးထြကသည႔ကစၥရပအား ေလ႔လာမႈျပသည။သေတသနအတြက ေရြးခယလကေသာလဥးေရမာ ေကာငးထြကသြားေသာကေလးမားအေရအတြကပမာဏၾကး ျဖစသည။ ဤကေလးမားမာ ( ၁ ) လပဂၢလမား ျဖစသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပရနအတြကမဘမား၊ ဆရာမားႏင႔၊ေကာငးအပခပသမားအားဆကသြယႏငပါသည။သ႕ေသာဤ ေနရာတြငတသးတသန႔ေလ႔လာမႈျပ ေသာလဥးေရမာ ေကာငးထြကသည႔ကေလးမားသာ ျဖစသည။

ေရသးစြမႈႏင႔ပတသကသည႔သေတသနစမကနးတစရပအတြကမ ( ၂ ) အမေထာငစမားသည ေလ႔လာမႈျပရန အတြက သင႔ေလာပါသည။အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာ ေရသးစြမႈသညအမေထာငစတစစ ( သ႕ ) မသားစတစစအတြက ေ၀မ သးစြ ျခငး ျဖစသည႔အတြကဤကစၥရပႏင႔ပတသက၍အမေထာငစမားအား ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပျခငးသညသာ အဓပၸါယရပါသည။

သေတသနစမကနးတစရပသည ေတာငတနးေဒသတစခရ ( ၃ ) ကယထကယထဖြ႔စညးထားသည႔ေကးရြာသားအပစမားသည ေကးရြာပငသစေတာစကခငးအားမညက႔သ႕ စမခန႔ခြၾကသညကေလ႔လာမႈျပသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ ေကးရြာမား၏ ေခါငးေဆာငမား၊ ေကးရြာသားမား၊ အစးရအာဏာပငမားႏင႔အျခားပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားလညးဆကသြယပါသည။သ႕ေသာ လညးသေတသန အေနျဖင႔ ေကးရြာသားအပစမားကသာ ေလ႔လာမညလဥးေရအမးအစားအျဖစအသးျပပါသည။ အဘယ႔ေၾကာင႔ ဆေသာသေတသနအေနျဖင႔ဤမတကြျပား ျခားနားသည႔အပစမားအေနျဖင႔ ေကးရြာပငသစေတာစကခငးအား ေရရညတည႔တ႔ေသာနညးလမး ျဖင႔စေပါငး၍ စမခန႔ခြၾကရနအခငးခငးမညက႕သ႕ အျပနအလန ေဆာငရြကၾကသည႔က ေလ႔လာလေသာ ေၾကာင႔ျဖစသည။

သေတသနျပမည႔ကစၥရပသညလပဂၢလမား၊အမေထာငစမား၊လအပစမားစသညမညသည႔အပစအမးအစားႏင႔စပဆငသညကဆးျဖတျပးသကာလသေတသနအဖြ႔သည ေလ႔လာမည႔အပစႏင႔ပတသက၍ပ၍တကစြာ ေဖာထတ သတမတ ႏငရနဆးျဖတခကမားဆကလကျပလပရေပမည။သာဓကအေနျဖင႔အကယ၍သေတသနစမကနးသညလပဂၢလမားက ေလ႔လာပါကသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔အဆပါလပဂၢလမား၏ - အသကအရြယ၊ကားမ၊ပညာေရး အေျခအေန စသညျဖင႔ မညသည႔သတမတခကတ႕အားအသးျပမညကဆကလကဆးျဖတရပါမည။မညသည႔သတမတခကတ႕အေနျဖင႔သေတသန ေခါငးစဥႏင႔မညသ႕ဆကစပမႈရသညဆသည႔အခကအေပၚမတညပါသည။ သတမတခကတ႕ကြျပားမႈရေသာျငားလညးသေတသနအေနျဖင႔အမေထာငစမား၊လအပစမားကေလ႔လာမႈျပပါကလညးဤက႔သ႕ပငျပရပါသည။

အဘယေၾကာင႔ ? သေတသနအဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔ “အဘယေၾကာင႔”ဟသည႔ ေမးခြနးကလညး ေျဖဆရပါသည။ဆလသညမာ - သေတသန အဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔ဤမညေသာကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာရပအားအဘယေၾကာင႔အာရထား ေလ႔လာရသနညးဟ၍ ျဖစပါသည။ မနပါသည။အဓကအေၾကာငးအရငးမာအဆပါကစၥရပသညစမကနးမပစမတထားသည႔လထအေပၚဆးကးမားသက ေရာကမႈ ရေသာ ေၾကာင႔ဟသည႔အခကပင ျဖစပါသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအဆပါကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာ ရပ သညအဘယေၾကာငတစတရာေသာအခနကာလ၊တစတရာေသာအေျခအေနတစရပတြင ေပၚေပါကလာသည၊ သ႔တညး မဟတအဘယေၾကာငတစတရာေသာအခနကာလ၊တစတရာေသာအေျခအေနတစရပတြင ျပငးထနစြာျဖစပြား ရသညက အနညးႏငအမားၾကတငသႏငျပးျဖစႏငသည။ဤတြငသေတသနအဖြ႕သညယငးၾကတငသ႐ထားခကမားသညမနကနအကးဝငမႈ႐မ႐ႏင ျပနာေျဖ႐ငးမညနညးလမးမားကမညသ႔မညပ႐ာေဖြေတြ႕႐ႏငမညကရညသနျပးသေတသန ျပလပေတာသည။ ‘အဘယေၾကာင?’ ဆေသာေမးခြနးကေျဖဆရာတြငျပနာရပမားသညရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕မားအား မညသ႔မညပ ထခက ေစသညကခငမာေျချမစေသာဥပမာမားျဖငျပဆရနလအပသည။အဖြ႔အစညးတရပအေနျဖင႔အဘယေၾကာင႔အခ႕ေသာ လပငနးနယပယမားကေရြးခယ၍စမကနးမားေဆာငရြကရျခငးႏင႔စမကနးမစတငမအဘယေၾကာင႔သေတသနလပေဆာငရျခငးဟသည႔ပတသက၍အျခားေသာအေၾကာငးအရငးမားစြာရေသးပါသည။ထအေၾကာငးအရငးမာကအဖြ႔အစညးမျပစ သည႔မတတမးမတရာမားတြငရငးလငးစြာေဖာျပသင႔ပါသည။

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Where? Myanmar is a very diverse country with many different geographical, social and economic contexts. The team in charge of conducting research on a specific issue has to decide where the research project is going to be conducted. Depending on the organization’s background and scope of activities, the location of the projects will be different.The selection of the place also has to consider the language issue: For example, in areas where the Myanmar language is not widely spoken, can the research be conducted using Myanmar-language materials and Myanmar-language interviewers only? Translating survey materials from the Myanmar into the local language and hiring local translators will probably be two issues to seriously consider when the location of the project is decided. How? Answering the ‘How?’ question is primarily about whether the research will rely on quantitative data, qualitative data, or both. All this will eventually depend on the human resources and the financial capacity available to the organization. In terms of human resources, it depends on the research skills and experience of those conducting the research. After deciding whether to use quantitative research, qualitative research, or both, the research team has to decide how to collect the data (i.e. which research methods will be used). TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• How conducting research at the beginning of a project must expand knowledge about an issue or problem that affects communities;

• The importance of drawing a problem tree at the beginning of a project and at

the end;

• The importance of answering the five questions: What, Who, Why, Where, and How?

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အဘယေနရာ ? မနမာႏငငသညကြျပားစလငမႈမားေသာတငးျပညတစျပညျဖစပါသည။လမးစမားလညးမား ျပားစြာရပါသည။ နယေျမ ေဒသမား၊လမႈစးပြားဘ၀မားအဖဖစလငကြျပားစြာရပါသည။ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ပတသက၍သေတသနလပေဆာငမည႔အဖြ႕ အေနျဖင႔မညသည႔ ေနရာေဒသတြငသေတသနစမကနးလပေဆာငရမညကဆးျဖတရပါမည။ ဤအခကသည အသကေမြး၀မး ေၾကာငးစမကနးၾကးတစရပလးအေနျဖင႔မညသည႔ ေနရာတြငအေကာငအထည ေဖာသည ( သ႕မဟတ ) အဖြ႕အစညး အေနျဖင႔ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈဆငရာ ျပနာရပမားကမညသည႔အရပတြင ကငတြယေျဖရငး သင႔ ေလာ သညဟေသာ ဆးျဖတခကတ႕အေပၚမတညပါသည။အဖြ႔အစညး၏ ေနာကခအေနအထား၊လပငနး ေဆာငတာတ႕၏ ကယျပန႔မႈအတငး အတာမား ေပၚမတည၍စမကနး ေနရာမားကြျပားလမ႔မည ျဖစပါသည။ ေနရာေဒသ ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ဘာသာစကား အခကအခကလညးထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ဥပမာ ျမနမာဘာသာစကားအသးမမားေသာအရပတြင ျမနမာ ဘာသာသး စာ႐ြကစာတမးမား၊ ျမနမာစကားေျပာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသမားခညးျဖငသာသေတသနလပ၍မရႏငေခ။စစတမးလႊာမားအား ျမနမာဘာသာမ ေဒသယဘာသာစကားသ႔ ျပနဆျခငးႏင ေဒသခမားအားဘာသာျပနအျဖစငားရမးျခငးတ႔သညစမကနး ျပလပမည ေနရာေဒသ ေ႐ြးခယရာတြငအေလးအနကစဥးစားရမညကစၥရပႏစခ ျဖစလာႏငသည။

အဘယသ႕ ? “အဘယသ႕နညး”ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆရနမာသေတသနအေနျဖငအရညအခငးဆငရာ (သ႔) အေရအတြက ဆငရာ (သ႔) ယငးႏစမးစလးမလာေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအနကမညသညက အေျခခမညက စဥးစားျခငးျဖစသည။ ေနာကဆး၌၄ငးအခကသညအဖြ႕အစညး၏လအငအား၊ ေငြအငအားေပၚတြငသာမတညသြားသည။ လအငအားေပၚမတည၍ ဆရပါမသေတသန ျပလပမညသမား၏သေတသနလပငနးပငးကၽြမးကငမႈႏငအေတြ႕အၾကေပၚတြငမတညသည။

အရညအခငးသေတသန (သ႔) အေရအတြကသေတသန (သ႔) ယငးႏစမးစလးကအသးျပရနဆးျဖတျပးပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ေဒတာမညသ႔ ေကာကယရမညကဆကလကဆးျဖတရမည။ (ဆလသညမာအသးျပမည သေတသနနညးလမးအား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးပင။) အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ • စမကနး၏အစပငးကာလ၌ျပလပေသာသေတသနအေနျဖင႔လထအေပၚဆးယတနစနာေစေသာကစၥရပ (သ႕)

ျပနာရပႏင႔ပတသကေသာအသပညာကမညက႔သ႕ျပန႔ပြားေစပ

• သေတသနစမကနးတစရပ၏အစပငးႏင႔အဆးသတကာလာတ႕၌ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ ( Problem Tree )

ဆြရျခငး၏အေရးပါပ

• “အဘယအရာ၊အဘယသ၊အဘယေၾကာင႔၊အဘယေနရာႏင႔အဘယက႔သ႔”ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးငါးရပအား

ေျဖဆရနအေရးၾကးပတ႕ျဖစပါသည။

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BASIC 2. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT: • The main features of ‘quantitative research’; • The main features of ‘qualitative research’; • The difference between ‘quantitative research’ and ‘qualitative research’; • The notion of a ‘variable’ linked to a problem or issue; • The use andmeasurement of a ‘variable’ in quantitative and qualitative research.

_____________________________________________________________________ There are three broad types of investigation for conducting social research. Selecting the suitable type depends on the level of knowledge about the issue or problem addressed. Sometimes, the knowledge of the issue and problem under study is very limited. Sometimes, it is quite advanced. Social research can therefore be conducted through the following three approaches:

-Exploratory, meaning that the researcher tries to gain a preliminary understanding of the situation under study, because there is no or little preexisting knowledge about the problem under study; -Descriptive, meaning that the researcher tries to measure the issue under study so as expand the existing knowledge about the problem under study;

-Explanatory, meaning that the researcher tries to find out some connections between different aspects of the situation under study.

Let’s take the example of a research on Karen commu nities living in the Ayeyawaddi Division. An exploratory aspect of the research is about identifying Karen communities in the overall population of the divisi on. A descriptive aspect of the research is about the level of land and food security typical in these Karen communitie s. An explanatory aspect of the research is about finding out some o f the causes linked to poverty among the Karen commun ities.

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အေျခခအဆင၂. အရညအေသြးစျပႏငအေရအတြကစျပသေတသန

ဤပ႔ခခကသည • ‘အေရအတြကစျပသေတသန’၏အဓကလကၡဏာမား • ‘အရညအေသြးစျပသေတသန’၏အဓကလကၡဏာမား • ‘အေရအတြကစျပ’ႏင ‘အရညအေသြးစျပ’သေတသနအၾကား ျခားနားခက

• ကနးရငတစလးႏင ျပနာ (ဝါ) ကစၥရပၾကားဆကႏြယပ • အေရအတြကစျပႏငအရညအေသြးစျပသေတသနမကနးရငတစခ၏အသးျပပႏငအတငးအတာ

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သေတသနျပလပရနအကယအားျဖငနညးလမးသးခ႐သည။သငေတာသညနညးလမးက ေရြးခယရာတြငကငတြယမည ျပနာရပႏငပတသကျပးသရနားလညထားမႈအေပၚမတညသည။ ေလလာေနသည ျပနာရပအေပၚသရနားလညထားမႈမာတခါတရနညးပါးသေလာကတခါတရတြငလညးမားျပားေနတတသည။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍လမႈလပငနးစဥသေတသနအား ေအာကပါခဥးကပနညးသးမးျဖင ျပလပႏငသည။

-ပဏာမစးစမးေရး (Exploratory)။ ။ဤတြင ေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏငစပလဥးျပးတငၾကသ႐ထားမႈ အနညးငယမသ႔မဟတလးဝမရေသာေၾကာငသေတသအေနႏင ေလလာဆအေနအထားတစရပက ပဏာမနားလညမႈရရေစရန ျပလပျခငးျဖစသည။

-ေဖာျပညႊနးဆေရး (Descriptive)။ ။သေတသအေနႏင ေလလာဆကစၥရပ၏အတမအနကကအတ အကသရႏင ေစရန အလ႔ငာေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏငပတသကေသာရရငးစြ သရနားလညမႈကခ႕ ထြငျခငးျဖစသည။

-႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး (Explanatory)။ ။သေတသမ ေလလာဆအေျခအေနတစခ၏ဘကေပါငးစ အၾကားဆကႏြယမႈအခ႕က ေဖာထတရနၾကးစားျခငးျဖစသည။ (အထးသျဖငအကးတရားႏငအေၾကာငးတရားမား)

ဧရာဝတတငးတြင ေနထငၾကသည ကရငလမး အစအဖြ႕မားက ေလလာေသာ သေတသနအား ဥပမာအျဖစယရေသာ သေတသန၏ ပဏာမ စးစမးသညအပငးမာ အဆပါ ကရငလမး အစအဖြ႕မားအား တတငးလး႐ လဥးေရ မ ႐ာေဖြ ေဖာထတျခငးျဖစသည။

သေတသန၏ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆသညအပငးမာ အဆပါ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား၏ ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈ ပမနအဆငသတမတခက ျဖစသည။

သေတသန၏ ရငးလငးတငျပသညအပငးမာ ကရင အစအဖြ႕မားၾကား ဆငးရမြေတမႈ ျဖစေပၚေစသည အေၾကာငးတရားအခ႕က ရာေဖြေဖာထတျခငးျဖစသည။

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In many cases, research projects can combine two or three of these different aspects. All this depends on the nature of the research topic, the level of knowledge about the topic, and the human and financial resources available to the project. Also, it should be remembered there are no clear-cut boundaries between these three aspects: in some studies, these aspects can overlap. For each of these ways of conducting social research, data may be collected by using qualitative research methods. This means using interviews with the people directly or indirectly linked with the issue under study. The data may also be collected by using quantitative research methods. This means surveying the people directly linked with the issue under study. Research can therefore be qualitative and quantitative.

If researchers study livelihoods of Karen communiti es in the Ayeyawaddi Division (like in the previous example), they can produce both qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative research with an exploratory purpose p roduces a percentage of the Karen population among the entire population of the Ayeyawaddi division and assesses its poverty le vel. Qualitative research with the same exploratory purp ose gives insights into whether livelihood difficulties among Karen communities are different from those of other commu nities in the Ayeyawaddi division or not. Quantitative research with a descriptive purpose pr oduces percentages of levels of land tenure and food produ ction among Karen communities. Qualitative research with the same descriptive purp ose gives insights into the range of difficulties encountered by Karen communities for attaining land and food security. Finally, quantitative research with an explanatory purpose attempts to determine statistically if a link betwe en land and food security does exist among these Karen communit ies. Qualitative research with the same purpose investig ates whether these Karen communities perceive a possible link be tween land and food security in the context of their villages. There are therefore many ways in which a research p rojectcan be carried out: there is no single way to conduct rese arch on a specific topic.

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မားေသာအားျဖငသေတသနလပငနးမားတြင ေဖာျပပါနညးလမးႏစခသးခေလာကက ေပါငးစပျပးအသးျပ ေလရၾကသည။ဤသ႔ေဆာငရြကႏငရနမာသေတသနျပလပမညအေၾကာငးအရာ၏သေဘာသဘာဝ၊၄ငးအေၾကာငးအရာႏငပတသကေသာဗဟသတ၊စမကနးအတြကရတတသမေသာလအငအား၊ ေငြေၾကးအငအားတ႔ေပၚတြင လးလးလားလား မတညပါသည။အဆပါနညးလမးသးသြယအၾကားတကျပတသားေသာနယနမတသတမတခကမရသညကလညးသတထားသငပါသည။အခ႕ေသာ ေလလာမႈမားတြငထနညးလမးမားမာတစခႏငတစခဆကစပေရာထပလကရႏငသည။

လမႈလပငနးစဥသေတသနျပလပသညအဆပါနညးလမးတစခခငးစအတြက ေဒတာအခကအလကမား အား အရညအေသြးသေတသနနညးမားအားအသးျပျပးရ႐ႏငသည။ ေလလာဆျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပႏငတကရကေသာလညး ေကာငး၊သြယဝက၍ေသာလညးေကာငးဆကစပေနေသာလမားအားလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးကဆလသည။ အေရအတြကနညးက အသးျပ၍လညး ေဒတာအခကအလက ေကာကယႏငပါေသးသည။ဤအတြက ေလလာသည ကစၥရပႏငတက႐ကဆကနြယသမားအားစစတမးေကာကယရပါမည။

သ႔ျဖစပါ၍သေတသနမာအရညအေသြးပငးေရာအေရအတြကပငးပါ ျဖစႏငပါသည။

အကယ၍ (ေ႐႕ဥပမာတြငကသ႔) သေတသမားသည ဧရာဝတတငးရ ကရငလမးအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးမႈ လပငနးမားအား ေလလာသညဆပါက အရညအေသြးဆငရာႏင အေရအတြကဆငရာ သေတသန ႏစမးစလးက ရ႐ႏငသည။ ပဏာမ စးစမးရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အေရအတြက သေတသနသည ဧရာဝတ တစတငးလး၏ လဥးေရမ ကရငလဥးေရ ရာခငႏနးက ရ႐ေစျပး ၄ငးပမာဏ၏ ဆငးရမြေတမႈ ေရခနက ဆနးစစႏငသည။ ဤကသ႔ပင ပဏာမ စးစမးရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည အဆပါ ကရငလမး အစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးမႈဆငရာ အခကအခမားႏင ဧရာဝတတငးမ အျခားလမး အစအဖြ႕မား၏ အခကအခမားတ႔ တညမႈ ႐မ႐က သ႐နားလညေစသည။ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အေရအတြက သေတသနသည ကရင အစအဖြ႕မားတြငး ေျမပငဆငခြင အဆငသတမတခက ႏင စားနပရကၡာထြက႐မႈတ႔က ရာခငႏနးျဖင ေဖာျပသည။ ထ႔နညးတပင ေဖာျပညႊနးဆရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည ေျမယာ အာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာ လေလာကမႈ ရ႐ေရးအတြက ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား ရငဆငေနရေသာ အခကအခ ေျမာကျမားစြာအား သျမငနားလညေစသည။ ေနာကဆးတစချဖစသည ႐ငးလငးတငျပရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အေရအတြက သေတသနသည အဆပါ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မားအတြငး ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာဖလမႈၾကား ဆကႏြယခကတစခ ႐မ႐က စာရငးဇယား ကနးဂဏာနးမားျဖင အဆးအျဖတျပရန အားထတသည။ အလားတ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည အဆပါ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မားအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႔ ေကး႐ြာမား၏ ပကတ အေနအထားတြင ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာဖလမႈၾကား ဆကႏြယမႈ ႐ႏငသည ဆေသာအခကက သျမငလကခထားျခငး ႐မ႐ စးစမးေလလာသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ သေတသန စမကနးတစရပ အေကာငအထညေဖာရန နညးလမးအဖဖ႐သည။ ကစၥရပတစခက သေတသနျပရာတြင နညးလမးတစသြယတညး ႐သညမဟတေပ။

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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH The examples given previously show that quantitative research produces statistical data. Quantitative research focuses on numerical measurement. It frequently uses the survey as its main research method. Final research reports usually contain statistical data and percentages that more easily catch the attention of the reader.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH In contrast to quantitative research, qualitative research does not focus on numerical measurement. The examples given previously show that qualitative research tries to illustrate the deep meaning of the problems under study. Qualitative research typically examines individual cases. It frequently uses interviews and field observations without strict numerical measurement. Qualitative research eventually produces findings that are richer in meaning and complex in details. Final research reports usually contain lots of observations, testimonies, and also interpretations of these observations by the researcher. VARIABLE Quantitative research and qualitative research involve collecting information related to a problem or an issue under study. Very often, however, final research reports are vague and do not contain any new information about the problem or issue that was examined. One of the main reasons for this lack of information is that the researcher did not think about how the problem or issue could be broken down into one or two variables. Also the researcher did not think how such variables could be measured. At the beginning of a research project, it is important for the researcher to consider how the problem under examination can be broken down into variables that will be measured.

In the example given previously about the livelihoo d of Karen communities in the Ayeyawaddi Division, the problem of livelihood is very broad. It is difficult to study as such. Th e researcher has to decide which aspects of livelihood will be s tudied. The researcher makes this decision after drawing the pr oblem tree (discussed in a previous lesson) and identifying th e root causes and consequences of this problem. It was suggested previously that land security and food security are important aspects of livelihood. These two aspe cts (land security and food security) can be chosen by the re searcher as variables under examination. Another variable for the research topic of liveliho od could be income generation.

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အေရအတြကသေတသန (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH)

ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပခေသာဥပမာမားအရအေရအတြကသေတသနသညစာရငးအငးအခကအလကမား (statistical data) ရ႐ေစႏငသည။အေရအတြကသေတသနသညတငးတာခကေပၚတြငအာ႐စကသည။မားေသာအားျဖငစစတမးေကာကယျခငးအားအဓကသေတသနနညးလမးအျဖစအသးျပသည။ သေတသနအစရငခစာအေခာသတတြငစာဖတသမားအာ႐စကေလာကေသာစာရငးဇယားအခကအလကမားႏင ရာခငႏနးမားပါ႐ေလ႐သည။ အရညအေသြးသေတသန (QUALITATIVE RESEARCH)

အေရအတြကသေတသနႏငဆန႔ကငစြာပငအရညအေသြးသေတသနသညကနးဂဏနးတငးတာခကမားေပၚတြငအသား မေပးေခ။ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပခေသာဥပမာမားအရအရညအေသြးသေတသနသည ေလလာဆ ျပနာသ႔မဟတ ကစၥရပမား၏ နကနေသာသေဘာသဘာဝကသ႐ပျပ႐ငးလငးႏငရနအားထတသည။ေယဘယအားျဖငအရညအေသြးသေတသနသည လတစဥးတစေယာကခငးစ၏အမႈကစၥမားအားဆနးစစေလလာသည။တကလြနးေသာကနးဂဏနးတငးတာခကမားမပါဝငဘလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈမားႏငကြငးဆငးေလလာမႈမားကသာအမားဆးအသးျပသည။ အဆးသတတြငအရညအေသြး သေတသနသညအဓပၸါယျပညဝျပးအေသးစတအားျဖင႐ပေထြးေသာ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားက ရ႐ေစသည။သေတသနအစရငခစာအေခာသတတြငစးစမးေလလာမႈႏငသကေသျပခကအေျမာကအျမားသာမကအဆပါေလလာခကမားအေပၚသေတသ၏အဓပၸါယေကာကယမႈမားပါပါဝငပါသည။ ကနး႐င (VARIABLE)

အေရအတြကႏငအရညအေသြးသေတသနမားမာ ေလလာဆ ျပနာသ႔မဟတကစၥရပတစခႏင ပတသကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးျခငးျဖစသည။သ႔ေသာလညးအေခာသတအစရငခစာမားမာမားေသာအားျဖင႐ငးလငးမႈမ႐ပ ေလလာဆနးစစခေသာ ျပနာသ႔မဟတကစၥအေၾကာငးႏငပတသကေသာအခကအလကအသစ မပါဝငေတာေပ။ဤသ႔သတငးအခကအလကကငးမရျခငး၏အဓကအေၾကာငးရငးတစခမာသေတသအေနႏငျပနာသ႔ကစၥရပအားကနး႐ငတစခႏစခေလာကအျဖစမညသ႔မညပ ေျပာငးလ၍ရႏငသညကမစဥးစားခေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။ ထ႔အျပငလညးသေတသသညအဆပါကနး႐ငအားမညသ႔မညပတငးတာ၍ရႏငသညကမစဥးစားခေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။ သေတသနလပငနး၏အစဥးပငးကတညးကသေတသအေနျဖငေလလာဆနးစစဆျပနာအားတငးတာရနကနး႐ငမားအျဖစမညသ႔ေျပာငးလရမညကစဥးစားထားရနအေရးၾကးသည။

ေ႐႕တြင ေဖာျပထားခေသာ ဧရာဝတတငးတြင႐ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးလပငနး အေၾကာငး ဥပမာတြင အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈ ျပနာဆသညမာ အလြနကယျပန႔လြနးသည။ ဤအတငးေလလာရန ခကခသည။ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးလပငနး၏ မညသည အစတအပငးအား ေလလာမညဆသည က သေတသအေနျဖင ဆးျဖတရနလအပသည။ သေတသသည (ေ႐႕သငခနးစာတြင ေဆြးေႏြးခသည) ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယား (problem tree ) ဆြသားျပး ၄ငးျပနာ၏ ပဓာန အေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင အကးသကေရာကမႈမားအား ေဖာထတျပးမ အဆပါ ဆးျဖတခကက ခမတေလ႐သည။ ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပခသညအတငးပင ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈတ႔သည အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈ၏ အေရးၾကးေသာ အစတအပငးမားျဖစၾကသည။ အဆပါ အစတအပငးႏစခ (ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈ) အား သေတသသည ေလလာဆနးစစရန ကနး႐ငမားအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ ဝငေငြစးဆငးမႈမာလညး အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးဆငရာ သေတသန ေခါငးစဥအတြက ေနာကထပ ျဖစႏငစရာ ကနး႐ငတစချဖစသည။

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A variable is anything that can have different values. Height, weight, age, race, and attitude are variables because there are different heights, weights, ages, races, and attitudes. By contrast, if something cannot vary, then it is referred to as a constant. Broadly speaking, quantitative researchers usually work with a few variables and many cases, whereas qualitative researchers usually rely on a few cases and many variables.

Besides values, a variable has also attributes. Attributes are characteristics that describe a person, an object, and an abstract thing. For one variable under study, there are many attributes. If is often important for researchers to use different research methods to study a variable. If financial and human resources allow and time is sufficient, researchers would benefit from investigating a variable in quantitative and qualitative ways. Here is a list of variable with some suggested attributes. It is the researcher’s responsibility to define these attributes.

VARIABLE

ATTRIBUTE

age young, middle aged, old

gender female, male

occupation plumber, journalist, driver

nationality Myanmar, Japanese, Australian

social class upper, middle, lower-class

political views conservative, liberal, non-partisan

interest in politics

low, moderate, high

For the research on the livelihood of Karen communi ties in the Ayeyawaddi Division, the two variables suggested (‘ land security’ and ‘food security’) can have different values: lan d security and food security may be low, moderate, or high.

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မတကြျပားေသာတနဖးမား႐ႏငေသာမညသညအရာကမဆကနး႐င (variable) ဟသတမတႏငသည။အရပ၊ ကယအေလးခန၊အသက၊လမး၊စတေနစတထားတ႔မာကနး႐ငမားျဖစၾကသည။အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာကြျပားျခားနား ေသာအရပ၊ကယအေလးခန၊အသက၊လမး၊စတေနစတထားတ႔႐ေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။ဤသ႔မဟတပကြလြမႈမ႐ႏငေသာအရာ႐ပါက၄ငးအားကနးေသ (constant) တစခအျဖစသတမတသည။အလြယဆရပါမအေရအတြက သေတသမားသည ကနး႐ငနညးနညးႏငကစၥရပေျမာကျမားစြာအားအလပလပေလ႐သည၌အရညအေသြးသေတသမားသညကစၥရပနညးနညးႏငကနး႐ငအမားအျပားအေပၚတြငအားကးအားထားျပသည။

ကနး႐ငတစခတြငတနဖးအျပငအဂၤါရပမား (attributes) လညး ႐သည။အဂၤါရပမားမာလပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၊ အရာဝတတစခခသ႔မဟတစတဇနာမတစခခအေၾကာငးက ေဖာျပေသာဝေသသလကၡဏာမား ျဖစၾကသည။

ေလလာဆကနး႐ငတစခအတြကအဂၤါရပအေျမာကအျမား႐သည။ကနး႐ငတစခကေလလာရနအတြကသေတသမား အေနျဖငသေတသနနညးလမးေပါငးစကအသးျပရနအေရးၾကးသည။ေငြေၾကးႏငလအငအားလေလာကမႈ႐ျပးအခနလညး ေပးႏငမညဆပါကကနး႐ငတစခအားအေရအတြကေရာအရညအေသြးနညးအားျဖငပါ ေလလာျခငးျဖငသေတသမား အေနျဖင အကးေကးဇးမားႏငသည။ ဤသညမာဥပမာေပးထားေသာအဂၤါရပမားပါဝငသညကနး႐ငမားစာရငးျဖစသည။အဆပါအဂၤါရပမားကသတမတေပးရနမာသေတသ၏တာဝနျဖစသည။

ကနး႐င အဂၤါရပ

အသက ငယ၊လတ၊ၾကး

လင ကား၊မ

အလပအကင ပကျပငဆရာ၊စာနယဇငးသမား၊ကားသမား

ႏငငသား ျမနမာ၊ဂပန၊ၾသစေၾတးလသား

လမႈအဆငအတနး အထကတနး၊လလတတနး၊ဆငးရသား

ႏငငေရးအျမင ေ႐း႐းစြ၊လစဘရယ၊ပဂၢလပါတစြမ႐

ႏငငေရးစတပါဝငစားမႈ နမ၊လယ၊ျမင

ဧရာဝတတငး႐ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈက သေတသနျပရာတြင ေဖာျပပါ ကနး႐ငႏစခ (‘ ေျမယာအာမခခက’ ႏင ‘ စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈ’) ၌ ကြျပားျခားနားေသာ တနဖးမား ႐ႏငသည။ ေျမယာအာမခခကႏငစားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈတ႔မာ နမပါးႏငသည။ အလယအလတျဖစႏငသည။ ျမငမားႏငသည။

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Very often a research project will investigate more than one variable, usually two variables and their possible link. Then, the purpose is explanatory. This means that the research project tries to clarify how one variable influences another variable. Examining the link between two variables leads to studying them in the following way:

• Independent variable: a variable that influences the other variable

• Dependent variable: a variable that is influenced by the other variable If a research project investigates the link between two variables, researchers have to identify which variable is independent, and which variable is dependent. Let’s take the case of a study trying to find a link between education level and fertility. The study reported that because fertility depends on the education level (and not the other round) fertility is the dependent variable and education level is the independent variable. The research findings are as shown below.

The population with a low education level was found to have high fertility. In contrast to this, the population that had a high education level was found to have low fertility.

Although having many different aspects, two main at tributes about land security are: land tenure and landlessness. La nd tenure means the link between a plot of land and a person who ha s claim on it. Therefore land security may be poor, moderate, or h igh depending on how strong the link between the land and the per son is. By contrast, landlessness relates to a person who cann ot make any claim on any land. Thus a research project that takes land security as the main variable has to examine the two main attributes of this variable which are land tenure and landlessness. The researc her may also examine other aspects of land security.

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မားေသာအားျဖငသေတသနလပငနးတစခသညကနး႐ငတစခထကပ၍ ေလလာတတသည။ပမနအားျဖငကနး႐ငႏစခႏင ၄ငးတ ႔၏ ျဖစတနရာေသာဆကႏြယခကက ေလလာသည။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး (Explanatory) ရည႐ြယခကျဖင ျပလပျခငးျဖစသည။သေတသနတြငကနး႐ငတစခမအျခားကနး႐ငတစခအားမညသ႔မညပၾသဇာသကေရာကသညကလြယက႐ငးလငးစြာသျမငေစရနအားထတျခငးကဆလပါသည။

ကနး႐ငႏစခၾကားဆကႏြယခကကဆနးစစရာတြငေအာကပါအတငးပစအတငးေလလာသည။

• လြတလပကနး႐င (Independent variable)။ ။အျခားကနး႐ငက ၾသဇာသကေရာကေသာ ကနး႐င။

• မခကနး႐င (dependent variable)။ ။အျခားကနး႐ င၏ ၾသဇာသကေရာကျခငးခရေသာ ကနး႐င။ ကနး႐ငႏစခၾကားဆကႏြယခကက ေဖာထတမညဆပါကသေတသမားအေနျဖငမညသည ကနး႐ငက လြတလပျပးမည သညကနး႐ငကမခသညက ေဖာထတရနလအပသည။ ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးႏငကေလးရ႐ႏငမႈႏနးအၾကားဆကႏြယခကက႐ာေဖြသည ေလလာမႈတစခအားဥပမာ အေနႏငယၾကညပါစ႔။ ေလလာမႈအရသ႐ရသညမာကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးသညပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးအေပၚမတညသည (ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးသညကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးေပၚမတညျခငးမးကသ႔တျခားတစနညးမ႐ႏင) ဟဆေသာေၾကာင ကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးသညမခကနး႐ငျဖစျပးပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးသညလြတလပကနး႐ငျဖစသည။

သေတသနေတြ႕႐ခကမားမာ ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသညအတငးျဖစသည။

ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးနမပါးေသာလဥးေရတြငကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးျမငမားသညက ေတြ႕႐ရသည။ဆန႔ကင

ဘကအားျဖငပညာတတေျမာကမႈ ျမငမားေသာလဥးေရတြငကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးနမပါးသညက ေတြ႕႐ရသည။

မတညေသာ ႐ေထာငမားပါဝငေသာလညး ေျမယာအာမခခကကစၥတြင ေျမယာပငဆငခြင ႏင ေျမယာမမႈဟ၍ အဓက အဂၤါရပႏစခ ႐သည။ ေျမယာပငဆငခြငဆသညမာ ေျမယာတစကြကႏင ၄ငးေျမယာက ပငဆငေၾကာငး သကေသထႏငသၾကား ဆကႏြယခကပငျဖစသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေျမယာႏင လအၾကား႐ အဆပါ ဆကႏြယခက မညမခငမာသညက ဆေသာအခကက မတညျပး ေျမယာအာမခခကသည နမပါးႏငသည။ သ႔မဟတ ပမနျဖစႏငသည။ သ႔မဟတ ျမငမားႏငသည။ ဆန႔ကငဘကအားျဖင ေျမယာမမႈသည မညသညေျမယာကမ ပငဆငခြင သကေသမထႏငေသာသႏင သကဆငသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင ေျမယာအာမခခကအား အဓက ကနး႐ငအျဖစ ယထားေသာ သေတသနစပကနးတစခတြင ၄ငးကနး႐င၏အဂၤါရပမားျဖစၾကေသာ ေျမယာပငဆငခြငႏင ေျမယာမမႈတ႔အား ေလလာဆနးစစရမည။ သေတသအေနႏင ေျမယာအာမခခက၏ အျခားေသာ အစတအပငးမားကလညး ဆနးစစေကာငး ဆနးစစပါမည။

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Very important note: these are the results for a specific context. In a context and society different from this specific study, the influence of education on fertility might be different. CATEGORIES

It was seen in the previous section that variables can be either ‘independent’ or ‘dependent’. This distinction between ‘independent’ and ‘dependent’, however, does not help the researcher measure variables. Measuring a variable means creating categories for classifying persons, objects, or abstract things about which information is collected. In many cases, categories are the same as attributes that define the variable (as featured above in the table about age, gender, etc.). In some cases, however, categories have to be created in order to make possible the measurement of the variable and, most notably, its numerical measurement. To define ‘age’ as a variable only with attributes like ‘young’, ‘middle-aged’, or ‘old’ is too limited for a research project. The researcher has to create categories to define what ‘young’, ‘middle-aged’, and ‘old’ mean in the context of the research. ‘Young’ may mean between 10 and 21 years in one research project or between 10 and 25 years in another research project. The researcher must decide which categories better suit the objectives of the research. In short, the researcher has to remember that attributes are just the general features of a variable. Categories, however, are created for the measurement of the variable. There are two requirements for the creation of these categories:

• These categories should be exhaustive. The number of categories has to be as large as possible because all the persons, objects, or abstract things about which information is collected must be classified within these categories.

• These categories should be mutually exclusive: every person, object, or

abstract thing about which information is collected must fall into only one category. This means that the categories that measure a variable can not overlap.

When the researcher creates categories for measuring a variable, these categories can be names, numbers, or intervals. These different types of categories mean that the variable has different names. When categories of the variable are only names, the variable is called a nominal level variable.

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သတျပရနအလြနတရာအေရးၾကးေသာအခက။ ။၄ငးတ႔မာသးျခားအေနအထားတစခအတြငးမရလဒမားျဖစၾကသည။ အဆပါေလလာခကႏငမတကြျပားေသာအေနအထားတစရပ၊လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးတစခအတြငးတြငပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးမကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးအေပၚၾသဇာသကေရာကပမာ ျခားနားမႈ႐ေကာငး႐ႏငပါသည။

အပစကြမား (CATEGORIES)

ကနး႐ငတစခသည ‘လြတလပ’သ႔မဟတ ‘မခ’ ျဖစႏငေၾကာငးက ေ႐႕တြင ျမငေတြ႕ခရျပးျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး အဆပါ ‘လြတလပ’ႏင ‘မခ’ၾကား ျခားနားခကသညကနး႐ငမားအားတငးတာရာတြငသေတသအတြကအသးမဝငေပ။ ကနး႐ငတစခအားတငးတာျခငးဆသညမာအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးရ႐ထားသညလပဂၢလမား (သ႔) အရာဝတမား (သ႔) စတဇနာမမားအားအတနးအစားခြေပးရနအပစကြ (categories) မားဖနတးေပးျခငးပငျဖစသည။ ကစၥရပ ေတာ ေတာမားမားတြငအပစကြမားသည (ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပထားေသာအသက၊လငအစ႐သျဖငပါဝငေသာဇယားကြကအတငး) အဂၤါရပမားနညးတကနး႐ငအားအဓပၸါယဖြငဆသတမတေပးသည။သ႔ေသာအခ႕ေသာကစၥရပမားတြငကနး႐င၊အထးသ ျဖငကနးဂဏနးမားအားတငးတာႏငေရးအတြကအပစကြမားဖနတးေပးရနလအပေပသည။ ‘အသကအ႐ြယ’အား ‘သကငယ’(သ႔) ‘သကလတ’(သ႔) ‘သကၾကး’အဂၤါရပမားသာ႐သညကနး႐ငတစခအျဖစသာဖြငဆ သတမတပါကသေတသနလပငနးတစခအေနႏငကဥးေျမာငးလြနးလသည။သကဆငရာသေတသန ေဘာငအတြငးဝယ ‘သကငယ’၊ ‘သကလတ’ႏင ‘သကၾကး’ဟသညမညသညကဆလေၾကာငးအပစကြမားဖနတးသတမတေပးရန လအပသည။သေတသနစမကနးတစခတြငအသက၁၀ႏစမ၂၁ႏစအတြငးက ‘သကငယ’ဟဆလျခငး ျဖစႏငေသာလညး အျခားတစခတြင၁၀ႏစမ၂၅ႏစအတြငးကဆလျခငးျဖစႏငသည။မညသညအပစကြသညသေတသန၏ရညမနးခကႏငပမကကညလမမညဆေသာအခကကသေတသအေနႏငဆးျဖတရေပမည။ အခပအားျဖငဆရေသာအဂၤါရပမားသညကနး႐င၏ ေယဘယလကၡဏာမသာ ျဖစေၾကာငးကသေတသအေနျဖင သတျပရနလအပသည။အပစကြမားမာမကနး႐ငအားတငးတာရနအတြကဖနတးထားျခငးျဖစသည။ အဆပါကနး႐ငမားဖနတးရနအတြကလအပခကႏစခ႐သည။

• အဆပါအပစကြမားသညျခငႏငစြမး (exhaustive) ႐ရမည။အခကအလကမားစေဆာငးရာလပဂၢလ (သ႔) အရာဝတ (သ႔) စတဇနာမမားမာအဆပါအပစကြမားအတြငးတြငက႑ခြရမညျဖစေသာေၾကာငအပစကြမား၏ အေရအတြကမာမားႏငသေလာကမားေစရမညျဖစသည။

• အဆပါအပစကြမားသညတစခႏငတစခသးသန႔စ (mutually exclusive) ျဖစေနရမည။အခကအလကစ ေဆာငးရာလပဂၢလတစဥးခငး (သ႔) အရာဝတတစခခငး (သ႔) စတဇနာမတစခခငးစသညအပစကြတစခတညး အတြငးသ႔သာထညသြငး၍ရႏငသည။ဆလသညမာကနး႐ငတစခကတငးတာေသာအပစကြမားသညတစခႏငတစခေရာျခငးထပျခငးမရေစရ။

သေတသသညကနး႐ငတစခကတငးတာရနအတြကအပစကြမားဖနတးေသာအခါအဆပါအပစကြမားမာနာမညမား (သ႔) နပါတမား (သ႔) ၾကားတနဖးမား ျဖစႏငသည။အဆပါအပစကြေပါငးစ႐ေနရျခငးမာကနး႐ငတြင နာမညေပါငးစ ႐ေနျခငးေၾကာငျဖစသည။ ကနး႐င၏အပစကြမားသညအမညခညးသကသက ျဖစေနေသာအခါထကနး႐ငအားနာမတနးကနး႐င (nominal level

variable) ဟေခၚသည။

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When categories of the variable are names, labels, and can be ordered in some kind of ranking, the variable is called an ordinal level variable. The different categories also have names (like the nominal level variable just mentioned), but ordinal level variables can be ordered as having lower or higher values in relation to one another.

When categories of the variable under study have names, can be rank-ordered, and represent standard intervals of measurement, the variable is called an interval level variable or a ratio level variable. The only difference between the two terms ‘interval level’ and ‘ratio level’ is that ‘ratio level’ has an absolute zero.

A research project examines the issue of migration into Yangon and tries to determine where the migrants come from. ‘P lace of origin’ is one of the variables under study; the researcher has to create different categories that refer to geographical pla ces. The categories for the variable ‘place of origin’ are g eographical names: ‘Rakhine State’, Ayeyawaddi Division’, ‘Bago Division’, etc… This way, the researcher can determine a percentage of how many people come to Yangon from Rakhine, how many come f rom Ayeyawaddi or Bago. This is the kind of data that quantitative research produces. For qualitative research, the researcher can interv iew Rakhine migrants and examine their reasons for migrating to Yangon. The researcher can then compare these reasons with thos e mentioned by migrants coming from the Ayeyawaddi and Bago Divisi ons. This is an example of a‘ nominal level variable ’.

A research project examines youth’s support of poli tical parties. The categories created for assessing ‘political sup port’ as the main variable of the study are the ones suggested h ere: (1) no support; (2) moderate political support; (3) active support; (4) formal membership; and (5) active membership. As opposed to the previous example in which ‘place of origin’ is ‘only’ a nominal level variable, here, in this exam ple, the variable has different values attached to each of t he categories going from no support to strong political support ( ‘active membership’). This is an example of an‘ ordinal level variable ’.

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အပစကြမားသညအမညနာမသတမတခကမားျဖစၾကျပးအစအစဥတစခချဖငစထား၍ရႏငေသာအခါအဆပါကနး႐ငအားအစဥတနးကနး႐င (ordinal level variable) ဟ ေခၚေဝၚသည။အဆပါမတညေသာအပစကြမားမာ (ေ႐႕တြင ေဖာျပခသညနာမတနးကနး႐ငကသ႔) အမညမားသာ ျဖစေသာလညးအစဥအတနးကနး႐ငမားမာတစခႏငတစခၾကားဆကသြယခကတနဖးအနမအျမငအရစစဥ၍ရႏငသည။

ေလလာဆကနး႐ င၏အပစကြမားတြငအမည႐ျပးအစအစဥတစခခအတငးစဥထားႏငသညအျပငတငးတာခက၏စျပၾကားမတကကယစားျပေဖာျပႏငပါကအဆပါကနး႐ငအားၾကားတနးကနး႐င (interval level variable) သ႔မဟတ အခးတနးကနး႐င (ratio level variable) ဟေခၚေဝၚသည။ ‘ၾကားတနး’ႏင‘အခးတနး’ၾကား႐တစခတညးေသာ ျခားနားခကမာ‘အခးတနး’သညအၾကြငးမသညတနဖးတစခ႐သည။

သေတသန စမကနးတစခသည ရနကနသ႔ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈကစၥရပက ဆနးစစေလလာျပး ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမား မညသညအရပေဒသမ လာေရာကၾကေၾကာငးက ပငးျခားသ႐ရန အားထတသညဆပါစ႔။ ‘ခကျမပေဒသ’ သညေလလာ ရသည ကနး႐ငတစချဖစသည။ သေတသအေနႏင ပထဝဝင အရပေဒသမားက အမညနာမ ညႊနးဆသည အပစကြမား ဖနတးရေပမည။ ‘ခကျမပေဒသ’ ကနး႐ငအတြက အပစကြမားမာ ‘ရခငျပညနယ’ ၊ ‘ဧရာဝတတငး’ ၊ ‘ပခးတငး’ အစ႐ေသာ ပထဝဝင အမညနာမမားသာ ျဖစသည။ ဤနညးအားျဖင သေတသသည ရခငေဒသမ ရနကနသ႔ လာေသာ လဥးေရ ရာခငႏနး၊ ဧရာဝတတငး သ႔တညးမဟတ ပခးတငးမလာေသာလဥးေရ ရာခငႏနးက ပငးျခားသျမငႏငေပမည။ ဤသ႔ေသာ အခကအလကမးမာ အေရအတြက သေတသနမ လာျခငးျဖစသည။ အရညအေသြးသေတသနအတြကမ သေတသသည ရခငမေရႊ႕ေျပာငးလာသမားအား ရနကနသ႔ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးလာရျခငး အေၾကာငးက လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈ ျပႏငသည။ သညေနာကတြင သေတသသည ၄ငးတ႔၏ ေျဖၾကားခကမားႏင ဧရာဝတ ႏင ပခးဘကမ ေျပာငးေ႐ႊ႕လာသမားထမ ေျဖၾကားခကမားက ႏငးယဥခနထးၾကညႏငေပမည။ ဤသညမာ ‘နာမတနးကနး႐င’ ၏ ဥပမာရပတစခ ျဖစသည။

သေတသန စမကနးတစခတြင လငယမား၏ ႏငငေရးပါတမားအေပၚ ေထာကခမႈအေၾကာငး ေလလာဆနးစစသညဆပါစ ႔။ ‘ႏငငေရးေထာကခမႈ’ အား အဓကေလလာရန ကနး႐ငအျဖစ ဖနတးလကေသာ အပစကြမားမာ - (၁) ေထာကချခငးမ႐ (၂) ႏငငေရးေထာကခမႈ အသငအတင (၃) တကၾကြစြာ ေထာကခမႈ (၄) တငးျပည ပါတဝင (၅) တကၾကြ ပါတဝင ‘ခကျမပေဒသ’အား နာမတနးကနးစဥ သကသကမသာ ေဖာျပေသာ ယခင ဥပမာႏင ျခားနားစြာ ဤဥပမာတြင ကနး႐ငသည ေထာကခမႈလးဝမ႐ျခငးမသည တကၾကြစြာ ေထာကခမႈ (‘တကၾကြပါတဝင’) အထ တစခခငးစအလက တနဖးျခားနားေသာ အပစကြမားစြာ ႐ေနသည။ ဤသညမာ ‘အစဥတနးကနး႐င’ ၏ ဥပမာရပတစချဖစသည။

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UNIT OF MEASUREMENT A unit of measurement is a unit about which information is collected for a research project. A unit of measurement will help to measure the variables that research projects study. Units of measurement are the people, objects, or abstract things that researchers will observe and describe during the research project. Typically, the unit of measurement in social research is the individual person, but it may be a social group, an organization, etc…The unit of measurement chosen by the team answers the ‘Who?’ question explained in the previous chapter: it is about choosing the type of population most relevant for the variable that is measured by the research project.

Household income is often taken by research project s as an independent variable because it influences other va riables. It has the following attributes: low, middle, and high. Bu t the researcher has to define what low, middle, and high means in the context of the research project. The researcher has to create categories which in turn help measure income. For instance, a first category is for incomes stric tly below 1 lakh; a second category is for incomes between at l east 1 lakh and strictly below 5 lakhs; a third category is for inc omes between at least 5 lakhs and strictly below 10 lakhs, etc… It is important to note that the categories are created for only a spe cific project. The number of categories and what each category mea ns is very often different from one research project to the ot her, unless the researcher intends to compare two different context s with the same categories. This is an example of an‘ interval level variable ’.

If a research project focuses on the role of civil society organizations in Myanmar, the unit of measurement i s the civil society organization. If a research project examines the livelihood of Ka ren communities in the Ayeyawaddi Division, the researcher might fi nd it relevant to select the Karen household or a Karen family liv ing in one house as a unit of measurement. If a research project investigates employment oppor tunities for young Myanmar graduates, the unit of measurement is the individual (in this case, young Myanmar graduates).

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တငးတာေရးယနစ (UNIT OF MEASUREMENT)

တငးတာေရးယနစ တစခဟသညသေတသနလပငနးတစခအတြကမညသညအခကအလကမား စေဆာငး သနညး ဆေသာသတမတခကတစချဖစသည။တငးတာေရးယနစတစခသညသေတသနစမကနးမားတြငေလလာေနသညကနး႐ငမားအားတငးတာရာတြငအကအညေပးသည။တငးတာေရးယနစမားဟသညသေတသမားသေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြငး ေလလာပေဖာမညလမား (သ႔) အရာဝတမား (သ႔) စတဇနာမမားျဖစၾကသည။ပမနအားျဖငလမႈသေတသန နယပယတြငတငးတာေရးယနစဟသညလပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစ ျဖစေနတတေသာလညးလမႈအပစတစခ၊အဖြ႕အစညး တစခစသညတ႔လညး ျဖစႏငသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕ေ႐ြးခယလကသညတငးတာေရးယနစသညေ႐႕ အခနးတြင ေဖာျပခသည ‘မညသ’ဆေသာေမးခြနးကေျဖၾကားသည။စငစစအားျဖင သေတသနစမကနးတငးတာမညကနး႐င အတြကသကဆငအကးဝငမညလဥးေရအမးအစားကေ႐ြးခယျခငးပငျဖစသည။

အမေထာငစဝငေငြသည အျခားကနး႐ငမားအား ၾသဇာလႊမးမးႏငေသာေၾကာင လြတလပကနး႐ငတစခအျဖစ သေတသနလပငနးမားတြင အမားအားျဖင ယေလ႐သည။ ၄ငးတြင အနမ၊ အလယႏင အျမငဟေသာ အဂၤါရပမား႐သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး သေတသအေနျဖင အနမ၊ အလယႏင အျမငဟသည သေတသနလပငနးေဘာငအတြငး မညသညက ဆလေၾကာငး ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးရန လအပသည။ သေတသသည အပစကြမား ဖနတးေပးမသာ ဝငေငြက တငးတာရာတြင အေထာကအကျပေပလမမည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင ပထမအပစကြသည ေငြ ၁ သနးေအာက သသသာသာနညးပါးေသာ ဝငေငြအတြက၊ ဒတယအပစကြသည အနညးဆး ၁ သနးမ ၅ သနးေအာက သသသာသာ နညးပါးေသာ ဝငေငြအတြက၊ တတယအပစကြသည အနညးဆး ၅ သနးမ ၁၀ သနးေအာက သသသာသာနညးပါးေသာ ဝငေငြအတြက စသညျဖင … ။ သတျပရန အေရးၾကးသညမာ အဆပါ အပစကြမားသည တစခေသာ သေတသနလပငနးအတြကသာ သးသန႔ဖနတးထားျခငးျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနႏင ျခားနားေသာ အေျခအေနႏစရပက တညေသာ အပစကြမားျဖင ႏငးယဥေလလာသညမတပါး အပစကြအေရအတြကႏင အပစကြတစခခငးစ၏ ဆလရငးအဓပၸါယမာ သေတသနလပငနးတစခႏင တစခၾကား ကြာျခားသည။ ဤသညမာ ‘ၾကားတနးကနး႐င’၏ ဥပမာရပတစချဖစသည။

အကယ၍ သေတသနသည ျမနမာႏငင႐ လမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမားအခနး၏ က႑က အဓကေလလာသညဆပါက တငးတာေရး ယနစသည လမႈအဖြ႕အစညးျဖစသည။ အကယ၍ သေတသနသည ဧရာဝတတငး႐ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မားအေၾကာငးက ေလလာသညဆပါက သေတသအေနႏင ကရငအမေထာငစ (သ႔) အမတစအမတညးတြငေနထငေသာ ကရငမသားစတစစအား တငးတာေရးယနစအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယမ သငေလာေပလမမည။ အကယ၍ သေတသနသည ဘြ႕ရျပး ျမနမာလငယမားအတြက အလပအကငအခြငအလမးမားအေၾကာငး စးစမးေလလာမည ဆပါက တငးတာေရးယနစသည လတစဥးခငးစ (ဘြ႕ရ ျမနမာလငယ) ျဖစေပလမမည။

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Choosing the right unit of measurement is crucial for conducting good research and for the validity of the research. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF RESEARCH

The quality of a research project includes, but is not limited to, the validity and reliability of the findings produced. High validity and reliability is achieved when units of measurement, categories, variables, and research methods are adequately selected by the research team. To increase the validity of the findings, it is important for the researcher to ask him/herself the following questions: Are the variable(s), categories, and units of measurement adequately defined and selected with regards to the problem that is to measured or investigated? In other words, can the researcher expect that his/her definition of the variable(s) as well as his/her selection of categories and units of measurement will produce data that adequately addresses the problem investigated? To increase reliability of the findings, it is important for the researcher to ask him/herself the following question: Does the definition of the variable(s) and selection of categories and units of measurement enable the researcher to obtain consistent data throughout the duration of the research? Issues of validity and reliability will recur for the selection of the research method(s) and the adequacy of the selected research method(s) with the topic investigated.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• Quantitative research requires the identification of variable/variables that are given some numerical measurement by the research;

• Qualitative research may also measure a variable, but not in a numerical way; it also investigates problems and concepts, evaluates their meaning, depth, and physical manifestations;

• Both quantitative and qualitative research require the precise definition of what this/these variable(s) mean(s) in the context of the research project;

• Both quantitative and qualitative research usually require the identification of

independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s);

• Depending on the variable(s), the categories created for measuring the variable(s) will be: (1) names, (2) ranking/degree linked to the variable, or (3) regular intervals on a measurement scale;

• Measurement of variables is made on the basis of units of measurement, the

most commonly used being (1) individuals, (2) households, or (3) social groups.

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သ႔ျဖစပါ၍သေတသနေကာငးမြနစြာလပေဆာငရနႏငသေတသနအကးဝငဆေလာမႈ႐ေစရနမနကနေသာတငးတာေရးယနစေ႐ြးခယေရးမာအလြနတရာအေရးၾကးလေပသည။ သေတသန၏ကးစားႏငစြမးႏငအကးဝငႏငစြမး သေတသနစမကနးတစခ၏အရညအေသြးတြင ေတြ႕႐ခကမား၏ကးစားႏငစြမးႏငအကးဝငႏငစြမးဟ၍ အနညးဆးပါ႐သည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငတငးတာေရးယနစမား၊အပစကြမား၊ကနး႐ငမားႏငသေတသနနညးလမးမားကအသငေတာဆး ေ႐ြးခယႏငမသာကးစားႏငစြမးႏငအကးဝငႏငစြမး ေကာငးမြနျမငမားႏငသည။သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမား၏ အကးဝငႏငစြမး ျမငမားေစရန ေဖာျပပါ ေမးခြနးမားကသေတသအေနျဖင၄ငးဘာသာ၄ငး ေမးျမနးရနလအပသည။ ကနး႐င(မား)၊အပစကြမားႏငတငးတာေရးယနစမားအား ေလလာမည ျပနာရပႏငယဥ၍သငတငေလာကပတစြာဖြငဆ ေ႐ြးခယပါသေလာ။တနညးဆေသာသေတသ၏ကနး႐ငမားႏငပတသကျပးဖြငဆလကသညဖြငဆခက၊အပစကြႏငတငးတာေရးယနစမားအား ေ႐ြးခယလကပတ႔သည ေလလာသည ျပနာက ေျဖ႐ငးမည ေဒတာအခကအလကမားထြကေပၚ လာေစလမမညဟ၄ငးကယတင ေမာလငပါသေလာ။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမား၏ကးစားႏငစြမး ျမငမားေစရနမာသေတသအေနျဖင ေဖာျပပါ ေမးခြနးမားကယကယက ေမးရနအေရးၾကးသည။ ကနး႐င(မား)၏အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခက၊အပစကြႏငတငးတာေရးယနစမား ေ႐ြးခယပတ႔သညသေတသနျပလပသည တေလာကလးသေတသအားတသမတတညးေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား ေပးစြမးႏငပါမညေလာ။ အလားတပငသေသတနနညးလမး(မား) ေ႐ြးခယရာတြငႏင ေ႐ြးခယလကေသာသေတသနနညးလမး(မား) ႏင ေလလာမညေခါငးစဥလကေလာညေထြ ျဖစမျဖစဆရာတြငလညးအကးဝငႏငစြမးႏင ကးစားႏငစြမးကထည သြငးစဥးစားရေပမည။ အခနးတြငအဓကမတသားရမညအခကမားမာ -

• အေရအတြကသေတသနတြငကနးဂဏနးတငးတာသတမတခကေပးထားေသာကနး႐င/ကနး႐ငမား ေဖာထတေပးရနလအပသည။

• အရညအခငးသေတသနတြငကနး႐ငတစခအားတငးတာေသာလညးကနးဂဏနးမားျဖငမဟတေပ။ျပနာ ရပႏငသေဘာတရားမားအားေဖာထတေလလာရျပး၄ငးတ႔၏အဓပၸါယ၊ေလးနကမႈႏင႐ပပငးဆငရာအသြငအျပငကလညးအကျဖတရေသးသည။

• အေရအတြကသေတသနတြငျဖစေစ၊အရညအခငးသေတသနတြငျဖစေစအဆပါကနး႐င(မား) သညသေတသန

စမကနးေဘာငအတြငးတြငမညသ႔အဓပၸါယဖြငဆျပ႒ာနးေၾကာငးအဓအက႐ငးလငးရနလအပသည။

• အေရအတြကႏငအရညအခငးသေတသနႏစရပလးတြငမညသညကလြတလပကနး႐င၊မညသညကမခကနး႐င ျဖစေၾကာငးက ေဖာထတသတမတရနလအပသည။

• ကနး႐င(မား) အေပၚအေျချပျပး၄ငးတ႔ကတငးတာရနအပစကြမားဖနတးရာတြင (၁) အမညနာမ (၂) ကနး႐ငႏင ပတသကဆကစပသညအဆင/ဒဂရ (၃) အတငးအတာတစခက ယသညၾကားကတနဖးမားတ႔ အတငး ဖနတးသည။

• ကနး႐ငမားကတငးတာရာတြငတငးတာေရးယနစမားကအေျချပျပးတငးတာသည။အသးအမားဆးတငးတာေရးယနစမားမာ (၁) လပဂၢလတစဥးစသ႔ (၂) အမေထာငစတစစစသ႔ (၃) လမႈအပစတစစစတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

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BASIC 3. BASELINE STUDY

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The importance of the baseline study as a means of collecting preliminary information before implementing a social project;

• The collection of baseline information centered around five types of ‘capital’ (Human, Natural, Social, Physical, and Financial);

• The selection of baseline indicators which can be used for monitoring the progress of a project.

______________________________________________________________________

BASELINE STUDY: GENERAL CONTEXT AND DEFINITION A crucial problem in Myanmar (and, very often, elsewhere) is the lack of reliable information. When beginning a social project, CSOs and NGOs often have very little reliable information for implementing their projects. This can be even more difficult when a project is implemented in the States of Myanmar where the population is not predominantly Bamar. In these different States, the population has a different culture, society, and history than in the Division of Myanmar. If the project managers have a prior knowledge and understanding of how things work there, the project is more likely to succeed in reaching its objectives. It is particularly important that NGOs know the social and economic contexts in which the projects are implemented. Use of local resources, farming techniques, social structure of local communities, and weather conditions are crucial factors that should be known before any project is implemented. These contexts or factors should inform the way the project is designed and the way the project tries to reach its objectives. If this information does not exist before starting the project, it should be collected as part of a Baseline Study when the project starts. The Baseline Study is not a research method: it uses different research methods to address a particular problem or issue. The purpose of the Baseline Study is to give detailed and reliable information that can be used for monitoring the progress of a project during its implementation and assessing its success when it is completed. Comparing data collected at the beginning of the project and at the end makes it possible to measure how much change has happened during the implementation of the project. When measuring how much change has happened during the project, the researcher should try to determine the extent to which the change occurred because of the project was implemented and the extent to which other factors may have influenced also the change.

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အေျခခအဆင ၃ . အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ ဤအခနးတြင

• လမႈစမကနးမားအေကာငအထညမေဖာမပဏာမသတငးအခကအလကစေဆာငးရနအတြကအေျချပစထား ေလလာခက ျပလပရနအေရးၾကးပ

• (လသားဆငရာ၊သဘာ၀ဆငရာ၊လမႈေရးဆငရာ၊ရပပငးဆငရာႏငဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ) ဟ၍ အရငးအႏးငါးမးႏငပတသကေသာအေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈဆငရာသတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးပ

• စမကနးတစရပတးမႈအေျခအေနအားေစာငၾကညေလလာရာတြငအသးျပရနအေျချပစထားတငတားမႈဆငရာအညႊနးကနးမားေရြးခယပတ႔ပါ၀ငပါသည။

_______________________________________________________________________________________ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ။ ။အေထြေထြေနာကခႏငအဓပၸါယဖြငဆခက မနမာျပညႏငတကြအျခားေသအေနရာအခ႕၌အဓကႀကေတြ႔ရေလရေသာ ျပနာတစရပမာအားကး အား ထားျပေလာကေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားမရျခငးျဖစသည။စမကနးတစရပစတငသညအခါ၌စအကစအမားအငနဂအမားအေနျဖင၄ငးတ႔၏စမကနးအေကာငအထည ေဖာႏငရနအားကအားထား ျပေလာကေသာသတငးအခက အလကအနညးငယသာရတတသည။ဗမာလမးအမားစေနထငရာမဟတသညျပညနယမား၌အေကာငအထညေဖာရ ေသာစမကနးမးဆလငသာ၍ဆးေသးသည။ထျပညနယမား၌ေနထငသမားအေနျဖငျပညမ၌ေနေသာသမားႏငယဥေကးမႈ၊လအဖြ႕စညးႏငသမငးေၾကာငးမအစကြာျခားသည။စမကနးမနေနဂာမားအေနျဖငထအရပေဒသမားႏငပတသက၍တငႀကဗဟသတရထားျခငး၊လပနညးလပငနးမားနားလညသေဘာေပါကထားျခငးတ႔ရပါကစမကနးအေနျဖငရညမနခကမားျပညမ ေအာငျမငႏငပါသည။

အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈဆငရာကစၥရပမားအတြကမအငနဂအမားအေနျဖငစမကနးအေကာငအထညေဖာမညေဒသ၏ လမႈစးပြား၀နးကငအေၾကာငးသရထားရနအထးသျဖငအေရးႀကးပါသည။ေဒသခအရငးအျမစမားအသးျပပ၊ထြနယကစက ပးမႈနညးလမးမား၊ေဒသခလထ၏လမႈအသကအအဖြ႕စညးမႈႏငမးေလ၀သအေျခအေနစသညတ႔မာစမကနးမားအေကာင အထညမေဖာမကႀကတငသရထားသငသညအေရးပါေသာအခကမားျဖစပါသည။စမကနး၏ဒဇငးေရးဆြစမထားပ၊စမကနး အေန ျဖင၄ငး၏ရညမနးခကမားအား ျပညမ၍ႀကးစားပတ႔ႏငပတသက၍လညးသထားသငပါသည။ စမကနးဒဇငးေရး ဆြစမထားပ၊စမကနးအေနျဖင၄ငး၏ရညမနးခကမားအားျပညမေအာငႀကးစားပတ႔တြငအေျခအေနႏငအေၾကာငးတရားမားကသထားသငပါသည။အကယ၍စမကနးမစတငမ၌ဤသတငးအခကအလကမားမရ႐ေသးပါကစမကနးစတငသညအခါ၄ငးတ႔ အားအေျချပခထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ၏အစတအပငးတစရပအေနျဖငစေဆာငးသငပါသည။

အေျချပခထားတငးတာေလလာမႈဆသညမာသေတသနနညးလမးတစရပမဟတေပ။ကစၥရပသ႔ ျပနာတစရပ အားခဥးကပရနမတကြျပားေသာသေတသနနညးလမးမားက အသးျပျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ၏ရညရြယခကမာစမကနးတစရပအေကာငအထညေဖာစဥကာလအတြငးျဖစေပၚတးတကမႈမားကေစာငၾကညေလလာရနေသာလညးေကာငး၊စမကနးၿပးဆးသညကာလ၌၄ငး၏ေအာငျမငမႈအားသးသပရနအတြက ေသာလညးေကာငးလအပေသာအေသးစတက၍အားထားရေလာကေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားေထာကပႏငရန ျဖစသည။စမကနးအစပငးကာလ၌ေကာကယထားေသာေဒတာအခကအလကမားႏငအဆးသတကာလ၌စေဆာငးရရေသာအခကအလကမားႏႈႈငးယဥေလလာျခငးအားျဖငစမကနးအေကာငအထညေဖာေနစဥအေတာအတြငးျဖစေပၚခေသာေျပာငးလတးတကမႈမားကတငးတာရနျဖစသည။ စမကနးကာလအတြငးအေျပာငးအလမညမ ျဖစထြနးခသညကတငးတာသညအခါသေတသအေနျဖငစမကနး အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးေၾကာငျဖစေပၚခသညေျပာငးလမႈအတငးအတာကလညးေကာငး၊စမကနးေၾကာငမဟတေသာအျခားအေၾကာငးအရာမား၏လႊမးမးမႈေၾကာငျဖစေပၚခေသာေျပာငးလမႈအတငးအတာကလညးေကာငးသရဆးျဖတႏငရနလအပပါသည။

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The example below shows a graph made as part of a baseline study focusing on livelihood. The project implemented by the organization seeks to positively change the livelihood of the involved communities. The results of this change will be seen in the sustainable livelihood outcomes and the increased security of the household at various levels (see box in the right part). Adapted from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x9371e/x9371e11.htm To measure this positive change, however, the research team must first understand the context (box on the left side). The team must also understand the five different types of capitals which influence the life and future of the household (lower part of the livelihood strategy in the center).The definition of ‘capital’, in this context, is all the assets available to a household that the household can use to increase its welfare. By conducting a Baseline Study, the research team can improve understanding of both the context and the different types of capital as well as all other aspects of the livelihood strategy shown in the above graph.

HOW TO CONDUCT A BASELINE STUDY A Baseline Study should be conducted as illustrated below:

Prepare a Baseline Plan

Conduct the Baseline Study according to the Baseline Plan

Analyze the collected data

Write a Baseline Report

HOUSEHOLD

Consumption (eating, buying

goods, etc.)

Production & Income

Human Capital Natural Capital Social Capital Physical Capital Financial Capital

Social Activities (helping the community, self-help

groups, associations, etc.)

Livelihood Strategy

Natural Resources Institutions Infrastructure History Social Context Economic Context Demography

Sustainable Livelihood Outcomes

Context

Security of:

Food

Health

Water

Shelter

Education

Land

Community cohesion

Personal safety

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ေအာကေဖာျပပါဥပမာတြငအေျချပစထား ေလလာခက၏တစတတေဒသအျဖစအသကေမြးလပငနး အထးျပဇယားျပပ တစခတညေဆာကထားပါသည။စမကနး ေဖာေဆာငသညအဖြ႕အစညးသညစမကနးပါရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈကအျပသေဘာ ေျပာငးလေစရနရညသနသည။အဆပါေျပာငးလမႈ၏ရလာဒမားက ေရရညတညတေသာအသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဆငရာျဖစထြနးသညအကးသြားမားႏငအမေထာငစ၏အဆငအသးသး၌တးတကလာေသာဖလမႈတ႔(ညာဘကတြငေဘာငခတေဖာျပထားသညအတငး) ကေတြ႕ျမငရပါသည။

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x9371e11.htmမကးယေဖာျပပါသည။

သ႔ေသာအဆပါအျပသေဘာေျပာငးလမႈကတငးတာရနသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငပတ၀နးကငအေနအထား (ဘယဘကတြင ေဘာငခတေဖာျပပါအတငး)ကဥးစြာနားလညထားရနလပါသည။အမေထာငစ၏ဘ၀ႏငအနာဂတအေပၚလႊမးမးသကေရာကမႈရေသာအရငးအႏးငါးမး(အလယပအသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဗဟာ၏ေအာကေျခပငး)ကလညးသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငနားလညထားရပါမည။ဤအေျခအေနတြင ‘အရငးအႏး’၏အဓပၸါယမာအမေထာငစကပမ၍ဖလေစရန အသးျပႏငသည ဥစၥာ အားလး ကဆလသည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပျပလပျခငးအားျဖင သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငပတ၀နးကငအေနအထားႏင တကြကြျပားေသာအရငးအႏးအမးအစားမားအျပငဂရပတြငေဖာျပပါအတငးသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဆငရာဗဟာ၏အျခားေသာမကႏာစာမားအေၾကာငးပမတးတကနားလညလာႏငပါသည။ အေျချပခထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပျပလပပ အေျချပခထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပကေအာကတြငသရပေဖာျပပါအတငးေဆာငရြကသငပါသည။

အေျခစထားအစအမတစရပျပငဆငပါ။

အေျချပစထားစမကနးအတငးတငးတာေလလာမႈျပပါ။

စေဆာငးရရေသာအခကအလကမားကစစစေလလာပါ။

အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈဆငရာအစရငခစာေရးသားပါ။

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The Baseline Plan is drafted by the researcher who clarifies what information is needed for the Baseline Study and what indicators are used to measure change. But before explaining what the Baseline Plan consists of, let’s examine the type of information needed.

Baseline General information

Themes for each type of “capital”

Possible indicators for each type of “capital”

Human Capital

Labour (1) Rate of hired labour; (2) Rate of small landholder; (3) Emigration of population; (4) etc.

Health and nutrition status (1) Main food items for daily diet (2) Ratio height/weight; (3) Immunization against disease; (4) Ratio population/doctor; (5) etc.

Skills and knowledge (1) Male/Female literacy; (2) Apprenticeship (3) Attendance to training; (4) etc.

Natural Capital

Access to land (1) Irrigated land; (2) Non-irrigated land; (3) Forest land; (4) etc.

Water (1) Number of wells within the village; (2) Free access to wells; (3) Annual rainfall; (4) Irrigated area for farming; (5) etc.

Renewable and non-renewable resources

(1) Soil capability; (2) Rivers for fishing, washing, and other activities; (3) etc.

Flora, forest, and wildlife (1) Free access to forests in proximity of residence; (2) Negotiated use of

forest resources; (3) Sustainability of forest management: (4) etc.

Social Capital

Social network (1)Mills operated collectively among villagers; (2) Engagement with local authorities; (3) etc.

Social trust (circle of trusted people)

(1) Self-help groups; (2) Religious associations; (3) Non-religious associations; (4) etc.

Physical Capital

Housing (1) Thatched house; (2) Wooden house; (3) Brick house; (4) Plastic tent; (5) etc.

Vehicle & Infrastructure (1) Distance from home to work place; (2) Ownership of a vehicle; (3) Condition of road infrastructure; (4) etc.

Equipment (1) Engine; (2) Farm mechanization; (3) etc.

Livestock (1) Cattle; (2) Poultry; (3) Pigs; (4) etc.

Financial Capital

Savings (1) Cash in household; (2) Debt of household

Access to funding (1) Access to loans; (2) Access to micro-credit; (3) etc.

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အေျချပစထားအစအမတစရပကသေတသမ ျပစေရးဆြျခငးျဖစၿပးအေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈအမႈ အတြက မညသညသတငးအခကအလကမားလအပသည၊ ေျပာငးလမႈကတငးတာရနမညသညအညႊနးကနးမား လအပသညကရငးရငးလငးလငးသထားရနလပါသည။အေျချပစထားအစအမတစရပတြငမညသည႔အရာမားပါ၀ငသညကရငးလငးတငျပမႈမျပလပမလအပေသာသတငးအခကအလကအမးအစားမားက ေလ႔လာၾကည႔ပါမည။

အေျချပစထား အေထြေထြ သတငးအခကအလက

“အရငးအႏး” တစမး စအတြကအေၾကာငးအရာက႑မား

“အရငးအႏး”တစမးစအတြကျဖစႏငေခရေသာအညႊနးကနးမား

လသား အရငးအႏး

လပအား (၁)လပသားငားရမးမႈႏႈနး(၂)အေသးစားေျမပငဆငသႏႈနး (၃) တငးတစပါးသ႔ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသညလဥးေရ (၄)စသည

ကနးမာေရးႏင အာဟာရအေျခအေန

(၁)ေန႔စဥစားေသာကမႈအတြကအဓကအစားအစာမား(၂)အရပအျမင /ကယအေလးခနအခး(၃) ေရာဂါမားအတြကကာကြယေဆးထးႏထားမႈ (၄)လဥးေရ/ဆရာ၀နအခး(၅)စသည

ကၽြမးကငမႈမားႏငဗဟသတအသပညာ

(၁)ကား/မစာတတေျမာကမႈ(၂) အလပသငအျဖစလပကငျခငး (၃) သငတနးမားတကေရာကမႈ(၄)စသည

သဘာ၀ အရငးအႏး

ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ (၁) ဆညေရေသာကေျမ (၂) ဆညေျမာငးေရသြငးစကပးျခငးမရေသာ ေျမ(၃)သစေတာေျမ (၄) စသည

ေရ (၁)ေကးရြာတြငရေရတြငးအေရအတြက(၂)ေရတြငးမားအားလြတလပစြာသးစြႏငခြင႔ (၃)ႏစစဥမးေရခန (၄) ဆညေရသြငးစကပးဧရယာ(၅) စသည

ျပနလညျပညၿမႏင ျပနလညျဖညစြမးျခငးမရ ေသာအရငးအျမစမား

(၁) ေျမဆၾသဇာျဖစထြနးမႈ (၂) ငါးဖမးျခငး၊အ၀တေလာျခငးႏငအျခားေသာလပငနးေဆာငတာမားအတြကျမစမား(၃)စသည

ပနးမန၊သစေတာႏင သဘာ၀ေတာရငး

(၁)ေနထငရာအနးေဒသရသစေတာမားအားလြတလပစြာအသးျပႏငမႈ (၂) သစေတာရငးျမစမားအားညႏႈငး၍အသးျပမႈ (၃)ေရရညတညတမညသစေတာထနးသမးစမခန႕ခြမႈ(၄)စသည

လမႈေရး အရငးအႏး

လမႈကြနယက (၁)ရြာသားမားစေပါငးလပကငေသာစကရမား(၂) ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမားႏငဆကဆေရး (၃)စသည

လမႈေရးယၾကညကးစားမႈ (အျပနအလနယၾကညသ လမားအသကအ၀နး)

(၁)ကယထကယထအစအဖြ႕မား(၂)ဘာသာေရးအသငးအဖြ႕မား (၃)ဘာသာေရးႏငမသကဆငေသာအသငးအဖြ႕မား (၄)စသည

ရပပငးဆင ရာအရငးအႏး

အမယာ (၁)သကကယမးအမ(၂)ပဥေထာငအမ(၃)တကအမ(၄)ပလတစတစတ (၅)စသည

ယာဥႏငအေျခခအ ေဆာကအဥး

(၂) အမမအလပသ႔အကြာအေ၀း(၂) ယာဥတစစးစးပငဆငမႈ (၃) လမးအေျခအေန (၄)စသည

ပစၥညးကရယာ (၁) အငဂင (၂) စကမႈလယယာသးစြႏငမႈ (၃)စသည

အမေမြးတရစၦာနစ (၁) ကၽြႏြား(၂)ၾကကဘ (၃)၀က (၄)စသည

ဘ႑ာေရး အရငးအႏး

စေဆာငးေငြ (၁)အမေထာငစရေငြသား (၂) အမေထာငစ၏ေၾကြးၿမ

ရနပေငြရရႏငမႈ (၁) ေငြေခးယႏငမႈ(၂)အေသးစားေငြေခးယႏငမႈ (၃)စသည

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IMPORTANT NOTE: All types of indicators above in the table are mentioned for the purpose of clarification only. They are not all necessary needed for a Baseline Study. The selection of indicators is crucial for the research process. An indicator is one aspect of a variable (see Chapter on ‘Qualitative and Quantitave Research’ for definition of a variable). Because a research team studies how this variable varies, the team has to consider which aspects of the variable are to be measured. An aspect of a variable that can be measured is an indicator.

Baseline Plan

Indicators Selected

Data Collection Methods

Location of Data Collection

Time needed for Data Collection

Human Capital

Natural Capital

Social Capital

Physical Capital

Financial Capital

Literacy is a variable. A research team has to deci de how to measure literacy. This means that the team has to s elect a range of indicators that the team thinks can measur e the ‘literacy’ variable. If the research team measures level of knowledge am ong communities in remote mountainous areas, the indica tors selected might be: (1)Level of school completed; (2 ) Reading proficiency; (3) Writing skills; and (4) Basic Math proficiency. Note that the indicators for measuring knowledge ca n be different if the research team works in remote area s and in urban areas.

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အေရးႀကးမတခက။ ။ ၁။၁။၁။အထကပါဇယားတြငပါ၀ငေသာအညႊနးကနးမားမာရငးလငးထင႐ားေစရနရညရြယခကျဖငသာ ေဖာျပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတရပအတြကအကနလးလအပသညဟမဆလပါ။ အညႊနးကနးမားေရြးခယမႈသညသေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြကအေရးႀကးပါသည။အညႊနးကနးတစခဆသညမာကနးရငတစခလး၏ရႈေထာငတစရပျဖစပါသည။ (ကနးရငႏငပတသကေသာအဓပၸါယဖြငဆမႈကအခနး (၂)တြငၾကညပါ။) သေတသနအဖြ႕တစရပအေနျဖငကနးရငတစလး၏ေျပာငးလမႈကေလလာေသာေၾကာငအဆပါကနးရငအားမညသညရႈေထာငမအေကာငးဆးတငးတာႏငမညဆသညကစဥးစားရပါမည။ကနးရငတစခလးအားတငးတာေသာရႈေထာငတစရပသညအညႊနးကနးျဖစပါသည။ ဥပမာ “စာတတေျမာကမႈ”သညကနးရငတစလးျဖစပါသည။သ႔ေသာသေတသနအဖြ႕တစရပအေနျဖငစာတတေျမာကမႈအားမညသ႔တငးတာရမညကဆးျဖတရပါမည။ဆလသညမာသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင“စာတတေျမာကမႈ”ဟေသာကနးရငအားတငးတာႏငမညဟထငသညအညႊနးကနးမားကေရြးခယရပါမည။ အကယ၍သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ေ၀းလေခါငဖားေတာငတနးေဒသမားမလထ၏ အသပညာအဆငအတနးက တငးတာလပါက ေရြးခယႏငေသာအညႊနးကနးမားမာ (၁) တကေရာကျပးဆးခသညအတနး (၂) စာဖတႏငစြမး (၃) စာေရးႏငစြမး (၄) အေျခခအတြကအခကစြမးရညတ႔ျဖစၾကသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငၿမ႕ျပဧရယာႏငေကးလကေဒသမားေပၚမတည၍အသပညာကတငးတာေသာအညႊနးကနးမားေရြးခယရာတြငကြျခားမႈရႏငသညကသတျပပါ။ အညႊနးကနးမား ေရြးခယၿပးပါကသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈအစအမတစရပက ေအာကပါအတငးျပစႏငပါသည။

အေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈအစအမ

ေရြးခယထားေသာအညႊနးကနးမား

အခကအလကေကာက ယမႈနညးလမးမား ေရြးခယထားေသာျပျခငးနညးလမးစသည)

အခကအလက ေကာကယရာအရပ ေဒသ

အခကအလကေကာကယမႈအတြကလအပေသာအခန

လသားအရငးအႏး

သဘာ၀အရငးအႏး

လမႈေရးအရငးအႏး

႐ပပငးဆငရာအရငးအႏး

ဘ႑ာေရးအရငးအႏး

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Selecting the right indicators for the Baseline Plan and, more generally, for the Baseline Study is very important. These indicators can be used by the research team to monitor the evolution of the socio-economic context during the project implementation. They can also be used at the end of the project when an assessment is made to determine whether the project has reached its objectives. The next section gives further explanations of this issue.

A Baseline Study most often is based on quantitative data. But it can also rely on qualitative data. Again the selection of one or other type of data depends on the research topic and the human and financial resources available to the project. If possible, the research team should try to use both quantitative and qualitative data for the Baseline Study.

QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF THE BASELINE STUDY

Among the different indicators selected by the team, three indicators are taken below as examples. These are examples only given for clarifying purposes. A Baseline Study usually includes more indicators. One indicator that can be chosen at the beginning of the project is the percentage of farmers understanding the newly-revised land law. Understanding here could mean the amount of right answers given by the farmers to a questionnaire about this new law. The study (see graph below) shows that only 17% of the farmers of the three Divisions that are part of the project understand the newly-revised land law at the beginning of the project.

An organization implements a project on land securi ty in three Divisions of Myanmar. The purpose is to increase op portunities for land security among small landholders. At the b eginning of the project, the research team discusses which indi cators of land security will be used as baseline information. These indicators can then be used by the research team to monitor the progress of the project.

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အေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈအစအမတစရပ (Baseline Plan) ပ၍ၿခငေျပာရလငအေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈတစရပလး အတြက မနကနစြာအညႊနးကနးမားေရြးခယႏငမႈမာအလြနပငအေရးႀကးပါသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငဤအညႊြနးကနးမားက အသးျပ၍စမကနးအေကာငအထညေဖာစဥကာလအတြငးျဖစထြနးတးတကလာေသာလမႈစးပြား၀နးကငအေနအထားအား ေလလာေစာငၾကညပါသည။စမကနးအဆးသတကာလတြငလညးအဆပါအညႊနးကနးမားကပငအသးျပ၍စမကနးအေနျဖင၎၏ရညမနးခကမားျပညမမႈရမရကဆနးစစမႈျပပါသည။ဤအေၾကာငးအရာႏငပတသက၍ေနာကတြငပ၍ရငးလငးမႈျပပါမည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပသညမားေသာအားျဖငအေရအတြကစထားေဒတာအခကအလကမားအေပၚ အေျချပပါသည။သ႔ေသာအရညအေသြးစထားေဒတာမားအားလညးသးႏငပါသည။မညသ႔ေသာေဒတာအခကအလက မားအားေရြးခယအသးျပမညဆသညမာစမကနးအတြကရႏငေသာလအငအားႏငဘ႑ာေရးအရငးအျမစမားအေပၚမ တညပါသည။မညသညအရငးအျမစမားရႏငသညျဖစေစသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ အတြကအေရအတြကစထားအခကအလကမားေကာ၊အရညအေသြးစထားေဒတာအခကအလကမားပါႏစမးစလးအသးျပသငပါသည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ၏အေရအတြကဆငရာ႐ႈေထာငမား ဥပမာ အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပအေနျဖငျမနမာႏငင၏တငးေဒသႀကးသးခ၌ေျမယာပငဆငမႈအာမခခကႏငပတသကေသာစမကနးတစရပကအေကာငအထညေဖာလကရသည။တစပငတစႏငေျမယာပငဆငသမားအတြကေျမယာပငဆငမႈအာမခခကဆငရာအခြငအလမးမားတးျမငေပးႏငရနရညရြယခကျဖငျဖစသည။စမကနး၏အစပငးကာလ၌သေတသနအဖြ႕သညေျမယာပငဆငမႈအာမခခကႏငပတသကေသာမညသညအညႊနးကနးမားအားအေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈဆငရာသတငးအခကအလကအျဖစအသးျပမညကေဆြးေႏြးရမည။ ေနာကပငးတြငလညးစမကနး၏တးတကမႈမားက ေစာငၾကညရနဤအညႊနးကနးမားကပငသးသြားမည ျဖစသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕မ ေရြးခယထားေသာမတကြျပားသညအညႊနးကနးမားထမယခဥပမာအေနျဖငအညႊနးကနးသးခက ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားပါသည။ဤအညႊနးကနးမားမာရငးလငးတငျပရနရညရြယခကျဖငသာေရြးခယထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပတြငယခထကပမားေသာအညႊနးကနးမားသးေလရပါသည။ စမကနးအစပငးတြင ေရြးခယထားေသာအညႊနးကနးတစရပမာအသစျပျပငျပဌါနးထားေသာ ေျမယာဥပေဒအား နားလညသညလယသမားမားရာခငႏႈနးျဖစသည။နားလညသေဘာေပါကျခငးဆသညမာဥပေဒအသစႏငပတသကျပး ျပလပထားသည ေမးခြနးလႊာပါ ေမးခြနးမားကလယသမားမားမညေ႐ြ႕မညမ ေျဖဆႏငသညက ဆလသည။ ေလလာမႈအရ (ေအာကေဖာျပပါဂရပပအတငး) စမကနး၏အစပငးကာလတြငအသစျပျပငျပဌါနးထားေသာေျမယာ ဥပေဒကနားလညသညလယသမားရာခငႏႈနးမာစမကနးဧရယာျဖစေသာတငးေဒသႀကးသးခ၌၁၇%ႏႈနးသာရသည။

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(the time intervals shown here are only for clarification purposes; any project has to decide which time intervals are the most relevant)

If the organization’s human and financial resources allow, researchers could possibly ask the same question to the same number of farmers at the project’s mid-term. Then the researchers could assess whether there is any progress. At the end of the project, this could be done a third and final time. By comparing the percentage at the beginning and end of the project, the indicator could show whether some progress is made on this aspect of the project. A second indicator that can be chosen is the number of self-help groups that were created by the small landholders during the course of the project. The field survey collects information about the second indicator at the beginning of the project. The Baseline Study shows (see graph below) that only two self-help groups exist at the beginning of the project.

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(ဤေနရာတြင ျပထားေသာအခနကာလၾကားအကြာအေ၀းမားမာရငးလငးတငျပရနရညရြယခက ျဖင ျပထားျခငးျဖစၿပး မညသညစမကနးမဆအသငေလာဆးေသာအခနကာလၾကားအကြာအေ၀းကေရြးခယႏငပါသည။)

အကယ၍အဖြ႕အစညး၏လအငအားႏငဘ႑ာေရးအေျခအေနကခြငျပပါကသေတသမားအေနျဖငစမကနးအလယပငး၌တညေသာလယသမားအေရအတြကအားတညေသာေမးခြနးမးေမးႏငပါလမမည။ဤသ႔အားျဖငသေတသမားအေနျဖငတးတကမႈရမရကေလလာဆနးစစႏငပါသည။စမကနး၏အဆးသတကာလတြငမဤေလ႔လာမႈကတတယႏင႔ ေနာကဆး အၾကမထပမျပလပပါသည။စမကနးႏင႔အစဥးကာလႏင႔စမကနး၏အဆးသတကာလရရာခငႏႈနးမားအားႏႈငးယဥေလလာၾကညျခငးျဖငစမကနး၏ဤ႐ႈေထာငပငးဆငရာတြငတးတကမႈတစစတစရာရမရကအညႊနးကနးကျပဆႏငပါသည။ ေရြးခယထားေသာဒတယအညႊနးကနးတစရာမာစမကနးကာလအတြငးတစပငတစႏငေျမယာပငဆငသမားမဖြ႕စညး ထားေသာကယထကယထအပစမားအေရအတြကျဖစပါသည။ စမကနးအစပငးကာလ၌ဒတယအညႊနးကနးႏငပတသကေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားကကြငးဆငးစစတမးေကာကယပါသည။အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈအရ (ေအာကေဖာျပပါဂရပအတငး) စမကနးအစပငးကာလတြငကယ ထ ကယထအပစႏစခသာလငရပါသည။

Tပထမႏစ (စမကနးအစ) (စမကနးအလယပငး) (စမကနးအဆးသတကာလ)

၂၀ ၁၅ ၁၀ ၅

အညႊနးကနး၂(ယနစမာ (ကယထ-ကယထအပစမား)

Tဒတယႏစ T၀

၂၀

၄၀

၆၀

၈၀

စမကနးအစ စမကနးအလယပငး စမကနးအဆးသတကာလ

ပထမႏစ ဒတယႏစ

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The data collected at the end of the project for the same indicator will show whether there is some progress made on this aspect of the project in the three Divisions of the country selected for the implementation of the project.

A third indicator that could be chosen is the number of applications submitted for land registration. The field survey collects information about this third indicator at the beginning of the project. The Baseline Study (see graph below) shows that 20 applications were submitted for land registration.

The data collected at the end of the project for the same indicator will show whether there is some progress made on this aspect of the project. The research team analyses the data both at the beginning and at the end of the project. The team has to consider how much of the progress is directly related to the activities implemented by the project. It also has to consider other factors which might have influenced change as shown by the indicators. QUALITATIVE ASPECTS OF THE BASELINE STUDY Qualitative aspects of the Baseline Study focus on information that is not easily understood by simply conducting quantitative research. Social structure of families, farming techniques, or mode of subsistence may be best understood by conducting qualitative research.

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ထအညႊနးကနးအတြငးစမကနးအဆးသတကာလ၌ေကာကယရရေသာအခကအလကမားအရစမကနးအေကာငအထည ေဖာရာအျဖစေရြးခယထားေသာတငးေဒသႀကးသး၌စမကနး၏ဤ႐ႈေထာငပငးဆငရာတြငတးတကမႈတစစတစရာရမရသရႏငပါသည။ ေရြးခယထားေသာတတယေျမာကအညႊနးကနးမာ - ေျမယာမတပတငျခငးအတြကေလာကထားေသာ ေလာကလႊာ အေရအတြကျဖစပါသည။ ပထမႏငဒတယအညႊနးကနးမားကသ႔ပငစမကနးအစပငးကာလ၌ဤတတယအညႊနးကနးႏငပတသကေသာသတငး အခကအလကမားကကြငးဆငးစစတမးေကာကယပါသည။အေျချပခထားတငးတာေလလာမႈအရ (ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ဂရပအတငး) ေျမယာမတပတငျခငးအတြကေလာကထားထားေသာေလာကလႊာအေရအတြကမာ၂၀ျဖစပါသည။

ထအညႊနးကနးအတြကစမကနးအဆးသတကာလတြငေကာကယရရေသာအခကအလကမားအရစမကနး၏ဤ႐ႈေထာငပငးဆငရာတြငတးတကမႈတစစတစရာရမရသႏငပါသည။ သေသသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငစမကနးအစပငးႏငအဆးသတကာလေဒတာအခကအလကမားအားေလလာဆနးစစပါသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငစမကနးအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးဆငရာလပငနးေဆာငတာမားႏငတက႐ကပတသကမႈရေသာတးတကမႈပမာဏကစစေဆးဆးျဖတရပါသည။အညႊနးကနးမားကျပဆသညအတငးတးတကမႈအေပၚသကေရာကမႈရေသာ (စမကနးေၾကာငမဟတေသာ) အျခားေသာအခကအလကမားကလညထသြငးစဥးစားရပါသည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ၏အရညအေသြးဆငရာ႐ႈေထာငမား အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ၏အရညအေသြးဆငရာ႐ႈေထာငအေနျဖင-အေရအတြကစထားသေတသနျပရမျဖင႔ နားလညရနမလြယကေသာအသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈဆငရာသတငးအခကအလကမားအေပၚအာ႐ထားပါသည။မသားစမား၏လမႈအသကအၿမပစ၊လယယာစကပးမႈနညးလမးမား၊စားေသာကေနထငသကေမြးမႈပစတ႔မာအရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနအားျဖငသာေကာငးစြာနားလညႏငပါသည။

၇၅၀ ၅၀၀ ၂၅၀ ၁၀၀

Tပထမႏစ

အညႊနးကနး၃(အေရအတြက) (ေျမယာမတပတငျခငးအတြက ေလာကထားေသာ ေလာကလႊာမား)

Tပထမႏစ Tဒတယႏစ

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In this case, literature review, focus group discussions, and key informants interviews all are research methods that produce valuable baseline information. TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

• A Baseline Study serves to collect preliminary information about communities that benefit from a social project;

• Some of the information collected during the study should be used as indicators that help the researchers monitor how much change happens during the project implementation;

• By collecting data about these indicators at the beginning, middle, and end of

the project implementation, the researcher assesses the extent to which the changes that occurred during the project implementation are directly related to the activities conducted by the project.

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ဤကစၥမးတြငယခငမတတမးမတရာမားအားေလလာျခငး၊ဥးတညအပစေဆြးပြမား၊အဓကသတငးေပးသမားအားေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငးတ႔မာအဖးတနေသာအေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈဆငရာသတငးအခကအလကမားရရေစသညသေတသနနညးလမးမားျဖစပါသည။

အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ • အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပသညအသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဆငရာစမကနးတစရပမအကးခစားရမည

ရပရြာလထႏငပတသကေသာေရ႕ေျပးသတငးအခကအလကမားေကာကယစေဆာငးပါသည။

• ေလလာမႈျပစဥကာအတြငးစေဆာငးရရေသာအခ႕ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအားအညႊနးကနးမားအျဖစ အသးျပသငၿပး၎တ႔သညစမကနးအေကာငအထညေဖာစဥကာလအတြငးျဖစထြနးေသာေျပာငးလမႈအတငးအတာသေတသမားကေစာငၾကညႏငရနအေထာကအပျဖစေစပါသည။

• အဆပါအညႊနးကနးမားႏငပတသကေသာအခကအလကမားအားစမကနးအေကာငအထညေဖာမႈ၏အစပငး၊

အလယပငးႏငအဆးသတကာလတ႔၌ေကာကယစေဆာငးျခငးအားျဖငသေတသအေနျဖငစမကနးေဖာေဆာငရာ လပငနးေဆာငတာမားႏငတက႐ကပတသကမႈရေသာအေျပာငးအလမား၏ပမာဏမညမရသညကစမကနးေဖာ ေဆာငစဥကာလအတြငးဆနးစစေလလာႏငပါသည။

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BASIC 4.SURVEY RESEARCH (1)

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The use of survey research for collecting data; • The steps in formulating survey questionnaires; • The best ways to conduct survey interviews. ______________________________________________________

This chapter is the first of two focusing on survey research. The second part is in the intermediate section.

SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey is a mode of observation frequently used in the social sciences. In a survey, the researcher selects a sample of respondents and submits a standardized questionnaire to them. Survey may be used for exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory purposes. They are used in studies that have individual persons or households as their unit of analysis. Survey is the best method available when a social researcher has to collect original data for describing a population too large to observe directly. Careful sampling is concerned with selecting a group of respondents whose characteristics in relationship to the topic of research reflect those of the larger population. Survey is also an excellent method for measuring attitudes and orientations in a large population. Standardized questionnaires provide data from all respondents in the same form. Conducting survey research begins with formulating good questions. It also requires careful preparation and detailed protocol writing.

The advantages of survey are the following: fairly quick, easy to perform, less expensive, and adapted to chronic/indolent conditions. However, researchers also need to acknowledge the limitations of survey. Surveys have limited capacity to document the relationship between an issue and its root causes as they are all measured at the same time.

PLANNING A SURVEY RESEARCH

• First, it is important to consider whether the information can be collected by the survey. This is important, especially in the context of Myanmar, where certain areas and questions are still highly sensitive.

• The next step is to lay out the objectives of the investigation. The objectives of a survey should be specific, clear-cut, and unambiguous.

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အေျခခအဆင ၄. စစတမးသေတသန ( ၁ )

ဤပ႔ခခကတြင

• အခကအလကစေဆာငးရာတြငစစတမးသေတသနအားအသးျပပ

• စစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာမားျပငဆငျပလပပအဆငဆင

• စစတမးလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးခကမားျပလပရနအေကာငးဆးနညးလမးမား ___________________________________________________________

ဤအခနးသညစစတမးသေတသနကအဓကထားေဖာျပသညအခနးႏစခနးအနကပထမအခနးျဖစသည။ဒတယအခနးမာအလယအလတပငးတြငပါဝငသည။

စစတမးသေတသန

စစတမးဟသညတစတရာေသာရည႐ြယခကျဖငအေသးစတစစေဆးျခငး/စမးသပျခငး/ေထာကလမးျခငးလပငနးစဥတစရပျဖစသည (ေအာကစဖ႔ဒအဂၤလပအဘဓာနမ)။၄ငးသညလမႈေရးသပၸတြငအသးမားေသာ ေလလာေရး ၾကားခနယ

တစချဖစသည။စစတမးျပလပရာတြငသေတသသည ေျဖၾကားေပးမညနမနာလအပစတစစက ေ႐ြးခယျပးစကကျပးသား ေမးခြနးလႊာတစခ ေပးအပသည။စစတမးအားပဏာမစးစမးေရး၊ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆေရး၊ ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး ရည႐ြယခကသး ခစလးျဖငအသးျပႏငသည။လပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစ(သ႔) အမေထာငစမားအား ဆစပငးေလလာေရးယနစအျဖစယေသာ

ေလလာခကမားတြင၄ငးတ႔အားအသးျပသည။အဆပါလပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစအားေျဖၾကားေပးမညသမား (respondents)

ဟ ေခၚသည။

လမႈေရးသေတသတစဥးသညတက႐ကထေတြ႕ေလလာရနၾကးမားမားျပားလြနးေသာလဥးေရတစရပအား ေဖာျပႏငရန

အလ႔ငာမလအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးေသာအခါစစတမးေကာကယျခငးသညအေကာငးဆးနညးလမးျဖစသည။ဂ႐တစကနမနာစေဆာငးျခငးသညသေတသနေခါငးစဥအရလဥးေရတစရပလးကထငဟပႏငမညဝေသသပင႐င ေျဖဆသမား ေ႐ြးခယေရးပငျဖစသည။စစတမးေကာကယျခငးသညပမနထကပ၍ၾကးမားေသာလဥးေရတစရပအတြငးမစတေနသေဘာထားမားႏငအေျခခယၾကညယဆခကမားကတငးတာရာတြငအလြနတရာေကာငးမြနေသာနညးလမးတစခလညးျဖစသည။စကကျပးသား ေမးခြနးလႊာမားသည ေျဖၾကားသမားထမအခကအလကမားကပစတစမးတညးျဖငရ႐ေစသည။ စစတမး သေတသနလပေဆာငျခငးမာ ေမးခြနးေကာငးမား ျပလပေရးမစတငသည။ ဂ႐တစကျပငဆငေရးႏင အေသးစတမၾကမး ေရးသားျခငးမား ျပလပရနလညးလအပသည။

စစတမး၏အားသာခကမားမာလငျမနျခငး၊ ျပလပရနလြယကျခငး၊ ေငြေၾကးအကနအကနညးျခငးႏငဆးဝါးေသာ/

လပကငခငစတမ႐ေသာအေျခအေနမားတြငအသးျပႏငျခငးတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။သ႔ေသာလညးသေတသတ႔သည

စစတမး၏အကန႔အသတကသ႐ထားရနလညးလအပသည။ ျပနာရပႏငပငမအေၾကာငးတရာမားၾကားဆကႏြယမႈက

မတတမးျပရာတြင၄ငးတ႔မာတျပငနကတညးတငးတာရသညျဖစ၍စစတမး၏မတတမးျပႏငစြမးကအဟန႔အတားျဖစေစသည။

စစတမးသေတသနတစချပလပရနျပငဆငျခငး

• ဥးစြာပထမအခကအလကမားသညစစတမးနညးျဖငသာစေဆာငးႏငျခငးဟတမဟတအေလးေပးစဥးစားရနလအပသည။ဤအခကသညအခ႕ေသာ ေနရာေဒသ၊အခ႕ေသာ ေမးခြနးမားအတြကအကဆတလြနးလေသးေသာ

ျမနမာႏငငအေနအထားတြငအထးအေရးၾကးသည။

• ေနာကတစဆငမာစးစမးေလလာမႈ၏ရညမနးခကမားကထငသာျမငသာ႐ေစျခငးပငျဖစသည။စစတမးေကာကယ

ျခငး၏ရညမနးခကမားမာတတပပ႐ရမည။႐ငးလငးျပတသားရမည။႐ပ႐ပေထြးေထြးမျဖစေစရ။

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• Survey research often implies that respondents give researchers information about themselves that is not readily available. Questions can sometimes be embarrassing for respondents. It is therefore important to carefully prepare the contents of the questionnaire and try to minimize the risk of embarrassment.

• It is also important to take into account the “interviewer effect”. The interviewer effect means that the respondent’s behaviour or answer changes because he or she is being interviewed by an interviewer.

CONTENTS OF A SURVEY RESEARCH

Before starting the drafting of the survey form, the following steps should be considered by the researcher(s):

� objectives of the survey and variables as starting points

� clarification of the research question/topic

� nature of sample: sample from specific categories of people or the general population

� required sample size of the survey

� interview technique to be used by the researcher(s)

KEY STEPS IN CARRYING OUT A SURVEY

The key steps in carrying out a survey include the following ones:

1. Decide whether a survey is necessary. If a survey is deemed necessary, then the following steps apply.

2. Define the survey objectives and the geographic target area to be included in the survey.

3. Determine what information is collected and from which population subgroup it is collected.

4. Gather the background information necessary for carrying out the survey and, if needed, meet with community leaders, local authorities and organizations that may be concerned with the survey.

5. Determine the most appropriate sampling method and sample size.

6. Determine the schedule for the survey and prepare supplies and equipment accordingly.

7. Design the survey form.

8. Design the surveyor's manual.

9. Select and train survey workers.

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• မားေသာအားျဖငတပါးသအား ေပးေလမ႐ေသာကယေရးကယတာအခကအလကမားကစစတမးသေတသနတြငမ ေျဖၾကားသမားကသေတသအား ေပးေလ႐သည။ ေမးခြနးမားသညတခါတရ ေျဖၾကားေပးမညသအတြက

ေျဖဆရန႐ကစရာ ျဖစေနတတသည။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေမးခြနးလႊာပါအေၾကာငးအရာမားအား ေျဖၾကားမညသ႐က႐ြ႕ သြားေစမညကစၥနညးႏငသမနညးေအာငဂ႐တစကျပငဆငရနလအပသည။

• “လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသ၏ၾသဇာလႊမးမးမႈ”ကလညးအေရးတၾကးထညသြငးစဥးစားရနလအပသည။လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသ၏ၾသဇာလႊမးမးမႈဆသညမာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသကယတင ေမးခြနးေမးျခငးကခလကေသာအခါ ေျဖၾကားသ၏

အမအယာႏငအေျဖ ေျပာငးလသြားျခငးကဆလသည။

စစတမးသေတသနတြငပါဝငေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမား

စစတမးလႊာမျပစေသးခငသေတသ(မား) အေနျဖင ေအာကေဖာျပပါအဆငမားအားစဥးစားရနလအပသည။

� စစတမး၏ရညမနးခကမားႏငကနး႐ငမားအားစမတမားအျဖစအသးျပျခငး

� သေတသန ေမးခြနး/ေခါငးစဥအား႐ငးလငးဖြငဆျခငး

� နမနာ၏သေဘာသဘာဝ -- သးသန႔လအပစကြမားမ (သ႔) သာမနလဥးေရတစရပမနမနာ

� စစတမးအတြကလအပေသာနမနာအ႐ြယအစား

� သေတသ(မား) အသးျပမညလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးနညး

စစတမးတစခေကာကယျခငး၏အဓကအဆငမား

စစတမးတစခေကာကယျခငး၏အဓကအဆငမားမာ ေအာကပါအတငးပငျဖစသည --

၁။စစတမးေကာကယရနလမလဆးျဖတပါ။အကယ၍စစတမးသညအမနတကယပငလအပပါက

ေအာကပါအဆငမားအတငးလပေဆာငပါ။

၂။စစတမးရညမနးခကမားက႐ငးလငးခကေပးျပးစစတမးျပလပမညပစမတေဒသကစစတမးတြငပါဝငေစရပါမည။

၃။မညသ႔ေသာအခကအလကမားကမညသညလဥးေရအပစငယမစေဆာငးရ႐သညကသတမတေပးပါ။

၄။စစတမးေကာကယရနလအပေသာ ေနာကခအခကအလကအခ႕စေဆာငးပါ။ လအပပါစစတမးႏင သကဆငေသာ

ရပ႐ြာေခါငးေဆာင၊ ေဒသအာဏာပင၊အဖြ႕အစညးတ႔ကဆကသြယပါ။

၅။အသငေတာဆးေသာနမနာေကာကယနညးႏငနမနာအ႐ြယအစားကဆးျဖတေ႐ြးခယပါ။

၆။စစတမးေကာကယရနအခနဇယားသတမတျပးလအပေသာပစၥညးပစၥယမားကသငေတာသလျပငဆငပါ။

၇။စစတမးလႊာပစခပါ။

၈။စစတမးေကာကယမညသမားအတြကလကစြတစခ ေရးဆြပါ။

၉။စစတမးေကာကယမညသမားအားေ႐ြးခယျပးေလကငသငၾကားေပးပါ။

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10. Test the survey forms and data collection procedures (pilot test) and improve them based on the results of the pilot test.

11. Collect the data by using the survey forms among the individuals who are part of the sample.

12. Enter the data and assess its quality.

The key steps are mentioned here for information only. They receive full development in a second chapter of survey research (intermediated level). The rest of the present chapter is about how to create a survey questionnaire.

CREATING A SURVEY FORM

It is important that questions in the survey form (questionnaire) are clear and easy to understand. Suggestions for creating a survey form are:

� construct a detailed outline according to information needed

� check the relevance of asking this or these question(s)

� consider relevant types of questions in relation to the information needed

� use simple and everyday language

� pay attention to the order of questions in a questionnaire: start with simple, non-threatening questions directly related to the subject, and ask sensitive questions at the end of the survey form.

QUESTIONNAIRES

A questionnaire is a set of questions on a form, submitted to a number of people in order to collect responses from these people. Later, these responses will be analyzed and turned into statistical information.

Types of questions

The questionnaire has two types of questions: open-ended and close-ended questions.

Open-Ended Questions: The respondent writes down his/her opinions and attitudes in response to the question. The respondent expresses his/her ideas with his/her own words. The resulting data are not necessarily uniform, making data analysis not so easy. Moreover, the researcher(s) is not necessarily familiar with the facts/data.

For example: Responding to the question on “What is your favorite color?”, each respondent writes down his/her favorite color. Then, each answer is coded and associated with one color.

Close-Ended Questions: The respondent is asked to select an answer from a list provided by the researcher. The choices are fixed and respondents choose from listed items. Close-ended questions are quite popular in survey research. They result in more uniform data, and they are easier to process and analyse. Close-ended questions require the two following conditions:

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၁၀။စစတမးလႊာမားႏငအခကအလကေကာကယေရးလပငနးစဥအဆငဆင (ကနဥးစမးသပခက) တ႕ ကစမးသပ စစေဆးျပးရ႐လာေသာရလဒမားအတငး ျပငဆငျပးပမေကာငးမြနေအာင ျပလပပါ။

၁၁။နမနာတြငအကးဝငေသာပဂၢလမားၾကားတြငစစတမးလႊာမားအသးျပျပးအခကအလကမားေကာကယပါ။

၁၂။အခကအလကမားျဖညသြငးျပး၄ငးတ႔၏အရညအေသြးကဆနးစစပါ။

ဤေနရာအဓကအဆငမားမာအခကအလကအေနျဖင ေဖာျပျခငးသကသကမသာ ျဖစသည။စစတမး သေတသန ဒတယအခနး (အလယအလတအဆင) တြငအျပညအစကၾကညပါ။ လက႐အခနး၏ကန႐ေနေသးေသာ အပငးတြင စစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာအဘယသ႔ ျပလပသညကဆကလကေဖာျပပါမည။

စစတမးလႊာတစချပလပျခငး

စစတမးလႊာ (ေမးခြနးလႊာ) တြငပါဝငေသာ

ေမးခြနးမားမာ႐ငးလငးျပးနားလညရလြယကေစရနအေရးၾကးသည။စစတမးလႊာတစခ

ျပလပေရးအတြကအၾကျပခကမားမာ --

� လအပေသာသတငးအခကအလကေပၚမတည၍အေျခခ၍ ေကာကေၾကာငးအေသးစတတညေဆာကပါ။

� ဟေမးခြနးသညေမးခြနးမား ေမးရာတြငသကဆငမႈ႐မ႐သးသပပါ။

� လအပေသာသတငးအခကအလကေပၚမတည၍သကဆငေသာေမးခြနးအမးအစားမားကစဥးစားပါ။

� ႐း႐ငးေသာ ေန႔စဥသးဘာသာစကားကအသးျပပါ။

� ေမးခြနးလႊာတြငပါဝငေသာေမးခြနးအစဥမာ -- ႐ငးလငးလြယက၍အေၾကာငးအရာႏငတက႐ကသကဆငျပးေျဖဆသအထတအလန႔မျဖစေစမည

ေမးခြနးမားႏငစတငပါ။အကဆတေသာ ေမးခြနးမားအားစစတမးလႊာ၏ ေနာကဆးပငးမသာ ေမးပါ။

ေမးခြနးလႊာမား

ေမးခြနးလႊာဟသညလအမားထမ ေျဖၾကားခကမား ေကာကယရန၄ငးတ႔အား ေပးအပထားသည ေမးခြနးတစစပါဝင ေသာပစစာ႐ြကျဖစသည။ ေနာကပငးတြငအဆပါ ေျဖၾကားခကမားသညစစစေလလာ မညျဖစျပးစာရငးအငးအခက

အလကမားအျဖစ ေျပာငးလပစမညျဖစသည။

ေမးခြနးအမးအစားမား

ေမးခြနးလႊာတြငအပြငေမးခြနးႏငအပတေမးခြနးဟ၍အမးအစားႏစမး႐သည။

အပြငေမးခြနးမား -- ေျဖ ဆသသည၄ငး၏ထငျမငခကႏငသေဘာထားမားက ေမးခြနးေျဖၾကားရာတြငခေရးသည။ ေျဖၾကားသသည၄ငး၏ကယပငစကားလးျဖငသာ ေရးသားေဖာျပသည။ရ႐လာေသာအခကအလကမားမာတစတစညး တညးမျဖစဘအခကအလကဆစပငးေလလာရာတြငလြယကလမမညမဟတေပ။သညအျပငလညးသေတသ(တ႔)

အေနျဖငအေၾကာငးခငးရာ/အခကအလကတ႔ႏငရငးႏးလမမညမဟတေပ။

ဥပမာအားျဖင “မညသညအေရာငကသငအႏစသကဆးျဖစသနညး?” ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆရာတြင ေျဖဆသတငးသည၄ငးတ႔အႏစသကဆးအေရာငကခေရးၾကေပမည။ဤတြငအေျဖတစခခငးစသညအေရာငတစေရာငစႏငအမတအသားျပႏငေပမည။ခတဆက၍ရႏငေပမည။

အပတေမးခြနးမား-- ေျဖဆသအေနႏငသေတသ ေပးထားေသာစာရငးတစခပါအေျဖတစခကသာ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ ေ႐ြးခယမႈမာသတမတထားျပး ျဖစျပး ေျဖဆသသညစာရငးပါအရာမားကသာ ေ႐ြးခယရသည။အပတေမးခြနးမားမာ

စစတမးသေတသနတြငအလြနလသးမားသည။အဖြငေမးခြနးမားထကပမျပးစစစညးစညးျဖစေသာအခကအလကမားရ႐ျပးလပငနးလပေဆာငရာတြငႏငသးသပေလလာရာတြငပမလြယကေစသည။အပတေမးခြနးမားတြင ေအာကပါအေျခအေနႏစရပလအပသည။

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• the range of answers for the close-ended question that the respondent chooses from has to be exhaustive: all possible answers have to be listed so that the respondent can choose among them freely;

• all the different answers have to be mutually exclusive. This means that the respondent must feel that one and only one answer is the appropriate answer for her/him.

For example: What is your marital status? Single (1); Married (2); Divorced (3); Widow (4). Each respondent chooses one of these two answers, it is already pre-coded.

The selection of open-ended questions or close-ended questions for the survey form depends on the information that the researchers expects to get from the respondents. A questionnaire usually mixes both types of questions.

Questions should be as simple as possible, meaning only one type of information should be collected from one question. This will make analysis easier. Questions should not be biased, should be neutral, and should not encourage the respondent to select one particular answer.

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• အပတေမးခြနးမားမ ေျဖဆသ ေ႐ြးခယရမညအေျဖစာရငးသည ျခငႏငစြမး႐ရမည။ ျဖစႏငသမအေျဖအကန လးအားစာရငးတြငပါဝငေစရမညျဖစျပးသ႔မသာ ေျဖဆသလြတလြတလပလပ ေ႐ြးခယႏငေပမည။

• မတျခားနားေသာအေျဖမနသမတစခႏငတစခ ေရာထပျခငးမ႐ေစရ။ဆလသညမာ ေျဖဆသအေနႏင တစခတညးေသာအေျဖသည၄ငး၏အသငေတာဆးအေျဖျဖစေၾကာငးသ႐ေနေစရမည။

ဥပမာ - “သငအမေထာငသညဟတမဟတေျဖၾကားေပးပါ?” လလြတ (၁)၊အမေထာငသည (၂)၊တခလပ (၃)၊မဆးဖ/မ

(၅)။ေျဖဆသတငးအေျဖတစခတညးကသာေ႐ြးခယရမညျပး၄ငးမာတငၾက၍ကဒအမးစားခြျခားျပး ျဖစသည။

စစတမးလႊာအတြကအပြငေမးခြနး (သ႔မဟတ) အပတေမးခြနး ေ႐ြးခယေရးသညသေတသမားအေနျဖင ေျဖဆသမားထမမညသညအခကအလကမးရယလသနညးဆေသာအခကေပၚတြငမတညသည။ပမနအားျဖင

ေမးခြနးလႊာတစခသည ေမးခြနးပစႏစမးစလး ေရာစပပါဝငေလ႐သည။

ေမးခြနးမားမာတတႏငသမ႐ငးလငးလြယကေစရမည။ဆလသညမာ ေမးခြနးတစခမအခကအလကအမးအစားတစခ သာစေဆာငးရယေစရမည။ဤနညးျဖငစစစေလလာမႈကပမလြယကေစမည။ ေမးခြနးမားသညဘကလကမႈမ႐ေစရ။ တနညးဆေသာဓမၼဓ႒ာနကျပး ေျဖဆသအားတစတခေသာအေျဖက ေ႐ြးခယရနတကတြနးအားေပးမႈမးမ႐ေစသငေပ။

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Example of questions on ‘assessing the environmental awareness of young Myanmar graduates. Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Topic under the study

Main and associated research questions

Information required

Questions

To assess the environmental awareness of young Myanmar graduates

What is environmental awareness? When you use the term, what does it mean to you?

Perception of environmental awareness; How important is the family and education background for the level of environmental awareness

Q.1.1. How old are you? Q.1.2. What degrees do you hold? Q.1.3. How many brothers and sisters do you have?

How much are young graduates knowledgeable about environmental questions?

Awareness and interest of young graduates in general environment issues; Willingness to actively participate in the debate about environmental protection

Q.2.1. How do you get your knowledge about environmental issues? Newspapers, TV, friends, others, if so: what are they? Q.2.2. What is your view of the government's policy on dam building in the country? Q.2.3. Would you consider becoming a member of pro-environment organization?

To what extent are young graduates apply their knowledge of the environment in their daily life? To what extent does their environmental awareness have a practical dimension?

Awareness of daily practices contributing to environmental protection; Capacity to encourage people around to follow similar practices

Q.3.1. How do you dispose of batteries? Q.3.2. How do you dispose of plastic bags? Q.3.3. Do you persuade your friends not to use plastic bags?

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‘ဘြ႕ရျမနမာလငယမားၾကားသဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာနားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈအား ေလလာဆနးစစျခငး’ဆငရာဥပမာ

ေမးခြနးမား အဆင၁ အဆင၂ အဆင၃ အဆင၄

ေလလာမညအေၾကာငးအရာ

အဓကကျပးသကဆငမႈ႐ေသာသေတသနေမးခြနးမား

လအပေသာသတငးအခကအလကမား

ေမးခြနးမား

ဘြ႕ရျမနမာ လငယမားၾကားသဘာဝ ပတဝနးကငဆငရာနားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈအား ေလလာဆနးစစရန

သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာနားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈဆသညမာအဘယနညး။ထစကားလးအားသငအသးျပေသာအခါမညသညအဓပၸါယျဖငအသးျပသနညး။

သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာနားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈႏငပတသကေသာ အျမင။ ပတဝနးကငဆငရာနားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈအဆငအတနးတြငမသားစႏငပညာေရးေနာကခတ႔မညမအထ အေရးၾကးပ

ေမး။၁။၁။အသကမညမ႐ျပနညး။

ေမး။၁။၂။မညသညဘြ႕ဒဂရမားပငဆငထားသနညး။

ေမး။၁။၃။ေမြးခငးမညမ႐သနညး။

ဘြ႕ရလငယမားသဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာေမးခြနးမားႏငပတသကျပးမညမအထဗဟသတ႐ၾကသနညး။

ေယဘယသဘာဝပတဝနးကငျဖစစဥမားအေပၚဘြ႕ရလငယမား၏

နားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈႏငစတပါဝငစားမႈ။ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငထနးသမးကာကြယေရးဆငရာစကားရညလပြမားတြငတကၾကြစြာပါဝငရနစတအားထကသနမႈ

ေမး။၂။၁။သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာကစၥရပမားႏငပတသကေသာဗဟသတမားကမညသ႔မညပဆညးပးသနညး။ သတငးစာ၊တဗြ၊မတေဆြမား၊အျခား။ အျခားဆလင၄ငးမာအဘယနညး။

ေမး။၂။၂။တငးျပညအတြငးေရေလာင

တမေဆာကလပမႈႏငပတသကေသာအစးရမဝါဒအေပၚသငမညသ႔ယဆသနညး။

ေမး။၂။၃။သဘာဝပတဝနးကငထနးသမးေစာငေ႐ာကေရးအဖြ႕ဝငတစဥးျဖစလာရန

အၾကအစည႐ပါသလား။

ဘြ႕ရလငယမားသဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာအသဉာဏက

ေန႔စဥဘဝတြငမညသ႔ေသာအတငးအတာအထအသးခၾကသနညး။ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ၄ငးတ႔၏သ႐နားလညထားမႈမာမညမအထလကေတြ႕ေဘာငဝငသနညး။

သဘာဝပတဝနးကငကာကြယေရးကအေထာကအကျပေစမညေန႔စဥ

ေဆာင႐ြကခကမားႏငစပလဥးျပးနားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈ။အလားတျပမႈ ေဆာင႐ြကရနနးစပရာလမားအားစည႐းႏငစြမးရည။

ေမး။၃။၁။ဓါတခမားအားမညသ႔စြန႔ပစေလ႐သနညး။ ေမး။၃။၂။ပလတစတစအတမားအားမညသ႔စြန႔ပစေလ႐သနညး။

ေမး။၃။၃။မတေဆြမားအားပလတစတစ

အတအသးမျပရနစညး႐းပါသလား။

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CONCLUSION

Surveys gather data at a single point in time. They are cross-sectional surveys. Therefore, data from a single survey cannot be used to document trends. For monitoring changes in information, behavior, or activities, the same data have to be gathered continuously over time. Only then, trends can be followed based on collected data. Moreover, surveys collect data on possible contributing factors as well as data on the examined problem. However, it is often difficult to tell which came first. To better understand problems in a population, additional information about the causes must be obtained by other means, such as qualitative assessment techniques.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• The survey form usually includes a variety of types of questions (both open-ended and close-ended questions);

• The order of questions grouped around specific themes in a survey form is important and should help the data analysis;

• The survey form has to use everyday language in order for the questions to be easily understood by everyone.

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နဂးခပ

စစတမးမားသညတစၾကမတြငအခကအလကတစခသာေကာကယသည။၄ငးတ႔မာကန႔လန႔ျဖတစစတမးမား (cross-sectional

surveys) ျဖစၾကသည။သ႔ျဖစေသာေၾကာငစစတမးတစရပတညးမအခကအလကမားသညျဖစစဥလားရာမားအား မတတမး တငရာတြငအသးမျပႏငေခ။သတငးအခကအလကမား(သ႔) အျပအမမား(သ႔)လပေဆာငခကမားမ ေျပာငးလမႈမားအား ေစာငၾကညေလလာရနတစမးတညးေသာအခကအလကမားကပငစဥဆကမျပတ ေကာကယေနရမည။ သ႔မသာျဖစစဥလားရာမားအားစေဆာငးရ႐ေသာအခကအလကမားအေပၚအေျခခ၍လကႏငေပမည။သညအျပငလညးစစတမးသည ျဖစတနရာေသာအေၾကာငးတရားမားအေပၚအခကအလကေကာကယသညနညးတ ေလလာေနသည ျပနာရပေပၚ တြငလညးအခကအလကေကာကယသည။သ႔ေသာလညး၄ငးတ႔အနကမညသညက အရငလာသနညးဆေသာအခကမာ ေျပာရနခကခသည။လဥးေရတစရပတြင ျဖစပြားေနေသာ ျပနာရပမားကပမနားလညရန အလ႔ငာအရညအေသြးဆနးစစ ေလလာနညးလမးမားကသ႔အျခားနညးလမးမားအသးျပျပးအေၾကာငးတရားမားႏငပတသကေသာ ေနာကတးသတငး အခကအလကမားရယႏငရနလအပသည။ အခပအားျဖငဤအခနးတြငအဓကမတသားရနလအပေသာအခကအလကမားမာ

• စစတမးပစတစခတြငပမနအားျဖငေမးခြနးအမးအစားေပါငးစ (အပြငေရာအပတပါ) ပါဝငေလ႐သည။

• စစတမးပစတစခတြငတစတရာေသာအေၾကာငးျပခကျဖငဖြ႕စညးတညေဆာကေသာ

ေမးခြနးအစဥသညအေရးၾကးျပးအခကအလကစစစေလလာေရးတြငအေထာကအကျပသည။

• ေန႔စဥသးစကားမားကအသးျပမသာစစတမးပစပါေမးခြနးမားကနားလညရနလြယကမည။

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BASIC 5. SURVEY RESEARCH (2)

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT :

• The key steps in carrying out a survey;

• The detailed presentation of each of these steps;

• Guidance on how these steps may be completed.

________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Carrying out a survey requires many skills, much patience, and a substantial investment of time. But, when the survey is well conducted, the value of the survey will far outweigh its costs. The first presentation about the survey method offered guidance on how to create a survey form, how to formulate and choose the different type of questions, and how to order them in a questionnaire. This second presentation about the survey method is less about the questionnaire itself than about how to conduct survey research and to use survey forms during the overall process of survey research.

KEY STEPS IN CARRYING OUT A SURVEY

The key steps in carrying out a survey include the following:

1. Decide whether a survey is necessary. If a survey is deemed necessary, then the following steps will apply.

2. Define the survey objectives and the geographic target area to be included in the survey.

3. Determine the information to be collected and the population subgroup from which it will be collected.

4. Gather background information necessary for carrying out the survey and, if needed, meet with community leaders, local authorities and organizations that may be concerned with the survey.

5. Determine the most appropriate sampling method and sample size.

6. Select the sample to be used for the survey.

7. Determine the schedule of the survey and prepare supplies and equipment accordingly.

8. Design the survey form (see previous chapter on ‘Survey Research 1’).

9. Design the surveyor's manual.

10. Select and train survey workers.

11. Test the survey forms and data collection procedures (pilot test) and improve them based on the results of the pilot test.

12. Collect the data by using the survey forms among the individuals who are part of the sample.

13. Enter the data and assess its quality.

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အေျခခအဆင ၅. စစတမး ေကာကယသေတသနျပျခငး (၂ ) ဤအခနးတြင

• စစတနးတစရပေကာကယရာ၌ပါ၀ငေသာအဓကအဆင႔မား

• ထအဆင႔တစဆင႔ခငးစႏင႔ပတသတ၍အေသးစတတငျပမႈ

• ထအဆင႔မားကလပေဆာငပႏင႔ပတသတေသာလမးညႊနခက

တ႕ပါ၀ငပါသည။ _________________________________________________________________________________ မတဆက စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရာတြငအရညအခငးရမႈ၊စတရညသညးခႏငမႈႏင႔အခနေပးႏငမႈတ႔မားစြာလအပပါသည။ သ႔ေသာစစတမးတစရပကေကာငးမြနစြာေကာကယႏငပါကအဆပါစစတမး၏တနဘးသညေပးလကရေသာစရတစက မားထကမားစြာသာလြနပါသည။စစတမးေကာကယမႈနညးလမးႏင႔ပတသတေသာပထမတငျပမႈသညစစတမးပစတစရပျပလပပ၊ကြျပားေသာေမးခြနးအမးမးအားေရြးခယေမးျမနးပႏင႔ေမးခြနးလႊာတြငထေမးခြနးမားအားစစဥေနရာခပတ႔ အေၾကာငးညြနၾကားျပသမႈျဖစပါသည။ဤစစတမးေကာကယနညးအေၾကာငးဒတယေျမာကတငျပခကတြင ေမးခြနးလႊာ အေၾကာငးနညးနညး၊စစတမးသေတသန ျပလပပႏငစစတမးေကာကယစဥအတြငး ေမးခြနးလႊာအားမညသ႔အသးျပရပ အေၾကာငးကမားမား ေဆြးေႏြးထားသည။ စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရာတြငပါ၀ငေသာအဓကအဆင႔မား စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရာတြငပါ၀ငေသာအဓကအဆင႔မားတြငေအာကပါတ႔ပါ၀ငသည။

၁။စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရနလအပမႈရမရဆးျဖတပါ။စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယရနလအပသညဟယဆပါက ေအာကပါအဆင႔မားအတငးလပေဆာငပါ။

၂။စစတမး၏ရညရြယခကမားႏင႔စစတမးေကာကယရာတြငပါ၀ငမည႔ဥးတညခကထားေသာသတမတနယေျမဧရယာကေဖာထတသတမတပါ။

၃။မညသည႔သတငးအခကအလကစေဆာငးမည၊မညသည႔အပစခြလဥးေရအပစထမေကာကယမညဆသညကသတမတပါ။

၄။စစတမးေကာကယရနလအပေသာ ေနာကခသတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးပါ။လအပပါက

စစတမးႏင႔သကဆငမႈရေသာရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမား၊ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမား၊အဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင႔ေတြ႔ဆပါ။

၅။အသင႔ေလာဆးေသာနမနာေကာကယမႈနညးလမးကသတမတပါ။

၆။စစတမးအတြကအသးျပမညနမနာမားေရြးခယပါ။

၇။စစတမးေကာကယေရးအစအစဥတစရပသတမတျပးလအပေသာအေထာကအပ႔ႏင႔ပစၥညးကရယာမားျပငဆငပါ။

၈။စစတမးပစ( Survey Form ) အားဒဇငးေရးဆြပါ။ ( ျပးခ႔ေသာအခနး "စစတမးေကာကယသေတသနျပျခငး '၁'ကၾကညပါ။ "

၉။စစတမးေကာကယသ၏လကစြမတရပက ေရးဆြျပငဆငပါ။

၁၀။စစတမးေကာကယမည႔၀နထမးမားအားေရြးခယ၍ေလ႔ကင႔ေပးပါ။

၁၁။စစတမးပစမားႏင႔ေဒတာအခကအလကေကာကယျခငးအစအစဥမားအားပဏာမစမးသပမႈ( Pilot test ) ျပလပၾကည႔ပါ။ထပဏာမစမးသပမႈမထြကေပၚလာေသာရလာဒမားကအေျချပ၍ပမေကာငးမြန ေအာငျပငဆငပါ။

၁၂။နမနာေကာကယမႈတြငပါ၀ငသည႔လပဂၢလမားအားစစတမးပစမားအသးျပ၍ေဒတာ ေကာကယပါ။

၁၃။ေဒတာအခကအလကမားမတတမးသြငးျပးအရညအေသြးကစစေဆးပါ။

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14. Disseminate findings in presentations and reports.

Although listed roughly in order of their execution, some of the tasks will have to be done simultaneously or in a different order in some circumstances.

DETAILED PRESENTATION OF THE KEY STEPS

1. Decide whether a survey is necessary

The decision to undertake a survey is usually made on the assumption that the results of the survey will help to assess the extent of a problem. It also assumes that the results of the survey will provide the basis upon which action can be taken in order to resolve this problem. The decision to conduct a survey can be done with local, national government authorities, and other partner agencies. This depends on different criteria like financial, material, and human resources.

Whatever decision is eventually taken about developing a partnership or conducting the survey independently, it is important to share information about when and where the survey is undertaken to prevent unnecessary duplication and overlap of surveys. Before starting a survey, persons in charge of conducting it will need to answer the following questions:

• Will the results be part of a strategy aimed at improving an existing situation? In other words, are the results crucial for decision making?

• Will the results be used as a baseline survey? In other words, are the survey results going to be used to monitor and assess a project?

• Is the targeted population accessible?

Unless these three prerequisites are fulfilled, there is probably insufficient reason to undertake a survey. Other data collection techniques may be more appropriate and efficient.

2. Define the survey objectives and the geographic target area to be included in the survey

The objectives of the survey must be clearly stated before starting the survey. Precise and clear objectives will make it much easier for the survey team, the collaborating organizations, the survey population, and donors to understand what the survey will try to achieve. Clear objectives will also make the analysis of survey data much easier. Often, a survey is undertaken to fulfill the following types of objectives:

• To measure the proportion of individuals in specific groups;

• To measure the coverage of programs - that is, the proportion of individuals in specific groups who are the beneficiaries of a program. These results can measure whether a program is reaching the intended beneficiaries;

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၁၄။ ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႔ရမႈမားကအစရငခစာမားႏင႔တငဆကျပသမႈမားအားျဖင ျဖန႔ေ၀ပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယလပေဆာငပအဆင႔ဆင႔အားအၾကမးဖဥးစာရငးျပထားျခငးျဖစေသာလညးအခ႕လပငနးဆာငတာမားသညတစျပငနကတညးလပေဆာငရျခငးမးရသက႔သ႔အခ႕အေျခအေနမားတြငလညးအစအစဥအတငးမဟတသည လညးရပါသည။ အဓကအဆင႔တဆင႔ခငးစႏင႔ပတသတေသာအေသးစတတငျပမႈ ၁။စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရနလအပမႈရမရဆးျဖတပါ။ စစတမးမထြကေပၚလာေသာရလာဒမားအေနျဖင႔ျပနာတစရပ၏တစစတတစေဒသအားကညေျဖရငးႏငသညဟေသာ ယဆခကအေပၚအေျခခ၍စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရနဆးျဖတခကအားျပလပရေလ႔ရသည။စစတမး၏ရလာဒမား သညအဆပါျပနာရပကေျဖရငးႏငရနအေျခအေနတစရပဖနတးေပးႏငသညဟယဆ၍လညးလပေဆာငေလ႔ရသည။ စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရနဆးျဖတရျခငးကေဒသဆငရာ(သ႕) နငငေတာအဆင႔အစးရအာဏာပငမားႏင႔တြဖက၍ ေသာလညးေကာငး၊အျခားမတဖကေအဂငစမားႏင႔တြဖက၍ေသာလညးေကာငးျပလပရေလ႔ရသည။ဘ႑ာေရးအေျခ အေန၊လအပေသာပစၥညးမားႏင႔လသားရငးျမစစသည႔အမးမးေသာသတမတခကတ႔အေပၚမတည၍ဆးျဖတရေလ႔ရသည။

မတဖကအဖြ႔အစညးႏင႔တးျမင႔လကတြေဆာငရြကရနေသာလညးေကာငးစစတမးအားသးျခားလြတလပစြာလပေဆာငျခငးေသာလညးေကာငးမညသ႔ပငဆးျဖတခကခလပေဆာငသညျဖစေစမညသည႔အခန၊မညသည႔ေနရာ၌စစတမးေကာကယမညဆသည႔သတငးအခကအလကအား ျဖန႔ေ၀အသေပးရနအေရးၾကးပါသည။သ႔မသာမလအပပစစတမးမား ထပမျပလပမျခငး၊စစတမးမားတညတကဆငေနျခငးတ႔ကကာကြယႏငေပမည။စစတမးတစရပမစတငမထစစတမးအတြကတာ၀နရသမားအေနျဖင႔ ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆႏငရနလအပေပမည။ • ရလဒမားသညလကရအေျခအေနတရပအားတးတကေစရနရညရြယလပေဆာငသည႔မဟာဗဟာတရပ၏အစတအပငး

တစရပ ျဖစလမ႔မညလား။တနညးအားျဖင႔ရလဒမားသညစမကနးအားေစာငၾကညေလလာရန အသးျပပါမညလား။ • ရလဒမားအေနျဖင႔အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငေသာစစတမးတရပ ( Baseline Survey )

အျဖစအသးျပႏငသလား။တနညးအားျဖင႔စစတမးရလဒမားအားလပငနးအေကာငအထညေဖာရနအသးျပမညလား။ • အကးသကေရာကမႈရေသာလဥးေရအပစအားေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငသလား။

ဤတငၾကစဥးစားစရာအခကသးရပမျပည႔မပါကစစတမးတစရပေကာကယရနကးေၾကာငးခငလမႈမာမလေလာကေပ။အျခားေသာအခကအလကစေဆာငးပနညးလမးမားသးျခငးသညပ၍သင႔ေလာအဆငေျပေပလမ႔မည။ ၂။စစတမး၏ရညရြယခကမားႏင႔စစတမးေကာကယရာတြငပါ၀ငမည႔ဥးတညခကထားေသာသတမတနယေျမဧရယာအားေဖာထတသတမတပါ။ စစတမးတစရပမစတငမထစစတမးေကာကယရျခငး၏ရညရြယခကမားကရငးလငးစြာ ေဖာျပရမည။တက၍ ရငးလငးေသာဥးတညခကမားအေနျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကယမည႔အဖြ႔၊လကတြေဆာငရြကသည႔အဖြ႔အစညးမား၊စစတမး ေကာကယခရမည႔လထၾကးႏင႔အလရငမားအားစစတမးအေနျဖင႔မညသညကအေကာငအထညေဖာမညဆသည႔ အခကအားအလြယတကနားလညေစပါသည။ရငးလငးေသာဥးတညခကမားအားျဖင႔စစတမး ေဒတာအခကအလကမား အားလညးပမလြယကစြာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ ျပႏငေစသည။မၾကာခဏဆသလပငစစတမးတစရပအေနျဖင႔ ေအာကေဖာျပ ပါဥးတညခကအမးအစားမားအား ျပည႔မရန ေဆာငရြကရေလ႔ရသည။ • အခ႕ ေသာအပစမားရလပဂၢလမား၏အခးအစားက ေလ႔လာတငးတာရန • လပငနးစစဥမား၏လႊမးျခမႈကတငးတာရန - ဆလသညမာ - လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ၏အကးေကးဇးခစားသမား

ျဖစေသာအခ႕ေသာအပစမားရလပဂၢလမား၏အခးအစားကတငးတာရနဤရလဒမားသညလပငနးအစအစဥတစရပအေနျဖင႔ရညရြယေသာအကးေကးဇးခစားသမားအားလကလမးမလႊမးျခမႈရမရကတငးတာႏငသည။

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• To establish a baseline (see Chapter on ‘Baseline Study’). Changes throughout time can be compared against this baseline by carrying out a follow-up survey. The data produced by the follow-up survey can be used to measure the effectiveness of a program. However, there may be many factors that can influence change throughout time in addition to the implementation of a specific program.

The area in which the survey should be conducted must be defined carefully. The area from which the survey sample is selected is the only area to which survey results can be generalized. The researchers will not be able to say anything about an area or population that was not selected for the survey sample.

3. Determine the information to be collected and the population sub-group from which it will be collected

In large part, the information collected in the survey will be decided when formulating the survey objectives. However, additional information may be included in the list of major objectives.

At this point the researcher will also need to decide what age group to measure.

When making the list of data to collect, the researcher should remember that data collection requires time and money. Survey workers should therefore not be over-burdened by collecting information which will not be analyzed or not used to improve the condition of the population.

4. Gather background information necessary for carrying out the survey and meet with concerned community leaders, local authorities, and organizations

Many types of information are necessary to plan a survey. A good variety of information can be gathered from discussions with community leaders, from reports of prior assessments, or from other sources. To begin designing the survey, it is advisable to determine the sampling method (see Chapter on ‘Sampling: Probability Sampling’). It is necessary to obtain information about available data at the local, regional and national levels.

It is absolutely essential to meet with community leaders and local authorities during the survey planning process and data collection. During the visit, the researcher should:

• Make sure the community fully understands the objectives of the survey. If the population does not understand why the survey will be conducted, they may not cooperate with data collection.

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• အေျချပစထားတငးတာ ေလ႔လာမႈတစရပ ( baseline ) ျပဌာနးႏငရန၊ ( အခနး '၃' ပါ " အေျချပစထားတငးတာ ေလ႔လာမႈ " ကၾကည႔ပါ ) အခနကာလအလက ေျပာငးလမႈမားအား ေနာကဆကတြစစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယ၍ အဆပါအေျချပစအားျဖင႔ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာႏငပါသည။ ေနာကဆကတြစစတမးမရရေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား သညလပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ၏ထေရာကမႈကတငးတာရာတြငအသးျပႏငသည။သ႔ေသာလပငနးအစအစဥတစရပအားအေကာငအထည ေဖာမႈေၾကာင႔ ျဖစေပၚလာေသာ ေျပာငးလမႈမားအျပငအျခားေသာအခကမားစြာ သညလညး ကာလအလက ေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚလႊမးမးသကေရာကႏငပါသည။

စစတမးေကာကယမႈျပမည႔ဧရယာနယပယအားလညးသတျပ၍သတမတသင႔ပါသည။စစတမးမနမနာမားေရြးခယေကာကယမႈျပသည႔ဧရယာသာလငစစတမး၏ရလာဒမားအားေကာကခကဆြမတခကျပႏငသည႔ဧရယာျဖစပါသည။သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔စစတမးမနမနာေကာကယျခငးမျပလပသည႔ဧရယာ (သ႔) လဥးေရအပစႏင႔ပတသက၍ မညသည႔အရာမ ေျပာႏင မညမဟတေခ။

၃။မညသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမားေကာကယမည၊မညသည႔လဥးေရအပစခြမေကာကယမညဆသညကသတမတပါ၊

မားေသာအားျဖင႔စစတမးမမညသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမားေကာကယမညဆသညကစစတမး၏ဥးတညခကမားသတမတေဖာထတသည႔အခါ၌ဆးျဖတေလ႔ရသည။သ႔ေသာအဓကဥးတညမားစာရငးတြငအျခားေသာထပေဆာငးသတငးအခကအလကမားပါ၀ငေကာငးပါ၀ငေပလမ႔မည။ ဤတြငသေတသအေနျဖင႔မညသည႔အသကအရြယအပစ အားတငးတာေလ႔လာမႈ ျပလပမညဆသည႔အခကအားလညးဆးျဖတရနလေကာငးလေပမည။ ေကာကယမည႔ ေဒတာအခကစာရငးအား ျပစသည႔အခါ၌သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာေကာကယမႈသည ေငြေၾကးႏင႔အခန လအပေၾကာငးသတခပသင႔သည။သ႔အတြကေၾကာင႔စစစအသးျပမညမဟတသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမား ( သ႔ ) လဥးေရအပစ၏အေျခအေနတးတကမႈရေစရနအသးျပမညမဟတသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ေကာကခငးျခငးျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကသ၀နထမမားအား၀နပမပေစသင႔ေပ။ ၄။စစတမးေကာကယရနလအပေသာေနာကခသတငးအခကအလကမားစဆာငးပါ။သကဆငရာရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမား၊ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမား၊အဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင႔ေတြ႔ပါ။

စစတမးတစရပစမေဆာငရြကရနအတြကသတငးအခကအလကအမးအစားမားစြာလအပပါသည။ရပရြာေခါငးဆာငမား ျဖင႔ေဆြးေႏြးျခငး၊ယခငေဆာငရြကခ႔သည႕အစရငခစာမား၊သ႔မဟတအျခားရငးျမစမားမစလငေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးရရႏငပါသည။စစတမးတစရပကဒဇငးဆြျခငးစတငမညဆပါကမညသည႔နမနာေကာကယျခငးနညးလမးက အသးျပမညဟဆးျဖတရနလအပေၾကာငးအၾကျပလပါသည။ရပေကး၊တငးေဒသၾကးႏင႔ႏငငအဆင႔မား၌မညက႔သ႔ေသာ ေဒတာမားရရႏငသညဟေသာသတငးအခကအလကလညးရရထားရနလအပပါသည။ စစတမးအတြကစမကနးခမတစဥအဆင႔မားႏင႔ေဒတာေကာကယစဥအေတာအတြငး၌ရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမားႏင႔ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမားႏင႔ေတြ႔ဆရနလး၀အေရးၾကးပါသည။ထသ႔ေတြ႔ဆစဥသေတသအေနျဖင႔

• လထသညစစတမး၏ရညရြယခကမားအားအျပည႔အ၀နားလညမႈရရေစရနျပလပရပါမည။အကယ၍လထသညအဘယေၾကာင႔စစတမးေကာကရသညကနားမလညပါကေဒတာေကာကယသည႔အခါပးေပါငးပါ၀ငမႈရမညမဟတေခ။

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• Agree on the dates of the actual survey with the community and local authorities to avoid conflict with other community activities, such as major holidays and market days.

• Obtain information on security and access in the survey area.

• Obtain letters of permission from the local authorities, addressed to the district or village leaders, stating that the research team will be visiting. The letters should explain why the researchers are conducting a survey and contain a request for the population's cooperation.

If needed, national and local government officials should be consulted regarding the necessary permits and clearances. Ethical review by an institutional review board may be required for survey procedures.

5. Determine the appropriate sampling method and sample size.

For the appropriate sampling method, please refer to the ‘Sampling: Probability Sampling’ chapter. Sample size determination depends on the population under study, the aim of the survey, type of survey: qualitative or quantitative survey and budget allotment. Detailed explanation on sample size calculation is beyond the scope of this manual.

6. Select the sample

Once the type of sampling is selected and the desired sample size is determined, the sample (individuals, children, households, etc.) to be included in the survey can be selected.

For detailed explanations, please refer to the ‘Sampling: Probability Sampling’ chapter.

7. Determine the schedule for the survey and prepare supplies and equipment

The exact dates of the survey should be chosen to determine when survey workers, supplies, and equipment are needed. The researchers should consult with community leaders to determine the best times to conduct the survey.

That way, time conflicts can be avoided between the survey and market days, local celebrations, or other times when people may be absent. The agricultural calendar should be taken into consideration because women may be in the fields for most of the day during certain seasons. The survey schedule should allocate time for preparation, training, pilot testing, community mobilization, data collection, data analysis and report writing.

Moreover, the researchers should take into account the period of the year when the survey is conducted and interpret survey results with this point in mind. If the results of a survey are compared with those of a previous survey, it will be important to try to conduct both surveys at the same time of the year so as to eliminate potential discrepancies associated with seasonal variation.

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• လကေတြ႔စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ရကစြမားအားလထႏင႔ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမားႏင႔သေဘာတညမႈရယထားျခငးျဖင႔အဓကအားလပရကမား၊ေစးေန႔မားစသည႔အျခားေသာလထႏင႔သကဆငသည႔ရကစြမားအားမတကဆငေစရနေရာငရားႏငမညျဖစသည။

• စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ဧရယာေဒသ၏လျခေရးႏင႔ခရးသြားလာႏငေသာအေျခအေနႏင႔ဆငေသာသတငးအခကအလကရယထားပါ။

• ခရငႏင႔ေကးရြာေခါငးေဆာငမားထသသေတသနအဖြ႕လာေရာကမညျဖစေၾကာငးအေၾကာငးၾကားျပးေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမားထမစာျဖင႔ေရးသားထားေသာခြင႔ျပခကကရယပါ။ထစာတြငသေတသနအဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔အဘယေၾကာင႔စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရျခငးျဖစေၾကာငးရငးျပထားရနလအပျပးလထႏင႔ပးေပါငးပါ၀ငမႈကအကအညေတာငးခေၾကာငးလညးေဖာျပပါရသင႔သည။

အကယ၍လအပခ႔ပါကလအပေသာပါမစမားႏင႔ခြင႔ျပခကမားရရရနႏငငေတာအဆင႔ႏင႔ ေဒသဆငရာအစးရ အရာရမားႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆညႏႈငးသင႔သည။စစတမးေကာကယမႈဆငရာလပငနးစဥမားအားစစစေရးဘတအဖြ႔တစရပျဖင႔ ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာစစစမႈျပလပရနလေကာငးလေပမည။

၅။သင႔ေလာေသာနမနာေကာကယမႈနညးႏငနမနာအ႐ြယအစားကသတမတပါ။

သငေတာသညနမနာေကာကယနညးအတြကေကးဇးျပ၍ "နမနာေကာကယျခငး" အခနးကေလ႔လာပါရန။ ေလလာမည လဥးေရ၊စစတမးေကာကယသညရည႐ြယခက၊စစတမးအမးအစား (အရညအခငးနညး၊အေရအတြကနညး) ႏငဘ႑ာေရး အေျခအေနတ႔ေပၚတြငမတညျပးနမနာအ႐ြယအစားကဆးျဖတသတမတရမည။နမနာအ႐ြယအစားႏငပတသကျပးအေသးစတ႐ငးလငးပါကဤလကစြစာအပပါအေၾကာငးအရာထက ျပန႔ကားသြားလမမည။

၆။နမနာမားေရြးခယပါ။

နမနာေကာကယမညနညးလမးမားအား ေရြးခယျပး၍နမနာအပစအရြယအစားအားသတမတျပးေသာအခါစစတမးတြင ပါဝငမညနမနာမားလပဂၢလမား၊ကေလးမား၊အမေထာငစမားစသညတ႕က) ေရြးခယပါ။

အေသးစတရငးလငးျပဆမ အတြက ေကးဇးျပ၍ ” နမနာေကာကယျခငး”အခနးကၾကညရပါ။

၇။စစတမးေကာကယေရးအစအစဥတရပသတမတျပးလအပေသာအေထာကအပ႔မားႏင႔ပစၥညးကရယာမားျပငဆငပါ။

မညသည႔အခနတြငစ၍စစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးမား၊အေထာကအပ႔ပစၥညးကရယာမားလအပမညကသတမတျပးစစတမးေကာကယေရးႏင႔ပတသကေသာရကစြမားအတအကေရြးခယသတမတႏငရနရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမားႏင႔တငပငသင႔သည။

ဤသ႔ျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကယျခငးႏင႔ေစးေန႔မား၊ရပရြာပြေတာ ေန႔မားႏင႔လအမားမရႏငသည႔ ေန႔မားတကဆငမႈမရေစရန ေရာငရားႏငမညျဖစသည။စကပးေရးရာသျပကၡဒနကလညးထည႔သြငးစဥးစားသင႔သည။အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာအခ႕ရာသ မား၌အမးသမးမားသညယာေတာမား၌တစေနကနလလရတတၾကေသာေၾကာင႔ျဖစသည။စစတမးေကာကယမႈအစအစဥတြင စစတမးအတြက ျပငဆငျခငး၊ ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးျခငး၊ပဏာမစမးသပမႈျပလပျခငး၊စစတမးအတြကရပရြာလထက စညးရးစဖြ႔အသင႔ျပငျခငး၊ ေဒတာေကာကယျခငး၊ေဒတာမားစစစသးသပျခငးႏင႔အစရငခစာေရးသားျခငးတ႔အတြကအခနမား ခြေ၀ခမတရနလအပပါသည။

၄ငးအျပငသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကယမႈျပသည႔အခနသညႏစတစနစ၏မညသည႔ကာလျဖစသညကသတျပသင႔ျပးစစတမးရလာဒမားအားအဓပၸါယဖြင႔ဆသည႔အခါဤအခကကထည႔သြငးစဥးစားရနလပါသည။အကယ၍စစတမးတစခ၏ရလာဒမားအားယခငျပလပခ႔ဖးသည႔စစတမး၏ရလာဒမားႏင႔ႏႈငးယဥျပလပမညဆပါကထစစတမးႏစရပစလးသညႏစတစႏစ၏ကာလတအခနမား၌ျပလပထားျခငးျဖစရနလအပသည။သ႔မသာကာလရာသကြာျခားမႈေၾကာင႔ျဖစေပၚႏငေသာကြျပားမႈမားကေရာငရားႏငမညျဖစသည။

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Once the sample size has been calculated, the researchers can determine the type and quantity of supplies needed. The research team should make a complete list of supplies and equipment required during the survey.

8. Design the data collection form and surveyor's manual

The list of data to be collected by survey workers in the field must now be put into a paper-size format. This includes writing out the specific questions to ask survey respondents and creating specific places on the data collection form to record the data. The data collection form should be organized clearly to facilitate ease of use by survey workers. The questions or description of the data to be collected are featured on the left side of the form and are numbered so that survey workers can easily find their place when interviewing a respondent. All the data is recorded on the right side of the form. It is important to keep data collection forms open and uncluttered so that survey workers can find each question easily during the interview and likewise can easily determine where to record each item of information.

If the survey is large-scale and involves the participation of many survey workers, the researchers might have to create a “surveyor's manual” as a guide for the survey teams while working in the field. It could also describe the technique for collection of biologic specimens or field laboratory testing methods.

9. Select and train survey workers

If the survey is a large-scale one, the research team should make a list of all the tasks to be performed by the survey workers when they collect the survey data. Next, the team decides what type of workers areneeded to perform each of these tasks. One survey worker may be able to do more than one task. Cultural factors may also play a role in selecting survey workers and assigning their tasks.

All members performing a specific task should undergo the same training in that task, regardless of their former experience; this will ensure standardization of methods. The survey training usually takes 2 to 5 days and should include:

1) A clear explanation of the survey objectives.

2) An explanation of the sampling method. This should stress the importance of selecting proper units of analysis to ensure a representative sample.

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နမနာအပစအရြယအစားကတြကခကျပးေသာအခါသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔မညသညအေထာကအကပစၥညးမားမညမပမာဏလအပသညကစဥးစားသတမတရနလအပသည။သေတသနအဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကယစဥကာလအတြငးလအပသည႔အသးအေဆာငႏင႔ပစၥညးမားကစာရငးတစခ ျပလပသင႔သည။

၈။ေဒတာေကာကယျခငးေဖာငပစႏင႔စစတမးေကာကယသ၏လကစြမႈတ႕ကဒဇငးေရးဆြျပငဆငပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယမည႔၀နထမးမားလကေတြ႕ကြငးဆငးေကာကယမညေဒတာအခကအလကစာရငးကယခအခါစာရြကေပၚခမတျပစရမည႔အခနျဖစသည။ဤသ႔ေဆာငရြကရာတြငစစတမးကေျဖဆမည႔သမားအားေမးျမနးမည႔ေမးခြနးမားခေရးျခငးႏင႔အေျဖမားေရးသြငးမတသားရနေဒတာေဖာငပစတြငေနရာလြတမားသတမတခနထားျခငးတ႕ပါ၀ငသည။ ကြငးဆငးေကာကယမည၀နထမးမားအသးျပရလြယကေစရနေဒတာအခကအလကစေဆာငးေရးသြငးသည႔ေဖာငပစ သညရငးရငးလငးလငးသပသပရပရပရသင႔သည။ေမးခြနးမား (သ႕) ေကာကယမည႔ေဒတာအေၾကာငးဖြင႔ဆခကတ႕က ေဖာငပစ၏ဘယဘကျခမးတြငစတငသတမတထားျပးနပါတမားေရးထားေပးျခငးျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကယသည႔၀နထမး မားအေန႔ျဖင႔ေျဖဆသအားအငတာဗးသည႔အခါထအရာမားကအလြယတကရာေတြ႕ႏငေပသည။ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအားလးကမေဖာငပစ၏ညာဘကျခမးတြငေရးသြငးရမညျဖစသည။ေဒတာေကာကယသည႔ေဖာငမားမာရငးလငးျမငသာျပးရႈပေထြးမႈမရေစရနအေရးၾကးသည။သ႔မသာစစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးမားသညအငတာဗးစဥကာလအတြငးသကဆငရာေမးခြနးမားကလြယလင႔တကရာေတြ႔ႏငျပးအေျဖမားကလညးမညသည႔ေနရာတြငေရးသြငးမတသားရမညကသႏငေပမည။ အကယ၍စစတမးေကာကယသည႔၀နထမးမားစြာပါ၀ငသည႔အၾကးစားစစတမးေကာကယရျခငးမးျဖစပါကသေတသမား အေနျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႔မားကြငးဆငးရာတြငလမးညႊနအျဖစအသးျပႏငရန "စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြ" ကေရးသားျပစရနလအပေပလမ႔မည။၄ငးတြငဇ၀ေဗဒဆငရာနမနာအမးအစားမားစေဆာငးျခငးနညးလမး ( သ႕ ) ကြငးဆငးဓာတခြစမးသပမႈနညးလမးမားစသညတ႔က႔သ႔ေဖာျပပါရႏငပါသည။

၉။စစတမးေကာကယမည႔၀နထမးမားေရြးခယေလ႔ကင႔ေပးပါ။

အကယ၍အၾကးစားစစတမးေကာကယျခငးမးျဖစပါကသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔စစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးမားကြငးဆငး၍စစတမးဆငရာေဒတာအခကအလကမားေကာကယမႈကလပေဆာငႏငရနလအပေသာလပငနးမားအားလးကစာရငးျပစသင႔သည။ထ႔ေနာကအဆပါလပငနးမားအားလပေဆာငႏငရနမညက႔သ႔ေသာ၀နထမးမားလအပသညက ဆးျဖတရပါမည။စစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးတစဥးအေနျဖင႔အလပတစမးထကပ၍လပေဆာငႏငေပလမ႔မည။ စစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးမားေရြးခယတာ၀နေပးရာ၌ယဥေကးမႈဆငရာအခကအလကမားသညလညးအခနက႑တစရပအေနျဖင႔ပါ၀ငေပသည။

လပငနးတစခကေဆာငရြကရမည႔သအားလးတ႕အား၄ငးတ႔၌ယခငအေတြ႔အၾကမညမရသညပငျဖစေစပစတေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးျခငးကျပလပရမည။သ႕မသာစစတမးေကာကယမည႔နညးလမမားႏင႔ပတသက၍တေျပးညတညေသာ အဆင႔အတနးမားကရရမညျဖစသည။စစတမးေကာကယ၍ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးရာ၌ပမနအားျဖင႔၂ရကမ၉ရကထၾကာ ျမင႔တတျပးေအာကပါတ႕ပါ၀ငသင႔ပါသည။ ( ၁ ) စစတမးေကာကယရျခငးရညရြယခကမားကေသခာရငးလငးေျပာျပျခငး။ ( ၂ ) နမနာ ေကာကယနညးကရငးလငး ျပသျခငး။ကယစားျပနမနာအစတစရပရရရနအတြကဆေလာ ေသာေလ႔လာမႈယနစမား ( Units of analysis ) ေရြးခယရနအေရးၾကး ေၾကာငးအသေပးေျပာဆရမည။

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3) A demonstration and practice of measurements.

4) An explanation and discussion of the questionnaire questions. This will ensure that the questions are phrased correctly and that each interviewer understands what data the survey researchers wish to collect with each question. Role-play exercises are useful in practicing interviews.

5) A pilot test in the field. A pilot test is an essential component to the training and should test all components of survey data collection under realistic conditions. Data collected during the pilot test should not be used in the analysis of the survey results.

10. Field test data collection forms and data collection procedures

Pilot testing should be conducted during the training to give survey workers practical experience in all aspects of data collection and survey methodology before they embark on actual data collection. This pilot testing should include the following:

1) Pre-testing the survey questions. Comments by both those interviewed and the survey workers who conducted the interviews can greatly improve the questions.

2) Sampling unit. The team should practice selecting the sampling unit.

3) Taking and recording measurements correctly in the field. Survey workers should practice measurements as a team in order to determine which worker should perform each specific task.

4) Introducing the survey and completing the data collection form. All survey workers should be well acquainted with the data collection form and the surveyor's manual. It will often be necessary to revise the form and the surveyor's manual after pilot testing.

Pilot testing should not take place in a location where the proper survey will take place, but in a similar community. For example, the survey team could go to a neighboring village that has not been selected during the sampling. The survey team should not forget to get a permission letter from local authorities, even for field testing.

At the end of the pilot test, the team members, team supervisors, and survey managers should discuss all aspects of the data collection. The pilot test will also provide an estimate of how long the data collection will take for each survey subject and for a household as a whole. After collecting information from the first few households in the actual survey, the teams will become much more efficient and accurate.

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( ၃ ) တငးထြာေလ႔လာမႈမားအားသရပျပ၍ေလ႔ကင႔ျခငး။ ( ၄ ) ေမးခြနးလႊာရ ေမးခြနးမားအားရငးလငးေဆြးေႏြးျခငး။ဤသ႔ ျပလပျခငးအား ျဖင႔ ေမးခြနးမားသညမနကန ေသာ အသးအႏႈနးမားသးစြထားသည ေသခာမႈရေစျပးအငတာဗး ေမးမည႔သမားသညလညး စစတမးေကာကယသသေတသမား ကမညသည႔ေမးခြနးမားအတြကမညက႔သ႕ေသာေဒတာအခကအလကမားလခငသညကနားလညသေဘာေပါကေစပါသည။အခနးက႑အလကသရပေဆာငေလ႔ကင႔မႈမားသညလညးအငတာဗးေမးျမနးျခငးအတြကေလ႔ကင႔ရာတြငအသး၀ငပါသည။ ( ၅ ) ကြငးဆငး၍ပဏာမစမးသပမႈျပျခငး။ဤ ေရ႔ ေျပးစမးသပမႈျပျခငးသည ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကား ေပးမႈ၏ အေရးပါေသာ အစတအပငးတစရပျဖစသည။စစတမးမအခကအလက ေကာကယျခငးဆငရာအစတအပငးအားလးကလကေတြ႔ အေျခအေနမား၌စမးသပမႈ ျပသင႔သည။ပဏာမစမးသပမရရလာေသာအခကအလကမားကမစစတမး၏ရလာဒမားအား ေလ႔လာစစစမႈ ျပရာ၌အသးမျပသင႔ေပ။

၁၀။ေဒတာအခကအလကေကာကယျခငးဆငရာေဖာငပစမားႏင႔လပငနးစဥမားအားကြငးဆငးစမးသပမႈျပပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယမည႔၀နထမးမားအားအမနတကယေဒတာေကာကယမႈမတငမစစတမးေကာကယမႈနညးလမးႏင႔ပတသက၍ေသာလညးေကာငးအခကအလကေကာကယျခငးဆငရာရႈေထာင႔ေပါငစတ႕အားလကေတြ႔အေတြ႕အၾကရေစရနေသာလညးေကာငးကြငးဆငး၍ပဏာမစမးသပမႈျပျခငးအားေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားမႈျပစဥအတြငးထည႔သြငးျပလပသင႔သည။ဤသ႕ေရ႕ေျပးစမးသပမႈျပရာတြငေအာကပါအခကတ႔ပါ၀ငသင႔သည။

(၁) စစတမးေကာကမည႔ေမးခြနးမားအားၾကတငစစေဆးမႈျပျခငး။အငတာဗးေျဖဆသမားႏင႔အငတာဗးျပလပသည႔ ၀နထမးမားတ၏အၾကျပခကမားသညေမးခြနးမားအားပမေကာကမြနေစရနမားစြာအေထာကအကျဖစေစပါသည။

(၂) နမနာေလ႔လာမႈယနစ။စစတမးေကာကမည႔အဖြ႕သညနမနာေလ႔လာမႈယနစမားေရြးခယျခငးကလကေတြ႔ေလ႔ကင႔ သင႔သည။

(၃) ကြငးဆငး၍ေလ႔လာတငးထြာမႈမားအားမနကနစြာေရးသြငးမတယျခငး။စစတမးေကာကယမည႔၀နထမးမားအေနျဖင႔ မညသကမညသည႔လပငနးလပေဆာငမညဆသညကသတမတႏငရနအသငးအဖြ႕အလကတငးထြာေလ႔လာမႈျပျခငးအားလကေတြ႔ေလ႔ကင႔သင႔သည။

(၄) စစတမးအားမတဆကေပးျခငးႏင႔အခကအလကေကာကယမႈေဖာငပစအားျဖည႔သြငးျခငး။စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ၀နထမးမားအားလးသညအခကအလကမားေကာကယမည႔ေဖာငပစႏင႔စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြတ႕အားေကာငးစြာရငးႏးျပးျဖစသင႔သည။ပဏာမစမးသပေကာကယမႈျပျပးသည႔အခါတငးလပငဤေဖာငပစႏင႔စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြမႈတ႕အားျပငဆငျဖည႔စြကရနလအပေလ႔ရသည။

ပဏာမစမးသပမႈျပလပျခငးကအမနတကယစစတမးေကာကယမည႔အရပ၌မလပသင႔ဘပစတရပရြာမး၌သာျပလပသင႔သည။ဥပမာ - စစတမးေကာကယမည႔အဖြ႕သညနမနာေကာကယျခငးအတြကေရြးခယရာတြငမပါ၀ငသည႔ အနးပတ၀နးကင ေကးရြာတစရြာသ႔သြားေရာကႏငသည။ဤက႔သ႔ကြငးဆငးစမးသပမႈျပလပျခငးအတြကပငေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငတ႔ထမခြင႔ျပခကေတာငးခရနမေမ႔သင႔ေပ။ ပဏာမစမးသပမႈအဆးသတကာလ၌စစတမးေကာကယသအဖြ႕၀ငမား၊ၾကးၾကပသမားႏင႔မနေနဂာမားသည႔အခကအလက ေကာကယျခငးႏင႔ပတသက၍ရႈေထာင႔စကအတအကြေဆြးေႏြးတငပငသင႔သည။ဤပဏာမအမေထာငစတစခ လးအတြက ေသာလညး ေကာငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယရနအခနမညမၾကာမညကခန႔မနးရရႏငသည။ အမနတကယစစတမးေကာကယမႈ ျပရာတြငလညးပထမအမေျခအနညးငယမသတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယျပး သည႔အခါစစတမး ေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႕မားအေနျဖင႔ပ၍တကကြမးကင ေပလမ႔မည။

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11. Collect the data

Data collection will differ for each survey. In small, compact populations, all survey teams may be able to reconvene each evening to discuss questions or difficulties. Surveys over wider areas may require teams to operate independently for days or weeks. Ideally, there should be some means of communication among teams and between teams and the survey research team in order for the questions and difficulties to be answered and corrected in a standard way for all teams. If communications are unavailable, the survey manager should provide answers to anticipated questions during the survey training and in the survey manual.

12. Enter the data and assess its quality

In order to analyze survey data on a computer, the data from the paper data collection forms must be typed into a database program. The softwares most commonly used in data entry are EpiData and Microsoft Excel. The softwares most commonly used in data analysis are EpiInfo and SPSS.

After the data is entered, there are two common quality-check methods:

1) Enter data twice into two different databases and compare the two resulting databases. If discrepancies are found between the databases, the paper data collection forms should be consulted to determine the correct value.

2) Alternatively, the data can be entered into the computer only once, and then each record in the database compared to the paper data collection form to check for errors. This is often faster than entering the data twice.

Once the data are entered and checked, preliminary analysis should be done to assess the quality of the data. These analyses can be included in the final report to demonstrate the precision and accuracy of the survey results.

13. Analyze the data and present the results

Please refer to the ‘Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis’ chapters.

14. Disseminate findings in presentations and reports

The final part of a survey is presenting the findings on the occasion of oral presentations and through a final report. Often, distribution of a preliminary report of the key findings is recommended as soon as data analysis is completed because a final report may take a long time to complete. The results of the survey should be presented in a standardized format in order to enable easy comparisons between the results of different surveys.

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၁၁။အခကအလကမားစေဆာငးေကာကယပါ။

စစတမးတစခခငးအလကအခကအလကေကာကယမႈသညကြျပားမညျဖစသည။စစတမးေကာကယခရမည႕လဥးေရ အပစသညတစစတစစညးတညးရျပးမားျပားျခငးမရပါကစစတမးေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႔အားလးအေနျဖင႔ညေနတငးျပန လညဆေတြ႔ျပးေမးခြနးမား၊အခကအခမားႏင႔ပတသတ၍တငပငေဆြးေႏြးႏငၾကေပမည။အလမးကယေသာအရပေဒသမား၌ျပလပရေသာစစတမးမားအတြကမႈစစတမးေကာကယသညအဖြ႕မားအေနျဖင႔ရကေပါငးမားစြာ၊သတငးစႏႈနးအရ ေျပာရလငမစစတမးေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႔အခငးခငးၾကားတြငေသာလညးေကာငး၊စစတမးေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႕မားႏင႔ႏင႔သေတသအဖြ႕တ႔ၾကားတြငေသာလညးေကာငးတနညးနညးျဖင႔ဆကသြယရရႏငရနေဆာငရြကထားသင႔သည။သ႔မသာအခကအခမား၊ေမးခြနးမားႏင႔ပတသက၍အၾကေပးေျဖၾကားမႈမား၊ျပငဆငေဆာငရြကမႈမားကစစတမးေကာကသည႔အဖြ႕မားအားလးအၾကားတေျပးညေဆာငရြကမျပႏငေပမည။အကယ၍မညသည႔နညးႏင႔မဆကသြယေရးျပလပရနအဆငမေျပပါကစစတမးေကာကယသမနေနဂာအေနျဖင႔စစတမးအတြကေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားမႈျပစဥကာလအတြငးေသာ လညးေကာငး၊စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြစာမတြငေသာလညးေကာငး၊စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြစာမတြငလညး ေကာငးေပၚေပါကလာႏငေသာေမးခြနးမားအတြကအေျဖမားကထည႔သြငးေရးသားသငၾကားထားသင႔သည။

၁၂။အခကအလကမားေရသြငး၍၄ငးတ႕၏အရညအေသြးကသးသပပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယထားသည႔အခကအလကမားအားကြနပတာတြငစစစ ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပရနအတြကစာရြက ေဖာငပစမား ျဖင႔ ေကာကယထားသည႔အခကအလကမားအားအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးထားရသည႔ပရဂရမ (database program) သ႔ထည႔သြငးယရမည ျဖစသည။ ေဒတာထည႔သြငး ျခငးအတြကအမာဆးအသးမားသည႔ ေဆာဖ႔၀မားမာ Epi Data ႏင႔ Microsoft Excel တ႕ ျဖစ ျပး ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈအတြကအသးမားသည႔ ေဆာဖ႔၀တ႕မာ Epi Info ႏင႔ SPSS တ႕ျဖစသည။

ဒတာမားထည႔သြငးျပးပါကအသးမားသည႔အရညအေသြးစစစမႈနညးလမးႏစရပရပါသည။

၁) ေဒတာမားႏစၾကမစခြျပးမတညသည႔ database ႏစခအတြငးသ႕ထည႔သြငးကာ database မား၏ရလာဒကႏႈငး ယဥၾကည႔ပါ။အကယ၍ database မားအၾကားကြာဟကြလြခကမား ေတြ႕ရပါက ေဒတာ ေကာကယထားသည႔ စာရြကေဖာငပစမားက ျပနလညၾကည႔ရႈျပးတနဘးအမနက ေရြးခယဆးျဖတပါ။ ၂ ) ေနာကတစနညးအေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာမားကကြနပတာအတြငးသ႔တစၾကမသာထည႔သြငးျပး database ၏ record (မတတမး) တစခခငးစအလကအား ေဒတာ ေကာကယထားသည႔စာရြကေဖာငမား ျဖင႔တကဆငစစေဆးကာ အမားမားကရာေဖြပါ။ ဤနညးသည ေဒတာမားႏစၾကမထည႔သြငးရျခငးထကပမျမနဆန ေလ႔ရပါသည။

ဒတာမားကစစေဆး၍ထည႔သြငးျပးေသာအခါေဒတာမား၏အရညအေသြးကသးသပရနအတြကေရ႕ေျပးစစစေလ႔လာမႈကျပလပသင႔သည။ထေလ႔လာစစစခကမားအားအဆးသတအစရငခစာတြငထည႔သြငးကာစစတမးရလာဒမား၏တကမနကနမႈကစာဖတသမားအားတငျပႏငသည။

၁၃။ေဒတာအခကအလကမားစစစသးသပမႈျပလပ၍ရလာဒမားအားတငျပပါ။

ေကးဇးျပ၍ "အရညအေသြးစထားႏင႔အေရအတြကစထား ေဒတာမား အားစစစသးသပျခငး " အခနးမားကၾကည႔ရႈပါ။ ၁၄။အစရငခစာမား၊တငဆကျပသမႈမားအားျဖင႔ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားအားျဖန႔ေ၀ပါ။

စစတမးတစရပ၏ေနာကဆးအပငးမာအဆးသတအစရငခစာတစေစာငအားျဖင႔ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ႏႈတျဖင႔တငျပအစရငခ ျခငးမားအားျဖင႔ေသာလညးေကာငးေလ႔လာေတြ႕ရခကမားအားေရ႕ေျပးအစရငခစာတစေစာငေရး၍ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးထားရန အၾကျပလပါသည။အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာအဆးသတအစရငခစာေရးသားတငသြငးရျခငးသညအခနကာလတစခအထ ၾကာျမင႔ႏငေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။စစတမး၏ရလာဒမားအားစသတမတထားေသာပစတစချဖင႔တငျပသင႔သည။သ႔မသာ အျခားေသာစစတမးမား၏ရလာဒမားႏင႔ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာရာတြငလြယကမႈရေပလမ႔မည။

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• The pilot questionnaire should be tested before actually conducting the survey;

• The survey workers should be trained before they conduct the survey, this should be done using the surveyors’ manual;

• The full-scale survey should be conducted with the prior knowledge of authorities concerned and during a time schedule that does not conflict with local activities.

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အႏစခပရလင၊ဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• ပဏာမစမးသပမႈေမးခြနးလႊာအားအမနတကယစစတမးေကာကယျခငးမျပမစမးသပေကာကယသင႔သည။ • စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြစာမအားအသးျပ၍စစတမးေကာကယမည႔၀နထမးမားအားစစတမး ေကာကယ

ျခငးမျပမ ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးသင႔သည။ • တငးျပည႔ကပျပည႔စစတမးေကာကယမႈအားသကဆငရာအဏာပငမားသရခြငျပျပးမသာလပေဆာငသင႔ျပးေ

ဒသခမား၏လပငနးေဆာငတာမားႏင႔တကဆငမႈမရေသာအခနဇယားအစအစဥအတငးျဖင႔သာလပေဆာငသင႔သည။

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BASIC 6. SAMPLING: NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT : • The use of a relatively easy method of sampling, i.e. non-probability sampling; • Different methods for non-probability sampling; • The advantages and disadvantages of non-probability sampling.

______________________________________________________________________ SAMPLING Sampling is about the proper way to select a few representative people for study and discover things that apply to a large population which cannot be studied as a whole. In other words, it is about learning something about a large population without having to study every member of this population. Understanding the logic of sampling is essential to doing social research. It is a research method, a research technique. It is a means to an end (i.e. the production of research findings).

Choosing an appropriate sample and sampling technique is a careful decision taken after considering manymethodological, practical, and ethical issues. It has to do with two issues explained in the first two chapters: the “Who?” question and the issue of unit of measurement. It also related to how much of this population it is relevant to include in the study and how this part of the population will be surveyed.This chapter explains the issue of non-probability sampling in detail. Although sampling and probability sampling are explained in a subsequent chapter, both types of samplings are generally introduced here.

PROBABILITY SAMPLES Probability samples are samples in which every element of a population (whether it is an individual or a household) has a known chance of being included. In other words, every individual or object in the population of interest has equal chance of being chosen for the study. Probability samples are usually more representative than non-probability samples of the populations. Because of this, probability samples tend to increase the possibility of generalizing the results about the entire population. In probability sampling, every individual or object in the population of interest has equal chance of being chosen for study. For example, when selecting a probability sampling for a study of primary school students in Yangon, all primary school students in Yangon have an equal chance of being chosen for the study. In many cases, probability samples are only used for large-scale surveys, something that cannot be done by organizations with limited human resources and financial capacities. The idea behind probability sampling is to provide useful and representative descriptions of the total population. A sample of individuals from the population under study must contain essentially the same variations that exist in the entire population.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLES Non-probability sampling is used when there is no available sampling frame for a population. It is also used when a probabilistic approach is not necessary.Non-probability samples are those in which representative members of a population have an unknown (or perhaps no) chance of being selected. Non-probability samplings are useful when the researcher has limited resources. They are also useful for qualitative research.

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အေျခခအဆင ၆. ျဖ စတနစြမးနညး (န) နမနာေကာကယျခငး ဤပ႔ခခကသည

• အတနငယလြယကေသာနမနာေကာကယနညး (ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယနညး) အားအသးျပပ • ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာစေဆာငးရာတြငအသးျပေသာနညးအမးမး • ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယျခငး၏အားသာခကႏငအားနညးခကမား

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နမနာေကာကယျခငး နမနာေကာကယျခငးဟသညမာတစခလးအေနျဖင ေလလာရနမျဖစႏငေသာလဥးေရတစရပအားကယစားျပမည အရာမားက႐ာေဖြျပး၊ ကယစားလယအခ႕က ေ႐ြးခယေလလာရနသငေတာသညနညးလမးကဆလျခငးျဖစသည။ လဥးေရၾကးတစရပလးမတစခခကနားလညေအာင ေလလာရာတြငလဥးေရတစရပလးပါတစဥးတစေယာကခငးစက လကေလလာရနမလသညနညးလမးဟလညးတစနညးဆႏငသည။လမႈသေတသန ျပလပရာတြငနမနာ ေကာကယသညသေဘာတရားကနားလညရနလအပသည။၄ငးမာသေတသနလပထးတစရပ၊နညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ (သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားရ႐ေစမည) ေလကားထစတစခလညး ျဖစသည။သငေလာမညနမနာႏငနမနာေကာကယနညးစနစက ေ႐ြးခယရာတြငလပထးလပနညးပငး၊လကေတြ႕ပငး၊ကငဝတပငးအစ႐ေသာကစၥရပပငးေျမာကျမားစြာကစဥးစားသးသပျပးမသာဂ႐တစကဆးျဖတေ႐ြးခယသည။ဤသ႔ျပလပရန ေ႐႕ပငးအခနးႏစခနးတြင ေဖာျပခသည “ဘယသ”ဆေသာ ေမးခြနးနငတငးတာေရးယနစအစ႐သညကစၥရပႏစခ ႏငခနထးစဥးစားရပါမည။လဥးေရအတြငး႐မညမသည ေလလာရနအကးဝငသနညးဆေသာအခက၊အဆပါ ေလလာရနအကးဝငသညလဥးေရအစတအပငးကမညသ႔ စစတမးေကာကယမညနညးဆေသာအခကတ႔ႏငလညးသကဆငပါသည။ယခအခနးတြငျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယျခငး အေၾကာငးကအေသးစတ႐ငးျပထားသည။နမနာေကာကယျခငးႏငျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယျခငးအေၾကာငးကေနာငလာမည (အလယအလတအဆင)အခနးမားတြငအစဥလက႐ငးျပထားေသာလညးနမနာစေဆာငးပႏစခစလးႏငပတသက၍အနညးငယမကဤအခနးတြငေယဘယမတဆကေပးထားသည။

ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမား ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာတြငလဥးေရတစရပလးမပါဝငဖြ႕စညးသမအရာ (element) တစခခငးစ (ပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာကျဖစေစ အမေထာငစတစစျဖစေစ) အေနျဖင ေသခာေပါကပါဝငရနအခြငအေရး႐သည။တစနညးဆေသာသေတသေလလာရန စတပါဝငစားသညလဥးေရတစရပလးမပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစသ႔မဟတဝတတစခခငးစသည ေလလာမႈအတြက ေ႐ြးခယခႏငစရာ ညတညမအခြငအလမး႐ေနျခငးျဖစသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသည ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာမားထကပျပးလဥးေရတစရပလးအားကယစားျပႏငသည။ သ႔ျဖစေသာေၾကာင ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသညသေတသနရလဒအားလဥးေရတစရပလးႏငယဥျပး ျခငၾကည၍ရႏငစရာ အခြငအလမးပမားသည။ ျဖစတနရာနမနာ ေကာကယနညးတြင ေလလာမညလဥးေရတစရပလးမပဂၢလတငး (သ႔) ဝတတငး ေလလာခကတြငညတညမပါဝငႏငစရာ႐သည။ဥပမာရနကနမမလတနး ေကာငးသားမားႏငသကဆငေသာ ေလလာခကတစရပအတြက ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာစေဆာငးရာတြငရနကန႐မလတနး ေကာငးသားအားလးတြင ေလလာခကအတြက ေ႐ြးခယခရႏငစရာအခြငအလမးညတမတ႐သည။ မားေသာအားျဖငျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသညစစတမးမားကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ေကာကယသညအခါမးတြငသာအသးျပသည။လအငအားေငြေၾကးအငအားေတာငတငးမႈမ႐ေသာအဖြ႕အစညးမားတြငေတာ၄ငးနညးအားအသးျပရနမတတႏငေခ။ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ရည႐ြယခကမာလဥးေရတစရပလးကကယစားျပျပးအသးလညးတညေသာရညညႊနးဝေသသမား (descriptions) ေပးစြမးႏငေရးျဖစသည။ေလလာဆလဥးေရမရ႐လာေသာနမနာပဂၢလမားတြငအဆပါလဥးေရတစရပလး၏ထးျခားစ႐ကလကၡဏာမား (variations) ပါ႐ရနလအပသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာမား လဥးေရတစရပအတြကနမနာေကာကယရနေဘာငသြငး၍/ပစခ၍မရႏငေသာအခါတြငျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယနညးက အသးျပသည။ျဖစတနရာအေကာကအယနညးနာ (probabilistic approach) အသးျပရနမလအပေသာ အခါမးတြငလညး၄ငးနညးကသာအသးျပသည။ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာမားတြငေလလာမညလဥးေရမကယစားလယမားမာအေ႐ြးခယခရႏငစရာအခြငအလမးကနေသခာစြာမ႐ေပ။ (သ႔မဟတအခြငအလမးလးဝမ႐ေခ)။ သေတသတြငေငြအငအားလအငအား (resources) နညးပါးေနပါကျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယနညးမာ အလြနအသးတညသည။အရညအေသြးသေတသနအတြကလညး၄ငးနညးမားမာအလြနအသးဝငသည။

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Common techniques of non-probability sampling are: (1) convenience sampling; (2) purposive/judgmental sampling; (3) snowball sampling; and 4) quota sampling.

(i) In convenience sampling, collection of samples is based on the individuals or units of measurement (sampling unit) that happen to be available at the time of data collection. (ii) In purposive sampling, informants are hand-picked by the researcher based on the assumption that these informants represent typical or interesting cases for the study. (iii) In snowball sampling, building up a sample is by collecting preliminary information about a specific population. It starts with one or two informants of a specific population and continues to identify other members of the same population. (iv) In quota sampling, collection of samples is based on the proportion of sub-groups of individuals needed to represent similar proportions of the entire population. By using this sampling technique, the researcher makes sure that a certain number of sample units from different categories with specific characteristic appear in the sample so that all of these characteristics are represented.

Convenience sampling In convenience sampling, the individuals or units of measurement (sampling

unit) that happen to be available at the time of data collection are selected as a sample. It is the most convenient method for non-probability sampling. It is not frequently used in social research, but more in medical studies.

Suppose that the topic of a research project is about patients’ satisfaction with health care providers in Yangon public hospitals. The researcher visits several Yangon public hospitals and picks up as many patients as needed for the research. Some patients surveyed are in a severe health condition while others are. Convenience sampling will build on the group of patients with various conditions to study their opinion on the quality of care at different hospitals.

In the example shown above, the researcher chooses patients in the hallway of the hospital (in circle) as convenience samples. Their characteristics may or may not be different from those hospitalized or from those who have come to the public hospital.

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အသးမားေသာ ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာေကာကယနညးမားမာ – (၁) လြယကသကသာ နမနာ ေကာကယနညး၊ (၂) စစစေ႐ြးခယ နမနာေကာကယနညး (purposive/judgmental sampling)၊(၃) ႏငးခ/ႏငးလး နမနာေကာကယနညး (snowball sampling)၊ (၄) အခးက နမနာေကာကယနညး စနစ (quota sampling) တ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။ (၁) လြယကသကသာနမနာ ေကာကယနညးတြင ေကာကယစေဆာငးထားေသာနမနာမားမာအခကအလကစေဆာငးစဥလကလမးမႏငသမလပဂၢလတစေယာကခငးစ (သ႔) တငးတာေရးယနစ (စေဆာငးေရးယနစ) တစခခငးစကအေျချပသည။ (၂) စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငအခကအလကေပးစြမးႏငသမား (informants) အားေ႐ြးခယရာတြငေလလာမညေဘာငဝငေသာ (သ႔) စတဝငစားစရာကစၥရပမားကကယစားျပသညဟယဆထားသမားက သေတသကယတငေ႐ြးခယသည။ (၃)ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငသတမတထားေသာလဥးေရတစရပ၏ပဏာမသတငးအခကအလကမားကစေဆာငးျခငးျဖငနမနာတစခကတညေဆာကသည။အခကအလကေပးႏငသတစဥးစႏစဥးစမစတငျပးအဆပါလဥးေရအတြငး႐အျခားသမားကပါဆကလက ေဖာထတသြားျခငးျဖစသည။ (၄) အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညးစနစတြငနမနာစေဆာငးပမာလဥးေရတစရပလးကအခးကကယစားျပေပးႏငမည အပစကြအခးပမာဏတစခတြငအေျချပသည။ဤနညးအားအသးျပျခငးျဖငသေတသသညထးျခားဝေသသလကၡဏာ႐ျပးမတညေသာမးတအပစကြမားမနမနာယနစမားကအေရအတြကတစခအထစေဆာငးႏငမညျဖစျပး၄ငးနမနာမားတြငအဆပါထးျခားဝေသသလကၡဏာမား ေပၚလြငေနမညျဖစသည။သ႔မသာယငးနမနာမားသညထးျခားဝေသသလကၡဏာ အကနလးကကယစားျပႏငမညျဖစသည။

လြယကသကသာနမနာေကာကယနညး လြယကသကသာနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငအခကအလကစေဆာငးစဥလကလမးမေသာလပဂၢလမား (သ႔)

တငးတာေရးယနစမား (နမနာယနစ) အားနမနာတစခအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယသည။၄ငးမာျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြင အသကသာဆးနညးလမးပငျဖစသည။၄ငးအားလမႈသေတသနတြငမားမားစားစားသးေလမ႐ဘ ေဆးဘကဆငရာ ေလလာမႈမားတြငသာပ၍အသးျပေလ႐ၾကသည။ ဥပမာရနကနျပညသ႔ေဆး႐မား႐ကနးမာေရးဝနေဆာငမႈေပးေနသမားႏင ပတသကျပးလနာမား၏စတတငးကမႈကသေတသနလပသညဆပါစ႔။သေတသသညရနကနျမ႕႐ ေျမာကျမားလစြာေသာ ေဆး႐မားသ႔သြားျပးသေတသနအတြကလအပသမလနာအေရတြကက ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။စစတမးေကာကယထားေသာ လနာမားတြငအခ႕မာရာဂါသညးထနျပးအခ႕မာေရာဂါမသညးထနေခ။လြယကသကသာနမနာေကာကယနညးသညအနာေရာဂါ အေျခအေနအမးမး႐ၾကေသာလနာအပစကဖနတးေပးႏငျပး ေဆး႐ေပါငးစမကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈအရညအေသြးအေပၚ၄ငး တ႔႐ျမငပက ေလလာခြငရေစသည။

ဤဥပမာတြငသေတသသညေဆး႐ေဟာခနးတစေလာကမလနာမားအားလြယကသကသာနမနာမားအျဖစေ႐ြးခယသည (ပတြငအနျဖငျပထားသည)။၄ငးတ႔၏လကၡဏာရပမားမာျပညသ႔ေဆး႐သ႔လာေရာကကသမႈခၾကေသာလနာမား (သ႔) လာေရာကကသမႈမခေသာလနာမားႏငကြျခားမႈ႐သလတညမႈလညး႐ႏငသည။

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The advantages of this technique are primarily convenience and economy. The disadvantages are: (1) the evidence obtained from the data will be somewhat biased; and (2) the data obtained from the sample cannot be generalized to an entire population.

Purposive sampling

In purposive sampling, informants are hand-picked by the researcher based on the assumption that these informants represent typical or interesting cases for the study. The selection of informants matches a certain profile of individuals who are expected to produce relevant data once they are surveyed. Interview techniques such as In-depth Interview (IDI) and Key Informant Interview (KII) frequently use purposive sampling in qualitative research. For example, suppose that a researcher would like to know the characteristics of successful young people (aged 18-25 year) who have created their own business or companies without the help of their parents. The researcher will identify a sample of young people meeting these criteria through various channels: s/he will ask around her/him for recommendations, read newspapers about successful business ventures and their owners, and go the UMFCCI, etc. In this way, the researcher will be able to build a sample of successful young individuals and conduct research on the primary sources of their business successes.

In this example, the researcher identified successful young businessmen and women (in circle), among businesspeople, through a business organization. Then they invited them to participate in the research.

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၄ငးနညးလမး၏အားသာခကမာအေျခခအားျဖငလြယကျပး ေငြေၾကးအကနအကနညးသည။ အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁)အခကအလကမားမရ႐ေသာသကေသအေထာကအထားမားမာအနညးငယဘကလကမႈ႐ႏငသည။ ဓမၼဓ႒ာနကရနခကခသည။ (၂) နမနာမားမရ႐လာေသာအခကအလကမားအားလဥးေရတစရပလးႏငခနထးျပး ေယဘယျပဆရနခကခသည။

စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညး

စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငအခကအလကေပးစြမးႏငသမား (informants) အားေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ေလလာမည ေဘာငဝငေသာ (သ႔)စတဝငစားစရာကစၥရပမားကကယစားျပသညဟယဆထားသမားက သေတသကယတင ေ႐ြးခယသည။အခကအလကေပးစြမးႏငသမားကေ႐ြးခယရာတြငစစတမးေကာကယသညအခါ သကဆငသညအခကအလကမားက ေပးစြမးမညသဟယဆထားသမားက ေ႐ြးခယသည။အေသးစတေမးျမနးနညး (In-

depth Interview-IDI) ႏငအဓကအခကအလကေပးႏငသမားအားေမးျမနးနညး (Key Informant Interview-KII) အစ႐ေသာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးနညးမားမာအရညအေသြးသေတသနမစစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငအသးမားသည။

ဥပမာသေတသသညမဘအပထနးသ၏အကအညမပါဘစးပြားေရးလပငနးသ႔မဟတကမၼဏထေထာငႏငသည (အသက၁၈-၂၅ႏစအတြငး႐) ေအာငျမငေသာလငယမား၏စ႐ကလကၡဏာမားအေၾကာငးကသ႐လသညဆပါစ ႔။ သေတသအေနႏငအဆပါစႏနးမားျဖငကကညေသာလငယနမနာတစစအားနညးလမးေပါငးစသးျပးဖာထတရေပမည။ ၄ငးအေနျဖငပတဝနးကငတြငအဆပါစႏနးမားႏငကကညသအေၾကာငးက ေမးျမနးစစမးျခငး၊ ေအာငျမငေသာစြန႔ဥးစးပြားေရး လပငနးမားႏငဥးေဆာငသမားအေၾကာငးကသတငးစာတြငဖတ႐ေလလာျခငး၊UMFCCIသ႔သြားေရာကစစမးျခငးစသညတ႔ ျပလပႏငသည။ဤနညးျဖငသေတသသည ေအာငျမငေသာလငယမားပါဝငသညနမနာတစခတညေဆာကယႏငျပး၄ငးတ႔ ေအာငျမငရသညအဓကအေၾကာငးတရားမားကသေတသန ျပလပႏငေပမည။

ဤဥပမာတြငသေတသသည (ပတြငအနျဖငျပထားသည) ေအာငျမငေသာလငယစးပြားေရးလပငနး႐ငမားအား စးပြားေရးလပငနး႐ငမားၾကား၊စးပြားေရးလပငနးအဖြ႕အစညးမားမေဖာထတေ႐ြးခယသည။ျပးေနာက၄ငးတ႔အားသေတသနတြငပါဝငရနဖတၾကားသည။

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The advantages of purposive sampling are: (1) it doesn’t involve any random selection process; (2) it is less costly and more readily accessible to the researcher; and (3) it guarantees that all relevant aspects of the research topic are included. The disadvantages of purposive sampling are: (1) too much emphasis is placed on the ability of the investigator to assess which elements are typical and which are not; (2) as it is not random sampling, this method requires extensive preliminary information about the population that a researcher plans to study; and (3) like other non-probability sampling techniques, the evidence resulting from a study using purposive sampling can be used legitimely for this study only. In other words, it cannot be generalized to the entire population.

Snowball sampling The main feature of snowball sampling is about building up a sample by

collecting preliminary information about a specific population. Snowball sampling is useful when the researcher needs to locate key informants or critical cases. Snowball sampling is also used when a population listing or census are not available. It relies on previously identified members of a specific population to identify other members of the same population. It starts with one or two informants of a specific population who experience difficulties or do not live typical lives, i.e. female sex workers (FSW) or people who inject drugs (PWID). Snowball sampling is used frequently in qualitative research and field research. For example, suppose that research topic is about widows formerly married to People living with HIV (PLHIV), i.e. women who lost their husband to HIV infection. The researcher will first have to ask around her/him about widows formerly married to a PLHIV husband, as data about this issue does not exist. After a first contact with a widow, the researcher will probably get to know other widows in the same case through self-help groups and therefore be able to build a sample of informants for the research project.

In this example, the researcher first contacts a widow of PLHIV (an informant of a specific population) and then identifies other members of the same population, and so on until the researcher reaches the required sample size.

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စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညး၏အားသာခကမားမာ (၁) ၾကရာကပနးေ႐ြးခယမႈမးမဟတေပ။ (၂) ေငြကနေၾကးကနညးျပးသေတသအတြကလြယတငတကလကလမးမႏငသည။ (၃) သကဆငရာ / အကးဝငသညအခကအလကအစတအပငးဟသမပါဝငေစရနအာမခခက႐သည။စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁) မညသညကစႏနးႏငကကညျပးမညသညကမကကညသညကဆနးစစႏငသညသေတသ၏ စြမးရညပငးကအသားေပးလြနးသည။ (၂) ကပနးနမနာေကာကျခငးမဟတေသာေၾကာင၄ငးနညးလမးတြင သေတသေလလာရနရည႐ြယသညလဥးေရႏငပတသကေသာပဏာမအခကအလကမားပျပးလအပသည။ (၃) အျခားေသာ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယနညးမားကသ႔ပငစစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညးကအသးျပသည ေလလာခကမ ေပၚထြကလာေသာသကေသအေထာကအထားမားမာ၄ငးေလလာခကတြငသာအသးျပရနအကးဝငသည။ တနညးဆေသာလဥးေရတစရပလးႏငခနထးျပး ေယဘယဖြငဆ ေကာကခကခရနမျဖစႏငေခ။

ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညး ႏငးလးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး၏ထးျခားခကမာသကဆငရာလဥးေရတစရပ၏ပဏာမသတငး

အခကအလကမားကစေဆာငးျခငးျဖငနမနာတစခကတညေဆာကယျခငး ျဖစသည။ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညးသည သေတသအတြကအေရးပါေသာအခကအလကေပးႏငမညသမား (သ႔) အထငကရကစၥရပမားက႐ာေဖြေထာကလမးရာတြင အသးဝငသည။လဥးေရအားစာရငးဇယားျပလပထားမႈ (သ႔) သနးေခါငစာရငးေကာကယထားမႈမရ႐ႏငပါကႏငးလးနမနာနညးက ပငအသးျပသည။၄ငးနညးသညသကဆငရာလဥးေရတစရပအတြငးလကဥးမဆြကတြ႕႐ထားျပးသားသမားကအေၾကာငးျပျပး၄ငးလဥးေရ၌ပငပါဝငေသာအျခားသမားအား ေဖာထတျခငးပငျဖစသည။အမးသမးလငလပသားမားသ႔တညးမဟတမးယစေဆး အေၾကာထထးသြငးသမားစသတ႔ကသ႔ကဥးထကပထကေရာကေနသမား (ဝါ) သမ႐းကဘဝျဖင ေနထငခြငမရၾကသမားစသည ထးျခားေသာလဥးေရတစရပမအခကအလကေပးႏငသတစေယာကစႏစေယာကစျဖငစတငႏငသည။ႏငးခနမနာေကာကယနညးသညအရညအေသြးသေတသနႏငကြငးဆငးသေတသနမားတြငၾကမဖနမားစြာအသးျပေလ႐သည။

ဥပမာသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာသည HIV ေဝဒနာသညႏငေပါငးသငးေနထငခဖးေသာမဆးမမား (HIV ကးစကပးေၾကာငဆးပါးသြားေသာလငေယာကားျဖစသ၏ကနရစသမနးမမား) အေၾကာငးျဖစသညဆပါစ႔။အဆပါကစၥရပႏင ပတသကေသာအခကအလကတစတရာမ႐ေသးေသာေၾကာငသေတသသညဥးစြာပထမနးစပရာပတဝနးကငတြင HIV ေရာဂါသညေယာကားႏငေပါငးသငးေနထငခဖးေသာမဆးမမားအေၾကာငးကေမးျမနးစစမးရမည။အဆပါမဆးမတစေယာကႏငဥးဆးဆကသြယျပးသညေနာက၌သေတသသညအျပနအလနေဖးမကညေရးအပစမားမတဆငအလားတမဆးမမားကသကၽြမးလာျပးသေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြကအခကအလကေပးႏငသနမနာတစစတညေဆာကလာႏငမည။

ဤဥပမာတြငသေတသအေနႏင HIV ေရာဂါသည ေယာကား၏ကနရစသဇနး (အနျဖင ျပထားသညသကဆငရာလဥးေရမ အခကအလကေပးႏငသတစဥး) ႏငဥးစြာအဆကအသြယလပျပးအဆပါလဥးေရမအျခားသမားက ေဖာထတရမည။ ဤနညးျဖငလအပေသာနမနာအေရအတြကအ႐ြယအစားသ႔ ေရာက႐လာသည။

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The advantages of snowball sampling are: (1) it makes easier to study under-explored communities or groups of people; and (2) it also helpsto develop an understanding of how a community or a group of people share similar experiences, lives, and jobs. The disadvantages of snowball sampling are: (1) the making of the sampling may use a lot of the researcher’s time before actually being able to conduct the research; (2) the sampling technique is difficult to apply when the sample exceeds certain limits; and (3) the findings can’t be generalized to the population. .

Quota sampling The main feature of ‘quota sampling’ is that of a convenience sampling within

groups of the population. It is based on the proportion of sub-groups of individuals needed to represent similar proportions in the entire population. By using this sampling technique, a researcher makes sure that a certain number of sample units from different categories with specific characteristic appear in sample so that all these characteristics are represented. To be able to use quota sampling, census records must be up to date in order to obtain accurate proportion. It is used with great caution in social research. For example, a researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different religions towards the encouragement of formal education in Mandalay Region. It is estimated that 5% of the population in Myanmar is Hindu . However, in the Mandalay Region, the exact percentage of the Hindu population is not known. Therefore, there may be a risk of miscounting the Hindus population.. To ensuretheir inclusion, the researcher can set a quota of 5% Hindu for the sample. The sample will not be representative of the actual proportion in the Mandalay Region population. The findings may limit generalization to the regional population. But quota sampling guarantees that the views of Hindus are represented in the survey.

In this example, the researcher identifies quota samples (in circle) from populations representing each religion (a religion is represented by a quadrant) in order for the views of every religion to be reflected in the survey.

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ႏငးခနမနာေကာကယနညး၏အားသာခကမားမာ (၁) စးစမး႐ာေဖြမညအစအဖြ႕မား (ဝါ) လအပစမားအား ေလလာရာတြငလြယကေစသည။(၂) ဆငတေသာအေတြ႕အၾက၊ဘဝႏငအလပအကငမားကအစအဖြ႕တစခ (သ႔) လအပစတစစမညသ႔မညပေဝမထားသညကနားလညေစသည။ႏငးခနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁) သေတသနမလပမနမနာေကာကယရငးျဖငသာသေတသ၏အခနေတာေတာမားမားကနသြားႏငသည။ (၂) နမနာအေရအတြကသညသတမတထားေသာအ႐ ြယအစားထကေကာလြနသြားပါကအဆပါနမနာေကာကယနညးအားအသးျပရနခကခသြားသည (၃) ေတြ႕႐ခကမားျဖငလဥးေရတစရပလးအားေယဘယျပေကာကခကဆြရနမျဖစႏငေပ။

အခးကနမနာေကာကယျခငး ‘အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညး’၏ထးျခားခကမာလဥးေရတစရပ႐အပစမားအတြငးလြယကသကသာနမနာေ

ကာကယနညးတစနညးျဖစသည။၄ငးနညးမာလဥးေရတစရပလး႐အပစကြမားအားညတညမကယစားျပမညအခးအစားေပၚတြငအေျချပသည။ထနမနာစေဆာငးနညးအားအသးျပျခငးျဖငသေတသသညအစားစားေသာမးတအပစကြမား၏ဝေသသထးမားပါဝငျပးကယစားျပႏငေသာနမနာယနစအေရအတြကတစခကကနေသခာစြာရ႐ႏငမညျဖစသည။အခးကနမနာေကာကယမႈကအသးျပႏငရနအလ႔ငာသနးေခါငစာရငးအခကအလကမားမာေခတမေနမသာတကေသာအခးပမာဏကရ႐ႏငမညျဖစသည။လမႈေရးသေတသနတြင၄ငးနညးနာအားသတၾကးစြာထားျပးအသးျပေလ႐သည။

ဥပမာမႏေလးတငးေဒသၾကး႐ ဘာသာေပါငးစမလမား၏ ေကာငးပညာေရးအားေပးမႈအေပၚထား႐ေသာစတသေဘာ ထားႏငပတသကျပးသေတသတစေယာကအေနႏငစတဝငစားသညဆပါစ ႔။ခန႔မနးခကအရ ျမနမာတစႏငငလးတြင ဟႏၵဘာသာဝငဥးေရ ၅% မ႐သည။ သ႔ေသာလညးမႏေလးတငး ေဒသၾကး႐ ဟႏၵဘာသာဝငရာခငႏနးကမသ႐ရေသာ ေၾကာငသေတသအေနျဖငဟႏၵလဥးေရကမားယြငးေရတြကလကႏငသည။၄ငးတ႔မၾကြငးမကနဘပါဝငေစရနသေတသအေနျဖငဟႏၵ ၅% အခးကထညသြငးႏငသည။ ယငးနမနာသညမႏေလးတငးေဒသၾကး၏လဥးေရအခးအစားအမနက ကယစားျပမညမဟတေပ။ ေတြ႕႐ ခကမားမာလညးအဆပါတငးေဒသၾကးတစခလးႏငယဥ၍ေယဘယ ျပေကာကခကဆြရနခကခေပမည။သ႔ေသာ စစတမးတြငဟႏၵဘာသာဝငမား၏အျမငလညးကယစားျပပါဝငေစရနမ အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညးကအာမခႏငသည။

ဤဥပမာတြငသေတသသည (ပတြငအနျဖငျပထားေသာ) အခးကနမနာမားအားဘာသာတစခခငးစကကယစားျပသညလဥးေရမေဖာထတေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖငဘာသာတစခခငးစ၏(ဘာသာတစခခငးစအားမဥးမားျဖငပငးျခားျပထားသည။)ထငျမငယဆခကမားသညစစတမးတြငထငဟပလာသည။

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The advantages of quota sampling are: (1) it is considerably less costly than most other sampling methods; (2) it can be quickly administered; and (3) it guarantees the inclusion of certain types of people in the sample. The disadvantages of quota sampling are: (1) it gives too much opportunity for the researcher to select the most accessible information neededfor study as the researcher may even select his/her friends. The researcher has to remember that the most accessible elements are not necessarily the typical elements of the population under study; and (2) the findings can’t be generalized to the population. TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• Non-probability samples are those in which members of the population have an unknown (or perhaps no) chance of being selected;

• Convenience sampling is usually used in studies which focus on a specific population that can be easily identified and select from this population a sample of individuals or households;

• Purposive sampling means that the researcher hand-picks individuals or

households based on the features or experiences that the researcher intends to study;

• Snowball sampling is about creating a sampling from a network of people sharing similar features or experiences. This network is created during the research process;

• Quota sampling is about sampling groups of individuals or households based on their known proportion in the entire population.

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အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညး၏အားသာခကမားမာ (၁) ၄ငးနညးသညအျခားေသာနမနာေကာကယနညးမားထကအလြနတရာ ေငြကနေၾကးကသကသာသည။ (၂) လပငနးလပေဆာငရာတြငလငျမနသည။ (၃) သတမတထားသညလအမးအစားမား နမနာတြငပါဝငေစရနအာမခခက႐သည။အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညး၏အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁) သေတသသည၄ငး၏ မတေဆြကပငနမနာအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသညျဖစေၾကာင ေလလာခကအတြကလကလမးအမႏငဆးေသာအရာမားက ေ႐ြးခယရနသေတသအားအခြငအေရးေပးလြနးရာေရာကသည။လကလမးအမႏငဆးအရာမားမာ ေလလာဆလဥးေရမသမ႐းကဖြ႕ စညးပါဝငသညအရာမား ျဖစရနမလအပေၾကာငးကသေတသအေနႏငသတထားရနလအပသည။ (၂) ေတြ႕႐ခကမားအားလဥးေရတစရပလးသ႔ခနထးျပး ေယဘယျပ ေကာကခကဆြရနမျဖစႏငေခ။ အခပဆရေသာဤအခနးတြငမတသားစရာအဓကအခကမားမာ

• ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာတြင ေလလာမညလဥးေရတြငပါဝငသမားမာအေ႐ြးခယခရႏငစရာ အခြငအလမး ကနေသခာစြာမ႐ေပ။ (သ႔မဟတအခြငအလမးလးဝမ႐ေခ)။

• လြယလငတက႐ာေဖြေဖာထတ၍ရႏငေသာလဥးေရတစရပေပၚတြငအာ႐စကေသာ ေလလာခကမားတြင လြယကသကသာနမနာေကာကယနညးကအသးျပေလ႐ျပးနမနာပဂၢလမားႏငအမေထာငစမားအား၄ငးလဥးေရမသာ ေ႐ြးခယေလ႐သည။

• စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညးဆသညမာသေတသမ၄ငးေလလာလေသာစ႐ကလကၡဏာ၊၄ငးေလလာလေသာအေတြ႕အၾကကအေျခခ၍လပဂၢလ (သ႔) အမေထာငစမားအား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖစသည။

• ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညးမာတညေသာစ႐ကလကၡဏာ (သ႔) တညေသာအေတြ႕အၾက႐ေသာလ႔ အသငးအဝငးတစခမနမနာစေဆာငးမႈျပလပျခငးျဖစသည။အဆပါအသငးအဝငးအားသေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြငးဖနတးသည။

• အခးကနမနာေ႐ြးခယျခငးဆသညမာလပဂၢလ (သ႔) အမေထာငစအပစမားအားလဥးေရတစရပလးမ သကဆငရာအခးအလကနမနာေကာကယျခငးျဖစသည။

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BASIC 7. SAMPLING: PROBABILITY SAMPLING THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT :

• The use of an advanced method of sampling, i.e. probability sampling; • The different methods used for probability sampling; • The advantages and disadvantages of using probability sampling.

______________________________________________________________________ SAMPLING Sampling is the proper way of selecting a limited number of persons for study and discover things that apply to a large population which cannot be studied as a whole. In other words, it is about learning something about a large population without having to study every member of this population. Understanding the logic of sampling is essential to doing social research. It is a research method, a research technique. It is a means to an end (i.e. the production of research findings). PURPOSE OF SAMPLING The purpose of sampling is to ensure that the findings in study accurately represent what is going on in the population of interest and to generalize findings from sample to population. There are two types of sampling: probability sampling and non-probability sampling (See Chapter on ‘Non-Probability Sampling’). Generally-speaking, social science research using qualitative methods apply non-probability sampling while biological and epidemiological research using quantitative methods apply probability sampling. Non-probability samplings are useful when the researcher has limited resources. SAMPLING UNIT Before starting the research project, it is important to define the sampling unit.The decision about how to define the basic sampling unit depends on what information is available or needed before beginning the sampling. For example, in studying child literacy, some villages or refugee camps may have lists of children under 5 years of age. In such cases, it may be easier to directly select children for the survey. However, in most cases, the basic sampling unit is the household because households may be listed in registration databases or because households are easier to identify and select after arriving at the site under study. SAMPLING FRAME Sampling frame is a complete list of sampling units for the entire population. For example, it can be a complete list of households or children at the site. The ward or village administrative office has this kind of list, which can be used as the sampling frame.

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အေျခခအဆင ၇. နမနာေကာကယနညး ဤအခနးတြင

• နမနာေကာကယျခငးအဆငျမငနညးလမးတစရပအားအသးျပပ။ဥပမာ-ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညး • ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငအသးျပေသာနညးလမးအမးမး • ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညးအသးျပျခငး၏အားသာခကမားႏငအားနညးခကမားတ႔ပါ၀ငပါသည။

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

နမနာေကာကယျခငး နမနာေကာကယျခငးဆသညမာ ေလလာရနအလ႔ငာလနညးစတစရပအားသငေလာေသာနညးလမးတစချဖင

ေရြးခယျခငးျဖစၿပး၄ငးမတဆငအားလးအား ေလလာမႈျပလပရနမလြယကေသာလအမားစႀကးႏငပတသကေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမားအား ေလလာေဖာထတရျခငး ျဖစသည။တစနညးဆရလငလမားစႀကးတစရပ လးအားတစဥး ခငးစေလလာရနမလဘထလစႀကးႏငပတသက၍ ေလလာျခငး ျဖစသည။နမနာေကာကယျခငးႏငပတသကေသာ ယတေဗဒအားနားလညထားျခငးသညလမႈေရးသေတသနလပေဆာငရာတြငအေရးပါပါသည။၄ငးမာသေတသနနညး လမးတစရပ၊နညးပညာတစရပပငျဖစပါသည။သေတသန၏အႏမပနးတင (ဆလသညမာ-သေတသန မရာေဖြေတြ႕ ရမႈမား) သ႔ ေရာကရရနၾကားခနညးလမးပင ျဖစပါသည။

နမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ရညရြယခက နမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ရညရြယခကမာေလလာမႈမရာေဖြေတြ႔ရခကမားသညရညရြယထားသည (လ) အပစႀကးတစခ လးအာတကစြာကယစားျပေၾကာငးေသခာမႈရေစရနျဖစၿပး၊နမနာအပစငယ၏ရာေဖြရာေဖြေတြ႔ရမႈမားမသည (လ) အပစ ႀကးတစခလးႏငပတသက၍ေကာကခကဆြယရနျဖစသည။ေယဘယအေနျဖင- နမနာေကာကယျခငးတြင- ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယနညး (Probability Sampling) ႏငျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာနမနာေကာကယနညး (Non-Probability Sampling) ဟ၍ႏစမးရပါသည။ ၿခငေျပာရလငမလမႈေရးသyÜသေတသနပငးဆငရာတြငျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာနမနာေကာကယနညး (Non-Probability Sampling) ကသးေသာအရညအေသြးစထားေလလာမႈမးက ျပလပေလရၿပး၊ဇ၀ေဗဒဆငရာႏင ကးစကေရာဂါျပန႔ပြားမႈ ပငးဆငရာသေတသနမး၌ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညး Probability Sampling ကအသးျပေသာအေရအတြက စထားေလလာမႈမးကအသးျပပါသည။သေတသအေနျဖငအကန႔အသတျဖငသာရေသာအရငးအျမစမးကအသးျပရသညအခါ၌ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာနမနာေကာကယနညးမား (Non-Probability Sampling) မာအသး၀ငပါသည။

နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစ (Sampling Unit) သေတသနတစရပမစတငမနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစက ေဖာထတသတမတရနအေရးႀကးပါသည။ ဤအေျခခကေသာနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစကမညသ႔သတမတမညဟေသာဆးျဖတခကမာနမနာေကာကယမႈမစတငမမညသညသတငးအခကအလကမားလအပမႈရသည (သ႔) ရႏငေခရသညဟေသာ အခကေပၚမတညပါသည။ ဥပမာဆရလငကေလးမားအဟာရခ႕တ႔မႈက ေလလာရာ၌အခ႕ေသာေကးရြာမား(သ႔)ဒကၡသညစခနးမား၌အသက ၅ႏစေအာကကေလးစာရငးရေကာငးရႏငပါသည။ထသ႔ရလငစစတမးအတြကကေလးမားကလြယလငတကတကရကေရြးခယႏငေပမည။သ႔ေသာကစၥရပ ေတာေတာမားမား၌မအမေထာငစမားကသာစာရငးသြငးမတထားေလရသျဖင လညးေကာငး၊အရပေဒသတစခသ႔ ေလလာရနေရာကရသညအခါ၌အမေထာငစမားသညလြယကစြာ ေဖာထတ သတမတႏငသျဖငလညးေကာငးအေျခခနမနာေကာကယမႈယနစမာအမေထာငစမား ျဖစေလရသည။

နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာအေျခခစာရငး (Sampling Frame) နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာအေျခခစာရငးဆသညမာ (လ)အပစႀကးတစခလးအတြကနမနာ ေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစမား ၏ျပညစေသာစာရငးတစချဖစသည။ဥပမာအားျဖငအာဟာရခ႕တမႈႏငပတသက၍ ေလလာမညေနရာေဒသ၏ ကေလးမား(သ႔)အမေထာငစမားစာရငးအျပညအစ ျဖစသည။ရပကြက(သ႔)ေကးရြာအပခပေရး႐းမား၌ဤကသ႔ေသာ နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာအေျခခစာရငအျဖစသးႏငေသာစာရငးမးရပါသည။

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REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE A representative sample is a sample which has all the important characteristics of a population. A required sample is drawn from a representative sample and statistical inference is drawn from the obtained findings. PROBABILITY SAMPLING Probability samples are those in which every element of population has a known chance of being included. In other words, every individual or object in the population of interest has an equal chance of being chosen for the study. Non-probability sampling is used when there is no sampling frame for an available population. It is also used when a probabilistic approach is not necessary. Non-probability samples are those in which members of the population have an unknown (or perhaps no) chance of being selected. Probability samples are usually more representative than non-probability samples of the populations. Because of this, probability samples tend to increase the possibility of generalizing the results to the entire population. In probability sampling, every individual or object in the population of interest has an equal chance of being chosen for study. For example, when a selection is made about primary school students in Yangon, all primary school students in Yangon have equal chance of being chosen for the study. The idea behind probability sampling is to provide useful and representative descriptions of the total population. A sample of individuals from the population under study must contain essentially the same variations that exist in the entire population. In many cases, probability samples are only used for large-scale surveys, something that cannot be done by organizations with limited human resources and financial capacity. There are different sampling techniques that will have to be chosen depending on the situation under study. Commonly-used probability sampling techniques are: (1) Simple Random Sampling (SRS); (2) systematic random sampling; (3) stratified sampling; (4) cluster sampling; and (5) multi-stage sampling. SIMPLE OR SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING (SRS)

If a complete list of sampling units (households or children) is available for the entire population, the researcher can choose a sample by Simple or Systematic Random Sampling (SRS). In SRS, individual basic sampling units are chosen directly from a list of all eligible basic sampling units (sampling frame). Systematic random sampling can be done on the ground without having a list of all basic sampling units. If the actual houses are arranged in some order and the total number of households is known, then a sampling interval (n) can be calculated. The sampling interval is derived from the calculation of the complete sampling units divided by required sample size. The first household is randomly selected. Then, every nth household can be selected by walking or driving through the population and counting houses.

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ကယစားျပနမနာ (Representative Sample) ကယစားျပနမနာတစရပဆသညမာ (လ) အပစႀကး၏အေရးႀကးေသာ၀ေသသလကၡဏာအားလးပါ၀ငေသာနမနာ အစတစရပျဖစသည။လအပေသာနမနာအစကဤကယစားျပနမနာအပစမထတႏတေကာကယႏငၿပးေပၚထြကလာသညရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားအားစာရငးအငးဆငရာေကာကခကမားခမတယႏငသည။

ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညး (Probability Sampling) ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားဆသညမာ (လ)ဥးေရအပစႀကး၏အစတအပငးတစခခငးစတငးသညနမနာအစတြငပါ၀င ႏငေခရျခငးကဆလသည။တစနညးဆရလငလဥးေရအပစႀကး၏တစဥးခငးစ(သ႔) တစခခငးစတငးသည ေလလာမႈအတြကေရြးခယခရမႈတြငတညေသာအခြငအလမးရျခငးျဖစသည။ လဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးအတြကနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာအေျခခစာရငး (Sampling Frame) မရလငျဖစတနစြမးနညး ေသာနမနာေကာကယနညး (non-Probability Sampling) ကအသးျပသည။ျဖစတနစြမးနညးလမးက အသးျပရန မလအပပါကလညးဤနညးကအသးျပပါသည။ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာနမနာ (non-Probability Samples) ဆသညမာ ေလလာမညဥးေရးအပစႀကး၏အဖြ႔၀ငမားအေနျဖငေရြးခယခရမႈတြငပါ၀ငႏငရနအခြငအလမးမေရရာေသာ၊မသေသာအေျခအေနျဖစသည။ ဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသညျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာနမနာမားထကစာလငဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးကပ၍ကယစားျပေလရသည။သ႔အတြကေၾကာငပငျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသညေလလာမညဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးႏငပတသကေသာရလဒမားကေကာကခကဆြယႏငေခပျမငမားပါသည။ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငေလလာမညအပစႀကး၏အဖြ႔၀ငတငးသညေလလာမႈအတြကေရြးခယခရမႈတြငတညေသာအခြငအလမးရၾကသည။ဥပမာ- ရနကနၿမ႕ရမလတနး ေကာငးသား မားတြငေရြးခယမႈျပလပမညဆပါကရနကနၿမ႕ရမလတနးေကာငးသားအားလး (သ႔) တစဥးခငးစတငးသညေလလာမႈ အတြကေရြးခယခရမႈတြငတညေသာအခြငအလမးမားရၾကသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ရညရြယခကမာလဥးေရးအပစႀကးတစခလးႏငပတသက၍အသး၀င၍ကယစားျပ ေသာဖြငဆခကမားေဖာထတႏငရနျဖစသည။ေလလာမညလဥးေရအပစႀကးမေကာကယထားေသာနမနာလနညးစသညထအပစႀကးတစခလးတြငပါ၀ငသည၀ေသသမားႏငထးျခားကြျပားစလငမႈတ႔ပါ၀ငရမညျဖစသည။ကစၥရပေတာမားမားတြငမျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယျခငးကအႀကးစားစစတမးေကာကယမႈမားတြငသာအသးျပၾကၿပးေငြေၾကးႏငလအငအားအကန႔အသတရေသာအဖြ႔အစညးငယမားအေနျဖငလပေဆာငႏငျခငးမရေခ။ နမနာေကာကယမႈနညးလမးအမးမးရၿပးေလလာမႈျပမညအေနအထားေပၚမတည၍ေရြးခယအသးျပႏငသည။အမားအား ျဖငအသးျပၾကေသာျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညးမားမာ-(၁)႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (Simple Random Sampling –SRS) -(၂) စနစတကရေသာကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး (Systematic Random Sampling) -(၃) အပစတစခကဥးတညသတမတ၍နမနာေကာကယနညး (Stratified Sampling) -(၄) မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယနညး (Cluster Sampling) ႏင - (၅) အလႊာစအဆငတနးစမနမနာေကာကယနညး (multi-stage sampling) တ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

႐းရငးေသာ(သ႔)စနစတကရေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး လဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးအတြကနမနာေကာကယမႈယနစမား (အမေထာငစမား၊ကေလးငယမားစသည) ျပညစေသာ စာရငးတစရပရခလငသေတသအေနျဖင႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး(သ႔)စနစတကရေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (SRS) ကအသးျပ၍နမနာအစတစရပကေရြးခယႏငသည။ဤ SRS နညးတြငအေျခခ နမနာေကာကယမႈ ဆငရာယနစတစချခငးစသညအေျခခနမနာေကာကယျခငးယနစမားတြငအားလးအကး၀ငေသာစာရငးတစရပ (နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာအေျခခစာရငး Sampling Frame) မတကရကေရြးခယေကာကယႏငသည။ စနစတကကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငမအေျခခနမနာေကာကယျခငးယနစအားလးပါ၀ငသညစာရငးတစရပရစရာမလဘေကာကယႏငသည။လကေတြ႔တြငအမမားသညအစအစဥတကတညရၿပး၊အမေထာငစမား၏စစေပါငးအေရအတြကကသပါကနမနာေကာကယမႈၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းပမာဏ Sampling Interval (n) ကတြကခကႏငသည။ ဤနမနာေကာကယမႈၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းသညနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစအေရအတြကမားအားလအပသညနမနာအစအရြယအစား (Sample size) ျဖငစားျခငးျဖငတြကခကရရႏငသည။ပထမဆးေသာအမေထာငစက မကပနးေရြးခယ လကပါ။ ထ႔ေနာက nthအႀကမေျမာကအမေထာငစတငးကလမးေလာကရငး(သ႔)ကား ေမာငးရငးအမမားအား ေရတြက သြားျဖငးျဖင ေရြးခယႏငသည။

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Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is the process in which each sampling unit (child, individual, or household) is selected one after another from a list of eligible sampling units (sampling frame). Simple random sampling can be done in many ways, but it requires a complete list of all the basic sampling units in a population. a) The prototypical method for simple random sampling is to write the name of each household, individual, or child on a piece of paper, then put all the pieces of paper in a bowl and randomly select as many pieces of paper as the number of households, individuals, or children needed for the survey. If there are 10,000 households in the population, however, it would take a very long time to write all the names on the 10,000 pieces of paper. b) Another way is to number the households. Then random numbers between 1 and the total number of basic sampling units are selected from a random number table (shown below) or generated on a calculator or computer. The household which has the same number as the random number is included in the sample. The quantity of random numbers selected equals the desired number of sampling units, as determined by the sample size calculation.

In this example, we have 25 people (17 happy, 4 neither happy nor unhappy, and 4 unhappy). Five simple random samples are selected from that population. Everyone has an equal chance of being selected into the sample. The resulting sampling is: 3 happy persons, 1 person neither happy nor unhappy, and 1 unhappy.With the simple random sampling technique, the resulting sample has proportions similar to the population.

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႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (Simple Random Sampling) ႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညးဆသညမာနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစ (ကေလး၊လပဂၢလ၊အမေထာငစ စသည) ကနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစမားအားလးအကး၀ငေသာစာရငး (နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာအေျခခစာရငး Sampling Frame) မတစႀကမလငတစခစေရြးခယေကာကယႏငသည။႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယျခငးက နညးလမးအမးမးျဖငျပလပႏငသည။သ႔ေသာလဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလး၏အေျခခနမနာ ေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစမားအားလး၏ ျပညစေသာစာရငးတစရပလအပပါသည။

(က) ႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာနမနာပစငယနညးလမးတစရပအေနျဖငအမေထာငစ၊လပဂၢလ(သ႔) ကေလးငယတစဥးစ၏အမညမားကစာရြကငယမားတြငခေရးၿပးထစာရြကငယအားလးကပနးကနလးတစခတြငထည၍စစတမးအတြကလအပသညအမေထာငစမား၊လပဂၢလမား၊ကေလးငယမားအေရအတြကကကပနးေရြးခယယျခငးျဖငျပလပ ႏငသည။သ႔ေသာအကယ၍လဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးအေနျဖငအမေထာငစေပါငး၁၀,၀၀၀ရပါကထတစေသာငးလး၏ အမညမားအားစာရြကငယမားတြငခေရးရျခငးသညအခနမားစြာယေပလမမည။ (ခ) အျခားနညးတစခမာအမေထာငစမားအားအမတစဥသတမတေပးျခငးျဖစသည။ ထ႔ေနာကတစႏငအေျခခ နမနာ ေကာကယမႈယနစစစေပါငးအေရအတြကၾကားကပနးအမတစဥမားကကပနးအမတစဥဇယားတစခ(ေအာကတြငေဖာျပပါအတငး) သ႔မဟတဂဏနးေပါငးစကသ႔မဟတကြနပတာျဖငေရြးထတယႏငသည။ ကပနးအမတစဥႏငတေသာ အမေထာငစနပါတကနမနာအစတြငထညသြငးပါ။ေရြးခယလကေသာကပနးအမတစဥမား၏အေရအတြကသညနမနာအပစအရြယအစားတြကခကမႈမရရေသာလအပေသာနမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစအေရအတြကႏငတညသည အထေကာကယရမည။

ရး႐ငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး

လဥးေရအပစအေရအတြကစစေပါငး နမနာေကာကယမႈနညးလမး နမနာရလဒ

သးသန႔အမတစဥမားသတမတေပးထားေသာ

လဥးေရစစေပါငး

ကပနးနပါတေရြးခယျခငး

လဥးေရအပစစစေပါငးတြငပါ၀ငသ

တစဥးခငးစတငးသညနမနာအပစ

တြငပါ၀ငႏငရနတညေသာ

အခြငအေရးရၾကသည။

ဤဥပမာတြငလ၂၅ဥး (ေပာရႊငသ (၁၇)ဥး၊ေပာသညလညးမဟတမေပာသညလညးမဟတသ (၄)ဥးႏငမေပာရႊငသ (၄)ဥးရပါသည။ထလဥးေရစစေပါငးမ႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာညေ႐ြးခယမႈျဖငနမနာအပစငယငါးဥးေရြးခယရရပါသည။လအပစစစေပါငးတြငပါ၀ငေသာအေယာကစတငးသညနမနာအပစတြငပါ၀ငႏငရနတညေသာအခြငအေရးရၾကပါသည။နမနာေကာကယမႈရလာဒအေနျဖငေပာရႊငသ (၃)ဥး၊ေပာသညလညးမဟတမေပာသညလညးမဟတသ (၁)ဥး၊ မေပာရႊငသ(၁)ဥးဟ၍ရရပါသည။႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယမႈနညးျဖငရရလာေသာနမနာအပစငယသညလဥးေရစစေပါငးအပစႀကးႏငအလားတအခးကရလာဒေပၚထြကလာပါသည။

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The advantages of Simple Random Sampling are: (1) all elements in the population have an equal and independent chance of being included; (2) it reflects all important segments of the population; (3) it serves as a foundation upon which all types of random samples are based. The disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling are: (1) it doesnot fully exploit the knowledge of the researcher concerning the population; and (2) it does not guarantee that certain elements existing in small numbers will be included in any given sample.

Systematic random sampling

Systematic Random Sampling is an alternate method to random sampling. It may be much easier to use when the population is large. Systematic random sampling selects one household at random, then selects every nth household thereafter, where “n” equals the sampling interval. The sampling interval is derived from the calculation of total number of sampling units in the population divided by the desired sample size. The first household is selected by choosing a random number between 1 and the sampling interval. Then the sampling interval is added to that number to select the next sampling unit. For all subsequent selections, the sampling interval is added until the end of the list of sampling units is reached. In systematic random sampling, every member of the sample frame has an equal chance of being selected into the sample. For example, if there are 10,000 households in the population and a sample of 1,000 households is needed, the sampling interval is 10 (10,000 divided by 1,000). A random number between 1 and 10, the sampling interval in this example, is chosen to select the first household. Let us say that 3 was the random number. The second household is selected by adding the sampling interval of 10 to the random start of 3 to choose household number 13. Then 10 is added to this number to select household number 23, and so on.

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႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး၏အားသာခကမားမာ- (၁) လဥးေရစစေပါငးတြငပါ၀ငသအေယာက စတငးသညေရြးခယခရမႈအတြကသးျခားလြတလပ၍တညေသာအခြငအေရးရၾကသည။ (၂)လဥးေရစစေပါငး၏ အေရးပါေသာအစတအပငးမားအားလးကထငဟပကယစားျပသည။ (၃) ကပနးနမနာအားလးအေျချပ ႏငသည အတျမစလညးျဖစသည။ အားနညးခကမားအေနႏငမ (၁) လဥးေရအပစႀကးႏငပတသကေသာသေတသ၏အသပညာကအကနထတ၍ အသးျပႏငျခငးမရေျခ။ (၂) ေကာကယမညနမနာအပစတြငလဥးေရအပစႀကးရအေရအတြကနညးေသာအခ႕ အပစခြငယမားမအဖြ႕၀ငမားပါ၀ငမညဟအာမခခကမေပးႏငေခ။

စနစတကကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (Systematic Random Sampling) စနစတကကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညးသညကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငးအျခားနညးတစခပငျဖစသည။စစေပါငးလဥးေရ အပစသညႀကးမားလငလညးအလြယတကအသးျပႏငသည။စနစတကကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညးအေနျဖငဥးစြာအမ ေထာငစတစခကကပနးေရြးခယလကသည။ထ႕ေနာက 'n' အၾကမေျမာကအမေထာငစတငးအားဆကလက ေရြးခယသည။ဤေနရာတြင ‘n’ ဆသညမာနမနာေကာကယျခငးၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းျဖစသည။ ဤနမနာေကာက ယျခငး ၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းကလဥးေရစစေပါငးတြငပါ၀ငသညနမနာေကာကယျခငးယနစအေရအတြကစစေပါငးအားလအပသညနမနာအပစငယအရြယအစားပမာဏျဖငစားျခငးျဖငတြကခကယႏငသည။ပထမဆးေသာအမေထာငစကအမတစဥတစႏင နမနာေကာကယျခငးၾကားခအကြာအေ၀း 'n' ၾကားရကပနးအမတစဥတစခေရြးခယျခငးျဖငရရႏငသည။ ထ႕ေနာကနမနာ ေကာကယျခငးၾကားခအကြာအေ၀း 'n' ကထပေပါငးထညသြားျခငးျဖငေနာကထပနမနာေကာကယမႈယ နစတစခထပမ ရရပါသည။ေနာကထပေရြးခယေကာကယမႈအားလးအတြကနမနာေကာကယျခငးၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းကနမနာေကာကယမႈယနစစာရငးကနသညအထထပေပါငးထညသြားျခငးျဖငျပလပႏငပါသည။စနစတကကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငးတြငနမနာေကာကယျခငးဆငရာအေျခခစာရငး (Sample Frame) မအဖြ႕၀ငအားလးအေနျဖငနမနာေရြးခယခရမႈအတြက တညေသာ အခြငအေရးရၾကသည။

ဥပမာ - စစေပါငးအမေထာငစ၁၀,၀၀၀အတြကနမနာအေရအတြက၁၀၀၀ ေကာကယမညဆပါကနမနာ ေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းသည (၁၀) (၁၀,၀၀၀အား၁,၀၀၀ ျဖငစားျခငး) ျဖစသည။အမတစဥ၁ႏငဤ ဥပမာ၏နမနာ ေကာကယျခငးၾကားခအကြာအေ၀း (၁၀) ၾကားရကပနးနပါတတစခက ေရြးခယျခငးအားျဖငပထမဥးဆးေသာ အမ ေထာငစက ေရြးခယရရသည။ဤေနရာတြငကပနးနပါတသည (၃)ဟဆၾကပါစ႕။ဒတယအမေထာငစသညအဆပါနပါတ (၃) အားနမနာၾကားခအကြာအေ၀း (၁၀) ထပေပါငးထညျခငးျဖငရရလာေသာအမေထာငစအမတစဥ (၁၃) ျဖစသည။ ထ႕ေနာကထပမ၍ (၁၀) ေပါငးထညျခငးျဖင (၂၃၊၃၃) စသညျဖငအမေထာငစအမတစဥမားဆကလကရရမညျဖစသည။

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In this example, we have 25 people and the desired sample size is 5. Sampling interval is therefore 25/5 = 5. A random starting point is chosen as 3. Therefore, the sampling interval of 5 is added to the random starting point and the selection is done via skipping sampling interval: 3, 8, 13, 18, and 23. However, in many cases, like most areas in Myanmar, no list of all children, individuals, or households exists, and the dwellings are not arranged in neat rows. In such populations, survey workers may need to use cluster sampling. Many organizations, especially those working in emergency situations, are very familiar with cluster sampling.

CLUSTER SAMPLING AND MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

Cluster sampling is a sampling method in which the first sampling step involves selecting groups of persons or households instead of sampling persons or households directly. If there is no list of all the sampling units in the population and the houses are not placed in a regular order, the researcher may have to do a cluster sampling. Cluster sampling is done very frequently because it allows random sampling in situations where simple or systematic random sampling of households is either not possible or inefficient. For example, the researcher may choose a sample of villages in a state as the first stage of sampling because there is no list of households for the entire State. Once the researcher arrives at each selected village, he/she then selects a sample of households within that village. The only long-distance travel of the survey teams is between clusters. If simple or systematic random sampling had been used, each basic sampling unit might be quite far apart, resulting in substantial travel to visit each one.

Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is used in large geographically disperse populations, where no accurate list of households is available for the entire population and households cannot be visited systematically. This is the most common situation in most populations. Cluster sampling is often more convenient and uses fewer resources for transport than simple random sampling because a cluster design reduces the distance the survey team has to travel between households. However, cluster surveys often need larger sample sizes because they are by nature less precise than surveys of the same sample size done with simple or systematic random sampling.

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ဤဥပမာတြငလဥးေရစစေပါငး၂၅ဥးရၿပးလအပေသာနမနာအပစအရြယအစားမာ၅ျဖစသည။ထ႕ေၾကာငနမနာၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းမာ၂၅/၅ = ၅ျဖစသည။ကပနးစမတတစခေရြးခယလကေသာအခါ (၃)ရသညဆပါစ႕။ ထ႕အတြကေၾကာင နမနာၾကားခအကြာအေ၀း (၅) ကကပနးစမတတြငထပထညေပါငးျခငးစသညျဖငနမနာၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းမားျခား၍ ၃၊၈၊၁၃၊၁၈ႏင၂၃ဟ၍နမနာအပစရရသည။

သ႕ေသာျမနမာျပညနယပယေတာေတာမားမား၌ကေလးမား၊လပဂၢလမားႏငအမေထာငစမားအားလး၏စာရငးမရေပ။အမေျခမားသညလညးညညာတနးစ၍ရမေနၾကေခ။ထကသ႕ေသာအေျခအေနမး၌စစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးမားအေနျဖငမးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငး (Cluster Sampling) ကအသးျပရနလေပမည။အဖြ႕အစညးအေတာမားမား အထးသျဖငအေရးေပၚအေျခအေနမားတြငလပကငေရေသာအဖြ႕အစညးမားအေနျဖငဤမးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငးႏငရငးႏးၿပးျဖစေပလမမည။ မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငး (Cluster Sampling) ႏငအလႊာစ၊အဆငတနးစမနမနာေကာကယျခငး (Multi-stage Sampling)

မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယနညးတြငပထမအဆငနမနာေကာကယရာ၌လပဂၢလမား၊အမေထာငစမားကတက႐ကနမနာေကာကယျခငးမဟတဘလအပစမား၊အမေထာငစအပစမားကေရြးခယေကာကယရသညနညးတစချဖစသည။စစေပါငးလဥးေရအပစႀကးတြငနမနာေကာကယျခငးဆငရာယနစအားလး၏စာရငးမရသညအခါ၌လညးေကာငး၊အမေျခမားသညပမနအစအစဥတကမရသညအခါ၌လညးေကာငးသေတသအေနျဖငမးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငးကျပလပရေပလမမည။႐းရငးေသာနမနာေကာကယနညး (သ႕) စနစတကနမနာေကာကယနညးမားသးရနအေျခအေနမေပးျခငး၊ မလေလာကျခငးတ႕ျဖစသညအခါ၌ကပနးေရြးခယနမနာေကာကယႏငရနအတြကအမးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငးကမၾကာခဏဆသလသးရေလရသည။ ဥပမာ-သေတသအေနျဖငျပညနယတစခလး၏အမေထာငစစာရငးမရႏငသညအခါနမနာေကာကယရနပထမ အဆင အေနျဖငထျပညနယရေကးရြာအခ႕ကနမနာအပစအျဖစေရြးခယရေပမည။ထ႕ေနာကေရြးခယထားသညေကးရြာတစရြာသ႕ေရာကသညအခါထရြာမအမေထာငစမားကနမနာအပစအျဖစထပမေရြးခယရသည။ဤကစၥတြငစစတမးေကာကယ သညအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအမားဆးသြားရသညခရးအကြာအေ၀းမာမးတအပစ Cluster မားျဖစသညေကးရြာမားၾကား အကြာ အေ၀းျဖစသည။အကယ၍မား႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (သ႕) စနစတကကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညးက အသးျပခပါကအေျခခနမနာေကာကယမႈယနစတစခခငးစစညအလြနကြာေ၀းႏငၿပးတစေနရာစသ႕ေရာကရရနခရးသြား ခနအေတာေပးရလမမည။

မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယနညး (Cluster Sampling) မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယနညးကလဥးေရစစေပါငး၏တကေသာအမေထာငစစာရငးမရႏငေသာေရေျမအေနအထားအရအလမးကြာကျပန႕လကရေသာလဥးေရအပစမားတြငလညးေကာငး၊အမေထာငစမားအားစနစတကသြားေရာကႏင ျခငးမရသညအေျခအေနတြငလညးေကာငးအသးျပသည။ ဤအေျခအေနမးသညလဥးေရအပစေတာေတာမားမားတြငေတြ႕ရတတသညအေျခအေနမးျဖစသည။မးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယနညးသညပ၍အဆငေျပလြယကၿပး႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငးထကခရးသြားလာေရးတြင ပ၍စရတသကသာသည။အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာမးတအပစေရြးခယမႈပစေၾကာငစစတမးေကာကယသညအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအမေထာငစမားအၾကားခရးျပရသညအကြာအေ၀းမားစြာေလာနညးသြားသည။သ႕ေသာမးတအပစစစတမးေကာကယ ရာတြင႐းရငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (သ႕) စနစတကကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညးတ႕ ထကသဘာ၀ အားျဖင တကမႈပနညးပါးေသာေၾကာငပ၍ႀကးမားေသာနမနာအစပမာဏကအသးျပရနလအပေလရသည။

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In this example, we have 5 clusters (populations in groups) and we need 5 samples from which to choose. First, we randomly select two clusters and then 5 samples from the selected clusters that were randomly chosen. In cluster sampling, every cluster in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample and every cluster member has an equal chance of being selected from that cluster. The advantages of cluster sampling are: (1) it is much easier to apply in large population; (2) it reduces the travel time and cost; and (3) it is flexible. The disadvantages of cluster sampling are: (1) there is no way to ensure that each sampling unit included in an area sample will be of equal size; and (2) it is difficult to ensure that individuals included in one cluster are independent of other randomly drawn clusters.

Multi-stage sampling When using cluster sampling, the sampling is split into multiple stages. In most cluster surveys, there are two stages of sampling: 1) The first stage of sampling is about selections of geographic areas within the population to be surveyed. These geographic areas may consist of political subdivisions, such as districts, townships, villages/wards or other defined areas. 2) The second stage of sampling chooses, within each selected area, the households to be included in the survey.

Stratified Random sampling Stratified sampling allows the researcher to allocate samples from different stratums. Every member of each stratum in the population has an equal chance of being selected into the sample. For example, let's say a researcher surveys youth violence and wants to study views about this problem from youth, parents, and educators; this means that the researcher needs to come up with separate population from each of these groups, therefore the researcher chooses a stratified sampling.

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မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငး လဥးေရစစေပါငး နမနာေကာကယနညး ရရလာေသာနမနာအပစ

အပစမားအလကရေသာလဥးေရစစေပါငး (မးတအပစမား)

မးတအပစ(၂)စအားကပနးေရြးခယၿပးထအပစမားရအဖြ႕၀ငမားအားထပမ၍ကပနးေရြးျခငး

(အဆင(၂)ဆင)

စစေပါငးဥးေရ၏မးတအပစတငး (က၊ခ၊ဂ၊ဃ၊င)

နမနာအျဖစေရြးခယခရရနတညေသာ အခြငအေရးရၾက

ၿပးထအပစမားရအဖြ႕၀ငမားသညလညးေရြးခယခရရနအခြငအေရးတရၾကသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင (အပစအလကရေသာလဥးေရစစေပါငးျဖစသည) မးတအပစ၅ခရၿပးထအပစမားမနမနာပမာဏ (၅)ခေရြးခယရနရသည။ပထမအေနျဖငမးတအပစ (၂)စကကပနးေရြးခယၿပးထေရြးခယခရေသာအပစမားမနမနာ(၅)ခကထပမ၍ကပနးေရြးခယပါသည။မးတအပစနမနာေရြးခယနညးတြငစစေပါငးဥးေရ၏မးတအပစတငးသညနမနာအျဖစေရြးခယခရရနတညေသာအခြငအေရးရၾကၿပးထေရြးခယခရေသာအပစမားမအဖြ႕၀ငတငးသညလညးေရြးခယခရရနအခြငေရးတရၾကသည။ မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယနညး၏အားသာခကမားမာ- (၁) အရြယအစားႀကးမားေသာလဥးေရအပစႀကးမားတြင အသးျပရပမလြယကသည။ (၂) ခရးသြားလာေရးအခနႏငကနကစရတေလာနညးေစသည။ (၃) နမနာေကာကယရာ၌ ျပလြယေျပာငးလြယရသည။ မးအပစနမနာေကာကယနညး၏အားနညးခကမားမာ - (၁) ဧရယာနမနာတစရပတြငပါ၀ငသည နမနာေကာကယျခငး ဆငရာယနစတစခစသညအရြယအစားတညရနမေသခာေျခ။ (၂) မးတအပစတစခတြငပါ၀ငသညတစဥးခငးစသည ကပနးေရြးခယလကေသာအျခားေသာမးတအပစမားမအမအခကငးလြတလပမႈရရနခယဥးၿပးမေသခာေခ။

အဆငဆငနမနာေကာကယျခငး (Multi-Stage Sampling) မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယသညအခါနမနာေကာကယျခငးကအဆငမားအဆငဆငခြျခားထားသည။မးတအပစနမနာစစတမးအမားစ၌နမနာေကာကယျခငးအဆငႏစဆငရၾကသည။ (၁) နမနာေကာကယျခငးပထမအဆငသညစစတမးေကာကယမညလဥးေရစစေပါငး၏ပထ၀၀ငေနရာေဒသမား ေရြးခယသတမတရျခငးျဖစသည။ဤေရေျမေဒသဧရယာမားအေနျဖငခ႐ငမား၊ၿမ႕နယမား၊ရပကြကႏငေကးရြာမား (သ႕) အျခားသတမတဧရယာမားဟ၍ႏငငေရးေဒသခြမားပါ၀ငႏငသည။ (၂) နမနာေကာကယျခငးဒတယအဆငတြငေရြးခယလကေသာဧရယာအသးသး၌စစတမးတြငပါ၀ငမညအမေထာင စမား ကေရြးခယရသည။

အပစတစစကဥးတညသတမတ၍ (အလႊာခြ၍) ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး (Stratified Random Sampling) အလႊာခြ၍နမနာေကာကယျခငးတြငသေတသသညနမနာမားကမတညေသာအလႊာအသးသးမရရသည။စစေပါငးဥးေရႀကး၏အလႊာတစခစတြငပါ၀ငေသာအဖြ႕၀ငတငးသညနမနာအျဖစေရြးခယခရရနတညေသာအခြငအလမးရၾကသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖငသေတသတစဥးအေနျဖငလငယမားပဋပကၡျဖစမႈႏငပတသက၍ေလလာသညအခါထျပနာရပအားလငယမား၊မဘမားႏငပညာေပးသမား၏အျမငမားကေလလာလသည။ဆလသညမာသေတသအေနျဖင႔လဥးေရစစေပါငးတြငပါ၀ငသည႔ဤအပစအလႊာတစခခငးစႏင႔ပတသတ၍ေလ႔လာလျခငးျဖစသည။ထ႕အတြကသေတသသညအလႊာခြ၍နမနာေကာကယနညးကအသးျပသည။

က

က

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In this example, we have 2 strata (subgroups) and we need 5 samples from which to choose. We randomly select a proportional number of stratum members from each stratum (proportional sampling). The advantages of stratified random sampling are: (1) it enhances the representativeness of the sample in relation to the population; and (2) it is a better estimate of the characteristics of the true population. The disadvantages of stratified random sampling are: (1) sample is somewhat more difficult to obtain; (2) it takes more time to obtain elements from each strata; and (3) categorizing elements in the population into the wrong strata can cause classification errors. TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• Sampling is about the proper way to select a few people for study and discover things that apply to a large population which cannot be studied as a whole;

• One of the two main types of probability sampling is Simple or Systematic Random Sampling: useful when a complete list of sampling units is available for the entire population;

• The other types are Cluster and Multistage Sampling: useful when there is no complete list of sample units. In this case, sampling has to be done at the level of groups of individuals or households and not at the level of individuals or households.

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အလႊာခြ၍ကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး လဥးေရစစေပါငး နမနာေကာကယနညး ရရလာေသာနမနာအပစ

လဥးေရစစေပါငးကအပစခြ (အလႊာ)

ႏစခအျဖစခြျခားထားသည။

အလႊာတစခစမအဖြ႕၀ငအခးကအေရအတြက

ကကပနးေရြးခယျခငး

စစေပါငးလဥးေရ၏အလႊာတစခခငးစ ( I ႏင ႔ II ) တြငပါ၀ငေသာဖြ႕၀ငတငးသညနမနာ(အခးကနမနာ)အျဖစေရြးခယျခငးခရရနတညေသာအခြင႔အေရးတစရ

ပစရၾကသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင (အပစခြ) အလႊာ(၂)ခရၿပးထအအလႊာႏစခထမနမနာအေရအတြက (၅)ဥးေရြးခယရနရသည။ (အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညးအရ) အလႊာတစခစမအဖြ႕၀ငမားကအခးကအေရအတြကအတငး ကပနး ေရြးခယလကျခငးျဖစသည။ အလႊာခြ၍ကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး၏အားသားခကမားမာ - (၁) စစေပါငးလဥးေရအပစႀကးႏငပတသက၍ ေရြးခယလကေသာနမနာအစ၏ကယစားျပႏငမႈမာျမငမားသည။ (၂) စစေပါငးဥးေရအပစ၏စစမနေသာ၀ေသသ လကၡဏာကပမခန႔မနးႏငသည။ အလႊာခြ၍ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး၏အားနညးခကမားမာ - (၁) နမနာရရႏငရနအေတာအသင႔ခကခမႈရသည။ (၂) အလႊာအသးသးမအဖြ႕၀ငမားရရႏငရနအခနပေပးရသည။ (၃) စစေပါငးဥးေရအပစႀကးတြငပါ၀ငေသာ အဖြ႕၀ငမားအား အလႊာခြရာတြငမားယြငး၍အပစခြမပါကအမးအစားမားယြငးျခငးအမားမးျဖစႏငသည။ အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• နမနာေကာကယျခငးဆသညမာေလလာရနအလ႕ငာလနညးစတစရပအားသငေလာေသာနညးလမးတစချဖငေရြးခယျခငးျဖစၿပး၎မတဆငအားလးအားေလလာမႈျပလပရနမလြယကေသာလအမားစႀကးႏငပတသက ေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမားအားေလလာေဖာထတရျခငးျဖစသည။

• ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညးအဓကႏစနညးအနကတစနညးမာ႐းရငးေသာ (သ႕) စနစတကရေသာ

ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငးျဖစၿပးစစေပါငးလဥးေရအားလးႏငပတသက၍ျပညစေသာနမနာေကာကယမႈယနစစာရငးတစရပရသညအခါအသး၀ငသည။

• အျခားေသာနညးတစခမာမးတအပစႏငအဆငဆငနမနာေကာကယျခငးျဖစသည။နမနာေကာကယမႈယနစ

စာရငးမျပညစသညအခါအသး၀ငသည။ဤနညးတြငနမနာေကာကယမႈသညလပဂၢလအပစမား၊အမေထာငစအပစမားစသညျဖငအပစအဆင၌ျပလပျခငးျဖစၿပးလပဂၢလတစဥးခငး၊အမေထာငစတစခခငးအဆင၌ျပလပ ျခငးမဟတေခ။

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BASIC 8. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• Learning the principles of FGDs; • Using FGDs appropriately; • Preparing for and conducting FGDs.

______________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS A FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION? Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research method. FGD is a way of collecting data through a structured discussion involving a group of about 10 respondents. FGDs are used to obtain diverse ideas, opinions and perceptions on a topic of concern. For this reason, FGDs are conducted by a facilitator who will ensure the discussion promotes diverse points of views rather than a consensus among the participants. FGDs prove particularly useful when (1) additional information from stakeholders and (2) feedback from project beneficiaries are needed. The Focus Group (FG) consists of respondents who have been carefully selected through pre-defined criteria. By selecting the respondents, the research team expects to produce answers focused on a particular issue. Each group is conducted with 6 to 10 persons. A group that is too small does not produce adequate opinions and points of views on the issue. By contrast, a group that is too large is more difficult to guide and record and is not suitable for ensuring each respondent’s participation. There is in fact no ideal size for a focus group so the number of respondents to involve in the discussion should take into consideration the previous points: (1) the group should fairly represent the population that is studied; (2) it should not be too difficult for the facilitator to manage the group. The discussion is led by a facilitator who uses a discussion guide composed of open-ended questions. The data produced during the FGD is always recorded with handwritten notes and can also be tape-recorded or, in some circumstances, filmed. Advantages of Focus Groups:

- FG seeks to capture a wider range of responses rather than individual interviews.

- FGs (if large enough) can balance extreme or unrepresentative points of views. - FGs help capture behaviour around a specific issue as well as the language

respondents use when discussing a particular topic. Limitations of Focus Groups:

- Discussions can be easily dominated by a few individuals and diverted from the main issue.

- Selection of respondents which is not appropriately done can produce one-sided information.

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အေျခခအဆင ၈. သးသန႔စကားဝငး

ဤအခနးတြင

• သးသန႔စကားဝငးစညးမဥးမားက ေလလာျခငး • သးသန႔စကားဝငးအားသငေတာသလအသးျပျခငး • သးသန႔စကားဝငး ျပလပရန ျပငဆငျခငးႏငထနးေၾကာငးျခငးတ႔ပါဝငပါသည။

___________________________________________________________________________________________

သးသန႔စကားဝငးဆသညမာအဘယနညး။

သးသန႔စကားဝငး ဟသညအရညအခငးသေတသနဆငရာနညးနတစချဖစသည။ လ (၁၀)

ေယာကခန႔ပါဝငေသာစနစတက ေဆြးေႏြးသညနညးျဖငအခကအလကမား ေကာကခစေဆာငးသညနညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ သကဆငရာအေၾကာငးအရာေပၚမတကြျပားေသာအျမငမား၊ အေတြးအေခၚမားႏငသေဘာေပါကနားလညပမားရ႐ေစရနသးသန႔စကားဝငးမားအားအသးျပသည။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားအၾကားအကန႔အကြကမ႐သေဘာတညမႈထကမတကြျပားေသာ႐ေထာငေပါငးစထြကေပၚလာေစေရးအတြကသးသန႔စကားဝငးအားပြထနးတစေယာကထား႐ျပးထနးကြပေပးရမည။သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသည (၁)

အကးစးပြားႏးႏႊယသမားထမ ေနာကတးသတငးအခကအလကမားႏင (၂) စမကနးအကးခစားရသမား ထမမတခကမား လအပေသာအခါမးတြငအသးတညေၾကာငးသသာလသည။

သးသန႔လအပစ(Focus Group - FG) တြငသတမတထားသညႏနးစမားႏငအညဂ႐တစက ေ႐ြးခယထားသည ေမးခြနးေျဖၾကားေပးသညသမားပါဝငသည။ဤသ႔ ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖငသေတသနအဖြ႕သညသကဆငရာကစၥရပက ဥးတညေသာအေျဖမားထြကေပၚလာလမမညဟ ေမာလငထားသည။အပစတစစခငးစတြငလ (၆) ေယာကမ (၁၀) ေယာကအထပါဝငေလ႐သည။ပါဝငသဥးေရနညးပါးလြနးပါကအပစဖြ႕ေဆြးေႏြးသညအေၾကာငးအရာအတြကလေလာကေသာအၾကဉာဏႏငအျမင႐ေထာငကရ႐ႏငလမမညမဟတေပ။အျခားတဖကတြငလညးပါဝငသဥးေရမားျပားလြနးပါကမတတမးျပရနႏငထနးကြပရနခကချပးလတစဥးခငးစပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးခြငရႏငေစရနမေသခာေပ။

သးသန႔အပစအတြကစအ႐ြယအစားသတမတခကဟ၍မ႐ေပ။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငလအေရအတြကမည၍ မညမပါဝငမညဆေသာကစၥႏငပတသကျပးယခငအခကမားအားထညသြငးစဥးစားသငသည။ (၁) အပစသည ေလလာခသညလဥးေရက ေကာငးစြာကယစားျပႏငရမည။ (၂) အပစသညပြထနးမညသအတြကမထနးသမးႏင ေလာက ေအာငမျဖစေစသငေပ။

ေဆြးေႏြးပြကပြထနးမ ေခါငးေဆာငရမညျဖစျပး၄ငးပဂၢလသညအဖြငေမးခြနးမားပါဝငေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနတစခအားအသးျပေလ႐သည။သးသန႔စကားဝငးမထြကေပၚလာေသာအခကအလကမားအားလကေရးျဖငလညးေကာငး၊တပရေကာဒါျဖငလညးေကာငး၊ဗဒယျဖငလညးေကာငးမတတမးတငေလ႐သည။

သးသန႔အပစမားမအကးရလဒမား - သးသန႔အပစမားသညလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးထကပမကယျပန႔ေသာေျဖၾကားခကမားကရ႐ေစသည။ - (အကယ၍အ႐ြယအစားလလေလာကလာကၾကးမားပါက) သးသန႔အပစသညတဖကေစာငးနငး

ျဖစလြနးေသာအျမင (သ႔) ကယစားျပမႈမ႐ေသာအျမငမားအားထနးကြပႏငသည။ - အေၾကာငးအရာတစခခက ေဆြးေႏြးစဥအတြငး

ေမးခြနးေျဖဆသမားတ႔ျပနလကေသာအျပအမ၊သးႏနးလကေသာစကားလးတ႔ကသးသန႔အပစမား ျပလပျခငးျဖငဖမးယျမငေတြ႕ႏငသည။

သးသန႔အပစအတြကအခကအခမား - ေဆြးေႏြးပြကလအနညးစကလႊမးမးခပကငသြားႏငျပးအဓက ေဆြးေႏြးမညအေၾကာငးအရာမ

ေသြဖသြားႏငသည။ - ေျဖဆမညသမား ေ႐ြးခယရာတြငကနေသခာစြာ

ေ႐ြးခယမႈမျပလပပါကတဖကေစာငးနငးသတငးအခကအလကမားထြကေပၚလာႏငသည။

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WHEN TO USE FGDS? FGD can be used for different purposes:

- FGD is an efficient method if the researcher has a time limit: it provides a quick and important amount of qualitative information.

- FGD can be used when exploring different facets of a particular issue, especially if this issue is under-documented. It can help refining the subject of the research:

o FGDs are particularly useful (especially in countries such as Myanmar) when it comes to producing data that reflect social and cultural norms among a selected group.

o FGDs are also a good tool for exploring a range of views and opinions among “homogenous” groups about a particular topic.

o FGDs can be used to further complement surveys. - FGDs can prove useful to verify the researcher’s understanding of a particular

issue among a small group of specialists (especially for applied research). - Lastly, FGDs are particularly relevant in monitoring projects and receiving

feedbacks from the community on a specific issue. FGDs are often the quickest and most effective tool for acquiring agood overview of a particular issue. The selection of respondents will notably depend on how the researcherwants to use the FGD. The composition of the FGD, that is the selection of the respondents, is crucial in interpreting the answers of a particular FGD. The researcher must bear in mind that the less focused the group composition, the more dominant voices and cultural norms influence the answers.

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သးသန႔စကားဝငးအားအသးျပရမညအခန

သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားအားရည႐ြယခကေပါငးစျဖငအသးျပႏငသည။

- အခနကန႔သတမႈ႐ပါကသးသန႔စကားဝငးသညလငျမနထေရာကေသာနညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ ၄ငးကအသးျပျခငးျဖငအေရးတၾကးလအပေသာအရညအေသြးဆငရာသတငးအခကအလကပမာဏကလငလငျမနျမနျဖငရ႐ေစသည။

- ကစၥရပတစခ၏မကႏာစာအမးမးကစးစမးေလလာရာတြငသးသန႔စကားဝငးကအသးျပႏငသည။အထးသျဖငလေလာကစြာမတတမးတငထားျခငးမ႐ေသးေသာကစၥရပမးအတြကအသးဝငသည။သေတသန၏အဓက

အေၾကာငးအရာပငးကလညး၄ငးနညးျဖင ျပနလညမြမးမႏငသည။ o သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသည ေ႐ြးခယထားသညအပစတစစ၏လမႈေရးႏငယဥေကးမႈႏနးစမားက

ထငဟပသညအခကအလကမား ေပးစြမးႏငေစေရးအတြက (အထးသျဖင ျမနမာႏငငကသ႔ ေသာႏငငမားတြင) လြနစြာအသးဝငသည။

o “အဆငတအေသြးတ”အပစမားအၾကားအေၾကာငးကစၥရပတစခႏငပတသကျပးထြကေပၚလာေသာထငျမငယဆခကမားက ေဖာထတရာတြငသးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသညလြနစြာအသးတည ေသာကရယာတစချဖစသည။

o သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားအား ေနာကတြငထပမျပလပသည ျဖညစြကခကစစတမးမားတြငလညး အသးျပႏငသည။

- (အထးသျဖငအသးခသေတသနအတြက) ကၽြမးကငသမားပါဝငေသာအပစငယအတြငးတစတရာေသာ ကစၥရပႏငစပလဥးေသာသေတသ၏သေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈက ျပနလညစစေဆးရာတြငလညး သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသညအလြနအသးတညသည။

- ေနာကဆးအခကအေနျဖငဆရေသာစမကနးမားက ေစာငၾကညေလလာရာျခငးႏငကစၥရပတစခအေပၚ အစအဖြ႕တစခ၏ထငျမငယဆခကက ေတာငးချခငးတ႔သညသးသန႔စကားဝငးမားႏငအကးဝင သကဆငမႈ႐သည။

မားေသာအားျဖငသးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသညကစၥရပတစခ၏ေယဘယအျမငတစခကရ႐ေစရနအတြကအလငျမနဆးႏင အထေရာကဆးေသာကရယာျဖစသည။ ေျဖဆမညသမား ေ႐ြးခယေရးကစၥသညသးသန႔စကားဝငးကမညသ႔ အသးျပလသနညးဆသညအခကေပၚတြငမားစြာမတညသည။သးသန႔စကားဝငးတစခဖြ႕စညးျခငး (တစနညးအဆ) ေျဖဆမညသမား ေ႐ြးခယေရးကစၥသည၄ငးစကားဝငး၏အေျဖမားကအဓပၸါယ ေကာကယဖြငဆရာတြင အလြနတရာအေရးပါသည။သေတသ၏စတထတြငစြမတထားရနမာသးသန႔စကားဝငးဖြ႕စညးရာတြငဂ႐ျပမႈနညးေလေလရ႐လာေသာအေျဖမားကယဥေကးမႈႏနးစႏငအပစတစစ၏အသကခပကငသြားေလေလျဖစသည။

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Example: In one particular village, the researcher wants to know the conditions and constraints of fishermen’s access to surrounding fishing grounds… As the researcher is probably unaware of these cond itions and the variation of socio-economic status among fisher men, he/she may compose a focus group with a number of fisherme n whom he/she thinks are a “representative” sample. The gr oup may include fishermen practicing different scales of ac tivities (i.e. big, middle and small scale businesses) or of different wealth ranks (rich, middle, poor fishermen). The fo cus of the group is thus on the fishing occupation.

It is likely that the group will explain the most f requent arrangements of accessing open fishing grounds and fishing grounds under tender (the yearly price of accessing fishing grounds for each type of fishing net, the official authorities who issue the fishing licence, etc.). This is the “ norm”, that is what is most commonly accepted.

Now, if the researcher wants to assess the difficul ties that fishermen face in accessing fishing grounds under t ender, the amount of money they pay to have the right to fish, the existence of informal“deals”, he/she may have to ch ange the structure of the focus group. In the first group th at the researcher thinks is representative fishermen runni ng big and middle-scale businessesmost likely will be the only ones to answer questions. Fishermen running small businesse s probably won’t dare to express their views (especially if th ey contradict those of richer people to whom they may be accountable). When preparing a second set of research questions, two different focus groups can then be composed: one wi th subsistence fishermen and another with fishermen ru nning middle- and large-scale businesses. Here the two gr oups are focused on the fishing activity and created based o n the scale of activities and/or wealth. Note that the focus gr oup composition could be based on fishing techniques (t iger net fishers, ngathalauk net fishers, hook line fishers, etc.), types of fishing grounds (open, regulated, small cr eeks, main rivers, coastline) or any criteriarelevant to the i ssue. The focus group of fishermen running small business es will probably produce more sensitive information, such a s additional payments to be made to the tender holder (whether i n cash or in fish) or conflicts among fishermen to access the sa me fishing ground. The researcher now has a more precise picture of th e different arrangements for each fishermen group. He/she may b e able to draft a set of precise questions based on the findi ngs of the FGDs. This set of new questions could help survey t he percentage of fishermen in each group (small, middl e, large businesses) having direct, differed, or no access t o the various fishing grounds.

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ဥပမာ - သေတသသည႐ြာတစ႐ြာတြငတငါသညမားပတဝနးကင႐ငါးဖမးရနအကြကမားကအသးျပႏငေရးအတြကလပကငေဆာင႐ြကရပမားႏငအခကအခမားကသ႐လသညဆပါစ႔ . . . သေတသသညအဆပါလပကငေဆာင႐ြကပႏငတငါသညမား၏လမႈစးပြားေရးအဆငအတနးကနားမလညသညအတြကသးသန႔အပစဖြ႕စညးရာတြင “ကယစားျပ”ဟ၍၄ငးဘာသာယဆလကေသာတငါသညအခ႕ကထညသြငးလကေပမည။အပစတြငပါဝငေသာတငါသညမားသညငါးဖမးသညပမာဏမတညႏငသလ (အၾကး၊အလတ၊အေသး) ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနး (လခမးသာ၊လလတတနးစား၊ဆငးရသားတငါဟ၍) လညးကြျပားႏငသည။အပစအဓကထား ေဆြးေႏြးမညအေၾကာငးအရာသညတငါအသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးအလပကစၥ ျဖစသည။

လစလပေနသညငါးဖမးကြကမားႏငတငဒါေခၚယထားေသာငါးဖမးကြကမား (အကြကမားတြငငါးဖမးရနအတြကငါးဖမးပကတစမးစအလကႏစစဥေပးေဆာငရမညစရတ၊ငါးဖမးလငစငခေပးသညအာဏာပငမားအား ေပးေဆာငရမညစရတစသညျဖင) အသးျပခြငရရနအမားဆး ျပလပေလ႐သညအစအစဥမားအေၾကာငးကသာအပစအေနႏင႐ငးျပေပလမမည။ဤသညမာအမားစအေျခခအားျဖငလကခထားသည “စ” ျဖစသည။

အကယ၍သာသေတသသညတငါသညမားတငဒါေခၚယထားသညငါးဖမးကြကမားကအသးျပခြငရေရးအတြကရငဆင ၾကေတြ႕ေနရသညအခကအခမား၊ငါးဖမးခြငရေရးအတြက ေပးေဆာငရမည ေငြပမာဏ၊တရားဝငမဟတေသာလညးလကေတြ႕တြငနားလညမႈအရကငသးေနၾကသည “အေပးအယမား”စသညတ႔က ေလလာလပါလငသးသန႔အပစဖြ႕စညးပက ေျပာငးလရနလအပေပလမမည။ကယစားျပသညဟသေတသယဆထားေသာပထမအပစတြငအၾကးစားႏငအလတစားတငါလပငနးလပကငသမားသည ေမးခြနးက ေျဖႏငေပလမမည။အေသးစားငါးဖမးလပငနးသာလပကငေသာတငါသညမားအေနျဖင (အထးသျဖင၄ငးတ႔အေျဖသည၄ငးတ႔ယၾကညကးစားေသာ၊၄ငးတ႔ထကလညးပမခမးသာၾကြယဝေသာသမားႏငဆန႔ကငကြလြေနပါက) ၄ငးတ႔၏အျမငကထတေဖာ ေျပာဆရလမမညမဟတေပ။ သေတသန ေမးခြနးဒတယအစက ျပစရာတြငတႏငတပငဖမးယေသာတငါသညမားပါဝငသညအပစတစစႏငအလယအလတပမာဏမဖမးယေသာတငါသညမားပါဝငသညတစအပစတ႔ျဖငသးသန႔အပစႏစစခြႏငသည။ဤတြငအပစႏစစကငါးဖမးသညပစအလကႏငငါးဖမးသညပမာဏ/ဥစၥာဓနအလကခြျခားလကသည။သးသန႔အပစဖြ႕စညးရာတြငငါးဖမးနညး (ကားပကသးတငါ၊ငါးသေလာကပကတငါ၊ငါးမားခတသးတငါစသညတ႔) အေပၚတြငလညးအေျချပႏငသည။ငါးဖမးကြကအမးအစား (လစလပ၊ကန႔သတ၊ ေခာငးစြယ၊ ျမစ၊ကမး႐းတနး) ေပၚတြင (သ႔) ကစၥရပႏငစပဆငအကးဝငသညမညသညစႏနးကမဆအေျချပျပးဖြ႕စညးႏငသည။

ငါးဖမးလပငနးအေသးစားမသာလပကငေသာတငါသညမားပါဝငသညသးသန႔အပစထမပမအကဆတေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားထြကလာႏငသည။ဥပမာတငဒါကငသအား (ေငြသ႔မဟတငါး) အပေဆာငးေပးရျခငး၊ငါးဖမးကြကတစခတညးကအျပငလေနၾကသညတငါသညမားအၾကားပဋပကၡ။ ယခမသေတသသညတငါသညအပစတစစခငးစျပလပေလ႐ေသာအစအစဥမားအားနဂထကပ၍႐ငးလငးတကစြာသ႐ထားျပးျဖစသည။သးသန႔စကားဝငးမထြကေပၚလာေသာေတြ႕႐ခကမားကအေျချပ၍တကေသခာေသာေမးခြနးလႊာတစခကလညး၄ငးအေနႏငျပစႏငေပလမမည။အဆပါေမးခြနးအသစမားျဖင (အေသး၊အလတ၊အၾကးစား) အပစတစစခငးစမတငါသညမားသညမညသကမညသညငါးဖမးကြကကတက႐ကအသးျပႏငသည (သ႔) တနညးတဖအားျဖငအသးျပနငသည (သ႔) လးဝအသးမျပႏငစသညရာခငႏနးကစစတမးေကာကယလာႏငမည။

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FGDs are also a good opportunity to do observatory research. Observing who actively participates in the FGD, who sits in the front and in the back, who answers questions or who remains silent, generally provides insights on the community’s structure and behaviour regarding the topic of interest. Researchers can notice that most of the time poor and socially marginalized persons may not raise their voices during a FGD in which “higher status” persons are also present. One way to overcome this constraint is to make a FGD only with poor and socially marginalized individuals. Also, in Myanmar (as in many other countries), many topics are gender sensitive. Women’s groups and men’s groups discussing the same issue often produce different information. WHEN NOT TO USE FGDS?

- FGDs cannot be used to get statistical information for a given population. Any information that is supposed to be representative of a given population should be acquired through a quantitative approach. For the same reason, FGDs cannot be used to measure facts (e.g. what percentage of an entire population is poor).

- FGDs are generally not suitable for addressing sensitive issues, especially if the issue puts individuals under the threat of their own community.

Example: A research team wants to know the prevalence of dru g use among children and teen-agers under 18 in a poor urban co mmunity… The team could select a group of children and teen- agers under 18 among the community of drug users. However, the children and teen-agers contacted by the team may not identify t hemselves as drug users because they fear this could result in p roblems for these individuals. Moreover, the answers obtained w ill most probably be irrelevant and/or evasive: “there are n o drug users in the community”; “we heard of some children using drugs…”; “children in the neighbouring community use drugs, not us”. These answers, at best, will provide only very gene ral views on issues like drug usage, alcohol consumption, etc. I n contrast, a focus group organized with mothers of these child ren and teen-agers is likely to produce more interesting in formation about social and health issues that this community of children faces. Also, in-depth interviews with key informants (for instance the police, social workers, drug users) will provide mo re information on the prevalence of drug use. An anony mous, quantitative survey could be conducted as well, but the respondents are unlikely to provide reliable answer s to such a sensitive issue.

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သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသညစးစမးေလလာမႈဆငရာသေတသနျပလပေရးအတြကအခြငအလမးေကာငးမား ျဖစၾကသည။ သးသန႔စကားဝငးတြငမညသပါဝငသည၊မညသေ႐႕တြငထငျပးမညသေနာကတြငထငသည၊မညသက ေမးခြနးေျဖျပးမညသက ဆတဆတေနသညစသညတ႔က ေလလာျခငးျဖငအဆပါအစအဖြ႕လတနးစားဖြ႕စညးပ၊ ေလလာသညအေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသကသညအျပအမကပါသေဘာေပါကနားလညႏငသည။ “အထကတနးလႊာ”မားပါဝငေသာသးသန႔စကားဝငးတြင ဆငးရသားမားႏငအႏမခမားအမားအားျဖငအသကယကယမထြကရသညကသေတသမားသတျပမၾကေပမည။အဆပါအခကအခအား ေကာလႊားသညနညးမာဆငးရသားမားႏငအႏမခမားသာပါဝငေသာသးသန႔စကားဝငးတစခဖြ႕စညးေပးျခငးျဖစသည။ သညအျပငျမနမာႏငငတြင (အျခားေသာႏငငေတာေတာမားမားတြငကသ႔) အေၾကာငးကစၥေတာေတာမားမားမာကားမေရးရာ အကဆတမႈ႐ေနႏငသည။ေယာကားအပစႏငမနးမအပစသပသပစကစၥရပတစခတညးအားေဆြးေႏြးျခငးျဖငမတကြျပားသညသတငးအခကအလကမားထြကေပၚလာေလ႐သည။

သးသန႔စကားဝငးအားမသးရမညအခန - လဥးေရမစာရငးအငးအခကအလကမားရ႐လာရနအတြကမသးသန႔စကားဝငးအားအသးမျပသငေပ။လဥးေရက

ကယစားျပေစမညသတငးအခကအလကမားအားအေရအတြကနညးကအသးျပ၍ရယသငသည။ထအေၾကာငးျပခကေၾကာငအေၾကာငးရာအခကအလကမားအားတငးတာရနအတြကမသးသန႔စကားဝငးမားအားအသးမျပႏင ေခ။ (ဥပမာ - လဥးေရတစရပလးတြငဆငးရႏြမးပါးသရာခငႏနးမညမ႐သနညး။)

- အကဆတေသာကစၥရပမား၊အထးသျဖငအဆပါကစၥရပေၾကာငပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသညလမားအား၄ငးတ႔ေနထငရာအစအဖြ႕အတြငးအႏရာယကေရာကေစႏငပါကသးသန႔စကားဝငးမား ျပလပေဆြးေႏြးရနမသငေတာေခ။

ဥပမာ - သေတသနအဖြ႕တစဖြ႕သည ျမ႕ျပလဆငးရအစအေဝးကေလးသငယမားႏငအသက (၁၈) ႏစေအာကဆယေကာ သကမားၾကား ျပန႔ႏ႔ေနသညမးယစေဆးဝါးသးစြမႈအေၾကာငးကသ႐ေလလာလသညဆပါစ႔။ အဖြ႕သညမးယစေဆးသးစြသမားအၾကားမကေလးငယမားႏငအသက (၁၈) ႏစေအာကဆယေကာသကမား ပါဝငေသာအပစတစစကစေဆာငးရေပမည။သ႔ေသာလညးအဖြ႕မဆကသြယလကေသာကေလးသငယႏငဆယေကာသကမားသည ျပနာ ျဖစပြားမညစးေသာေၾကာင၄ငးတ႔မးယစေဆးဝါးသးစြေၾကာငးကဝနခၾကလမမညမဟတေပ။ သညအျပငလညးရ႐လာေသာအေျဖမားသည ေဘာငမဝငေသာ၊ ေဝဝါးေသာအေျဖမားသာ ျဖစဖ႔မားသည။ “ကၽြနေတာတ႔ဆမာ ေဆးသမားမ႐ပါ”၊ “ကေလးတခ႕သးတယလ႔ေတာၾကားဖးပါတယ”၊ “ကၽြနေတာတ႔န႔နးတအပစကကေလးေတြေတာမးယစေဆးသးၾကပါတယ။ကၽြနေတာတ႔ေတာမသးပါ”။အဆပါအေျဖမားမာအမားဆးရႏငပါကမးယစေဆးဝါးသးစြမႈ၊အရကေသစာေသာကစားမႈစသညေယဘယဆနလြနးသညကစၥရပမးေလာကသာ ျဖစမည။) [Check the bracket. I don’t know where it starts.]

ဤကေလးငယမားႏငဆယေကာသကမား၏မခငမားပါဝငေသာသးသန႔အပစဖြ႕စညးလကလငပငအဆပါအဖြ႕အစညးအတြငးကေလးသငယမားရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ေနရသညလမႈေရး၊ကနးမာေရးကစၥရပမားဆငရာစတဝငစားဖြယသတငးအခကအလကမားရ႐လာႏငစရာ႐သည။

အဓကသတငးအခကအလက ေပးစြမးႏငသမား (ရဝနထမး၊ပရဟတလပသားမား၊ ေဆးသမားမား) ကအေသးစတ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးျဖငမးယစေဆးဝါးသးစြမႈ ျပန႔ႏ႔ျဖစပြားေနျခငးအေၾကာငးသတငးအခကအလကပမရ႐ႏင စရာ႐သည။အမညနာမ ေဖာျပရနမလေသာအေရအတြကစစတမးတစခ ေကာကယႏငေသာလညးဤမေလာက အကဆတသညအေၾကာငးကစၥရပအတြကမ ေျဖၾကားသမားဘကမယၾကညကးစားႏငေလာကစရာအေျဖမး ေပးလမမညမဟတေပ။

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FGD IN PRACTICE

The quality of the information produced during a FGD depends mainly on the following points:

• Having an appropriate discussion guide; • Defining relevant criteria and selecting appropriate respondents; • Creating a relaxed atmosphere for the groupdiscussion; • Accurately reporting the information given by the FGD participants.

1. Discussion Guide After having defined the subject and key objectives of the research and decided that FGD was an appropriate methodol, the research team prepares the questions to be asked during the discussion. The objective of a FGD is to generate information. Therefore, close-ended questions (i.e. to which the answer is either “yes” or “no”) are not suitable as they generate little information and lead the discussion to an end. A proper discussion guide for a FGD is composed of open-ended questions only. The questions must be linked to the research’s objectives. In designing the discussion guide and during the FGD, the research team should always have the research’s objectives in mind in order to follow the thread of the discussion. Badly prepared discussion guides generally lead to uninteresting or vague information. The discussion guide should contain the following parts:

(a) Introduction: The facilitator introduces his/her team and himself/herself to the group, explains the purpose of the FGD and how the data collected will be used in the research. This is also the opportunity to give a sense of responsibility to the respondents by emphasizing the importance of their participation and answers in the research process.

The moderator must formally request the respondents’ consent to participate in the study.

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လကေတြ႕သးသန႔စကားဝငး

သးသန႔စကားဝငးမရ႐လာသညသတငးအခကအလကမား၏အရညအေသြးပငးသည ေအာကပါအခကအလကမားေပၚတြငအဓကမတညသည။

• သငတငေကာငးမြနေသာေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနခက႐ျခငး • သကဆငရာစႏနးမားသတမတျပ႒ာနးေပးျပးသငေတာေသာ ေျဖၾကားေပးသမား ေ႐ြးခယျခငး • သကေတာငသကသာျဖစေစမည၊အျမငကယကယႏင

ေဆြးေႏြးႏငသညအေနအထားတစရပဖနတးေပးထားျခငး • သးသန႔စကားဝငးတြငပါဝငသမားထမရ႐ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအား႐ငးလငးတကစြာအစရငချခငး

၁။ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊန အေၾကာငးအရာႏငအဓကရညမနးခကမားကသတမတျပ႒ာနးျပးစး၍သးသန႔စကားဝငးကသငေတာေသာနညးလမးအျဖစဆးျဖတသတမတျပးပါကသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင ေဆြးေႏြးပြအတြငး ေမးရနေမးခြနးမား ျပငဆငရမည။ သးသန႔စကားဝငး၏ရည႐ြယခကမာသတငးအခကအလကမားထြကေပၚလာေရးျဖစသည။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍သတငးအခကအလကအနညးငယသာရ႐ႏငျပး ေဆြးေႏြးပြအားရပတန႔သြားေစမညအပတ ေမးခြနးမား (၄ငးအတြကအေျဖမာဟတသည၊ မဟတပါတစခခသာျဖစသည) ကအသးျပရနမသငေတာေပ။

သငတငေကာငးမြနေသာေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနတြငအဖြငေမးခြနးမားသာပါဝငေလ႐သည။ ေမးခြနးမားသညသေတသနရညမနးခကမားႏငကကညရမည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနပစခရာတြငႏငသးသန႔စကားဝငး ျပလပေနစဥအတြငးသေတသနအဖြ႕သညသေတသန၏ရညမနးခကမားကအျမတေစသတခပေနရမညျဖစျပးသ႔မသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအမငမျပတ ျပလပႏငမညျဖစသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနအား ေကာငးစြာ ျပငဆငထားျခငးမ႐ပါကရ႐လာေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားသည ေဝေဝဝါးဝါးႏငစတဝငစားစရာလညး ေကာငးႏငမညမဟတေပ။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနတြင ေအာကပါအပငးမားပါဝငသငသည။

(က) မတဆက - ပြထနးမညသသည၄ငးကယကမညသမညဝါျဖစေၾကာငးအဖြ႕အားမတဆကရမည။၄ငးေနာကသးသန႔စကားဝငးမရ႐လာေသာအခကအလကမားကမညသ႔မညပအသးျပမညက႐ငးျပေပးရမည။ဤတြင ေျဖၾကားမညသမား၏ပးေပါငးပါဝငမႈႏငအေျဖမားသညသေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြကအလြနတရာအေရးၾကးေၾကာငးအေလးအနက ေျပာၾကားျခငးျဖင၄ငးတ႔အားတာဝနသစတထညသြငးေပးႏငသည။ ေလလာခကတြငေျဖၾကားမညသမားသညမမဆႏၵအေလာကပးေပါငးပါဝငျခငးျဖစေၾကာငးသေဘာတညခကကပြထနးမညသမတရားဝငေတာငးခရမည။

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The introduction also serves to set the rules of the FGD that respondents should know and observe. These rules should at least include the following points:

o Everybody has the right speak. There is no wrong answer. o Everybody has the right not to answer. o All opinions and points of views are welcomed. o The research team is not interested in a consensus: “Don’t try to

persuade the respondents!” o Participants have to speak one at a time so as to facilitate the recording

process.

(b) Introductory/contextual questions: Most of the FGD’s success depends on the respondents’ participation. This part of the discussion serves to put the respondents at ease by asking general questions that are easy to understand and answer. These questions should be related to the research, but not yet focused on the key objectives. The idea is to stimulate the respondents and share a common understanding of the context between the FGD and the research team before addressing the key issue. It also serves to ensure that important information is not overlooked before asking specific questions.

Example: If the research team investigates land transfers be tween paddy farmers, the FGD should not start with key question s such as “Under which conditions is mortgage practiced here? ”. The FGD should start with broader introductory questions su ch as: “Are all villagers engaged in farming activities?”, “Wha t are the different categories of farmers?”, “Do all farmers own the land they cultivate?”, etc.

(c) Key questions: The key questions are in-depth questions whose answers

produce the core information of the research. Questions should go from general to specific issues. The main part of the discussion is to gather the greatest diversity of opinions and points of views on the research topic.

(d) Conclusive questions: These are the last few questions that the facilitator asks

to check whether or not any important issue was left aside during the discussion. The questions also provide an opportunity for the participants to comment on the discussion and possibly specific statements made earlier.

Testing thediscussion guide with the research team or some friends prior to conducting the FGD for real is a good way to identify weaknesses and unclear or irrelevant questions.

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မတဆကတြငပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမညသမားသရမည၊ ေလလာရမညစညးမဥးစညးကမးမားကတပါတညး ေဖာျပရမည။အဆပါစညးကမးမား ျပလပရာတြင ေအာကပါအခကအလကမားအနညးဆးပါဝငေစရမည။

o လတငးစကားေျပာခြင႐သည။မားယြငးသညအေျဖဟ၍မ႐ပါ။ o မေျဖၾကားလေသာ ေမးခြနးကမေျဖၾကားပ ေနပငခြငလညးလတငးတြင႐သည။ o ထငျမငခကအားလး၊အခကအလကအားလးကၾကဆသည။ o သေတသနအဖြ႕သညအကန႔အကြကမ႐သေဘာတညမႈမးကစတဝငစားျခငးမ႐ပါ။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍အျခား

သမားကကယဘကပါလာေအာငစညး႐းဆြေဆာငျခငးမျပလပရပါ။ o ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမညသမားသညတစေယာကျပးမတေယာကေျပာျခငးျဖငမတတမးတငသညကစၥက

ေခာေမြ႕ေစပါလမမည။

(ခ) ပဏာမ/အေၾကာငးအရာႏငစပဆငေသာေမးခြနးမား - သးသန႔စကားဝငးအမားစ၏ ေအာငျမငမႈမာပါဝငေျဖၾကား သမား အေပၚတြငမတညသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏ဤအပငးတြင ေျဖၾကားသမားအားသကေတာငသကသာ ေျဖၾကားႏငသညနားလညေျဖဆရနလြယကသည ေယဘယဆနဆန ေမးခြနးမားသာပါဝငသည။အဆပါ ေမးခြနးမားသညသေတသနႏငစပဆကရမညျဖစေသာလညးအဓကရညမနးခကမားေပၚတြငအာ႐စကရနမလေသးေခ။လရငးမာအဓက ျပနာကဥးတညေဆြးေႏြးျခငးမျပမ ေျဖၾကားေပးသမားအားအစပးေပးျခငးျဖစျပး သးသန႔အပစႏငသေတသနအဖြ႕ၾကားအေၾကာငးအရာပငးဘသေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈတစရပမေဝျခငး ျဖစသည။ဤနညးျဖငသကဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျမနးျခငးမျပရေသးမအေရးၾကးေသာသတငးအခကအလကမား မကနခေလေအာင ျပလပႏငသည။

ဥပမာ - အကယ၍သေတသနအဖြ႕သညစပါးစကသညလယသမားမားၾကားလယယာေျမလကေျပာငးသညကစၥကစးစမးေလလာလသညဆပါစ႔။သးသန႔စကားဝငးတြင “မညသညအေျခအေနမးတြငေခးငားေပါငႏ (လယျပနေငြျပန) သညအလပမးလပေလ႐ၾကသနညး”ဟသကသ႔ေသာအဓက ေမးခြနးမးျဖငမစသငေပ။ “႐ြာသားမားအားလးလယယာလပငနးလပကငၾကပါသလား”။ “လယသမားအမးအစားမညမ႐သနညး”။ “လယသမားအားလးသည၄ငးတ႔ထြနယကစကပးေနေသာလယယာေျမကပငဆငၾကပါသလား”စသည ေမးခြနးမားကသ႔ ေဘာငကယသညပဏာမ ေမးခြနးမးျဖငအစျပသငသည။

(ဂ) အဓကေမးခြနးမား - အဓက ေမးခြနးမားသညအေသးစတဆနျပးရ႐လာမညအေျဖမားသည သေတသနအတြကပဓာနကေသာသတငးအခကအလကမား ေပးစြမးႏငလမမည။ ေမးခြနးမားသည ေယဘယကစၥရပမားမ စတငျပးတကေသာကစၥရပမားကငတြယသညပစမးျဖငသြားသငသည။ ဤသညမာေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏အဓကကေသာအပငးျဖစျပး၄ငး၏ရည႐ြယခကမာသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာေပၚထား႐ၾကသညထငျမငခက႐ေထာငေပါငးစအေျမာကအျမားကစေဆာငးရ႐ေရးျဖစသည။ (ဃ) အခပေမးခြနးမား - အေရးၾကးသညကစၥရပမား ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငမကနရစခေစရနစစေဆးသည အေနျဖငပြထနးသမပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားအား ေမးသည ေနာကဆးပတေမးခြနးမား ျဖစၾကသည။ ထေမးခြနးေမးခနတြငပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသညလမားမ ေဆြးေႏြးပြကေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေ႐႕တြငျပလပခသည အဆျပခကအတအကတ႔ကမတခကျပႏငသည။ သးသန႔စကားဝငးမျပလပမ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနအားသေတသနအဖြ႕ျဖင ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ မတေဆြသငယခငးမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငးစမးသပျခငးသညအားနညးခကမားႏင႐ငးလငးသကဆငမႈမ႐ေသာ ေမးခြနးမား ေဖာထတစစေဆးရနနညးလမးေကာငးတစရပျဖစသည။

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2. Criteria and selection of respondents

The second step is to select the respondents who will participate in the discussion. The future participants should have good knowledge of the research topic. They are called information-rich participants. For example, if the research is about exploring agricultural practices in tea-plantations, limitations and opportunities for improvement, the informants should be long practicing tea-cultivators, small scale and large scale tea-cultivators as well as traders. Depending on the research topic and its focus, a greater set of criteria needs to be defined for selecting the respondents. Example: Investigating the link between migration and socio- economic conditions in the village of origin will require id entifyingthe following information: - Households in which one member has migrated and i s sending remittances. - Households in which one member has migrated but i s not sending remittances. - Migrating households who left their children behi nd (potential social impact). - Households with no members migrating (to provide counter examples). - Village elders who could discuss the migration is sue throughout time. There are different methods to recruit participants for a FGD. The two most widely employed methods are:

(a) Direct field recruitment: The researchers go to the field with a set of questions

in order to identify the most suitable respondents. This recruitment method is obviously best as it offers the researcher the possibility to directly select the respondents who meet the research criteria. However, it requires good knowledge of the stakeholders of the research topic. It also requires time.

(b) Indirect field recruitment: The recruitment is done by a knowledgeable person on behalf of the research team. This is probably the most widely used method in humanitarian and development work, because time restrictions often make it impossible to gain a precise knowledge of the community under study. Relying on village administrators and elders often helps to overcome this lack of knowledge.

The research team, however,has to be aware that indirect recruitment may introduce bias if the recruiters have any reason to select respondents whose opinions suit their own interests.

Other recruitment methods include phone recruitment and online recruitment. However, field recruitment is always preferred as it allows the recruiters to better understand the respondents’ socio-economic condition. 3. Conducting a FGD

FGDs must be conducted by at least two researchers: one researcher acting as the facilitator and the other recording the discussion. FGDs should not exceed 2 hours. One hour is generally the best duration to maintain the participants’ attention.

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၂။ ေျဖၾကားမားသညသမား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးႏငႏနးစမား ဒတယအဆငမာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငပါဝငမည ေျဖၾကားသမားအား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖစသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးမညသမားမာ အေၾကာငးအရာႏငပတသကျပးအသပညာဗဟသတ ေကာငးစြာ႐ထားရမည။အဆပါပဂၢလမားအားသတငးၾကြယဝေသာ ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားဟ ေခၚသည။ဥပမာသေတသနသညလကဖကစကပးမႈအေၾကာငးႏင၄ငးႏငစပဆငသည အခကအခႏငအခြငအလမးမားအေၾကာငးကစးစမးေလလာသညဆပါစ႔။ ေျဖၾကားေပးမညသမားသည အႏစႏစအလလ လကဖကစကပးလာသမား၊လကလလကကားစကပးၾကသမားႏငကနသညမား ျဖစသငသည။သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာႏင အာ႐စကသညအပငးေပၚမတညျပး ေျဖၾကားမညသမားက ေ႐ြးခယမညႏနးစမားကပမျပးအေသးစတသတမတ ျပ႒ာနးရမည။

ဥပမာ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈႏငဇာတရပ႐ြာ႐လမႈစးပြားေရးအေနအထားၾကားစပဆကမႈက႐ာေဖြရာတြင ေအာကပါ သတငးအခကအလကမားရ႐ရနလအပသည။ -တနယတေကးတြငေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငျပးပကဆပ႔ေပးေနသညမသားစဝငတစေယာက႐သညအမေထာငစမား -တနယတေကးတြငေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငေသာလညးပကဆေပးပ႔ျခငးမ႐သညမသားစဝငတစေယာက႐သည အမေထာငစမား -ကေလးသငယမားအားထားရစချပးေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးသြားၾကသညအမေထာငစမား (ျဖစလာႏငသညေနာကဆကတြလမႈေရး အကးဆကမား) -တနယတေကးတြငေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမသားစဝငလးဝမ႐သညအမေထာငစမား (တနျပနဥပမာေပးရန) -ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသညကစၥကကာလႏငချပး ေဆြးေႏြးႏငစြမးသညရပ႐ြာေနသကၾကး႐ြယအမား

သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားတြငပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးရနလစေဆာငးေ႐ြးခယေရးအတြကနညးလမးေပါငးစအသးျပႏငသည။အသးအမားဆးေသာနညးလမးႏစရပမာ -

(က) တက႐ကကြငးဆငးေ႐ြးခယျခငး - သေတသမားသည ေမးခြနးတစစျဖငလကယတငကြငးဆငးျပး အသငေတာဆးေသာ ေျဖၾကားေပးမညသမားက ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။သေတသနစႏနးမားႏငကကညေသာ ေျဖၾကားသမားကတက႐ကေ႐ြးခယႏငသည ျဖစေသာေၾကာငအဆပါ ေ႐ြးခယနညးသညအေကာငးဆးနညးလမး ပငျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညးထသ႔ျပလပရနသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာႏငစပဆငသညအကးစးပြားႏးႏႊယသမား အေၾကာငး ေကာငးစြာသရနလအပျပးအခနေပးရနလညးလအပလသည။ (ခ) သြယဝကကြငးဆငးေ႐ြးခယျခငး - ကၽြမးကငသတစဥးတစေယာကမသေတသနအဖြ႕ကယစားလေ႐ြးခယေပးျခငးျဖစသည။ကန႔သတအခနကာလအတြငး ေလလာဆရပ႐ြာလ႔အဖြ႕အစညးအေၾကာငးခေရေစတြငးကသနားလညရနမျဖစႏငသညအတြကလသား ခငးစာနာေထာကထားေရးႏငဖြ႕ျဖးတးတကေရးလပငနးစဥမားတြငဤနညးအားကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔အသးျပသည။ရပ႐ြာအေၾကာငး ေကာငးစြာသနားလညျခငးမ႐သညတငရပ႐ြာအပခပေရးမးမားႏငသကၾကး႐ြယအမား အားကးျဖင၄ငးျပနာအား ေကာလႊားႏငသည။ သ႔ေသာလညးသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏငသတခပရနမာကယစားျပကြငးဆငးေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ေ႐ြးခယသသည၄ငးအကးစးပြားႏငအေထာကအပျပမညထငျမငခကမး ေပးမညလမးကသာ ေ႐ြးခယလကပါကအဂတကငးႏငေတာမညမဟတေခ။

ဖနး၊အငတာနကစေသာနညးမားအပါအဝငအျခားေသာလစေဆာငးေ႐ြးခယသညနညးမားလညး႐ေသးသည။သ႔ေသာကြငးဆငးလစေဆာငးသညနညးျဖငစေဆာငးသသည ေျဖဆမညသမား၏လမႈစးပြားေရးအေျခအေနကပမနားလည သေဘာေပါကႏငသညအတြကလၾကကမားသညနညးတစရပျဖစသည။

၃။သးသန႔စကားဝငးအားဥးေဆာငညႊနၾကားျခငး သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားအားအနညးဆးသေတသႏစေယာကျဖငထနးသမးညႊနၾကားရမည။တစဥးကပြထနးအျဖစတာဝနယရမညျဖစျပး ေနာကတစဥးက ေဆြးေႏြးပြအားမတတမးတငရမညျဖစသည။သးသန႔စကားဝငးသည (၂) နာရ ထကပျပးမၾကာသငေပ။ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမား၏အာ႐စးစကမႈကထနးသမးရနပမနအားျဖငၾကာခနတစနာရထား႐ျခငးကအေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။

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Key points for facilitating a FGD:

(a) Rapport: Building a good rapport with the respondents is probably the most important part of the FGD. The facilitator has to be open minded (remember there is no wrong answer!), relaxed and show his/her sense of humour!

(b) Clarify the facilitator’s position: The facilitator is to guide the discussion but does not take sides.

(c) No leading questions: The questions asked should not contain part of the answer.

Example: “Do you think the dam construction will harm the environment?” is not a suitable question. Change this question into “What do you think will be the impact of the dam construction?”

(d) Short and easily understandable questions: The questions will generate more discussion.

(e) No judgments: The facilitator is not here to judge what the respondents say and doesn’t look down on participants because of their status or statements.

(f) Not acting as the expert: The facilitator keeps in mind the research subject and the objectives of the FGD and forgets what he/she thinks he/she knows. He/she is not an expert on the question that is investigated. Only the respondents should answer the questions.

(g) Keeping the pace: The discussion guide is only a tool which helps the facilitator remember the discussion thread. The facilitator is encouraged to probe into interesting answers and to ask further questions that in turn will generate more in-depth information.

Key points for recording a FGD:

(a) The researcher recording the discussion acts as an observer and should interact to a minimum with the participants during the discussion.

(b) The researcher is expected to record the answers given by the FGD and what he/she observes during the discussion: individuals having great or little interest in the discussion, facial expressions, side conversations, etc. and anything that may inform the behaviour of respondents regarding the research topic.

(c) The researcher recording the discussion has to ensure that all the questions included in the discussion guide have been asked by the facilitator. If he/she finds that a question has been omitted, or thinks that probing into some answers may provide additional information, he/she may communicate discreetly with the facilitator. The researcher recording the discussion refrains from disrupting the dynamic of the discussion between the facilitator and the participants.

(d) Note taking is by far the best way to record information. Tape-recording can provide a safety net especially if the FG counts many respondents that may speak at the same time.

(e) Flip charts are a good tool for keeping information visible to the group and for stimulating further discussion. However, flip charts are not enough and must be complemented by note taking.

Lastly, when FGDs are finished, the research team should convene and discuss the information produced by the FGD. All the notes taken during the FGD should be transcribed into a clear report.

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သးသန႔စကားဝငးကထနးရနအဓကအခကမား

(က) ရငးႏးမႈ- ရငးႏးမႈတညေဆာကေရးသညသးသန႔စကားဝငး၏အေရးအၾကးဆးအစတအပငးဟပငဆႏငစရာ႐သည။ပြထနးသညစတသေဘာထားပြငလငးရမညျဖစျပး (မားယြငးေသာအေျဖဟ၍မ႐ေၾကာငးသတျပပါ) ေပါေပါပါးပါးျဖင ဟာသဉာဏ႐သ ျဖစရမည။ (ခ) ပြထနး၏ရပတညခကက႐ငးလငးသသာေစျခငး - ပြထနးဟသည ေဆြးေႏြးပြကဥးေဆာငရနသာျဖစျပး ဘကလကျခငးမ႐ေစရ။ (ဂ) အရပျပေမးခြနး - ေမးျမနးလကေသာ ေမးခြနးမားသညအေျဖအတြကအရပအျမြကမပါေစရ။

ဥပမာ - “ဆညတညေဆာကမႈေၾကာငသဘာဝပတဝနးကငကထခကေစသညဟသငယဆပါသလား”ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးသညသငေလာေသာ ေမးခြနးမဟတေခ။ေမးခြနးအားဤသ႔ေျပာငးလ၍ေမးပါ “ဆညတညေဆာကမႈေၾကာင ျဖစပြားလာႏငသညဟသငထငျမငယဆေသာအကးဆကမားက ေဖာျပပါ”

(ဃ) လတ႐ငးေမးခြနးမား - ထေမးခြနးမားေၾကာင ေဆြးေႏြးစရာမားတးပြားလာလမမည။ (င) ေဝဖနျခငးမျပရ - ပြထနးသည ေျဖၾကားသမား ေျပာဆခကႏငစပလဥးျပး ေဝဖနျခငးမျပရ။ (စ) သမားဂဏမျပရ -သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာႏငရညမနးခကမားကသာပြထနးသစတထတြငထညထား ရမညျဖစျပး၄ငးသေၾကာငးတတေၾကာငးက ေမထားရမည။၄ငးသညစစမးေမးျမနးထားေသာ ေမးခြနးႏင ပတသက၍တတသပညာ႐ငမဟတေပ။ ေျဖၾကားသမားကသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖၾကားေပးရမည။ (ဆ) အ႐နထနးျခငး- ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနခကဟသညပြထနးအား ေဆြးေႏြးပြကအမငမျပတေအာငသတေပးသည ကရယာသကသကမသာျဖစသည။ပြထနးအေနႏငစတဝငစားစရာအေျဖမားရေအာင ေမးျမနးစးစမးရမညျဖစျပး ပမအေသးစတသညသတငးအခကအလကမားထြကေပၚလာေအာင ေနာကထပ ေမးခြနးထတရမည။

သးသန႔စကားဝငးမတတမးတငရာတြငအဓကကေသာအခကမား (က) ေဆြးေႏြးပြအားမတတမးတငေနသညသေတသသည ေလလာသတစဥးသကသ႔တေလာကလးတြင ေဆြေႏြးသမားႏငဆကဆမႈနညးႏငသမနညးေစရမည။ (ခ) သေတသသညသးသန႔စကားဝငးမရ႐လာေသာအေျဖမားအျပငေဆြးေႏြးပြ ျပလပစဥအတြငး၄ငး ေလလာမတသားမသမကပါမတတမးတငရမည။လမား ေဆြးေႏြးပြကစတဝငစား၏စတမဝငစား၏၊ မကႏာအမအရာ၊ဝငးအတြငးကတေဆြးေႏြးမႈ. . . တ႔ႏငသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာႏငပတသကျပးတ႔ျပနလကသညအျပအမမားကပါမတသားရမည။ (ဂ) မတတမးတငေနသညသေတသသည ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနတြငပါဝငသမ ေမးခြနးမားအားပြထနးသအကနအစငေမးေအာငဂ႐စကေပးရမည။အကယ၍ ေမးခြနးကနခသည ေတြ႕႐ပါက၊သ႔တညးမဟတ ေမးခြနးအခ႕ကထပမဆစပငးေမးျမနးျခငးျဖင ေနာကတးသတငးအခကအလကမား ထြကေပၚလာႏငစရာ႐ပါကပြထနးအားမသမသာအဆကအသြယျပရမည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအားမတတမးတငေနေသာ သေတသသညပြထနးႏင ေဆြးေႏြးေနသမားအၾကား ေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏အ႐နဆန႔ဆငးျခငးမ႐ေစရေအာငေ႐ာငၾကဥရမည။ (ဃ) မတစေရးသားနညးသညသတငးအခကအလကမားကမတတမးတငရနအေကာငးဆးေသာနညးလမး တစရပျဖစသည။အကယ၍သးသန႔စကားဝငးတြငလအေျမာကျမားပါဝငပါကအကနလးတျပငနကအဆကမျပတ စကားေျပာႏငေသာေၾကာငတပရေကာဒါျဖငအသဖမးယသညနညးလမးသညလညးစတခရသည။ (င) ေ႐႕တြငသငပနးတစခထား႐ျခငးျဖင ေဆြးေႏြးသမားတြကသတငးအခကအလကမားက ထငသာျမငသာ႐ေစျပးစကားဝငးဆကရနအေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။သ႔ေသာလညးေ႐႕သငပနးတြငေရးမတျခငးသညလေလာကမႈမ႐ေသာေၾကာငမညသညနညးႏငမဆမတစယသညနညးအားလကမလႊတသငေပ။

ေနာကဆးသးသန႔စကားဝငး ျပလပျပးစးပါကသေတသနအဖြ႕သညအတတကြစေဝးျပးရ႐ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားက ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။ ေဆြးေႏြးစဥမတစလကေရးထားသမက ေသသပ႐ငးလငးသညအစရငခစာပစအျဖစ ျပနလညစာစေရးသားရမည။

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Using FGDs to build a research project As explained above, FGDs can be used in order to explore a research topic and progressively refine the research objectives and key questions:

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• FGD is an efficient, time-saving method for qualitative research;

• When properly conducted, FGDs help to obtain diverse ideas, opinions and perceptions on a research topic;

• The FGD method helps to probe into little known topics and build a research

project;

• FGDs are made of respondents selected according to pre-defined criteria relevant to the research objectives and key questions.

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သးသန႔စကားဝငးအားသေတသနစမကနးတစခတညေဆာကရနအသးျပျခငး အထကတြင႐ငးျပခသညအတငးသးသန႔စကားဝငးသညသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာတစခကစးစမးေလလာရနအသးျပႏငျပးသေတသနရညမနးခကႏငအဓကေမးခြနးမားကတျဖညးျဖညးမြမးမေပးႏငသည။

အႏစခပေသာဤအခနးတြငအဓကမတသားရနလအပေသာအခကမားမာ -

• သးသန႔စကားဝငးသညလငျမနထေရာကျပး ေငြကနေၾကးကသကသာေသာအရညအခငးသေတသနနညးန ျဖစသည။

• သးသန႔စကားဝငးတစခ ေကာငးေကာငး ျပလပႏငပါကသေတသနတစခႏငစပလဥးသညကြျပားေသာအေတြးအေခၚမား၊အျမငမားႏငသေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈမားရ႐လာႏငသည။

• သးသန႔အပစလပထးလပနညးသညလသနညးသညအေၾကာငးအရာကစးစမးေထာကလမးႏငျပးသေတသနစမကနးတစခတညေဆာကႏငသည။

• သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသညသေတသနရညမနးခကမား၊အဓကေမးခြနးမားႏငကကညမညစႏနးႏငအည ေ႐ြးခယထားသည ေျဖၾကားသမားျဖငဖြ႕စညးထားသည။

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Exercise 1. Is FGD relevant for the following research subjects? i. Conducting an opinion poll of the 2015 presidential elections. ii. Testing the acceptance of a new rice planting method. iii. Investigating breast-feeding and nutrition practices among IDP

communities in Kachin State. iv. Exploring human trafficking networks to Thailand. Answers: i. No. Need a proper quantitative survey. ii. Yes. FGD with farmers. iii. Yes. FGD with lactating women. iv. No because of the sensitivity of the issue. However FGDs could be conducted in a suitable environment with a group of (formerly) trafficked individuals.

Exercise 2.Imagine what kind and how many Focus Groups you would form for the following research subjects? For each Focus Group, what would be the criteria to select the respondents?

i. What is the impact of deforestation on farmers’ livelihoods in Shan State?” ii. What are the various forms of discrimination faced by sexual minorities (for

example men having sex with men) in Myanmar? iii. Assessing trainings on raising political awareness of the Karen civil society in border areas.

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ေလကငခနး၁။သးသန႔စကားဝငးသညေအာကပါအေၾကာငးကစၥရပမားႏငသကဆငမႈ႐ပါသလား။ (၁) ၂၀၁၅ ေ႐ြးေကာကပြအတြကလထထငျမငခက ေကာကယျခငး။ (၂) စပါးစကနညးအသစအေပၚလကခအသးျပမႈကစမးသပျခငး။ (၃) ကခငျပညနယစစေဘးဒကၡသညစခနးမားမမခငႏ႔တကေကၽြးျခငးႏငအာဟာရေကၽြးေမြးပက ေထာကလမးျခငး။ (၄) ထငးႏငင႐လကနကးသညဂဏးဂဏကြနယကမားကစးစမး႐ာေဖြျခငး။ အေျဖ။ (၁) မသကဆငပါ။သငေတာေကာငးမြနသညအေရအတြကစစတမးတစခေကာကယရနလအပပါသည။ (၂) သကဆငပါသည။လယသမားမားပါဝငသညသးသန႔စကားဝငးတစခ ျပလပပါ။ (၃) သကဆငပါသည။ႏ႔တကမခငမားပါဝငသညသးသန႔စကားဝငးျပလပပါ။ (၄) မသကဆငပါ။ကစၥရပ၏အကဆတလြနးမႈေၾကာင ျဖစသည။သ႔ေသာလညးသငေတာေသာအေနအထားတစရပတြင (ယခင) လကနကးခခရသညသမားပါဝငေသာအပစတစစႏငသးသန႔စကားဝငးမား ျပလပမညဆပါက ျဖစႏငသည။

ေလကငခနး၂။ ေအာကပါသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာမားအတြကမညသညအမးအစားသးသန႔အပစမးက အေရအတြကမညမ ျပလပမညနညးကစတကးၾကညပါ။သးသန႔အပစတစခခငးစအတြက ေျဖၾကားသမားက ေ႐ြးခယရနမညသညႏနးစမားသတမတမညနညး။

(၁) ႐မးျပညနယအတြငးသစေတာျပနးတးမႈေၾကာငလယသမားမား၏အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈဆငရာမညသ႔ ေသာထခကမႈမား ျဖစေပၚသနညး။ (၂) လနညးစလငအပစမား (ဥပမာ ေယာကားခငးလငဆကဆသမား) ရငဆငရေလ႐သညလငပငးဆငရာခြျခား ဆကဆခရမႈအမးအစားမားမာအဘယနညး။ (၃) နယစပေဒသမား႐ကခငလမႈအဖြ႕အစညး၏ႏငငေရးအသျမငႏးၾကားေရးသငတနးမားအားဆနးစစေလလာျခငး

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BASIC 9. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• Learning the principles of in-depth interviews; • The appropriate use of in-depth interviews; • Preparing for and conducting in-depth interviews.

______________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS AN IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW? In-depth interviewing is part of the methods used for qualitative research. It is a one-to-one discussion between the researcher and the respondent. The interview can be conducted in a semi-structured or an unstructured way. But both ways include open-ended questions. The in-depth interview is a research method which has the objective of acquiring detailed information about a topic from the point of view of individuals: their perception, representation, experience, and priorities regarding this particular topic. WHEN TO USE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS? In-depth interviews are useful when the researcher wants detailed information about a person’s thoughts and behaviors or wants to explore new issues in depth. In-depth interviews are particularly useful for collecting information that cannot be obtained in group discussions. In-depth interviews replace focus groups if:

• The potential participants cannot be included in a group: for example parliament representatives may not be willing to participate in a group discussion;

• The respondent is not comfortable talking openly in front of a group; this is

especially the case for sensitive issues, like illegal trade, domestic violence, etc.;

• It is necessary to distinguish individual (as opposed to group) opinions about a

particular topic: this distinction is especially relevant if a major stakeholder involved in a program holds a different vision from the majority.

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အေျခခအဆင ၉. အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမျပျခငး ဤအခနးတြင

• အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမျပျခငးဆငရာစညးမဥးမားအားေလလာမျပျခငး • အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမမားအားဆေလာစြာအသးျပပ • အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမမားအားျပငဆငလပေဆာငပ တ႕ပါဝငပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________________ အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမတစရပဆသညမာအဘယနညး အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမျပျခငးသညအရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနတြငအသးျပေသာနညးလမးမား၏အစတ အပငးတစရပျဖစသည။၎သညသေတသနငေျဖဆသတ႕အၾကားတစဥးခငးေတြ႕၍ေဆြးေႏြးေမးျမနးမတစရပျဖစသည။ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမကအလြတသေဘာေမးခြနးပစမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊တစစတတစပငးျပငဆငထားေသာေမးခြနးမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငးျပလပနငသည။သ႕ေသာနညးလမးနစရပစလးတြငအဖြငသေဘာေမးခြနးမား(open-ended questions) မားသာျဖစရပါမည။

အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးျခငးသညသေတသနနညးလမးတစရပျဖစျပးကစၥရပအေၾကာငးအရာတစခနငပကသက၍လပဂၢလမား၏အျမငမား(ေခါငးစဥရပနငပကသကေသာထငျမငယဆခက၊ကယစားျပထငဟပမ၊အေတြ႕အၾကဥးစားေပးအေၾကာငးအရာမားစသညတ႕) အားအေသးစတသတငးအခကအလကရယလျခငးျဖစသည။

အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမကမညသညအခနတြငသးမညနညး။ သေတသအေနျဖငလပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၏အေတြးအျမငမား၊အေလအထမားနငပကသက၍အေသးစတအခကအလကမားရရလလငေသာလညးေကာငး၊အသစေသာကစၥရပမားနငပကသက၍အေသးစတရာေဖြ ေဖာထတလလင ေသာလညးေကာငး၊အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆ ေမးျမနးမမားသညအသးဝငပါသည။အပစဖြ႕ေဆြးေႏြးျခငးျဖင မရရနငေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားကစေဆာငးရယရာ၌ဤအေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမသညအထးသျဖငအသးဝငပါသည။ ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးမ (Focus group discussion) ။

အစားအေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမကအစားထးအသးျပနငသညမာ - အကယ၍ -

• ပါဝငေျဖဆမညသမားသညအပစတစခတြငပါဝငနငျခငးမရသညအခါ - ဥပမာ - လႊတေတာကယစားလယမား

အေနျဖငအပစဖြ႕ေဆြးေႏြးမတြငပါဝငရနဆႏၵမရသညအခါ

• ေျဖဆသသညလအပစေရ၌ပြငလငးစြာေျပာဆရနအဆငမေျပသညအခါ။ဤကစၥမးသညအထးသျဖငထရလြ

ယေသာကစၥမား (တရားမဝငကနသြယမ၊အမတြငးအၾကမးဖကမစသညျဖင) နငပကသကေသာအခါ

• ကစၥရပအေၾကာငးအရာတစခနငပကသက၍ပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက (အဖြ႕လကမဟတဘ)

၏ထငျမငယဆခကကခြျခားသရနလအပသညအခါ။အကယ၍လပငနးအစအစဥတစခတြငပါဝငေသာအဓက

ပကသကဆကႏြယသတစဥးသညအမားနငမတေသာအျမငမးရသညအခါဤသ႔သးသန႕ဆေတြ႕ရမမးသ

ညအထးသျဖငဆေလာပါသည။

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Interviews are often used to provide context to other data (such as statistical data), they offer a more complete picture of what happened during the implementation of a program and why it happened.

On the other hand, in−depth interviews, like focus group discussions, can be used to obtain preliminary information before quantitative surveys are conducted. For example, before a quantitative survey of livelihoodsamong Bamar migrants living in Mon State, the researcher may conduct an in-depth interview with a staff from an organization working with migrants. The interviews will help the researcher understand the diversity of livelihoods and have a view on the difficulties encountered by the migrants there.

Tip: in order to explore a subject, the researcher has to find appropriate respondents. The researcher can proceed by “snowballing” (see Chapter on ‘Non-probability Sampling’): the first in-depth interview is often a good opportunity to enquire about additional respondents.

A development program seeks to improve fishing prac tices through the implementation of a new policy. The res earch shows that most fishermen would like to abolish the pract ice of paid access to a fishing ground. But from the point of v iew of the Department of Fisheries (DoF) officer, regulated ac cess to fishing grounds is a way of preventing over-fishing . The views and opinions of the DoF officer obtained by an in-d epth interview have to be included into the drafting of a new policy.

Researchers have measured a quantitative increase i n the number of PLHIV’s (People Living with HIV-AIDS) seeking tr eatment at a local clinic. This quantitative increase may lead t he researchers to think that PLHIV are more numerous t han before in the clinic’s vicinity. Through in-depth intervie ws, however, they find out that PLHIV are not more numerous. The y find out that PLHIV people living in neighboring towns and v illages have simply shared the information that they could be tr eated for free at the clinic. This has resulted in an increas ed number of PLHIV knowing about the free treatment and seeking to benefit from it .

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ဥပမာ ဖြ႕ျဖးေရးလပငနးပရဂရပတစခသညမဝါဒအသစတစရပအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးအားျဖငငါးဖမးလပငနးဆငရာအေလအထမားကတးတကရနလပေဆာငလသည။ထလပငနးပရဂရမ၏အစတအပငးတစရပျဖစေသာသေတသနကျပဆသညမာတငါသညအမားစအေနျဖငငါးဖမးလပကြကတစခအတြက ေငြေပးေခရသညကငထးကမကငသးလၾကေပ။သ႕ေသာငါးလပငနးဥးစးဌာန(DOF)မအရာရ၏အျမငအရ-ငါးဖမးလပကြကမားအားစညးကမးတကသတမတေပးျခငးသညအလြနအမငးငါးဖမးမမးမကာကြယရနနညးလမးတစခအျဖစရျမငသည။အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမအေပၚအေျချပ၍ရရလာသညငါးလပငနးဥးစးအရာရ၏အျမငနငအယ အဆမားအားမဝါဒအသစတစရပျပစေရးဆြရာတြငထညသြငးေဖာျပနငေပသည။ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမသည (စာရငးအငးဆငရာအခကအလကတ႕ကသ႕ေသာ) အျခားေသာ ေဒသာမားအတြက ေနာကခ အခငးအကငးကေဖာျပေပးနငသည။လပငနးအစအစအစဥတစခအေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြငအဘယအေၾကာငးအရာမားျဖစေပၚသည၊အဘယေၾကာငျဖစရသညတ႕နငပကသက၍ပမျပညစေသာသရပေဖာျပမမားပပးေပးသည။ ဥပမာ သေတသမားသည ေဒသခေဆးခနးတစခတြငကသမခယရနတးပြားလာေသာ HIV ပးကးစကခထားရသမား PLHIV ၏အေရအတြကဆငရာကနးဂဏနးကေလလာေတြ႕ရၾကသည။ဤအေရအတြကဆငရာတးပြားလာမသညသေသတမားအားထေဆးခနးဝနးကငတြင PLHIV ပးကးစကခရသမားယခငကထကပမမားျပားလာသညဟအထငေရာကေစသည။ သ႕ေသာအေသးစတေလလာေမးျမနးမမားအရ PLHIV မားပမတးပြားလာျခငးမဟတေၾကာငး ေတြ႕ရရသည။ အနးနားဝနးကငရ ျမ႕မားနငေကးရြာမားတြင ေနထငေသာ PLHIV မားသညအဆပါေဆးခနး၌ အခမကသမခယနင ေၾကာငးအခငးခငးသတငးေပး၍တးလာျခငးျဖစေၾကာငးေလလာေတြ႕ရ ၾကသည။ ဤသ႕ျဖငေဆးခနး၏အခမကသေပး ေၾကာငးကသရျပးထအကးေကးဇးကခစားရနအတြက PLHIV အေရအတြကမားျပားလာရျခငးျဖစသည။ အျခားတစဘကတြငမဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြမားကသ႕ပငအေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမမားအားအေရအတြကဆငရာ စစတမးမားေကာကယမမျပမေရေျပးသတငးအခကအလကမားရရနငရနအသးျပနငသည။ဥပမာမြနျပညနယရျမနမာ ေရြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမားအၾကားအသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးဆငရာအေရအတြကစထားစစတမးတစရပေကာကယျခငးမျပမ၌သေတသအေနျဖငထေရြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမားနငပကသက၍လပကငေနေသာအဖြ႕အစညးတစရပမဝနထမးတစဥးအားအေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမျပနငသည။ထေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမသညသေတသအားအသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးမမား၏ကြျပားစလငမကသေဘာေပါကေစျပးထအရပရေရြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမားၾကေတြ႔ရတတသညအခကအခမားကလညးသ ျမငေစသည။

စကားျမြက။။အေၾကာငးအရာတစရပနငပကသက၍ရာေဖြေဖာထတလသညအခါသေတသအေနျဖငသငေတာမညေျဖဆသမားအားရာေဖြရေပမည။သေတသအေနျဖင ”စနးေဘာနညး”ေခၚဆငကနမနာေကာကယနညး (အခနး၆ရ ” ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာနမနာေကာကယျခငး”ကၾကညပါ။) အားျဖငေဆာငရြကနငသည။ ပထမဆးျပလပေသာအေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမသညေနာကထပအျခားအျခားေသာေျဖဆမညသမားအားစစမးေဖာထတနငရနအခြငအလမးေကာငးတစရပပငျဖစပါသည။

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Advantages of In-Depth Interviews The primary advantage of in-depth interviews is that they provide much more detailed information than what is available through other data collection methods, such as surveys. They also can provide a more relaxed and safe atmosphere in which to collect sensitive information or any information that the informant would not share with a group. Limitations of In-Depth Interviews

• Collected information is prone to bias and cannot be generalized: The information given by the respondent is not contradicted or supported by other people like in a Focus Group Discussion. Therefore, the information obtained will most likely represent the respondent’s own perspective and opinion about a topic. As researchers are aware of this, they can make proper use of the information. Worth noting here is the following rule on interview sample size : when the same stories, themes, issues, and topics are emerging from the interviewees, then a sufficient sample size has been reached;

• Time-intensive: In-depth interviews generally take time to conduct, transcribe,

and analyze. In planning data collection, transcription and analysis of data have to be included in the research schedule;

• Requires interviewing skills: The interviewer must be appropriately trained in

interviewing techniques. To obtain the most detailed and rich data from an interviewee, the interviewer must make sure that the interviewee feels comfortable. The interviewer also has to show interest in what the interviewee is saying. Researchers must be sure to use appropriate interview techniques (avoiding questions with yes/no answers and leading questions) andappropriate body language. They refrain from expressing their personal opinions. Such techniques are summarized below.

CONDUCTING IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS The quality of the information produced during an in-depth interview depends mainly on the following points:

• Selecting appropriate respondents; • Outlining an appropriate discussion guide; • Conducting the interview in a proper fashion; • Transcribing accurately the information given by the respondent; • Verifying.

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အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၏အားသာခကမား

အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၏အဓကအားသာခကမားမာစစတမး ေကာကယျခငးက႔သ႕ ေသာအျခား ေသာ ေဒတာ ေကာကယမႈနညးလမးမားထကမားစြာပ၍အေသးစတကေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားရရႏငျခငး ျဖစသည။ ဤနညးလမးသညအကဆတေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားသ႔မဟတသတငးေပးသအေနျဖင႔လတစစ၏ေရ႕ေမာက တြငမေျပာလသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမားကစေဆာငးရရရနမားစြာသကေတာင႔သကသာရျပးလျခစတခရေသာ ပတ၀နးကငကဖနတးေပးသည။

အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၏အကန႔အသတမား

• စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားသညဘကလကတမးညြတမႈရႏငျပးေယဘယသေဘာ

ေဆာငမညမဟတေပ။ေျဖဆသထမရရေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားသညဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငပါဝငသမာ

း၏ေျပာၾကားခကမားႏငဆန႔ကငဘကေသာလညးေကာငး၊ကကညမႈေသာလညးေကာငး႐လမမည မဟတေပ။

ထ႔အတြက ေၾကာင႔လကခရရ ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားသညကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ ေျဖဆသ၏

ကယပငရႈေထာင႔အျမငႏင႔အေတြးအေခၚမားအျဖစသာအမားဆးကယစားျပပါသည။ဤကန႔သတခကက

သေတသမားအေနျဖငသတမသငသည။ထသ႔သတမနငလင၎တ႔ အေနျဖငသတငးအခကအလကမားအား

ဆငဆငျခငျခင ျဖင႔အသးျပႏငေပသည။ဤ ေနရာတြင မတသားသင႔ေသာ အခကမာ - ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား

ျပလပရနနမနာအေရအတြကပမာနနင ပကသက၍လကနာရသညဥပေဒသတစရပမာ - အကယ၍ ေျဖဆသ

အသးသးထမ ျဖစရပတ၊ အေၾကာငးအရာတ၊ကစၥရပတ၊ ေခါငးစဥတမားထြကရလာပါကလေတြ႕ ေမးျမနးရန

လေလာကေသာနမနာ အေရအတြကရရျပ ျဖစၾကာငးသႏငသည။

• အခနေပးရမႈ အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားသညေမးျမနးရန၊အေျဖမားမတသားေရးသြငးရန၊ စစစသးသပရန

အခနေပးရေလ႔ရသည။ထ႕ေၾကာင႔စမကနးခမတေရးဆြစဥအခကအလကေကာကယမႈ၊ေရးသြငးမတသားမႈ၊အခက

အလကမားစစစသးသပမႈတ႕အတြကသေတတန၏အစအစဥအခနဇယားအတြငးထည႔သြငးေရးဆြထားရပါမည။

• ေမးျမနးမႈႏင႔ပတသတေသာအရညအခငးလအပသည။ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမည႕သအားေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးသည႔နညး

လမးမားႏင႔ပတသတ၍အထကအေလာကေလ႔ကင႔ေပးထားရမည။ေျဖဆသထမအေသးစတအကဆးႏင႔အခ

ကအလကအစအလငကရရႏငရနေျဖဆသအေနျဖင႔သကေတာင႔သကသာရေနေစရမည။ေျဖဆသေျပာဆမႈမ

ားႏင႔ပတသတ၍လညးစတ၀ငစားေၾကာငးျပသရမည။သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ ( အေျဖအတြကလမးေၾကာငး

ေပးေသာေမးခြနးမား၊ဟတတယ- မဟတဘးဟသည႔အေျဖမားသာေျဖဆႏငသည႔ေမးခြနးမားကေရာငၾကဥ၍)

သင႔ေလာေသာေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈနညးလမးမားႏင႔သငေလာေသာေျခဟနလကဟနမားအလကသင႔အသးျပႏ

ငရပါမည။ေမးျမနသအေနျဖင႔မမ၏ကယပငထငျမငယဆခကမားေျပာဆျခငးကလညးေရာငၾကဥရပါမည။ဤ

ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈနညးလမးမားကေအာကတြငအကဥးခး၍ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငး အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈရေသာသတငးအခကအလကမား၏အရညအေသြးသည ေအာကပါအခကမားအေပၚ အဓကမတညပါသည။

• သင႔ေလာေသာ ေျဖဆသမားအား ေရြးခယရျခငး

• ေဆြးေႏြးမႈႏင႔ပတသတေသာသင႔ေတာသည႔လမးညႊနခကတစရပအားအၾကမးခမတ ျခငး

• ေတြ႔ဆးေမးျမနးမႈအားအဆငေျပ ေျပ ေဆာငရြကႏင ျခငး

• ေျဖဆသထမရရသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမားအားအတအကမတတမးေရးသြငးျခငး

• အခကအလကမားခငမာ ေအာင ျပျခငး

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Selecting the respondents

The researcher must first identify what information is needed and from whom this information is to be collected. In-depth interviews typically rely on multiple sources of information to provide the most complete picture possible. For example, in order to answer the research question “What are the revenues collected by the regional state on forest resources? And how are they collected?”, in-depth interviews may be conducted with Regional Forest Department officers, Township Forest Department officers, forest products traders and forestry developers. Depending on the scope of the research, in-depth interview of the project beneficiaries can also provide information about the general context of the project. In this case, life stories are particularly relevant. For example, a study describing how landed property is lost or, on the contrary, increased may be well illustrated by the life stories of a select group of farmers. The life stories would inform the researcher about the farmers’ choices in selling or buying land depending on the socio-economic context. Outlining an appropriate discussion guide In-depth interview involves asking informants open-ended questions and probing wherever necessary to obtain data deemed useful by the researcher. Open-ended questions are questions that cannot be answered by yes or no. For example: - Do you go to school by bus? (close-ended question) is not suitable for an in-depth interview. The question should be reformulated as follows: - What transportation do you use to go to school? (open-ended). There are three basic approaches for conducting qualitative interviewing:

(a) The informal interview : this kind of interview is close to an informal discussion. It is used especially when exploring a topic prior to designing a research project;

(b) The guided interview: this is the most common type of in-depth interview. For

this approach, a basic checklist is prepared to make sure that all relevant topics are covered. The interviewer is still free to explore, probe and ask questions of interest;

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ေျဖဆသမားေရြးခယျခငး သေတသအေနျဖင႔မညသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမားကလအပျပးမညသတ႔ထမေကာကယရရမညကပထမဆးသတမတေဖာထတရပါမည။အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားသညသတငးအခကအလကမားအေနျဖင႔တတႏငသမရပလးေပၚျပည႔စမႈရေစရနသတငးရငးျမစအေတာမားမားမခရပါသည။ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ "သစေတာသယဇာတမားမတငးေဒသၾကး အေနျဖင႔မညက႔သ႕ေသာအခြန၀ငေငြမားေကာကခရရသနညး။မညက႔သ႔ေကာကခသနညး။" ဟေသာဥးစးအရာရမား၊ ျမ႕နယအဆင႔သစေတာဥးစးဌာနအရာရမား၊သစေတာျပစေစာင႔ေရာကသမားအားအေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပလပရေပမည။ သေတသန၏အတငးအတာပမာဏအေပၚမတည၍စမကနး၏အကးေကးဇးကခစားရမည႔သမားအားအေသးစတေတြ႔ဆးေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငးသညစမကနးႏင႔ပတသကေသာအေထြေထြ ေနာကခပတ၀နးကငဆငရာသတငးအခကအလကမား ရရေစသည။ဤကစၥမးတြငဘ၀ဇတလမးမားသညအထသျဖင႔ဆေလာ ေပးသည။ဥပမာအား ျဖင႔ - ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ ဆးရႈးသြားပသ႔မဟတတးပြားလာပႏင႔ပတသတ၍ ေဖာျပ ေလ႔လာမႈအေနျဖင႔ ေရြးခယထားေသာလယသမားအပစ၏ ဘ၀ဇတလမးမား ျဖင႔ ေကာငးစြာတနဆာဆင ေဖာျပႏငေပသည။အဆပါဇတလမမားအေနျဖင႔သေတသအားလမႈ - စးပြားပတ၀နးကငအေျပာငးအလ ေပၚမတည၍လယသမားမား၏ ေျမယာ ေရာငးခမႈသ႔မဟတ၀ယယရနေရြးခယမႈတ႕ အေၾကာငးသတငးေပးႏငေေပသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈႏင႔ပတသတေသာသင႔ေတာသည႔လမးညႊနခကတစရပအားအၾကမးခမတျခငး အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈတြငသတငးေပးသအားအဖြင႔သေဘာေမးခြနးမားေမးရျခငး၊သေတသအတြကအသး၀ငမညဟယဆရေသာအခကအလကမားရရရနလအပသည႔အခါတငး၌ထပမဆနးစစတးဆြသည႔ေမးခြနးထတရျခငးတ႕ပါ၀ငသည။အဖြင႔သေေဘာေမးခြနးမားဆသညမာေျဖဆရာတြငဟတတယ - မဟတဘးဟ၍သာေျဖဆရသည႔ေမးခြနး အမးအစားမားမဟတေပ။ ဥပမာအား ျဖင႔ - ေကာငးကဘတစကားျဖင႔သြားပါသလား ? ( အပတေမးခြနး ) ဟသည႔ ေမးခြနးသည႔အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ၌မသင႔ေလာ ေပ။ထေမးခြနးအား ေအာကပါအတငး ျပနလည ျပငဆငသင႔သည။ " မညသည႔သယယပ႔ေဆာင ေရးစနစကအသးျပ၍ ေကာငးသြားပါသနညး" ( အဖြင႔သေဘာေမးခြနး ) အရည ေသြးစထား ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား ျပလပရာတြငအေျခခက ေသာနညးလမးသးရပရပါသည။

( က ) စညးကမးတကမဟတေသာေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ - ဤ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈအမးအစားသညအလြတသေဘာ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမးႏင႔နးစပတညမႈရပါသည။သေတသနစမကနးတစရပအားစစဥဒဇငးမထတမအေၾကာငးအရာတစရပႏင႔ပတသတ၍စစမးမႈျပလပလသည႔အခါအထးသျဖင႔အသး၀ငပါသည။ (ခ) လမးညႊနမႈပါေသာေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ။။အမားဆးအသးျပ ေသာအေသးစတဤနညးလမးအသးျပရန အတြကသကဆငရာ ေခါငးစဥအားလး ျခငမေစမည႔အေျခခစစေဆးရနစာရင(basic checklist) တစရပျပစထားရမည။ ေမးျမနးသအေနျဖင႔၄ငးစတ၀ငစားသည႔အရာႏင႔ပတသတ၍ ေမးခြနးမားထတ ျခငး၊အေျဖႏင႔ပတသက၍ဇစျမစလကျခငး၊စးစမး ေဖာထတျခငးတ႕ကလြပလပစြာလပႏငပါ ေသးသည။

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(c) The standardised open-ended interview: this approach uses a set of carefully worded open-ended questions in order to minimize the differences in the way questions are asked between several in-depth interviews. This method may be useful when two or more researchers are involved in the data collecting process to facilitate the analysis.

Besides the questions, the interview should also contain the following points:

• An introduction explaining the research project and the purpose of the interview;

• Ensuring informed consent and confidentiality of the interviewee; • Conclusive questions to enquire if the respondent has anything more to add.

Conducting the interview properly The ability to elicit useful information may vary depending on the researchers. However, some questioning techniques may ensure a minimum quality of the in-depth interview:

(a) Ask clear questions: use words that make sense to the interviewees. Questions should be short and simple, avoiding terms that the interviewee may not understand. Questions should contain only one point at a time.

For example, preference is given to the following two questions: - What do you think of the current land law? and then: - What do you think would be its impact on small-farmers?, instead of: - What do you think of the current land law and its impact on small farmers?[make the question has a strikethrough in Myanmar] (b) Ask truly open-ended questions: open-ended questions should not pre-

determine the answers and allow space for the respondents to respond in their own terms.

(c) Questions about the interviewee’s own experience to be placed before

questions about his/her own point of view/opinion: it is useful to ask questions about daily practice and experience of the respondents before asking questions about their points of view. It helps to set-up a context for the respondents to express their points of view.

For example, it is better to ask "What help did you receive?" before "What do you think of the help received?"

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( ဂ) စသတမတထားေသာအဖြင႔သေဘာေမးျမနးမႈ။။ဤနညးလမးတြငတစခႏင႔တစခၾကား ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျမနးပႏငပတသတ၍ကြျပာျခားနားမႈမား ေလာ႔ခႏငရနစကာလးအသးအႏႈနးဂရတစက ေရြးခယထားသည႔အဖြင႔သေဘာ ေမးခြနးမားအားအသးျပပါသည။စစစေလ႔လာမႈအားအေထာကအပ႔ျဖစေစရန ေဒတာအခကအလက ေကာကာမႈလပငနးစဥတြငသေတသႏစဥးအထကပါ၀ငေဆာငရြက ၾကသည႔အခါ၌ ဤနညးလမးအသး၀ငပါသည။

လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးရာတြင ေမးခြနးမားသာမကေအာကပါအခကတ႔ပါ၀ငသင႔ပါသည။ • သေတသနစမကနးအားရငးျပထား ေသာမတဆကတငျပမႈႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈ ျပရျခငး၏ရညရြယခက

• ေျဖဆသအတြကလ၀ကထားရေပးမႈႏင႔ ေျဖဆသ၏သေဘာတခြင႔ ျပခကအား ေသခာမႈရေအာင ျပျခငး

• အဆးသတ ေမးခြနးမး ေမးျမနး၍ ေျဖဆသမအျခားထပမ ျဖည႔စြကလပါက ျဖည႔စြက ေျပာဆ ေစ ျခငး

ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈအားအဆငေျပေျပ ေဆာငရြက ျခငး အသး၀င ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမား ေဖာထတႏငမႈအရညအခငးသညသေတသမားအၾကားကြာျခားမႈ ရေပလမ႔မည။သ႔ ေသာအခ႕ ေသာ ေမးခြန းေမးျမနးပနညးလမးမားအား ျဖင႔အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆ ေမး ျမနရာ၌ အနမ႔ဆးရသင႔သည႔အရညအေသြးကရရေစပါသည။

( က ) ရငးလငးေသာ ေမးခြနးမားေမးပါ။ ။ ေျဖဆသနားလည ေစမည႔စကားလးမားသာအသး ျပပါ။ ေျဖဆသနားမလညႏငသည႔အသးအႏႈနးမး ေရာငရား ျပးတတႏင႔လြယက ေသာ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးပါ။တစၾကမတြငအေၾကာငးအရာတစခကသာေမးပါ။

ဥပမာ - " လကရေျမယာဥေပေဒန႔ပတသတျပးေတာ႔ရယ၊ျပးေတာ႔တစႏငတစပငလပကငၾကတ႔လယသမားေတြအေပၚအဒဥပေဒရ႕သကေရာကမႈအေပၚရယဘယလထငပါသလ " ဟ၍တစတညးေမးမည႔အစား ------

- " လကရေျမယာဥပေဒအေပၚဘယလျမငပါသလ။"

- " တစႏငတစပငလပကငစားၾကတ႔လယသမား ေတြအေပၚအဒဥပေဒရ႕သကေရာကမႈႏင႔ပတသတျပးဘယလထငပါသလ "-- ---

ဟတစၾကမတြငအေၾကာငးအရာတစခအားျဖင႔ႏစၾကမခြေမးသင႔ပါသည။

( ခ ) အမနတကယအဖြင႔သေဘာရသည႔ေမးခြနးမား ေမးပါ။။အဖြင႔သေဘာ ေမးခြနးမားသည ေျဖဆမည႔အေျဖမားအားၾကတငသတမတေပသည႔ ေမးခြနးမးမျဖစသငဘေျဖဆသမားအေနျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕၏ကယပငအသးအႏႈနးမားအတငးေျဖဆရနခြင႔ျပထားသည။ ( ဂ ) ေျဖၾကားသ၏ကယပငအေတြ႕အၾကအေၾကာငး ေမးျမနးထားသည ေမးခြနးမားက၄ငး၏အထငအျမငႏင႐ေထာငဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမားမလာခငအရငေမးပါ။။။ ေျဖဆသမားအား၄ငးတ႕၏ကယပငအျမငႏင႔ပတသတ ျပးမ ေမး ျမနးမ၄ငးတ႕၏ကင႔ၾကမႈ၊ အေတြ႔အၾကႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေမးပါ။ဤသ႔အား ျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသအား၄ငး၏အျမငက ေဖာ ျပႏငရနအေနအထား တစရပခငးကငးေပးရာ ေရာကပါသည။

ဥပမာ - "လကခရရတ႔အကအညန႔ပတသတျပးဘယလထငပါသလ " ဟမေမးမ

- " ဘယလအကအညမးလကခရရခပါသလ "

ဟ၍အရင ေမးသင႔ပါသည။

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(d) From general to specific: for each topic, the interview should move from general statements to specific questions.

For example: “Farmers in the Dry Zone are often obliged to grow different types of crops. Some grow sesame and peas. Others take more risk by planting cash crops like betel or tomatoes. What is your strategy?” (e) Probing and questioning: the researcher should never take answers for

granted, but seek further comments and clarification. This can be done by asking direct questions: “could you tell me more about this?” This can also be done by repeating significant ideas or words of the informant: “you told me that it was “catastrophic”, could you explain why?” For clarifying purposes, especially, the researcher may rephrase some important information: “if I understand well, you’re saying that…”.

(f) Following the question guide: while it is important to let the respondent speak

freely and not to interrupt him/her too abruptly, the researcher must always bear in mind to cover all the topics contained in the question guide. For this, a rough checklist summarizing all the topics helps the researcher keep the research objectives under control.

(g) Build a relationship with the respondent: it is important to put the respondent

in a comfortable position by building trust with him/her. Sharing common experience, acknowledging his/her answers is essential. The researcher may also avoid asking sensitive question especially at the beginning of the interview.

(h) Refrain from making any judgment: the facilitator is not here to judge what

the respondent says and doesn’t look down on him/her because of his/her status or statements.

Below are some tips that may improve the exchange between the researcher and the respondent:

• Linking: it often proves more efficient to link the respondent’s comments with information sought by the researcher, instead of breaking the conversation to raise unrelated questions. In other words, if the researcher wants to change the subject, he/she should try to build on the informant’s answers to progressively bring him/her toward the desired topic.

• Contradicting: if the interviewer deliberately expresses an opinion opposite to that of therespondent, this could help provoke further comments from the respondent’s side. However, this technique should be used in moderation in order not to irritate the respondent.

• Pretending to not understand: by seeking clarification, or rewording the

respondent’s comments, the researcher can elicit further details and comments.

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( ဃ ) အေထြ ေထြမသညအေသးစတဆသ႔။ ။အေၾကာငးအရာတစခခငးစႏင႔ပတသက၍ ေမးျမနးရာ၌ အေထြေထြ ေယဘယအေၾကာငးအရာမားကေမးျမနးျပးမအေသးစတကေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမားကေမးျမနးသင႔ပါသည။

ဥပမာအေနျဖင႔ - ဒအပပငးဇမာရတ႔ယာသမား ေတြအေနန႔ ေကာကပသးႏအမးမးကစကပးရေလ႔ရၾကပါတယ။တစခ႕ဆႏမးန႔ပစကၾကတယ။တစခ႕ဆ ေငြလြယတ႔ကြမးတ႕ခရမးခဥသးတ႕ကစြန႔စားျပးစကၾကတယ။ခငဗားကေကာဘယလလ?

( င ) ဆနးစစတးဆြသည႔ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျခငး။ ။သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေျဖဆလကသည႔အေျဖမားကထ အတငးလကခလကျခငးထက ေနာကဆကတ႔ရငးလငးမႈမား၊မတခကမားထပမရရႏငရနဆကလက၍ ေမးခြနးထတသင႔သည။ "ဒအေၾကာငးန႔ပတသကျပးနညးနညးပေျပာ ျပႏငမလား " ဟ၍တကရက ေမးခြနးမးဆက ေမးႏငသည။ "ခငဗား ေျပာတ႔အထမာအဒါက "အျဖစဆးၾကး " လ႔ ေျပာသြားတယ.. ။ ဘာေၾကာင႔လဆတာ ရငးျပႏငမလား " ဟ၍လညး ေျဖဆသတငးေပးသ ေျပာသြားသည႔အေၾကာငးအရာမားထမထး ျခားသည႔ စကားလးမားႏင႔အေတြးအျမငမားက ျပနလည ေရရြတ ေထာကျပျပးလညးဆကေမးႏငသည။အေျဖမားႏင႔ ပတသကျပးရငးရငးလငးလငးရေစရနသေတသးအေနျဖင႔အေရးၾကးေသာအခကအလကမားက ျပနလည အစေကာက၍ပ ေသခာ ေအာင လပသင႔သည။ ဥပမာ - " ကြနေတာနားလညသေလကဆရငခငဗား ေျပာခငတာက ----- ------ "

( စ ) ေမးခြနးလမးညႊနခကအားလကနာျခငး။ ။မၾကာခဏၾကားျဖစျခငမျပလပလေျဖဆသအား လြတလမစြာ ေျပာခြင႔ျပရနမာအေရးၾကးေသာလညးသေတသအေနျဖင႔ေမးခြနးလမးညႊနခကပါအေၾကာငးအရာေခါငးစဥအားလးအားစေအာငေမးျမနးႏငရနလညးအျမပငေခါငးထထည႔ထားသင႔ပါသည။ထ႔အတါကအေၾကာငးအရာအားလးႏင႔ပတသက၍အႏစခပထားေသာစစေဆးရနစာရငးအၾကမးေရးထားျခငးသညသေတသးအားသေတသနာ၏ဥးတညခကမားအတငးမတမးမယမးဘရေနေစပါသည။

( ဆ ) ေျဖဆသႏင႔ရငးႏးမႈတညေဆာကပါ။ ။ ေျဖဆမည႔သႏင႔ယၾကညမႈတည ေဆာကျခငး ျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသအေနျဖင႔သကေတာင႔သကသာရေနေစရနမာလညးအေရးၾကး ေသာအခကတစရပ ျဖစပါသည။ တညသည႔အေတြ႕အၾကမားအေၾကာငး ေ၀ဌ ေျပာဆျခငး၊ထသ၏အေျဖမားမအေရးပါေၾကား အသအမတ ျပ ေျပာဆျခငးတ႕ ျပလပႏငပါသည။အထးသျဖင႔ ေမးျမနးမႈအစပငး၌အကဆတထရလြယ ေသာ ေမးခြနးမး ေမးျခငးက ေရာငၾကညပါ။

ေအာကပါအၾကျပခကမာသေတသႏငေျဖဆသၾကားအေပးအယပမေကာငးမြနေစရနျဖစပါသည။ • ခတဆကျခငး။ ။ ေျဖဆသႏင႔ေဆြးေႏြး ေျပာဆ ေနစဥအတြငးမသကဆငေသာ

အေၾကာငးအရာအား ေမးခြန ျဖစ၍ ေမး ျခငးထက ေျဖဆသ၏မတခကအေျဖမားအား

သေတသမရရလေသာသတငးအခကအလကႏင႔ခတဆကမႈ ျပႏငႏငလငပ၍ ေကာငးပါသည။

တနညးဆရလငအကယ၍သေတသအေနျဖင႔အေၾကာငးအရာတစခက ေျပာလ ေဆြ ေႏြးလပါက

ေျဖဆသ၏အေျဖမားအားအေျချပ၍တေျဖေျဖး ျခငး၄ငးလခငသည႔အေၾကာငးအရာသ႔ဆြယ၍ ေျပာဆ

ေမးျမနးသင႔ပါသည။

• ဆန႔ကငဘကျပျခငး။ ။အကယ၍ေမးျမနးသအေနျဖင႔ေျဖဆသ၏အျမငႏင႔ဆန႔ကင

ဘကအျမငမတမငတကာရညရြယေဖာျပပါကဆန႔ကငလကအျမငမးတမငတကာရညရြယေဖျပပါက

ေျဖဆသထမေနာကဆကတ႔မတခကအျမငမားကထပမ၍ရရႏငေကာငးပါသည။သ႔ေသာေျဖဆသစ

တအေႏာကအယကျဖစမသြားေစရနဤနညးလမးကထနးထနးသမးသမးသးသင႔ပါသည။

• နားမလညခငေယာငေဆာငျခငး။။ပ၍ရငးလငးေသာအေျဖမးရရရနေသာလညးေကာငး၊ေျဖဆသ၏

မတခကအျမငမားအတငးစကားလးအသးအႏႈနးျပနလညးသးစြျခငးအားျဖင႔ေသာလညးေကာငးသေ

တသအေနျဖင႔ပ၍အေသးစတကေသာမတခကအျမငမားကေဖာထတႏငပါသည။

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• Incredulity: challenging the respondent’s views and opinions (“really?”, “that’s hard to believe”) often forces the respondent to elaborate on his/her comments. Here again, this technique should be used in moderation in order not to exasperate the respondent.

Recording and transcribing the interview

Depending on the objectives of the research, the in-depth interview can be recorded in different ways. For explorative interviews (i.e. exploring a topic to design further research), note taking may be sufficient. It however depends on the researcher’s own experience and ability to ask questions and record the answers almost amost at the same time. Interviewers with little experience can seek the help of an assistant to write down the questions and answers or use an audio recorder. In the latter case, it is highly recommended to transcribe the interview as soon as possible after its completion for better results. It is also important to write down the researcher’s own observations on the respondent’s behaviour which may change according to the type of questions. Writing down the respondent’s emotions is useful as well to better understand his/her comments. In some cases, if the amount of data collected is too large, the researcher should take note while listening to the tape and transcribe only what he/she thinks are the key components of the interview. When transcription of the interview is finished, a separate page at the beginning of the transcription will be inserted with the interview number mentioned and some basic personal details about the respondent/interviewee. Verifying Finally, verifying the information given by the respondents may be necessary in some specific cases, especially for sensitive information and/or information deemed critical by the researcher for the study. Verifying involves checking the credibility of the information. A method called “triangulation” is commonly used to achieve this purpose. Triangulation involves using multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of information.

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• ယမားသသယျပျခငး။ ။ " တကယလား" " မယႏငစရာပ " စသညျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသ၏အျမငႏင႔

အာေဘာမားအားဆြေပး ျခငး ျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသအားသ၏အေျဖႏင႔ပတသက၍အကယတ၀င႔ဆက

လကရငးလငး ျပ ေစရနဖအား ေပးရာ ေရာကပါသည။ဤ ေနရာတြငလညးေျဖဆသအမက

ေဒါသမထြကေစရနဤနညးကလညးထနးထနးသမးသမးသးသင႔ပါသည။

ေမးျမနးမႈအားမတတမးတငျခငးႏင႔ကေရးျခငး အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးရျခငး၏ဥးတညခကမားအေပၚမတည၍မတတမးတငသည႔ပစကြျပားႏငပါသည။ပဏာမေလ႔လာစးစမးမႈျပသည႔ေမးျမနမႈမား ( ဆလသညမာ - ေနာကဆကတြသေတသနာျပလပႏငရနအေၾကာငးအရာတစရပ အားေလ႔လာစးစမးမႈျပသည႔ကစၥမး) ၌မတစေရးမတျခငးသညလေလာကပါသည။သ႔ေသာဤနညးသည တစခန တညေမးခြနးေမးျမနး၍တစခနတညးမာပငေမးခြနးႏင႔အေျဖမားကမတတမးတငႏငသည႔သေတသး၏အရညအခငးႏင႔အေတြ႔အၾကေပၚမတညပါလမ႔မည။အေတြ႔အၾကနညးသည႔ေမးျမနးသမားအေနျဖင႔ေမးခြနးႏင႔အေျဖမားကခေရးႏငရနအျခားသတစဥးဥး၏အကအညကရယရျခငးသ႕မဟတအသဖမးစကအသးျပျခငးတ႕ကျပလပႏငပါသည။အသဖမးစကအသးျပသည႔ကစၥမး၌ပ၍ေကာငးေသာရလာဒမားရရႏငရနေမးျမနးမႈျပးလငေစာႏငသမေစာစြာေရးသားမတတမးတင ရနအထးသျဖင႔အၾကျပလပါသည။ မးျမနးသည႔ေမးခြနးအမးအစားေပၚမတည၍ေျဖဆသ၏ေျပာငးလသြားေသာအျပအမမားကသေတသ၏ကယပငေလ႔လာမႈအျမငျဖင႔ခမနေရးသားရနလညးအေရးၾကးပါသည။ေျဖဆသ၏မတခကအျမငအားပမနားလညသေဘာေပါကႏင၇န ေျဖဆသ၏စတခစားခကမားကလညးခမတေရးသားထားျခငးအသး၀ငပါသည။ မညသည႔ကစၥရပမးျဖစေစေမးျမနးမႈအားေရးသားမတတမးသြငးသည႔အခါအေသးစတအခကအလကမားကခနလပထး ျခငးမျပဘေမးျမနးမႈျပစဥကာလာအတြငးေျပာသမအျပညအစမတတမးသြငးသင႔ပါသည။တခါတရတြငစေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားမာမားျပားလြနးပါကအေရးၾကးသညဟယဆေသာသတစေယာကႏစေယာကခန႔၏အသသြငး ခကမားကသားနားေထာင၍စာစျပးမတစထတသငသည။ေမးျမနးမႈအားမတသားေရးသြငးျခငးျပးဆးပါကမတးတမး အစတြငသးသန႔စာမကႏာတစမကႏာထပထည႔၍အငတာဗးအမတစဥႏင႔တကြေျဖဆသ၏ပဂၢလေရးအခကအလက အေျခအခ႕ကေရးသြငးပါ။ အခကအလကခငမာ ေအာင ျပ ျခငး နာကဆအေနျဖင႔ - အခ႕ေသာကစၥရပမားတြငအထးအျဖင႔သေတသး၏ ေလ႔လာမႈအတြကအခရာက ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမား၊အကဆတထရလြယ ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအားလငလမႈရေအာင လပေဆာငရနလအပေပမည။အခကအလကခငမာမႈ႐ေအာင ျပ ျခငးဆသညမာသတငး အခကအလက၏ ယၾကညကစားႏငမႈကစစေဆးျခငး ျဖစသည။ဤသ႔စစေဆးႏငရန " သးေထာင႔စစစစစေဆစျခငး " triangulation ဆသည႔နညးလမးတစရပအားအမားအား ျဖင႔သးေလ႔ရပါသည။သးေထာင႔စစစေဆးျခငးဆသညမာသတငး အခကအလကတစစတစရာအားရႈ႕ေထာင႔ ေပါငးစမခဥးကပ၍အဓပၸါယဖြင႔ဆအေျဖရာျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• In-depth interviews can be used to explore new topics;

• In-depth consist in interviewing an individual about his/her experience, opinions, and perceptions on a particular topic or project;

• In-depth interviews require skills in questioning techniques.

Exercise 1: List 5 potential informants for the following research topics

i. The causes of squatting in urban Yangon ii. Revenue collection in the fisheries sector of Ayeyawaddy Region iii. Human trafficking between Yangon and Thailand

Exercise 2: List a set of relevant questions (about 10) for the above research topics

A research project is conducted about PLHIV’s acces s to health care. During an in-depth interview, a PLHIV states that “PLHIVs are asked for double the price that patients normal ly pay to the hospital for a surgery”. One way the researcher could try to verify this information would be to ask independ ent doctors and hospital staff to confirm or deny this informat ion. A more reliable triangulation method would be to ask the p rice of the surgery the PLHIV received and ask the price of the same surgery to the hospital to see if there any discrep ancy.

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ဥပမာ - သေတသနတစရပသညအပခအငဗြပးကးစကခရသမား PLHIV မား၏ကနးမာ ေရး ေစာင႔ ေရာကကသခရမႈႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ေလ႔လာသည။အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈတစရပ၌ PLHIV တစဥးက " ေဆးရမာခြစတကသမႈ ခယရတ႔အခါ " PLHIVs ေတြအေနန႔သာမနလေတြထကအခေၾကးေငြႏစဆပေတာငးခရပါတယ " ေျပာဆသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင႔ဤအခကအလကမားကခငလေအာငျပလပ၇နနညးလမးတစရပမာသးျခားလြတလပေသာဆရာ၀နမား၊ေဆးရ၀နထမးမားအားဤသတငးအခကအလကႏင႔ပတသတ၍အတညျပေပးႏငျခငး ( သ႕ ) ျငငးဆျခငးတ႔ ရမရေမးျမနးႏငပါသည။ပ၍အားကးစတခရေသာသးေထာင႔စစမးစစေဆးနညးအရမသထ PLHIV မေပးရေသာ ခြစတခႏင႔အျခားအလားတခြစတမႈမး၌ကနကေသာခြစတစတ႔အားေမးျမနး၍ကြာျခားခကတစစတစရာရမရစစေဆးျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆးေမးျမနးမႈမားအားအေၾကာငးအရာသစမားကေလလာရာတြငအသးျပသငပါသည။

• အေၾကာငးအရာတစရပသ႔မဟတစမကနးတစရပႏင႔ပတသက၍ပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၏အေတြ႔အၾက၊အ

ယအဆႏင႔အေတြးအျမငမားအား ေမးျမနးရာ၌အေသးစတ ေမးျမနးမႈ ျပလပသင႔ပါသည။

• အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆးေမးျမနးမႈျပရာ၌ေမးခြနးေမးနညးအမးမးအသျပႏငသည႔အရညအခငးလအပပါသည။

ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး ( ၁ ) ေအာကပါသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာေခါငးစဥမားႏင႔ပတသက၍အလားအလာရေသာ သတငးေပးေျဖဆသ ( ၅ ) ဥးစကေဖာျပပါ။ (က) ရနကျမ႕ျပ၌ကးေကာ ေနထငၾကသည႔အေၾကာငးမား (ခ) ဧရာ၀တတငး ေဒသၾကး၏ ေရလပငနးမာအခြန ေကာကခမႈ (ဂ) ရနကနႏင႔ထငးႏငငအၾကားလကနကးမႈ ေလ႔ကင႔ခန ( ၂ ) အထကပါေခါငးစဥးမားအတြကတစခလငဆေလာေသာေမးခြနး ( ၁၀ ) ခစျပစပါ။

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BASIC 10. PARTICIPATORY LEARNING APPRAISAL AND ITS TOOLS THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT :

• The meaning ofa Participatory Learning Appraisal (PLA) • The relevant use of PLA for certain types of research • The main participatory tools used inPLA

_____________________________________________________________________ WHAT IS A PARTICIPATORY LEARNING APPRAISAL? A Participatory Learning Appraisal (PLA)’s main feature is to acquire knowledge about an issue with the participation of the persons directly concerned by this issue. Conducting a PLA entails thatresearchersand the communitylearn together about their village or ward. PLA may be considered as the first step of any participatory approach, including Participatory Action Research (PAR) (see next Chapter). The PLA is a bottom-top approach to learning involving the community. Advantages of PLA

• PLA is a great tool to reduce the risk of biases by studying the issue from different perspectives and using methods and tools;

• PLA offers a rapid and progressive approach to learning with people and

produces information that is validated by the community itself. Limitations of PLA

• The diversity of informants is both the PLA’s strength and weakness. WHEN TO USE A PLA

• PLA is useful when researchers do not have much time. By using PLA they can rapidly acquire knowledge, in a process validated by the community.

• PLA is useful when the research is conducted on local perceptions of a particular issue. For example, studyinghow farmers see technical change in farming techniques is an important component that will help to develop new farming techniques in a particular community.

• PLA is often used for research about the environment, livelihood and food

security issues.

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အေျခခအဆင ၁၀. ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥႏင၄ငး၏ကရယာမား

ဤအခနးတြင

• ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥ၏ဆလရငးအဓပၸါယ(Participatory Learning Appraisal - PLA) • အခ႕သေတသနအမးအစားမားတြငပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥအားသငေတာသလအသးျပပ • PLA တြငအသးျပသညအဓကကေသာပးေပါငးပါဝငေရးကရယာမား တ႔က ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

________________________________________________________________________________________

PLA ဆသညမာအဘယနညး။ PLA ၏အႏစသာရမာကစၥရပတစခႏငတက႐ကပတသကေနေသာလမား၏ပးေပါငးပါဝငမႈျဖင၄ငးကစၥရပႏင ပတသကျပးသ႐နားလညေအာင ျပလပျခငးပငျဖစသည။ PLA ျပလပရာတြငသေတသမားႏငသကဆငရာအစအေဝးတ႔၄ငးတ႔၏ရပ႐ြာကအတတကြေလလာၾကသည။ ပးေပါငးပါဝငလမႈေရး သေတသန (Participatory Action Research – PAR) (ေနာကအခနးတြငၾကညပါ)

အပါအဝငမညသ႔ေသာ ပဏာမ ခဥးကပေလလာမႈတြငမဆ PLA အားပထမဆးအဆငအျဖစမတယထားၾကသည။ PLA သညရပ႐ြာလ႔အဖြ႕အစညးပါဝငေစသည ေအာကမအထကသ႔ဆနသညခဥးကပေလလာနညး ျဖစသည။

PLA ၏အကးေကးဇးမား

• ကစၥရပတစခအားနညးနႏငကရယာမးစအသးျပျပးမတကြျပားေသာ႐ေထာငေျမာကျမားစြာမ

ေလလာျခငး၊ ေၾကာငPLA သညအဂတကငး႐ငးေစေရးအတြကကရယာေကာငးတစခ ျဖစသည။ • PLA

သညလအမားပါဝငေသာလငျမနထေရာကသညခဥးကပေလလာနညးတစရပျဖစျပးရပ႐ြာကယတငလကခအတညျပသညသတငးအခကအလကမားရ႐ေစသည။

PLA ၏အခကအခမား

• အခကအလကေပးသအမးအစားမားျပားျခငးသည PLA

၏အားသာခကလညးျဖစသလအားနညးခကလညးျဖစသည။ PLA အသးျပရမညအခန

• သေတသတြငအခနမားမားမ႐ပါက PLA

သညအလြနအသးဝငသည။ယငးကအသးျပျခငးျဖငရပ႐ြာကယတငအတညျပလကခသညအသအျမငကရ႐ေစသည။

• အေၾကာငးကစၥတစခအေပၚ ေဒသခမားကမညသ႔မညပ႐ျမငပအားသေတသနျပမညဆပါက PLA

မာအလြနအသးဝငသည။ဥပမာဆရလငရပ႐ြာေဒသတစခတြငလယယာစကပးေရးနညးပညာသစမားတးတကထြနးကာလာေစလပါကလယယာစကပးေရးနညးပညာေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚလယသမားမားမညကသ႔႐ျမငၾကသနညးဆေသာအခကမာအေရးၾကးေသာအစတအပငးတစရပျဖစသည။

• သဘာဝပတဝနးကင၊ရပ႐ြာအသကေမြးလပငနးႏငစားနပရကၡာလေလာကေစေရးအစ႐ေသာကစၥရပမားကသေတသနျပလပရာတြင PLA ကအသးမားသည။

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HOW TO PREPARE A PLA Even before defining the objectives of a PLA, researchers should be aware that, in any research process, biases occur. In a PLA, biases can be linked to the researchers’ background, the informants, the methods or tools employed as well as the sites selected. 1. Reducing risks of biases The best strategies to reduce biases are:

• Be aware of biases: the researcher may reduce the impact of biases only if he/she acknowledges their existence;

• Triangulate: triangulation means crosschecking the information. Researchers crosscheck what informants say but also consider how they understand themselves the situation they study andthe information produced.

The main biases that may occur during a PLA are:

• Researcher Bias Ideally, a PLA team should be interdisciplinary. Because of the exhaustive nature of PLA, the range of information collected generally cover social, economic, environmental, technical issues, etc. If researchers are only skilled in one or two of the dimensions covered by the PLA, biases are likely to occur.

• Informant Bias Here again, the key to managing the biases is to ensure that the views of a group are not mistakenly believed to represent the situation or opinion of the whole population. Like in a FGD or a PAR, all types of stakeholders should be included in the participatory learning sessions. Special care should be given to:

o Gender bias: more emphasis may be put on the point of view of either men or women; if this happens, the views of the other group may therefore be under-represented;

o Spatial bias: collecting information in an area that is easily accessible and has lots of infrastructures may introduce some spatial bias. Also, the views of people who live there or go in this area may also be different from those living in the neighboring areas that are less privileged. Therefore selection of areas for data collection is a tricky issues: researchers have to consider the benefits of collecting information in a wide range of areas;

o Wealth bias: often the views of wealthierpersons or who hold positions of authority are given greater weight over the course of a study. The statements made by the poor are frequently under-represented in the research findings unless specific actions are taken to include them;

o Education bias: the views of those with formal higher education are often solicited and considered more carefully than those with less education. This often coincides with a language bias since educated persons may be able to better communicate with the research team.

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PLA အတြကျပငဆငပ

PLA တစခႏင စပဆငေသာရညမနးခကမားဖြငဆသတမတျခငးမျပမကတညးကပငမညသညသေတသနလပငနးစဥ

မးမအဂတကငးေလမ႐သညအခကကသေတသအေနႏငသေဘာေပါကထားရမည။PLA တြငဘကလကမႈမားသည

သေတသ၏ ေနာကေၾကာငးရာဇဝင၊အခကအလကေပးသမား၊အသးျပသညနညးလမးႏငကရယာစသညတ႔နညးတ

ေ႐ြးခယသညအရပေဒသတ႔ႏငပါစပဆကေနသည။ ၁။ အဂတျဖစပြားႏငေခအားေလာချခငး အဂတေလာခရနအေကာငးဆးနညးလမးမားမာ

• အဂတမားအားသတမျခငး - သေတသအေနျဖငအဂတမား႐ေနျခငးကအသအမတျပလကခမသာလင၄ငး၏

အကးဆကမားကတားဆးေလာခႏငမည။

• ခနကကျခငး- ခနကကျခငးဟသညသတငးအခကအလကမားကအျပနအလနတကဆင ၾကညျခငး ပငျဖစ

သည။သေတသသညအခကအလကေပးသမားေျပာသမကတကဆငၾကညေသာလညးေလလာေနသည

အေနအထားႏငရ႐လာေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားႏငပတသကျပး၄ငးတ႔၏ကယတငကယကနားလညထားပကစဥးစားခနဆျခငးျဖစသည။

PLA ျပ လပေနစဥအဓကျဖစပြားႏငသညအဂတမားမာ -

• သေတသအဂတ စအားျဖင PLA သေတသနအဖြ႕တစခတြငပညာရပနယပယေပါငးစမလမားပါဝငသငသည။ PLA ၏ ျခငႏငစြမးသညသေဘာသဘာဝေၾကာငစေဆာငးရ႐လာသညသတငးအခကအလကမားမာ

လမႈေရးရာ၊စးပြားေရးရာ၊သဘာဝပတဝနးကငေရးရာ၊နညးပညာေရးရာအစ႐ေသာကစၥရပမားအား ေယဘယ ျခငမေလ႐သည။သ႔ျဖစပါေသာေၾကာငအကယ၍သာသေတသမားသည PLA တြငပါဝငသည႐ေထာငတစခ ႏစခတညးတြငသာကၽြမးကငသညဆပါကအဂတလကမႈ ျဖစပြားႏငစရာ႐သည။

• အခကအလကေပးသအဂတဤတြငလညးအဂတမျဖစေအာငထနးသမးရနအဓက ေသာခကမာအပစတစခ၏

အျမငမားသညအေျခအေနျဖစရပတစခကကယစားျပသညဟ ေသာလညးေကာငးလဥးေရတစရပလး၏

ထငျမငခကကကယစားျပသညဟေသာလညးေကာငးလြမားစြာမယၾကညမေစရန ျဖစသည။

သးသန႔စကားဝငး (FGD) တစခတြငကသ႔ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ပးေပါငးပါဝငလမႈေရးသေတသန (PAR)

တစခတြငကသ႔ေသာလညးေကာငးအကးစးပြားႏးႏႊယသမနသမပးေပါငးေလလာေရးလပငနးစဥမားတြငပါဝငေစသငသည။အထးဂ႐ျပရမညမာ -

o လငခြျခားမႈအဂတ ေယာကားအျမငသ႔မဟတမနးမအျမငေပၚတြငအလြနတရာအေလးအနကထား လကမပါကအျခားလငအပစ၏အျမငမားအေပၚကယစားျပမႈအားနညးသြားႏငသည။

o အကြကအကြငးအဂတ - လြယလငတကသြားေရာကႏငျပးအေျခခအေဆာကအအမ႐သည

ေနရာတစေနရာတြငသတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယစေဆာငးပါကအကြကအကြငးအဂတအခ႕ ပါဝငလာႏငသည။သညအျပငအဆပါအရပတြင ေနထငသ (သ႔) သြားေရာကသမားသညအနးအပါး႐ အခြငအလမးပမနမပါးသည ေနရာမားမလမားႏငအေတြးအျမငကြာျခားႏငသည။သ႔ျဖစေသာေၾကာင

ေနရာေဒသ ေ႐ြးခယေရးမာအလြနလကဝငေသာကစၥတစရပပငျဖစသည။ အရပေဒသမားစြာမကယကယ

ျပန႔ျပန႔သတငးအခကအလက ေကာကယျခငးျဖငအကးမားႏငပကသေတသမားထည

သြငးစဥးစားသငသည။ o ဓနဥစၥာအဂတ - မားေသာအားျဖငခမးသာၾကြယဝသမား (သ႔) အထကစးတြင ေနရာရထားသမား၏

အျမငမားသည ေလလာမႈတစေလာကလးတြငၾသဇာဖစးေလ႐သည။ဆငးရႏြမးပါးသမား၏ အဆျပခကမား ပါပါဝငေစရနၾကပမးအားထတမႈမျပလပသေ႐ြ႕၄ငးအျမငမားသညကယစားျပႏငစြမးနညးပါးသြားေလ႐သည။

o ပညာေရးအဂတ - အဆငျမငပညာေရး ေလလာဆညးပးဖးသမား၏အျမငမားသညပညာေရးနမပါးသမား၏

အျမငမားထကပမျပးဂ႐တစကစဥးစားခရေလ႐သည။ယငးမာဘာသာစကားအဂတႏငထပတကႏငစရာ႐ သည။အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာပညာတတသမားသညသေတသနအဖြ႕ႏငဆကဆစကားေျပာရာတြငပမကၽြမးကငေသာေၾကာင ျဖစသည။

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o Expectation bias: the villagers’ expectations of possible opportunities linked to the research project often results in villagers emphasizing specific information in their discussion with researchers. Similarly, researchers’ expectations of what they will find in the community may act as anunconscious filter of the information collected by the team.

Many NGO/CSO staff may have experienced an“expectation bias”. This is the case when, for example, researchers undertake an assessment ofpublic health in a specific area. Although the researchers’ questions focus on health, villagers’ answers often raise other concerns such as infrastructure rehabilitation, school renovation, etc. The reason for such gap between questions and answers is that villagers often expect NGOs to act as “service providers” in place of other institutions such as the government or the community itself.

• Bias related to tools and techniques used to gather information The greater the variety of tools used during the PLA, the greater the chance of avoiding biases. However, thisadvantage, i.e. diversity of tools used during a PLA, should be weighed against time constraints and be considered in relation to PLA’s objectives (see below).

• Bias related to the study design and implementation These biases are often related to the issue of research timing. Studies that take place over a particular season during the year may be subject to ‘seasonal bias’ if the team assumes that the conditions they observe are typical throughout the year. A similar problem may arise for the daily schedule followed by the community under study. A team of researchers that stay in the village for a fixed period of hours during the day may find that the types of activities they observe and the people who are available for interviews may not reflect the team’s initial expectations. The timing of their field visits may inadvertently produce bias in the research findings. For example, a team coming between 9:00am and 3:00pm each day in a rice farming village may find only unoccupied farmers with whom to speak. These farmers may not be representative of the whole community of farmers in the village. Finally, researchers that stay only a very short time may not have time to go beyond their first impression. This first impression will result in a bias that may eventually impact the way both the researchers and the informants interpret issues. 2. Preparing the team forthe PLA The objectives of the PLA will depend on the focus of the research. In turn, the focus will influence how the team is selected. The main advice when building a PLA team is to have both (1) researchers having previous experience about the issue under study and (2) researchers having skills in building rapport with the community under study.

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o ေမာမနးခကအဂတ - ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားအေနႏငသေတသနစမကနးမရ႐လာမညအကးအျမတက

ေမာကးျပးသေသတမားႏင ေဆြးေႏြးေျပာၾကားသညအခါတြငအခကအလကအခ႕က အေလး ေပးေျပာၾကားလာႏငသည။အလားတပငသေတသမားသညလညးရပ႐ြာအတြငးတစတရာ

ေဖာထတေတြ႕႐ရန ေမာလငထားပါကယငးသညသတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးရာ၌

မသစတမ ေရစစသဖြယလရာဆြျပးလပေဆာငသြားႏငသည။

အနဂအ/စအကစအဝနထမးအေျမာကအျမားသည “ေမာမနးခကအဂတ”ႏငပတသကျပး ေတြ႕ၾကဖးၾကသည။ ဥပမာသေတသမားသည ေဒသတစခတြင ျပညသ႕ကနးမာေရးဆငရာဆနးစစေလလာမႈတစရပ ျပလပပါကဤ

သညမာသတထားရမညကစၥရပတစချဖစလာသည။သေတသသညကနးမာေရးဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျမနးေသာလညး ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားတ႔၏အေျဖမာအေျခခအေဆာကအအ ျပနလညထေထာငေရး၊ ေကာငးျပျပငေရးစသညတ႔သာ ျဖစေနတတသည။ ဤသ႔ ျဖစရျခငးမာအေမးအေျဖျပလပရာတြင႐ြာသားမားသညအနဂအမားအားအစးရႏငရပ႐ြာကသ႔အဖြ႕အစညးမားေနရာမ

“ဝနေဆာငမႈ ေပးမညသမား”သဖြယ ေမာလငေသာေၾကာင ျဖစသည။

• သတငးစေဆာငးေရးကရယာႏငနညးလမးမားဆငရာအဂတမား PLA ျပ လပစဥအတြငးအသးျပသညကရယာအမးအစားမားျပားေလေလ၊အဂတေ႐ာငလႊရနအခြငအလမး ျမငမား ေလေလျဖစသည။သ႔ေစကာမသေတသအေနျဖငယငးအာသာခကမာအခနကန႔သတခကႏငခနဆၾကညရမညျဖစျပး PLA (ေအာကေဖာျပပါ) ရညမနးခကမားႏငဆကႏြယမႈကပါစဥးစားရမညျဖစသည။

• ေလလာခကပစႏငအေကာငအထညေဖာမႈပငးဆငရာအဂတမား မားေသာအားျဖငအဆပါအဂတမးသညသေတသန ျပလပသညအခနႏငစပဆကေလ႐သည။ အကယ၍

သေတသနအဖြ႕ကသာ၄ငးတ႔ ေလလာေနသညအေျခအေနမားသညတစႏစတာပတလးတြငတသမတတညး ျဖစသညဟထငျမငယဆထားပါကတစခေသာရာသတြင ျပလပလကေသာ ေလလာခကမားသည ‘ရာသအဂတ’က

ျဖစပြားေစႏငသည။အလားတ ျပနာမးသည ေလလာဆရပ႐ြာတစခ ေန႔တဓဝပမနလပေဆာငေလ႐သည

အခနဇယားတြငလညး ျဖစပြားႏငသည။႐ြာတစ႐ြာတြင ေန႔ပငးနာရအကန႔အသတႏငသာေနေသာ သေတသ

အဖြ႕တစဖြ႕သာဆပါက၄ငးတ႔ ေလလာခေသာလပငနးေဆာငတာမားႏငလကလမးမသေလာက လေတြ႕ ေမးျမနးခသမားမာအဖြ႕၏နဂမလ ေမာမနးခကႏငကကညမႈမ႐ေၾကာငးက ေတြ႕႐ရေပလမမည။ကြငးဆငးသည

အခနေၾကာငသေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားတြငရည႐ြငရငးမ႐ပါဘလကအဂတမားပါဝငသြားႏငသည။ ဥပမာစပါးစကသည႐ြာတစ႐ြာသ႔တစရကလငနနက၉နာရမညေန၃နာရအတြငးကလာေရာကေလ႐သညအဖြ႕တစဖြ႕အတြကလပငနးခြငျပငပေရာကေနသညလယသမားမားႏငသာစကားေျပာခြငရေပမည။အဆပါလယသမားမားသည႐ြာမလယသမားအစအဖြ႕တစခလးကကယစားျပႏငမညမဟတေပ။ခဏတျဖတသာ ေနသညသေတသမားအေနျဖငပဏာ

မထငျမငခကသညပျပးရႏငစရာမ႐ေပ။အဆပါပဏာမထငျမငခကေၾကာငသေတသမားႏငအခကအလကေပးသမား၏ျပနာရပအဓပၸါယ ေကာကယပကတဆငျပးတဆငအဂတသြတသြငးလကႏငသည။ ၂။ PLA အတြကအဖြ႕ဖြ႕စညးျခငး PLA ၏ရညမနးခကမားသညသေတသန၏အာ႐စကမႈအပငးေပၚတြငမတညသည။တဖကတြငအဆပါအာ႐စကမႈသည

အဖြ႕ေ႐ြးခယပကလႊမးမးမႈ႐သည။

PLA အဖြ႕ဖြ႕စညးရာတြငအဓကအၾကျပလသညမာ (၁) ေလ လာမညကစၥရပႏငစပလဥးျပးယခင အေတြ႕အၾက ႐ျပးသားသေတသမားပါဝငေစရန (၂) ေလ လာမည ရပ႐ြာႏငဆကဆေရးရငးႏးမႈ တညေဆာငေပးႏငစြမး႐မည

သေတသမားပါဝငေစရနတ႔ျဖစပါသည။

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A PLA requires more or less the same set-up and range of skills as a Focus Group Discussion (see Chapter on ‘Focus Group Discussion’). Just like for FGDs, the researcher acts as a facilitator during participatory learning sessions. He/She also should have skills in building a good rapport with the members of the community. He/She is advised to actively listen without acting as the expert. The facilitator acts as a catalyst for the community members to participate in a collective discussion, share their knowledge, and organize it. The note taker records the information produced during participatory learning sessions. The note taker acts also as an observer and may help the facilitator to ensure that everybody gets equal opportunities to talk and participate. PARTICIPATORY TOOLS AND HOW TO USE THEM FOR A PLA The focus here is on the participatory tools researchers should get acquainted with for implementing PLA and other participatory research such as PAR. Research methods employed during a PLA are not restricted to the tools presented below. For example, Focus Group Discussions (FGD), In-depth interviews, and Venn diagrams can be included in the PLA (FGD and In-depth interviews are explained in separate chapters; Venn diagrams are explained in the chapter focusing on PAR). It is important to note that mapping, calendars, and participatory techniques that are presented below are tools only. If the objectives of how these tools should be used are not clearly spelled out, these participatory tools are unlikely to yield the expected results and produce the relevant information. Therefore, one important step is to establish a check-list of the subjects and issues to be covered when using each of the tools presented below. It is recommended to always have this check-list available somewhere in the office. Putting the check-list on a flip chart is a good way to have it visible for both the researchers and stakeholders participating in the activities below. For mobile activities such as transect walk (see after), researchers should each keep a list with key objectives and questions to look at during the field visit. 1. Participatory Mapping Participatory mapping consist in maps about specific issues drawn by members of the community affected by these issues. As explained above, these individuals are selected according to their anticipated knowledge about these issues. Regarding the “fishing practices and rule of law”, an example previously mentioned, such participatory mapping involve fishermen running small, middle, and large businesses, fishermen fishing in small creeks, rivers and sea-coast, and fishermen using various fishing techniques, etc. Maps work well in groups since people can remind one another of things that may be forgotten. Errors can also be more easily corrected. Before discussing with the participants the topics mentioned in the check-list, the facilitator of the participatory mapping ask the participants to indicate on the map the landmarks that they feel are important to show. It is important to begin with the villagers’ own perceptions and priorities. Only when the participants complete the map based on their own perceptions, should the facilitator intervene and ask about topics listed in the check–list that were not mentioned by the participants.

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PLA တစခသညသးသန႔စကားဝငးဖြ႕စညးပႏငသကဆငရာကၽြမးကငမႈမးအနညးႏငအမားလအပသည

(အခနး၈သးသန႔စကားဝငးကၾကညပါ)။သးသန႔စကားဝငးတြငကသ႔ပငသေတသသညပးေပါငးေလလာေရးလပငနးစဥအတြငးပြထနးအျဖစေဆာငရြကရသည။၄ငးသညရပ႐ြာအတြငး႐လမားႏငဆကဆေရး ေကာငးမြနရမည။၄ငးအေနျဖင

ေျပာၾကားလာသမကအာ႐စကနားေထာငရမညျဖစျပးငါသငါတတမလပရ။ပြထနးမညသသညရပ႐ြာမလမားကစေပါငး ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငပါဝငေစရန၊၄ငးတ႔သကၽြမးနားလညသမမေဝေစရနႏငအစအစဥတက ျဖစေစရန ေဆာင႐ြကေပးရမည။ မတစလကသသညပးေပါငးေလလာေရးလပငနးစဥအတြငးရ႐သမသတငးအခကအလကမားက ေရးသားမတတမး တငရမည။ မတစလကသသည ေလလာသအေနႏငပါ ေဆာင႐ြကရမညျဖစျပးပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသတငးစကား ေျပာခြငရ

ေစရနပြထနးအားအကအညေပးရမည။

ပးေပါငးေဆြးေႏြးေရးကရယာမားအေၾကာငးႏငယငးတ႔အား PLA အတြကအသးခပ

ဤတြငအဓကေဖာျပလသညမာ PLA ျပလပအေကာငအထညေဖာေရးႏင PAR

ကသ႔ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရးသေတသနမားအတြက

သေတသမားနားလညကၽြမးဝငသငသညပးေပါငးပါဝငေရးကရယာမားအေၾကာငးျဖစသည။ PLA တစချပလပစဥအတြငး အသးျပေသာသေတသနနညးလမးမားအားေအာကေဖာျပပါကရယာမားအတြကကန႔သတထားျခငးမ႐ေပ။ဥပမာ - သးသန႔စကားဝငး (FGD)၊အေသးစတလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးႏငဗနးပၾကမးမားသည PLA တြငပါဝငႏငသည။ (သးသန႔ စကားဝငးႏငအေသးစတလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးမားအေၾကာငးကအခနးသပသပခြ၍႐ငးျပထားသည။ဗနးပၾကမးမားအား PAR စပလဥးသညအခနးတြင႐ငးျပထားသည။) ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ေျမပျပခက၊ ျပကၡဒနမားႏငပးေပါငးပါဝငေရးနညးလမးမားသညကရယာသကသကမသာ ျဖစေၾကာငး သတျပရနအေရးၾကးသည။အကယ၍သာယငးကရယာမားကမညသ႔မညပအသးခရမညအေၾကာငးတက႐ငးလငးစြာရညမနးခကသတမတထားခကမ႐ပါက၄ငးပးေပါငးပါဝငေရးကရယာမားသညမနးဆထားသညရလဒမားႏငသကဆငရာသတငးအခကအလကမားထြကေပၚလာေစရနမလြယကေပ။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေအာကေဖာျပပါကရယာမားအသးျပခနတြင ျခငရမညအေၾကာငးအရာကစၥရပမားကစာရငးျပစထားရနအေရးၾကးသည။အဆပါစာရငးအား႐းတြငအလြယတကရ႐ႏငေအာငထား႐ႏငပါကအေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ ေ႐႕ေကာကသငပနးတြငစာရငးကထား႐ျခငးသညသေတသမားႏင ေအာကေဖာျပပါလပငနးမားတြငပါဝငမညအကးစးပြားႏးႏႊယသမားအတြက ျမငသာထငသာ႐ေစမညနညးလမး ေကာငးတစရပျဖစသည။transect walk (ေနာကတြငၾကည) ကသ႔ေသာ ေ႐ြ႕လားလပငနးမားအတြကကြငးဆငေလလာ ခနတြငအဓကရညမနးခကမားႏင ေမးခြနးမားပါဝငေသာစာရငးကၾကည႐ႏငေအာငသေတသတစဥးလငတစခက ေဆာငထားသငသည။ ၁။ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရးေျမပျပခက

ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပျပခကတြင ျပနာရပမားထခကသကေရာကမႈဒဏကခၾကရသညရပ႐ြာအဖြ႕ဝငမား ဆြသားေပးသညယငးျပနာရပမားျပ ေျမပမားပါဝငသည။အထကတြင႐ငးျပခသညအတငးလတစဥးခငးစအား ျပနာရပမားႏငပတသတျပးနားလညသညအတငးအတာအရ ေ႐ြးခယထားသည။ယခင ေဖာျပျပးဥပမာတစခ ျဖစသည “ငါးဖမးနညးမားႏငတရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး”တြငအလားတပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပျပလပခကပါ႐သည။ ယငးေျမပျပခကတြငအေသးစား၊အလယအလတႏငအၾကးစားငါးဖမးလပငနးမားလပကငၾကသညတငါသညမား၊ ေခာငးဆြယ၊ ျမစႏငပငလယကမးေျခတြငငါးဖမးသညတငါသညမားႏငငါးဖမးနညးေပါငးစအသးျပၾကသည တငါသညမားစသတ႔ပါဝငၾကသည။

ေျမပမားေၾကာင ေမေလာကနခသညမားကလအပစအတြငးအခငးအခငးသတေပးႏငသညအတြကလြနစြာ အလပျဖစသညဟ ဆႏငသည။အမားအယြငးမားကလညးလြယလငတက ျပငဆငႏငသည။စာရငးပါအေၾကာငးအရာက မေဆြးေႏြးမပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပျပလပမညပြထနးသည ေဆြးေႏြးမညသမားအား ေျမပေပၚ႐အမတအသား ျပထားသမတြင၄ငးတ႔ အေရးၾကးသည ဟထငျမငယဆသညေနရာက ျပသခငးရမည။႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမား၏ နားလညသေဘာေပါကထားသည အရာမား၊ ဥးစားေပးမားႏငစတငရနအေရးၾကးသည။ဝငေရာကေဆြးေႏြးသမား ၄ငးတ႔နားလညထားသလ ေျမပျပလပျပးစးပါမ ေဆြးေႏြးသမား ျပလပထားျခငးမဟတသညစာရငးပါအေၾကာငးအရာတ႔ က ေမးျမနးရနပြထနးပါဝငရမညျဖစသည။

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To start drawing the map, the team has to clear a large open area, ideally outside where there is plenty of space to expand as needed. Mapping on a piece of paper is not recommended since it is difficult to erase information and redraw. Furthermore, the limited size of the paper usually restricts the drawing possibilities. The best location for mapping is to select a large space on an open ground. The participants can usesticks, shells, rocks, leaves and other objects as markers. If this is not possible or appropriate, drawing can be made by using some chalk on cement floor or using colored tape on carpet.

Whenever a landmark or specific location is mentioned by the participants, a marker (e.g. stone, shell, leaf) is placed to indicate the location of the landmark on the map. As the activity gets underway, the team is careful to stand back and leave the drawing and placement of markers to the villagers. The facilitator, initially, limits his/her questions by asking only: “Is there anything else?”,“Has anything been forgotten?” It is recommended to record each participatory mapping exercise. If the map is drawn on the floor, taking a picture may help the research team to draw it later more properly on paper or on a computer. If a picture is not taken, the map may be re-drawn by a note-taker.

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ေျမပစတငဆြသားရနအတြက ေနရာကယကယဝနးဝနးရ႐ေအာင႐ငးလငးရမညျဖစသည။အျပငဘကေနရာမာ အေကာငးဆးျဖစျပးလအပသေလာက ေနရာခ႕၍လညးရႏငသည။စာ႐ြကေပၚတြင ေျမပဆြသားပါကအခကအလကမား ျပနလညျပငဆငရနခကခသညအတြက ေကာငးစြာမသငေတာေခ။ထ႔အျပငစာ႐ြကအ႐ြယအစားကန႔သတခကေၾကာင စတၾကကဆြြသားဖ႔ရာအခကအချဖစေစသည။ ေျမပျပလပခကအတြကအေကာငးဆးမာ ေျမကြကလပကယကယ ဝနးဝနးတစခ ေ႐ြးခယရန ျဖစသည။ပါဝငသညသမားမာတတေခာငး၊အခြ၊ ေကာကတး၊သစ႐ြကႏငအျခားအရာ ဝတမားျဖငဆြသားေရးျခစ၍ရႏငသည။အကယ၍မျဖစႏငပါက (သ႔) အဆငမေျပပါကအဂၤေတၾကမးျပငေပၚတြင ေျမျဖျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေကာေဇာေပၚတြင ေရာငစတပမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငးဆြသားခကမား ျပလပႏငသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးသတ႔က ေျမပအမတေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေနရာတစေနရာကေသာလညးေကာငးညႊနျပလကသညႏင အမတအသားတစခခ (ဥပမာ - ေကာကတး၊အခြ၊သစ႐ြက) ျဖင ေျမပေပၚတြငမတသားလကရမည။လပငနး စတငသညႏငတျပငနကအဖြ႕သညခပခြာခြာေနရမညျဖစျပး ေနရာအမတအသားျပသညဆြသားကရယာမားက ႐ြာသားမားထလကလႊေပးထားရမည။ပြထနးသည ေမးခြနးေျမာကျမားစြာ ေမးျမနးျခငးမးမျပလပရဘ “ေနာကထပ႐ပါေသးသလား”၊ “ေမကနေနေသးတာ႐ပါေသးသလား”အစ႐သညမေလာကသာ ေမးျမနးျခငးျပရမည။

ပါဝငသတစဥးခငးစ၏ ေျမပျပခကကမတတမးတငထားႏငပါကအေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ၾကမးျပငေပၚဆြသားထားသည ေျမပျဖစပါကဓါတပ႐ကယထားျခငးျဖင ေနာငတြငသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏငပအေခာကစာ႐ြကျဖင (သ႔) ကြနပတာျဖင ျပနလညဆြသားႏငသည။အကယ၍ဓါတပမ႐ကျဖစပါကမတစလကသက ျပနလညဆြသားရမည။

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Below is a map drawn on computer for a study of land use. It is based upon an original map drawn by some villagers. The villagers first located the landmarks they thought were the most important: the school, pagoda, drinking water tank. Only then the team helps the villagers locate other important information, especially natural resources such as rivers and canals. Important stakeholders for paddy cultivation, such as the rice miller’s house have been located on the map. Other resources such as Nipa grounds have been situated as well.

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ေအာကေဖာျပပါကြနပတာျဖငဆြသားထားသညေျမပသညေျမယာအသးခမႈဆငရာေလလာခကအတြကျဖစျပး႐ြာသားအခ႕၏မရငးေျမပဆြသားခကအေပၚအေျခခထားသည။ဥးစြာပထမ႐ြာသားမားသညစာသငေကာငး၊ဘရားေစတ၊ေသာကေရေလာငကနစသည၄ငးတ႔အေရးၾကးသညဟယဆသညေနရာမားကေျမပအမတအသားျပသည။ျပးမသာအျခား အေရးၾကးသညအခကအလကမား (ျမစ၊ေျမာငးသယဇာတရငးျမစမား) သေတသနအဖြ႕မျဖညစြကေပးသည။ဆနစကပင႐ငအမကသ႔စပါးစကပးေရးလပငနးအတြကအေရးၾကးသညအကး စးပြားႏးႏႊယသမားကလညးေျမပေပၚတြငေဖာျပေပးမည။ဓနျခကသ႔အျခားအေရးၾကးသညသယဇာတမားကလညးေနရာအမတအသားျပႏငသည။

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Participatory mapping is a very flexible tool. For example, a same location may be drawn at different scales. Below is a larger map showing the location of a village surrounded by land plots. The map helps to understand how villagers think about land use. It also helps to understand which strategies they use for purchasing land: Do farmers try to cultivate contiguous plots? Do they, on the contrary, try to cultivate plots far apart from each other?

For studying “fishing practices and rule of law”, maps focusing on fishing grounds rather than on villages may show: (1) if fishermen go to distant fishing grounds or those close to the village; (2) what motivations push fishermen to choose specific fishing grounds and not others; (3) whether tensions exist between villagers on the same fishing ground, etc. Historical mapping Historical mapping can provide a useful way of understanding changes that have taken place over time in a community. After doing the first map of the current situation, the community can be asked to draw another map or to show how things were at a given time in the past. The historical time selected for mapping will depend on the nature of the study. It might be about a time period before a historical event that had an impact on the community in some specific ways (e.g. a natural disaster such as Nargis). It might also be about a distant past such as “when the elders of this community were young children”.

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ေျမပပးေပါငးဆြသားနညးသညအဆငေျပသလအသးခႏငေသာကရယာတစချဖစသည။ဥပမာတညေနရာတစခတညးကစေကးေပါငးစျဖငဆြသားႏငသည။ ေျမပေၾကာင႐ြာသားမား ေျမယာအသးခပ၊ ေျမဝယယရနအသးျပသည နညးလမးမားကနားလညသေဘာေပါကေစသည။လယသမားမားဆကစပလယကြကမားတြငထြနယကစကပးေလ႐ပါသလား။သ႔တညးမဟတတစခႏငတစခခပလမးလမးခြာျပးစကပးၾကပါသလား။

“ငါးဖမးနညးမားႏငတရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး”ကေလလာရာတြငမ႐ြာမားထကငါးဖမးသညအကြကမားကအထးျပေလလာျခငးျဖင (၁) တငါသညမားသည႐ြာႏငနးသညေနရာတြငငါးဖမးပါသလား၊ေဝးသညေနရာတြငငါဖမးပါသလား (၂) တငါသညမားမညသညအတြကေၾကာငအခ႕ေသာေနရာမားတြငငါးဖမးျပးအခ႕တြငငါးမဖမးဘေနပါသနညး (၃) ႐ြာသားမားအၾကားငါးဖမးကြကလရငးဆကဆေရးတငးမာမႈ႐မ႐စသညတ႔ကသ႐ႏငပါသည။

သမငးစဥျပေျမပျပခက

သမငးစဥျပ ေျမပျပခကသညရပ႐ြာတစခတြငအခနကာလႏငခ ျဖစပြားခေသာအေျပာငးအလမားကနားလည

သေဘာေပါကႏငေစေရးအတြကအလြနအသးဝငသည။လက႐ျဖစပြားေနေသာအေျခအေနအတြကပထမဆး

ေျမပတစချပလပျပးသညႏင ေနာကထပ ေျမပတစခဆြသားရန (သ႔) သကဆငရာအတတကာလအခနတစခမ

မညသညအရာမားျဖစပြားခပက ျပသရနရပ႐ြာအား ေမးျမနးႏငသည။အတတသမငး၏မညသညကာလက

ေ႐ြးခယမညဆေသာအခကမာ ေလလာမႈ၏သေဘာသဘာဝေပၚတြငမတညသည။ ၄ငးကာလသညရပ႐ြာေပၚ

တနညးတဖအကးသကေရာကမႈၾကးမားသညသမငးတြင ျဖစပြားခသည ျဖစရပမတငမအခနကာလတစခခအေၾကာငး

ျဖစႏငသည (ဥပမာနာဂစကသ႔ေသာသဘာဝ ေဘးဒဏ)။ “ရပ႐ြာ၏သကၾကး႐ြယအမားကေလးဘဝ”

ေလာကကကသ႔အလမးကြာေဝးလြနးလသညအတတတစခလညး ျဖစႏငသည။

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By using these techniques of historical mapping, the facilitator and the research team may find out about the impact of:

• in- or out- migrations; • infrastructure construction (how the construction of roads, school or health

facilities has altered village life); • changes in livelihood patterns (how changes in the way people live and work

can affect the overall organization of the village). Below is a historical map showing successive waves of settlement in a village. The purpose of the mapping is to have an overview of village and to understand the village development throughout time.

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သမငးစဥ ေျမပျပခကနညးလမးမားကအသးျပျခငးအားျဖငပြထနးႏငသေတသနအဖြ႕သည

• ရပ႐ြာအျပင (သ႔) အတြငးသ႔ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈမား • အေျခခအေဆာကအအတညေဆာကမႈ (လမးတတား၊ေကာငးႏငကနးမားေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ လပငနးမား

ထေထာငေပးျခငးျဖငေကးလကလေနမႈဘဝကမညသ႔ေျပာငးလေစခပ) • အသကေမြးမႈလပငနးစဥေျပာငးလမႈမား (လမား၏ေနထငအလပလပပေျပာငးလမႈမားသညရပ႐ြာ လ႔အဖြ႕

အစညးတစခလးေျပာငးလေစေရးအတြကမညမအကးသကေရာကပ) တ႔၏ၾသဇာသကေရာကမႈမားက ေတြ႕႐ႏငပါသည။

ေအာကေဖာျပပါသမငးစဥျပေျမပတြငရပ႐ြာတစခအတြငးလာေရာကအေျခခသညေ႐ြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမားကအသတလက ေဖာျပထားသည။ ေျမပျပလပရျခငး၏ရည႐ြယခကမာယခငက႐ြာအေနအထားမညသ႔႐ခပႏင အခနကာ လ ေ႐ြ႕ေလာလာသညႏငအမမညသ႔မညပဖြ႕ျဖးခပကအၾကမးျမငႏငရန ျဖစသည။

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Social mapping Social maps combine spatial analysis with ranking of information. A social map locates all the households studied in the village. Information about these households is then indicated by various markers. For example, families might be ranked according to the level each family has reached in terms of food security. A specific marker is used to indicate a low level of food security; another marker is used to indicate a middle level of food security; a last marker is used to indicate a high level of food security. Below is a map showing wealth ranking among households studied in a village located near Monywa.

Interest group mapping This approach to mapping considers the perspectives held by different groups of interest regarding a particular issue. In contrast with participatory mapping which seeks to involve as many people as possible, interest group mapping seeks to involve people sharing only the same interests or features. This way, each group of interest can draw its “own” map following its “own” perception of the issue. For example, an interest group mapping resources in a specific village can be done with women gathered in one group and men gathered in another group. The mapping of the village resources is likely to show different perceptions depending on whether the perceptions are of women and men. For example, women are likely to pay more attention to fresh water supply as they are most often in charge of managing water in the household. Men are likely to pay more attention to forestry issues as they more often hunt.

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လမႈေရးေျမပျပခက လမႈေရးေျမပမားသညအကြကအကြငးစစစေလလာမႈကအစအစဥတကစဥတနးထားေသာသတငးအခကအလကမား ႏငေပါငးစပေပးသည။လမႈေရးေျမပတြင႐ြာအတြငး႐ေလလာမညအမေထာငစမားကအမတအသားျပထားျပးအဆပါအမ ေထာငစမားႏငသကဆငသညသတငးအခကအလကမားကသေကၤတေပါငးစျဖငညႊနျပထားမည။ဥပမာမသားစတစစ ခငးစအား၄ငးတ႔၏စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈေရခနအတငးအစဥလကေဖာျပထားမည။စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈေရခနကအနမ၊အလယ၊အျမငအလကသကၤတတစခစျဖငေဖာျပေပးရမည။

ေအာကပါေျမပတြငမ႐ြာအနးပတဝနးကငတြင႐ ေလလာေနသည႐ြာတစ႐ြာမအမေထာငစမားအား ဓနဥစၥာပငဆငမႈ အလကစစဥထားသည။

အကးတအပစမားေျမပျပခက

အဆပါေျမပျပေရးခဥးကပေလလာသညနညးတြငကစၥရပတစခေပၚတြငမအကးစးပြားတရာအလကဖြ႕စညးထားေသာ အပစကြမား၏အျမငမားကထညသြငးစဥးစားသည။ဤနညးတြငေျမပပးေပါငးျပလပေရးနညးတြငကသ႔လမားႏငသမမားေအာငပါဝငေစျခငးမးမဟတဘအကးစးပြားတ၊စ႐ကလကၡဏာတသမားကသာ႐ာေဖြသည။သ႔ျဖငဘအကးစးပြားမေဝ သညအပစတစစခငးစသညျပနာရပအေပၚထား႐သည၄ငးတ႔ “ကယပင”အျမငအရ“ကယပင”ေျမပတစခစက ဆြသားႏငေပမည။

ဥပမာ႐ြာတစ႐ြာ႐အရငးအျမစမားကအကးတအပစေျမပျပလပမညဆပါကကား၊မတစအပစစခြ၍ျပလပႏငသည။ကား၊မ႐ေထာငေပၚမတည၍မတညသညအျမငမားကေျမပျပလပရာတြငေတြ႕႐ရေပမည။ဥပမာဆရေသာမားေသာအားျဖင အမးသမးမားသညအမတြငေသာကေရရ႐ေအာငေဆာငရြကရသညအေလာကေရေကာငးေရသန႔ရ႐ေရးကသာ၄ငးတ႔အေနႏငစတဝငစားေပလမမည။အမးသားမားအေနႏငမအမလကသညတာဝနကယရသညအတြကသစေတာႏငဆငသညကစၥရပမားတြငပမစတဝငစားေပလမမည။

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Interest group mapping can be done with various social and economic categories of people or different ethnic groups sharing the same resources, etc. 2. Transect walk A transect walk means a walk made through the community under study. This walk is made by the research team in the company of “guides” from the village. As the team walks along the village streets, “guides” are asked questions by the team. These questions can be about anything: from anything that the team comes across while walking to any issue included in a checklist of information needed by the research team. The purpose of a transect walk is to get the team and the interviewee(s) out of the typical interview setting and to make use of the guides’ observation skills. Most often, the transect walk brings the team throughout the different parts of the community (often identified after studying the participatory map). It is also recommended to walk all the way to the outer limits of the territory under study as a way to reduce the spatial bias. This spatial bias often results from the fact that interviews with community members and most village meetings often take place in the center of the village, and generally in one place (the village head’s house, the monastery, etc.). This practice tends to influence how people think about their immediate environment. This practice tends to give greater prominence to the center of the village or territory than to its peripheries. By walking all the way to the limits of the territory under study (the village’s periphery for example), the research team captures a new perspective on the territory, its resources, the land use, etc. If the research team is large, it makes sense to divide the team into several subgroups when conducting a transect walk. Each subgroup selects “guides” from the community. Guides are individuals with a more developed knowledge of the issue studied by each group. For a subgroup selecting land use as an issue, an old farmer with knowledge about how land was used in former times is a good guide. Here again, triangulation of information requires more than one “guide” to reduce bias. Information collected during a transect walk can be turned into a diagram. The diagram usually features the different areas of the village territory explored during the walk represented on the horizontal axis. The vertical axis features other types of information collected on the walk and directly related to the research scope. In the case of a ‘food shortage’ transect (see diagram below), this information might include information about crops and livelihood problems faced by villagers. In addition to gathering information about these various topics, the transect walk is a good way to verify and expand on information that was obtained earlier in the mapping exercise.

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ဘအရငးျမစမားမေဝသးစြသညတငးရငးသားအပစမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊လမႈစးပြားေရးက႑ကြျပားသညလမားျဖင လညးေကာငးအကးတအပစေျမပမားျပလပႏငသည။

၂။လမးေလာကေလလာေရး လမးေလာကေလလာနညးဆသညမာ ေလလာေနသညရပ႐ြာစဥတေလာကလမးေလာကျခငးျဖစသည။ လမးေလာကရာတြငသေတသနအဖြ႕သည႐ြာမ “လမးျပ”မားကအသးျပသည။႐ြာ႐းကးေပါကလမးတကာလညျပး လမးေလာကစဥအတြငးသေတသနအဖြ႕မ “လမးျပ”မားအား ေမးခြနးမားေမးသည။ယငးေမးခြနးမားမာညသည အေၾကာငးအရာမဆျဖစႏငသည။လမးတြငေတြ႕သမအရာမားမအစသေတသနစာရငးပါကစၥရပမားအထမညသညအရာမဆ ျဖစႏငသည။

ဤသ႔လမးေလာကရျခငး၏ရည႐ြယခကမာအဖြ႕ႏငလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးခရမညသမားကသမ႐းက ေမးျမနးသည ေဘာငအတြငးမဆြထတလကျခငးျဖစျပးလမးျပမား၏ပတဝနးကင ေလလာမႈစြမးအားကအသးျပျခငးျဖစသည။ လမးေလာကေလလာျခငးေၾကာငသေတသနအဖြ႕သည (ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပက ေလလာျပးမသာသတမတ ေလ႐ေသာ)႐ြာ၏ ေနရာေဒသအစတအပငးေပါငးစက ေရာက႐ႏငသညအကြကအကြငး အဂတကနညးႏငသမနညး ေစရန ေလလာမညနယပယအျပငဘကသ႔လမးေလာကႏငပါကသာလြနေကာငးမြနသည။ရပ႐ြာတြငး ေနထငသမားအားလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးရာတြငႏင႐ြာအစညးအေဝးမား ျပလပရာတြင(႐ြာသၾကးအမ၊ဘနးၾကးေကာငးစသည) ႐ြာအလယဗဟႏင ေနရာတစေနရာတညးတြငသာ ျပလပေလ႐ျခငးေၾကာငအကြကအကြငးအဂတမား ျဖစေပၚႏငသည။ အဆပါလပရပသညလအမားသည၄ငးတ႔ႏငအနးဆးပတဝနးကငအေပၚသေဘာထားပကၾသဇာသကေရာကမႈ႐သည။ယငးလပရပေၾကာင႐ြာအလယ (သ႔) ေလလာမညအရပေဒသဗဟခကကအစြနအဖား ေဒသမားထကအေလးေပးလြနးရာ ေရာကသည။ ေလလာမညအရပေဒသ၏နယနမတ (ဥပမာ႐ြာစညး႐း) ထေရာကေအာငလမးေလာကျခငးျဖင ၄ငးအရပေဒသေပၚ ျမငသညအျမငသစ၊၄ငး၏အရငးအျမစမား၊ ေျမယာအသးျပပစသညတ႔ကသ႐လာေပမည။

သေတသနအဖြ႕တြငလအငအားမားပါကအဖြ႕ငယမားဖြ႕ျပးလမးေလာကေလလာမႈျပသငသည။အဖြ႕ငယတစခခငးစသညရပ႐ြာ႐ “လမးျပ”အသးသးကေ႐ြးခယရမည။၄ငးလမးျပမားသညအဖြ႕ငယတစခခငးစေလလာေနသည ကစၥရပတစခ ခငးစကသာမနထကပ၍နားလညကၽြမးဝငသျဖစရမည။ေျမယာအသးခမႈႏငပတသကျပးေလလာမညအဖြ႕ငယအတြက ေ႐းယခငေျမယာအသးျပမႈအေၾကာငးသ႐သညသကၾကးဝါၾကးလယသမားၾကးမားသညသငတငေကာငးမြနသညလမး ျပမားျဖစၾကသည။ဤတြငလညးအဂတေလာနညးေစေရးအလ႔ငာအခကအလကမားျပနလညတကဆငစစေဆးရန အတြက“လမးျပ”တစေယာကထကမကလအပသည။

လမးေလာကေလလာမႈ ျပလပစဥအတြငးစေဆာငးရ႐လာသညသတငးအခကအလကမားကပဆြသား ေဖာျပႏငသည။ လမးေလာကစဥ ေရာက႐ခသမ႐ြာအတြငး႐ေနရာေပါငးစကပတြင ေရျပငညအတငး ေဖာျပထားသည။လမးေလာကစဥ စေဆာငးရ႐ခသညအျခားသတငးအခကအလကမားႏငသေတသနနယပယႏငတက႐ကစပဆငသညအေရာမားကမ ေထာငလကေဖာျပထားသည။ “စားနပရကၡာ႐ားပါမႈ”ကစၥရပ (ေအာကေဖာျပပါပကၾကညပါ) ႏငပတသကျပး ေလလာရာတြင ေကာကပသးႏႏငလယသမားမားရငဆငေနရေသာအသကေမြးမႈ ျပနာမားဆငရာ သတငး အခကအလကမားပါဝငသည။အဆပါကစၥရပမားစြာအတြကသတငးအခကအလကမားစြာစေဆာငးရသညအျပငလမးေလာကေလလာမႈသည ေျမပျပလပခကပါသတငးအခကအလကမားကအမးအစားခြျခငးႏငခ႕ထြငျခငးတ႔ျပလပရန အတြကအလြနေကာငးမြနေသာနညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။

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http://www.adpc.net/pdr-sea/cbdo-dr/images/annex3g.gif

3. Calendars Calendars are diagrams that focus on seasonal issues. They are graphic representations of how things change throughout the year. Calendars are particularly important for food security, agriculture, and health. By drawing calendars research teams are more likely to avoid the ‘seasonality bias’ which can mislead the research team about the extent to which village activities are seasonal. When drawing the calendar the research team should let the villagers decide at which time of the year (month) the calendar starts. For a seasonal calendar focusing on agriculture, the calendar is likely to start at the time when land is ploughed. For a seasonal calendar focusing on farming practices in relation to households’ financial capacity, the calendar is likely to start at the time when loans are taken by farmers. The example shown below has a seasonal calendar focusing on agricultural activities and employment opportunities for daily laborers.

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http://www.adpc.net/pdr-sea/cbdo-dr/images/annex3g.gif ၃။ ျပကၡဒနမား ျပကၡဒနမားမာရာသအလက ျဖစပြားသညကစၥရပမားက ေဖာျပေပးသညဇယားကြကမားျဖစၾကသည။တစႏစတာလးမည ကသ႔ေသာအေျပာငးအလမား ျဖစေပၚလမမညကအ႐ပသကၤေတမားႏင ေဖာျပခကမားပါဝငသည။စားနပရကၡာဖလေရး၊ စကပးေရးႏငကနးမာေရးတ႔အတြကျပကၡဒနမားမာအထးအေရးပါသည။ရာသအဂတမားေၾကာင႐ြာ၏လပငနးမားသညမညေ႐ြ႕မညမဥတအလက ျဖစသညမျဖစသညဆေသာအခကကသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏငနားလညမႈလြသြားႏငသည။ ျပကၡဒနမား ျပလပေရးဆြျခငးျဖငသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအဆပါရာသအဂတမားက ေ႐ာင႐ားလာႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။ ဆြသားရာတြင ျပကၡဒနကႏစတစႏစ၏မညသညအခနတြင (မညသညလတြင) စတငရမညက႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားက သာဆးျဖတေစသငသည။စကပးေရးလပငနးသး ျပကၡဒနဆပါကလယယာထြနယကသည အခနမစတငေပမည။ အမေထာငစ ေငြေၾကးအငအားႏငဆကစပေရးဆြထားေသာလယယာစကပးေရးဆငရာရာသျပကၡဒနသည လယသမားမား ေခးေငြစတငထတယသညအခနမစတငေပမည။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါဥပမာသညစကပးေရးလပငနးမားႏငေန႔စားမားအတြကအလပအကငအခြငအလမးမားေဖာျပေပးသညရာသျပကၡဒနတစချဖစသည။

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4. Wealth ranking Understanding wealth and resources distribution within communities is a crucial issue for project implementation. The beneficiaries of a project may be identified by the project team itself as the team defines categories of beneficiaries. But it is often recommended to use a participatory approach with villagers in order to define wealth ranking. This participatory approach helps the project team identify the project beneficiaries. A wealth ranking answers questions such as:

- Who should primarily benefit from the project? - Who possesses the necessary assets to participate in the activities? - Are the poor potentially affected by any activity to be carried out during the

project implementation? - Who has been left aside by the project?

Identifying wealth distribution within a specific community is of course a matter of perception. For this reason, it is recommended that the participatory learning team first asks villagers what criteria they use for assessing wealth among the community. In the social map shown above, wealth ranking is based on: (1) household assets; (2) surface area of land cultivated; and (3) access to income generating activities. All these criteria, of course, depend on the livelihood activities identified in the village. In urban settings, such criteria differ.

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၄။ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအဆငသတမတျခငး စမကနးအေကာငအထည ေဖာေရးအတြကရပ႐ြာအတြငးဓနဥစၥာႏငသယဇာတခြေဝပကနားလညရနလြနစြာ အေရးၾကးသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕မစမကနးအကးေကးဇးခမားအားအမးအစားခြျခားသတမတမည ျဖစေသာေၾကာငစမကနးအကးေကးဇးခမားကအဖြ႕မပင ေဖာထတေပးရမည။ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအဆငအလကစစဥ သတမတရာတြင႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားႏငပးေပါငးျပးလပေဆာငသငသည။အဆပါပးေပါငးေဆာင႐ြကသညနညးအားျဖင သေတသနအဖြ႕သညစမကနးအကးေကးဇးခမားအား ေဖာထတသတမတေပးလာႏငမည။

ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအဆငသတမတျခငးျဖငေဖာျပပါေမးခြနးမားကအေျဖေပးႏငေပလမမည။ - စမကနးေၾကာငအဓကအားျဖငမညသအကးျဖစထြနးမညနညး။ - သကဆငရာလပငနးကစၥရပမားတြငပါဝငႏငရနလအပေသာဓနဥစၥာမညသ႔လကဝယတြင႐သနညး။ - စမကနးအေကာငထညေဖာစဥကာလအတြငးလပေဆာငရမညလပငနးစဥမားေၾကာငဆငးရသားမားအားထခ

ကေစႏငပါသလား။ - စမကနးတြငမညသမားပလပျခငးခထားရပါသနညး။

ရပ႐ြာတစခအတြငးဓနဥစၥာခြေဝမႈက ေဖာထတျခငးသည႐ရငးစြထငျမငယဆထားခကမားေပၚတြငမတညသည။ အဆပါ အေၾကာငးျပခကေၾကာငပးေပါငးေလလာေရးအဖြ႕သညဥးစြာပထမရပ႐ြာအတြငးဥစၥာဓနၾကြယဝမႈအေပၚ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားအေနႏငမညသညစႏနးမားျဖငသတမတအကျဖတေလ႐ေၾကာငးက ေမးျမနးစစမးရမည။ အထကေဖာျပပါလမႈေရး ေျမပတြငဓနဥစၥာအဆငသတမတခကသည (၁) အမေထာငစဓနဥစၥာမား (၂) ထြနယကစကပးႏငေသာ ေျမဧရယာ (၃) ဝငေငြရ႐မညအလပမားကလကလမးမႏငစြမးတ႔ကအေျချပသည။အဆပါစႏနးမားသည႐ြာအတြငး ေတြ႕႐ႏငသမ အသကေမြးမႈလပငနးမားအေပၚတြငမတညသည။ ျမ႕ျပေနာကခလေနမႈစနစတြငမအဆပါစႏနးမားမာ ကြျပား ေပလမမည။

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Units and intervals measuring wealth ranking may also differ from one region to the next. In a village where the inhabitants are Bamar, the basic unit is likely the household. In a village where the inhabitants are Chin or Kachin, the basic unit may differ and take into account the fact that several households of a same lineage share resources. In this case, a “compound” of households might be considered as the basic unit for wealth ranking. Wealth ranking can be conducted in two different ways. The first one consists in calculating how many households out of the overall number of households fall into each level of wealth ranking. This ranking is only a ranking; no mapping of wealth ranking is involved, meaning that the wealth ranking which each household falls into is not spatially located. This makes this first type of wealth ranking less sensitive as it preserves the households’ anonymity. The second type of wealth ranking links types of wealth status with village space and therefore uses social mapping as explained above. This second technique may be more sensitive as it directly locates peoples or groups of people with regards to their wealth rank on the map. Therefore, it is recommended to first apply the first type of wealth-ranking at the beginning of the project. The second wealth ranking type can be conducted by the team when trust with the community is reasonably strong. It is recommended to conduct wealth ranking with the collaboration of the community in successive steps. First, the total number of units to be ranked (households for example) is visualized by using rice grains, small stones, beans, etc. Then the team asks villagers to group together households sharing a similar wealth rank. It is recommended to let villagers first decide how many levels of wealth ranking are created. After discussing this issue with the villagers, the research team can refine these categories. Further details can be about:

- What factors make people more or less vulnerable? - Does wealth status of households change from one year to the next? - Do ethnicity, religion, or livelihood patterns affect wealth levels? - Besides families and village communities, are there other collective systems

that help lessen hardship in times of crisis? 5. Historical profile A historical profile is a little more than a semi-structured interview (see Chapter on ‘In-depth interviews’). It focuses on historical information and attempts to organize that information into a systematic chronology of events. In most cases, the interview is conducted with elderly people, particularly those who are known for their historical knowledge. Typically, a historical profile begins with the founding of the community. It then attempts to identify all the events that had an impact on people’s lives. These events are usually natural disasters, construction of infrastructures, government policies, migrations, etc.

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ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈကတငးတာသညယနစႏငၾကားမတမားသည ေဒသတစခႏငတစခအလကကြျပားႏငသည။ ျမနမာမား ေနထငေသာ ေကး႐ြာတြငအေျခခယနစမာအမေထာငစ ျဖစႏငသည။ခငးႏငကခငမား ေနထငေသာ႐ြာမားတြင မဘမးဘးတအမေထာငစမားကအရငးျမစမားကခြေဝသးစြၾကသညျဖစရာအဆပါအခကေပၚမတည၍အေျခခယနစမာကြျပားႏငသည။ဤတြငအမေထာငစ “အစအေဝး”တစခကဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအဆငသတမတခကအတြက အေျခခ ယနစအေနျဖငယဆႏငသည။

ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးသတမတခကကနညးလမးႏစသြယျဖင ျပလပႏငသည။ပထမတစနညးမာစစေပါငးအမေထာငစ အေရအတြကမမညမေသာအမေထာငစအေရအတြကဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးသတမတခကအဆငတစခခငးစတြငဝင သနညးဆေသာအခကကတြကခကၾကညျခငးျဖစသည။အဆပါအဆငသတမတနညးသညအဆငသတမတျခငးသကသကမသာျဖစျပးဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအလက ေျမပျပလပျခငးမပါဝငေပ။ဆလရငးမာအမေထာငစမားအလက ခြျခား ထားေသာဓနဥစၥာအဆငသတမတခကမားမာအရပေဒသအလကေနရာခထားျခငးမးမ႐ေခ။အမေထာငစအမညနာမ မားကထမခနသမးဆညးထားေသာေၾကာငပထမနညးသညမလလားအပေသာကစၥရပမားျဖစပြားႏငေျခနညးသည။ဒတယအမးအစားမာမရပ႐ြာေဒသတြငးခမးသာၾကြယဝမႈအဆငအလကစစဥထားေသာဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးျဖစျပးအထကေဖာျပပါလမႈေရး ေျမပျပခကကအသးျပသည။ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအဆငအတနးလကလမား (သ႔) လအပစမားက ေျမပ ေပၚတြငတက႐ကေဖာျပမႈ ျပထားေသာေၾကာငဒတယနညးလမးမာပမအကဆတသညဟဆႏငသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ပထမ နညးလမးကစမကနးအစပငးတြငအသးျပရနပမသငေလာျပးဒတယနညးလမးကမရပ႐ြာႏငသေတသနအဖြ႕ၾကားယၾကညမႈအေတာအတနခငမာေအာငတညေဆာကျပးမာသာအသးျပသငသည။ ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးသတမတခကကရပ႐ြာႏငပးေပါငးျပးလပေဆာငႏငပါကအေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ဥးစြာပထမအဆငအတနးသတမတမညယနစ (ဥပမာအမေထာငစမား) စစေပါငးကဆနေစ၊ ေကာကခ၊ပေစစသညတ႔ျဖငထငသာျမငသာ ႐ေအာငသာဓကျပရမည။ယငးေနာကတြငအဖြ႕မ႐ြာသားမားအားဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးတညေသာအမေထာငစမားက ေမးျမနးျပးအပစဖြ႕ေပးရမည။ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအေရအတြကမညေ႐ြ႕မညမခြျခားဖနတးေပးရမညဆေသာကစၥတြင႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားအားဥးစားေပးဆးျဖတေစျခငးကအေကာငးဆး ျဖစသည။သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားႏငညႏငး ေဆြးေႏြးျပးေနာကတြငမအဆပါအဆငသတမတခကအမးအစားမားက ျပနလညမြမးမႏငသည။ ေနာကထပ ျပလပရမညအေသးစတလပငနးမားမာ -

- မညသညအေၾကာငးကစၥရပမားသညလမားအားအနညးႏငအမားထခကေစမညအေနအထားကေရာကသြားေစႏငပါနညး။

- အမေထာငစမား၏ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးသညႏစစဥ ေျပာငးလမႈ႐ပါသလား။ - လမး၊ဘာသာႏငအသကေမြးမႈတ႔သညဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအဆငအေပၚအကးသကေရာကမႈ႐ပါသလား။ - မသားစႏငေကးလကေတာ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕အျပငခကခသညအခနမားတြငအတနအသငေလာပါးသကသာေအာ

ငလပေဆာငေပးမညအျခားစေပါငးစပေပါငးစနစမား႐ပါသလား။

၅။သမငးအကဥးခပ သမငးအကဥးခပသညတဝကတပကပစခထားသညလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈသာသာမသာျဖစသည (အေသးစတလေတြ႕ ေမးျမနပအေၾကာငး ေဖာျပထားသညအခနးတြင႐ပါ)။သမငးဆငရာအခကအလကမားကအဓကထားျပးယငး အခက အလကမားကသကရာဇစဥအတငးစနစတကစစညးျခငးလညး ျဖစသည။အမားအားျဖငအတတသမငးေၾကာငးက သမႏစပေသာနားသကၾကး႐ြယအမားလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးေလ႐သည။သမ႐းကအားျဖငသမငးအကဥးခပတစရပသညရပ႐ြာတညစအခနျဖငစတငေလ႐ျပးလအမား၏ဘဝကၾသဇာသကေရာကသည ျဖစရပမားက ေဖာထတေလ႐သည။ အဆပါ ျဖစရပမားမာသဘာဝေဘးအႏရာယမား၊အေျခခအေဆာကအအတညေဆာကမႈမား၊အစးရမဝါဒမားႏင ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈမားအေၾကာငးတ႔ ျဖစေနတတသည။

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Each time a significant event is mentioned, it is written on a separate sheet of paper. If the date (or approximate date) of the event is known, it is noted as well. All separate sheets of paper are then organized in chronological order based on the additional information given by the persons participating in the meeting. The sheets of paper are laid out on the floor so that everyone sees them and reorder the sheets of paper if necessary. In doing so, even events that are not precisely dated are placed in a more or less chronological order. TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• PLA is a great tool to reduce the risk of biases because of the use of multiple research methods, research tools, and sources of information as well as the input from persons of various backgrounds;

• PLA offers a rapid and progressive learning way and produces information that is validated by the community itself;

• PLA is a bottom-top approach designed to empower communities.

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ထးျခားျဖစစဥတစတရာက ေမးျမနးေနစဥအတြငး ေဖာျပလာပါကသးျခားစာ႐ြကလြတေပၚတြငခေရးရမည။ အခငးျဖစပြားသညရကစြ (သ႔အနးစပဆးခန႔မနးရကစြ) ကသရပါကယငးကပါမတသားထားရမည။ ျပးေနာကအစညးအေဝးတြငပါဝငသမားထမရ႐လာသည ေနာကတးအခကအလကမားအေပၚအေျခချပးအဆပါသးျခား ေရးမတထားေသာစာ႐ြကမားအားလးကသကရာဇစဥအတငးစစဥရမည။စာ႐ြကမားအားၾကမးျပငေပၚတြငခထားေပးႏင ပါက ေတြ႕သမလတ႔ကလအပသလ ျပနလညစစဥေပးႏငမညျဖစသည။ဤနညးျဖငရကစြအတအကမသရေသာ ျဖစရပမားပငလငအနညးႏငအမားဆသလသကရာဇစဥမနလာႏငမည။

အခပဆရေသာဤအခနးတြငအဓကမတသားရမညအဓကအခကအလကမားမာ

• ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥတြငသေတသနနညးလမးေပါငးစ၊သေတသနကရယာမးစ၊သတငးအခကအလကရငးျမစေျမာကျမားစြာႏင ေနာကခရာဇဝငအမးမး႐သညလမားထမအားစကထတမႈမား ပါဝငသညျဖစ၍အဂတ ေလာခေရးအတြကလြနစြာေကာငးမြနေသာကရယာတစရပျဖစသည။

• ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥသညလငျမနသြကလကေသာေလလာေရးနညးလမးတစချဖစျပးရပ႐ြာကယတငအသအမတျပေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားရ႐ေစသည။

• ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥသညရပ႐ြာကကယထးကယခၽြနျဖင

ေအာကမအထကသ႔ဆနသညခဥးကပေလလာမႈတစချဖစသည။

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BASIC 11. PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR) THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• Defining PAR; • Learning how PAR is structured; • Understanding the role of the researcher in a PAR project; • Learning strategies and tools to conduct a PAR project.

______________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS A PAR? Participatory Action Research (PAR) designates a research practice in which the community under study takes the leading role. The community leads in (1) the production of knowledge and (2) the use of this knowledge for addressing the problem under study. PAR is therefore specifically relevant when advocacy is planned after the research is finished. The advocacy phase generally involves educating and raising the awareness of the community under study, the policy-makers, and the decision-makers about the problem that was examined.

• PAR is led by the community members rather than outside persons (whatever their background or degree of responsibility in the project). PAR follows a ‘bottom-up approach’. It also pays particular attention to qualitative research aspects such as local peoples’ knowledge and the way people organize and control their resources: this knowledge and how it is organized are called ‘Indigenous Knowledge System’ (IKS).

• PAR uses participatory strategies that allow local people to participate in

research. Ultimately, their participation in the research must lead to empowerment. The previous chapter described participatory learning tools that make the participatory strategies easier.

• PAR is a collective work, involving discussions among participants at every

stage: choosing the topic, defining research questions and the appropriate way to share and use the knowledge produced.

• It is expected that PAR will result in some action, change, and ultimately

improvement for the communities concerned with the issue being researched. Like case study, PAR combines both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Limitations Local communities under study are unlikely to have the technical skills and financial resources needed to lead the whole PAR process. These limitations, however, are not a problem. Assistance from outsiders, such as academics, funders and NGO/CSOs who have experience in addressing the problem under study can compensate for these limitations.

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အေျခခအဆင ၁၁. အလပျဖငပးေပါငးေဆာငရြကေသာသေတသန ဤအခနးတြင

• PAR အားဖြငဆရငးလငးျခငး • PAR ၏ဖြ႕စညးတညေဆာကပအားေလလာျခငး • PAR စမကနးတစရပ၌သေတသ၏အခနးက႑ကနားလညေစျခငး • PAR စမကနးတစရပလပေဆာငရနအတြကလအပေသာနညးလမးမားနငမဟာဗဟာမားအေၾကာငး

ေလလာျခငးတ႔ပါ၀ငပါသည။ ______________________________________________________________________________________ PAR ဆသညမာအဘယနညး။ အလပျဖငပးေပါငးပါ၀ငေဆာငရြကေသာသေတသန PAR ဆသညမာေလလာမျပလပသညရပရြာလထက ဥးေဆာငေသာအခနးက႑မပါ၀ငေသာသေတသနလပထးလပနညးတစရပကဆလသည။ထရပရြာလထသည (၁) အသပညာမားေဖာထတျခငး၊ (၂) ထအသပညာမားအားေလလာမျပသညျပနာရပမားေျဖရငးရာတြင အသးျပျခငးဆသညအခနးက႑မပါ၀ငသည။သ႔အတြက PAR သညသေတသနတစရပျပးဆးသညအခါလထ အကး တကတြနးေျပာဆမအတြကၾကတငစမထားသညအေျခအေနမး၌အလြနပငသငေလာသည။လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆသညမာေလလာမျပသညရပရြာလထမ၀ါဒေရးဆြသမားနငဆးျဖတခကခမတနငစြမးရသမားအားေလလာ လကရေသာျပနာရပနငပကသက၍အသပညာျမငတငေပးျခငးနငပညာေပးေရးတ႔ေယဘယအားျဖငပါ၀ငသည။

• PAR ဆသညမာ ျပငပမပဂၢလမား (စမကနး၌၎တ႔၏တာ၀နမညမယထားသည ျဖစေစ၊ မညသည ေကာ ေထာာကေနာကခအေနအထားရသညျဖစေစ) မမဟတဘရပရြာလထကဥးေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။ PAR သည ေအာကေျခမအထကသ႔တကသည bottom-up approach နညးလမးကလကနာသည။ PAR သည အရညအေသြးစထားသေတသန၏ရ႕ေထာကမားျဖစေသာ ေဒသခလထ၏အသပညာနင၎တ႔အရငးအျမစမား အားမညသ႔စစညးထနးခပၾကသညကလညးအေလးေပးသည။ဤသ႔စစညးလပေဆာငပႏင၎အသပညာအား ေရခေျမခသမစနစ Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) ဟေခၚသည။

• PAR သည ေဒသခလထအေနျဖငသေတသနတြငပါ၀ငလပေဆာငရနခြငျပေသာပးေပါငးပါ၀ငမ မဟာဗဟာက အသးျပသည။အဆးစြနဆးအေနျဖငသေတသနတြင ေဒသခလထကယတငကယကပါ၀ငျခငးအားျဖင၎တ႔၏ လပေဆာငနငစြမးရညက ျမငတငေပးျခငးျဖစသည။လြနခေသာအခနးတြင ေဖာျပခေသာကယတငကယကပါ၀င ေလလာသညနညးလမးမားသညဤကယတငကယကပါ၀ငမမဟာဗဟာကပမလြယကေစပါသည။

• PAR သညစေပါငးလပဆာငသညအလပတစရပျဖစသည။သေတသနအဆငမား၌ပါ၀ငသမားအေနျဖင ေဆြးေႏြးညနငးၾကျခငး - ေခါငးစဥအေၾကာငးအရာေရြးခယျခငး၊သေတသနေမးခြနးမား ေဖာထတသတမတျခငး။ ရရလာေသာအသပညာမားအားသငေလာေသာနညးလမးမားျဖငမေ၀ျခငးနငအသးျပျခငးတ႔ျပလပၾကသည။

• PAR အားျဖငသေတသနျပလပသညကစၥရပနငသကဆငေသာလထမားအေနျဖငလပငနးေဆာငတာမား ေဖာေဆာငျခငး။အေျပာငးအလျပလပျခငးနငအဆးစြနဆးအေနျဖငဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမက ျဖစေစျခငးစသည ရလာဒမားျဖစေပၚလာေစရန ေမာလင၍လပေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမကသ႔ပင PAR သညေရအတြကစထားသေတသနနညးလမးေရာအရညအေသြးစထား နညးလမး ပါနစလးစလးအသးျပပါသည။

အကန႔အသတမား PAR လပငနးစဥတစရပလးအားေဆာငရြကရနအတြကေဒသခလထအေနျဖငနညးပညာပငးဆငရာအရညအခငး မျပည၀မနငဘ႑ာေရးအေျခအေနလအပမတ႔ရေကာငးရနငပါသည။သ႔ေသာဤအကန႔အသတမားမာျပနာမဟတ ေပ။ျပငပပဂၢလမား၊ပညာရငမား၊အလရငမားနငအနဂအ/ စအကစအတ႔အေနျဖငေလလာသညျပနာရပပကသက၍ အေတြ႔အၾကရျပးျဖစသျဖင၎တ႔၏အကအညအားျဖငဤကန႔သကခကမားကေကာလႊားနငပါသည။

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WHEN SHOULD PAR BE USED?

PAR is an appropriate approach when information has to be collected and used for the benefit of the community directly affected by an issue. PAR can be used by a wide range of communities and organizations, in which people already know each other and/or work together. PAR can also be used by groups formed for the purposes of research and action on a particular issue. PAR is most often used for environmental and social issues. Examples all along this chapter will draw from the following situation: Livelihood among elders in a village of Northern Ch in State is based on shifting cultivation. Interviews with s ome of them show that they findit more and more difficult to undertake this cultivation in a sustainable manner. Two of their preoccupations are: (1) increasing deforestat ion; and (2) diminishing access to forest land due to the cr eation of a National Park. They seek assistance from the outs ide in order to find ways to sustain their livelihood. The y need assistance on the following issues:

- The impact of deforestation on their livelihood; - The management of the national park; - The access to land formerly used by the community; - The profiles of those using timber and non-timber

products in their area.

For this purpose, they seek help from a research or ganization and hope that this organization can offer guidance on these issues. However, the group of elders wants to lead the whole research process and advocacy plan in order to ensu re that both process and plan will directly benefit them. STRUCTURE OF A PAR PROJECT The steps of a PAR are:

1. Planning the study 2. Collecting data 3. Analysing data 4. Developing an action based on the data collected 5. Analysing/Reflecting on the actions 6. Disseminating results

Involvement of stakeholders during the PAR is a key factor for making the PAR successful.

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PAR အားမညသညအခနတြငအသးျပသငသနညး။ ေလလာသညျပနာရပမတကရကသကေရာကမရေသာလထအကးအတြကအသးျပနငမညသတငးအခကမား ေကာကယစေဆာငးအသးျပရာ၌ PARသညသငေလာေသာနညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ အခငးခငးသက ြမးျပး အလပအတလပၾကသညလမားရသညလထမားနငအဖြ႔အစညးမား၌ PAR ကကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔အသးျပနငပါသည။ ကစၥရပတစခအားအေကာငအထညေဖာရန (သ႔) သေတသနျပလပရနရညရြယခကမားမားျဖင ဖြ႔စညးထားေသာ လအပစမားတြငလညး PAR ကအသးျပနငပါသည။အမားေသာအားျဖငပတဝနးကငဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားနငလမေရး ဆငရာကစၥရပမား၌ PAR ကအသးျပေလရပါသည။ ဤအခနးတစေလာကတြငပါဝငေသာဥပမာမားသညေအာကပါအေျခအေနမထတနတထားျခငးျဖစသည။ ခငးျပညနယေျမာကပငးေကးရြာရအသကအရြယၾကးရငသမား၏အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမသည ေရြ႔ေျပာငးေတာငယာအေပၚအေျချပထားျခငးျဖစသည။၎တ႔ထမအခ ႔နင ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမမားအရ၎တ႔အေနျဖင ေရရညတညတသညပစျဖငထြနယကစကပးမမား ျပလပရနပ၍ပ၍ခကခလာေၾကာငးသရသည။ ျဖစေပၚေနသညအေျခအေနနစရပမာ- (၁) သစေတာျပနးတးမတးလာျခငး၊ (၂) နငငပငသစေတာၾကးဝငးမား သတမတလာမေၾကာငသစေတာေတာငယာခတလပကငနငခြငရားပါးလာျခငးတ႔ျဖစသည။သ႔အတြက၎တ႔၏အသက ေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးဘဝမားထနးသမးထားရနငရန ျပငပအကအညျဖငနညးလမးမားရာေဖြၾကသည။ ၎တ႔အေနျဖငေအာကေဖာျပပါအေျခအေနမားတြငအကအညလအပလကရပါသည။ - ၎တ႔၏အသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးမအေပၚသစေတာျပနးတးမ၏အကးသကေရာကမ

- အမးသားသဘာဝၾကးဝငးအားစမခန႔ခြမ - ရပရြာလထမယခငကအသးျပခေသာေျမယာမားအသးျပနငခြင ၎တ႔၏ဧရယာအတြငးက ြနးသစထတကနနငက ြနးသစမဟတေသာထတကနမားအသးျပသမား၏အေၾကာငးအရာ အခကအလကမားဤရညရြယခကအတြက၎တ႔၏သေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးတစခထမ အကအညေတာငးချပး ၎သေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးအေနျဖငအထကပါကစၥရပမားနငပကသက၍ ေမာလငထားၾကသည။သ႔ေသာ ရပရြာလၾကးမားအေနျဖငသေတသနလပငနးစဥမားနငရပရြာအကးအဆျပေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာစမကနးမတကရက အကးခစားရေစရနအတြကသေတသနလပငနးစဥၾကးတစခလးနငရပရြာလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာ အစအမတြငကယတငဥးေဆာငလၾကသည။

PAR စမကနးတစခ၏တညေဆာကပ PAR တစခ၏အဆငမားမာ ၁။ ေလလာမအတြကအစအမျပလပျခငး ၂။ ေဒတာအခကအလကေကာကယစေဆာငးျခငး ၃။ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအားစစစေလလာမျပျခငး ၄။ ေကာကယရရသညအခကအလကမားအေပၚအေျခခ၍လပငနးေဆာငတာမားျပငဆငျခငး ၅။ လပငနးေဆာငတာမားကျပနလနသးသပျခငး/ စစစေလလာျခငး ၆။ ရလာဒမားအားျဖန႔ေဝျခငး PAR ျပလပစဥကာလအတြငးအဓကသကဆငသမား၏ကယတငကယကပါဝငပကသကမသညအဆပါ PAR၏ေအာငျမငမအတြကအေရးၾကးေသာအခကျဖစသည။

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ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER IN A PAR PROJECT The role of the researcher in the PAR process is rather similar to that found in the Focus Group Discussion: he/she is a facilitator and encourages the participants to express their views and feelings. Therefore, the same do’s and don’ts apply for the researcher:

• Remain open-minded; • Remain neutral; • Refrain from judgment about what the stakeholders say; • Refrain from acting as the expert: the researcher is here to learn from

the community and facilitate discussions rather than giving his/her own advice.

The success of a PAR depends on the researcher’s ability to communicate and be proactive. The researcher initiates the discussion with the participants, explains them the different options available for research, and let them select the suitable options.

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PAR စမကနးတစခ၌သေတသ၏အခနးက႑ သေတသတစဥးသည PAR လပငနးစဥတြငဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြကသ႔ပငပပးကည သတစဥး ျဖစျပး ပါဝငသမားအား၎တ႔၏အျမငမားနငခစားမမား ေဖာထတျပသနငရနတကတြနးကညေပးရသည။ သ႔အတြကသေတသအတြကလကနာရနနငေရာငၾကဥရနအခကမားလညးအတတပငျဖစသည။

• ပြငလငးေသာစတထားရပါ။

• ဘကလကမမရပါနင

• ပါဝငဆကႏြယသမား၏ေျပာဆသမကစရငဆးျဖတခကေပးျခငးမေရာငၾကဥပါ။

• ကြမးကငသပညာရငအျဖစ ေဆာငရြကျခငးမ ေရာငၾကဥပါ။ဤေနရာတြငသေတသသညရပရြာ

လထထမသငယရနျဖစျပး၎၏ကယပငအၾကဥာဏ ေပးရနမဟတဘ ေဆြးေႏြးမက ပပးကညရန

သာျဖစသည။

PAR တစခ၏ ေအာငျမငမသညသေတသ၏ ေျပာဆဆကဆမအရညအခငးနငတငၾကျပငဆငထားရနငမအေပၚ မတညသည။သေတသသညပါဝငသမား၏ေဆြးေႏြးမကကမကထျပေပးျပး၊သေတသနအတြက ေရြးခယစရာ းရငးလငးချပကာ၊မညသညနညးလမးကေရြးခယမညက၎တ႔အားဆးျဖတေစသည။

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While conducting PAR, the researcher must: • Remain open-minded to complex ideas with which he/she is not

necessarily familiar; • Be a proactive interlocutor in the dialogue conducted among the

participants; • Listen to the participants with great attention; • Show curiosity towards the different, genuine, and authentic views and

feelings expressed by the participants; • Be respectful of the way ideas, views, and feelings expressed by these

persons; APPROACHES AND TOOLS USED FOR PAR The underlying principle of the approaches presented below is an emphasis on people working together and using tools to achieve common understanding of research goals and activities. The main question is: “How can we do this work together and make sure that anyone who ought to be involved is actually involved?”

Step 1: Define the research topic and goals

The research partners (i.e. researchers together with the community members) must have a clear and common understanding of the goals of the PAR project. It is also important to define the role of the researcher and how this role can help the community achieve the goals defined by the PAR. Without a clear sense of what the research project is trying to accomplish, it would be difficult to design a practical and effective PAR project.

Approach: Develop a PAR roadmap: partners identify the desired outcomes and the general strategy developed to attain these outcomes. The roadmap should describe: A) the goals; B) the action plan; and C) the involvement of the research partners. At this stage, it is not necessary to detail the different research methods. This will be achieved through the participatory process.

A. Goals • What is the PAR’s objective? For example: the PAR seeks to produce

evidence about, advocate on, and take action against deforestation in northern Chin State;

• What type of problems is the research trying to address? Are there ecological, economic and/or social problems? For instance, how are decreasing forest areas (an ecological problem), land tenure rights for forest users (a social problem), and impact of deforestation on forest users’ livelihoods (an economic problem) be intertwined?

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PAR လပေဆာငစဥအတြငးသေတသအေနျဖင • သနငရငးနးက ြမးကငမမရေသာရပေထြးသညအငဒယာမားအားကငတြယနငရနသ၏စတအျမငကပြငပြင

လငးလငးထားရရမည။

• ပါဝငသမား၏ေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးမ၌လမၼာပါးနပစြာစကားအခအခေျပာဆနးေနာနငသျဖစရမည။

• ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားအားအထးအေလးထား၍နားေထာငေပးရမည။

• ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားမေဖာထတျပသေသာကြျပား၊ထးျခား၍စတရငးျဖငေျပာေသာအျမငမားနငခစားမမားကအ

ထးတလညစတဝငစားမရေၾကာငးျပသရမည။

• အဆပါပဂၢလမား၏အငဒယာမား၊အျမငမားနငခစားခကမားေဖာထတျပသမအားေလးစားမရပါ။

PAR အတြကအသးျပေသာနညးလမးမားနငခဥးကပပမား

ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားေသာခဥးကပပမား၏အေျခခဥပေဒသမာလအမားအေနျဖငအတတကြအလပလပၾကျခငးနငသေတသန၏လပငနးေဆာငတာမား၊ပနးတငမားနငပကသက၍အမားလကခနငေသာနားလညမရရရနအတြကနညးလမးၾကယာမားအသးျပျခငးအေပၚအထးျပျခငးျဖစသည။အဓကေမးခြနးမာ - “ဤအလပကမမတ႔အေနျဖငမညကသ႔ အတ တကြလပေဆာငၾကျပးပါဝငသငသမနသမတကယတမးပါဝငနငေစရနမညကသ႔လပေဆာငမညနညး”ဟသည ေမးခြနးျဖစသည။

အဆင(၁) သေတသနေခါငးစဥနငပနးတငမားကေဖာထတသတမတပါ။

သေတသနမတဖကလပေဆာငသမား (ဆလသညမာ - သေတသမားနငရပရြာလထတ႔အတတကြ) အေနျဖင PAR စမကနး၏ပနးတငမားအားရငးရငးလငးလငးနငအမားလကခေသာနားလညမတစခရထားရမည။ သေတသ၏ အခနးက႑ကေဖာထတသတမတ၍ထအခနးက႑အေနျဖငရပရြာလထအား PAR ၏သတမတပနးတငမားက ေရာကရျပညမရနမညသ႔အေထာကအကျပေစမညမာလညးအေရးၾကးသည။သေတသနစမကနးမမညသညအရာကျပးေျမာကေအာငေဆာငရြကမညကရငးရငးလငးလငးသရထားျခငးမရပါကလကေတြ႔က၍ထေရာကေသာ PAR စမကနးတစရပကဒဇငးေရးဆြရနခကခေပလမမည။

ခဥးကပပ PAR လမးျပေျမပတစရပျပစပါ။မတဖကလပေဆာငသမားအေနျဖငဆႏၵရေသာရလာဒမားေဖာထတ၍အဆပါ ရလာဒမားအားရရျပညမေစရနမညသညအေထြေထြမဟာဗဟာျဖငေဆာငရြကမညကသကမတပါ။လမးျပေျမပအေနျဖင (က) ပနးတငမား (ခ) ျပလပေဆာငရြကမညအစအမ (ဂ) သေတသနမတဖကလပေဆာငသမား၏ ပါဝင ပကသကမတ႔ ပါဝငသငသည။

ဤအဆငတြငသေတသနနညးလမးမကြမားနငပကသက၍အေသးစတမလအပေသးေပ။၎အဆငသညပးေပါငးပါဝင ေဆာငရြကသညလပငနးစဥအားျဖငသြားမညျဖစသည။

(က) ပနးတငမား။ ။ • ဤPAR သညဘာကရညရြယခကထားရသနညး။ဥပမာအားျဖငဤ PAR သညခငးျပညနယေျမာကပငး

သစေတာျပနးတးမကအေထာကအထားမားေဖာထတရန၊အဆျပတကတြနးရန၊အေရးယေဆာငရြကရန

• သေတသနအေနျဖငမညသညျပနာအမးအစားမားကေျဖရငးဖ႔ၾကးစားမညနညး။ေဂဟစနစဆငရာ၊စးပြား

ေရးဆငရာ၊လမေရးဆငရာျပနာမားရသလား။ဥပမာအားျဖငသစေတာဧရယာမားေလာနညးလာမ

(ေဂဟစနစဆငရာျပနာ) ၊သစေတာအသးျပသမားေျမယာအငားခလပပငခြင (လမေရးဆငရာျပနာ)၊

သစေတာအပၚမခေနၾကရသညအသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးမမားအေပၚသစေတာျပနးတးမ၏အကးသကေရာကမ

(စးပြားေရးဆငရာျပနာ) တ႔သညအခငးခငးမညကသ႔ခတဆကပကသကေနသနညး။

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B. Action plan • What actions will the PAR require? Will the research involve any of the

following activities: meetings, workshops, interviews, or data collection? Will the data address more ecological, social, cultural, or economic matters? Or will the data reflect all of these concerns?

C.Involvement of the research partners

• What will be the degree of involvement and inputs of the different research partners? This step should define the role of all research partners and their involvement in the PAR process. It should also provide an opportunity to consider research and ethical matters. For example: among the Chin villages affected by deforestation, who will participate in the project? Forest users, elders, youth group? What will the role of each identified group be in the overall process? The role of these different groups may be as follows: forest users may be the main informants, elders may facilitate relationships between the community and external stakeholders while a youth group may lead the research and advocacy part on deforestation. This suggestion may change depending on the context.

Tools: The action plan of the PAR can be developed through strategic planning. This planning is most successful when it involves all research partners. A strategic planning meeting will be organized at a time and place that are convenient for all research partners. This meeting needs to be carefully planned and facilitated. Step 2: Identifying stakeholders for the PAR The second step in a PAR project is to identify “stakeholders” and facilitate their participation in the research. Stakeholders are defined as any person, group, or institution having a direct or indirect bearing on the issue under study. They usually represent different interests. For example, staff from the Forest Department, tour operators, logging companies as well as users of non-timber products should be consulted during the PAR on “Deforestation in Chin State”: all of them are stakeholders with regards to this specific issue. Broad stakeholder involvement is also important as PAR helps to build trust between diverse groups and professional researchers. PAR usually fosters the capacity of different stakeholders by mediating tensions or conflicts that may arise among them. Approach: Identify all stakeholders engaged in the research. Whatever the underlying motivations of the stakeholders, it is crucial that their representatives be treated respectfully.

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(ခ) ျပလပေဆာငရြကမညအစအမ • ဤ PAR အေနျဖငမညသညေဆာငရြကမမးလအပသနညး။သေတသနအေနျဖငေအာကပါလပငနးရပတ႔

ပါဝငဖ႔လပါသလား - ေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးမမား၊အလပရေဆြးေႏြးပြမား၊ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမမား (သ႔) ေဒတာ အခကအလကစေဆာငးေကာကယမ၊ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအေနျဖငေဂဟပငးဆငရာ(သ႔) လမေရး ဆငရာ (သ႔)၊ယဥေကးမပငးဆငရာ (သ႔) စးပြားေရးဆငရာကစၥရပမားမမညသညကပ၍ အေရးတ ယျပမညနညး။သ႔မဟတေဒတာအခကအလကမားသညအဆပါအခကအားလးနငပကသကမရမညလား။

(ဂ) သေတသနမတဖကလပေဆာငသမား၏ပါဝငပကသကမ • သေတသနမတဖကလပေဆာငသအသးသးတ႔သညမညသညအတငအတာထပါဝငပကသက၍သေတသန

အားအကးျပထညဝငၾကမညနညး။ဤအဆငအေနျဖငသေတသနမတဖကလပေဆာငသမားအားလး၏အခနးက႑နငပါဝငပကသကမကေဖာထတသတမတသငသည။သေတသနနငကငဝတပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားအားစဥးစားနငရနအခြငအလမးတစရပလညးဖနတးေပးသငသည။ဥပမာအားျဖင- သစေတာျပနးတးမ ဒဏခစားေနရသညခငးေကးရြာမားမမညသတ႔သညဤစမကနးတြငပါဝငမညနညး။သစေတာအသးျပသမားလား၊အသကအရြယၾကးသလၾကးသမမားလား၊လငယအပစလား။လပငနးစဥၾကးတစရပလးအား ျခင ပက သကမရမညအဆပါသတမတအပစအသးသး၏အခနးက႑မာအဘယနညး။ဤမတညေသာအပစအသးသး၏အခနးက႑မားမာ ေအာကပါအတငး ျဖစနငပါသည။သစေတာအသးျပသမားသညအဓက သတငးေပး သမား၊အသကအရြယၾကးရငသလၾကးသမမားအေနျဖငရပရြာလထနင ျပငပပဂၢလမား၏ဆကဆေရးက ကညပပးသမားအျဖစေဆာငရြကနငျပးလငယအပစအေနျဖငသေတသနကဥးေဆာငကာသစေတာျပနးတးမနငပကသက၍အဆျပတကတြနးေျပာဆသမား ျဖစနငၾကပါသည။ဤသ႔အၾကဥာဏေပးမသည အေျခအန ေပၚမတည၍ ေျပာငးလနငပါသည။

နညးလမးမား မဟာဗဟာေျမာကအစအမချခငး။ PAR၏ျပလပေဆာငရြကမညအစအမသညမဟာဗဟာစမကနး ေရးဆြျခငးအားျဖင ျပလပနငသည။သေတသနမတဖကလပေဆာငမညအားလးသညဤစမကနး ေရးဆြျခငးတြငပါဝငနငပါက စမကနး ေရးဆြျခငးသညအေအာငျမငဆးျဖစလမမည။မဟာဗဟာစမကနး ေရးဆြမညြ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအစအစဥအား သေတသန မတဖက ေဆာငရြကသအားလးအဆငေျပမညအခနနင ေနရာ၌ ျပလပသငသည။အဆပါေဆြးေႏြးပြအား ဂရတစက ၾကတငစမျပး ေသေသခာခာပပးကညမျပလပရနလအပသည။ အဆင (၂) PAR အတြကပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားေဖာထတသတမတျခငး PAR စမကနး၏ဒတယအဆငသည “ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား”အားေဖာထတသတမတ၍သေတသနတြင ၎တ႔၏ ပါဝငပတသကမကပပးကညရနျဖစသည။ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားဆရာ၌မညသညပဂၢလ၊လအပစသ႔အဖြ႔အစညးမဆသေတသနျပေလလာမညအေၾကာငးအရာနငတကရက (သ႔) သြယဝက၍ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးကဆလသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖငသစေတာဥးစးဌာနမဝနထမး၊ခရးသြားလပငနးလပေဆာငသမား၊သစထတလပေရးကမၸဏမားနငက ြနးသစမဟတသညထတကနအသးျပသမားအပါအဝငအားလးတ႔အား“ခငးျပညနယရသစေတာျပနးတးမ” PAR ျပလပစဥ အေတာအတြငးတငပငေဆြးေႏြးသငသည။အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ၎တ႔အားလးသညအဆပါေခါငးစဥကစၥရပနငပကသကသမားျဖစေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။ ပါဝငပတသကသမားကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ပါဝငပကသကမသညမတကြျပားသညအပစမားနငပညာရပဆငရာသေတသမားအၾကားယၾကညမတညေဆာကရနအကအညေပးရာ၌အေရးပါေသာေၾကာငလညးျဖစသည။ PAR အေနျဖင ကြျပားသညပတသကဆကႏြယသအပစမား၏စြမးေဆာငနငရညကအားေပးျမငတငေပးျခငးအားျဖငအခ႕ေသာအပစမားအၾကားျဖစေပၚနငေသာပဋပကၡနငတငးမာမမားအားထနးညေပးရာေရာကသည။ ခဥးကပပ သေတသနတြငပါဝငပတသကမညပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးအားေဖာထတသတမတပါ။ပါဝငပတသကသမား၏ အေျခခစတဆႏၵသေဘာထားသညမညသ႔ပငျဖစေစ၎တ႔၏ကယစားျပပါဝငမအားေလးေလးစားစားဆကဆရန အေရးၾကးပါသည။

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Tools: Make a list of stakeholders. In doing so, answer the following questions.

• Who has a bearing on the issue under study? • Are there more stakeholders who should be involved and may need

support? • What support is required and how can it be provided? • Are political or institutional decision makers represented?

Step 3: Building Trust Building trust is a necessary step prior to developing the research question. This takes a lot of time and patience. Approach: Create informal communication channels and space for regular interaction to foster trust among the different stakeholders and the researchers. Tools:

• Gatherings in people’s homes; • Field visits: a simple walk of the researcher with key informants within

the area under study results in preliminary observations useful for the future steps of the research project. The walk also provides the occasion to learn further about the community;

• Informal meetings and meetings in small groups; • Training sessions.

Step 4: Building Common Understanding Once research partners and stakeholders are identified and a degree of trust exists amongst them, the next stage is to build a common understanding of the PAR. The objective is to ensure that all stakeholders agree on the research outcomes and that the stakeholders feel involved throughout the research process until the end. All stakeholders should be given the opportunity to fully participate and have access to information. If this does not happen, then there is the risk that some stakeholders will dominate the research process. Care must be taken to communicate with each stakeholder in a way that makes the stakeholder feel comfortable. The risk that stakeholders with higher economic and political standing may end up controlling the process by using their own language and communication techniques is real. So the researchers have to make sure that the language and information disseminated during the research process is accessible to all stakeholders regardless of their economic and political standing.

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နညးလမးမား ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား၏စာရငးတစရပျပစပါ။ထသ႔ျပလပရနေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားကေျဖၾကားပါ။

• ေလလာမည႕အေၾကာငးအရာနငမညသတ႔သကဆငသနညး။

• ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားထပမ၍ပါဝငရနလအပပါသလား။ထပမ၍အေထာကအပေပးရနလအပပါသလား။

• မညသညပပးမမးလအပျပးအဘယသ႔ပပးမညနညး။

• မပငးဆငရာ (သ႔) အဖြ႔အစညးပငးဆငရာဆးျဖတခကခမတသမားကယစားျပပါဝငျပလား။

အဆင(၃) ယၾကညမတညေဆာကျခငး သေတသနေမးခြနးမားမျပစမ၌ယၾကညမတညေဆာကျခငးသညလအပေသာအဆငတစရပျဖစသည။သ႔ေသာဤသ႔ျပလပရနအခနမားစြာယရျပးစတရညရနလအပသည။ ခဥးကပပ သေတသမားနငမတကြျပားေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအၾကားယၾကညမတးပြားေစရနပမနဆကဆေရးရေစမည အေနအထားနငအလႊတသေဘာဆကဆေရးလမးေၾကာငးမားဖနတးပါ။ နညးလမးမား

• လမား၏အမမားတြငစရးျခငး

• ကြငးဆငးအလညအပတျပျခငး။ ။သေတသအေနျဖငအဓကသတငးေပးသမားနင အတေလလာမျပမည

ဧရယာ၌လညလည၍လမးအတေလာကသြားျခငးျဖငသေတသနစမကနး၏ ေနာကထပအဆငမားအတြက

အသးဝငေသာ ေရေျပးေလလာမမးအကးျဖစထြနးေစပါသည။ထသ႔လမးေလာကျခငး အားျဖငရပရြာ

လထအေၾကာငးပ၍ ေလလာမျပရနအခြငဖနပါသည။

• အလြတသေဘာေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးမမားနငအပစငယမားအလကေဆြးေႏြးပြမား

• ေလကငသငတနးေပးမမား

အဆင(၄) အမားလကခေသာနားလညမတညေဆာကယျခငး သေတသနမတဖကလပေဆာငမညသမား၊ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားေဖာထတသတမတျပး၎တ႔အၾကားယၾကညမတစရပကအတငးအတာတစခအထတညေဆာကျပးေသာအခါေနာကအဆငမာ PAR နငပတသက၍အမား လကခေသာနားလညမတစရပတညေဆာကယျခငးျဖစသည။ရညရြယခကမာသေတသနရလာဒမားနငပတသက၍အားလးေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားတ႔အေနျဖငသေဘာတေၾကာငးေသခာေစရနနငပတသကဆကႏြယသမားတ႔သညသေတသနလပငနးစဥတစေလာကနငအဆးထတငေအာငပါဝငပတသကမရေၾကာငးခစားရေစရနျဖစသည။ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးတ႔အားအျပညအဝပါဝငခြငရရနအခြငအေရးေပးျပးသတငးအခကအလကမားရရေစရနလညးခြငျပထားေပးရမည။ထသ႔မဟတပါကအခ႕ေသာပတသကဆကႏြယမမားကသာသေတသနလပငနးစဥကလႊမးမးအပစးထားနငသညအႏရာယမးရပါသည။ပတသကဆကႏြယသအသးသးနငဆကဆေျပာဆသညအခါပတသကဆကႏြယသ အေနျဖငသကေတာငသကသာရေစရနအထးဂရျပ၍ဆကဆရမည။စးပြားေရးေတာငတငး၍နငငေရးအေနအထားျမငမားသညပတသကဆကႏြယသအပစအေနျဖင၎တ႔၏ကယပငဘာသာစကားနငဆကသြယေရးနညးလမးမားအသးျပ၍ လပငနးစဥတစခလးအားထနးခပသြားနငသညအႏရာယမာအမနပငျဖစပါသည။သ႔အတြကသေတသမားအေနျဖင သေတသနလပငနးစဥအေတာအတြငးအသးျပေသာဘာသာစကားနငျဖန႔ခလကသညသတငးအခကအလကမားသညစးပြားေရးနငႏငငေရးအေနအထားအရမညသ႔ပငရသညသျဖစေစပတသကဆကႏြယသမနသမနားလညလကခနင ေအာငျပလပရမညျဖစသည။

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Questions to be answered when researchers seek to build common understanding: � Is the language (scientific, cultural terms, Myanmar language or other

language) being used understandable to all? � Are all stakeholders aware of the participation of all other stakeholders? � Does everyone agree on the participation of all these parties? � Do some stakeholders require technical or financial support to

participate more fully in the research process? How can this support be provided?

The groups participating in the research are unlikely to share the same expectations and feature the same skills, intellectual capacity, and level of engagement. These differences need to be identified by the researchers in order to build a common understanding. Approach: The stakeholders should be encouraged to explicitly spell out their goals so that researchers see where these goals overlap and where they differ. The usual strategy is to organize a meeting of stakeholders. Once a common understanding has been reached among all stakeholders, a document summarizing the PAR main objectives and goals as well as the degree of participation of each stakeholder should be shared and distributed among them. Tools: There are several ways meetings can be organized for building a common understanding. For example, people with expertise in relevant issues may be invited to speak briefly at these introduction meetings. This may hopefully stimulate discussion among the participants. Some of the tools that can be used for a meeting are:

• Brainstorming sessions: This is usually a starting point to bring all issues and expectations to the table. The key principlesto follow are:

� Every idea is worthwhile; � No judgment (no critiques, evaluation, censorship) should be

made on someone else’s views; � Capture all ideas for later discussion.

• Venn Diagrams: The Venn Diagram consists of two or more overlapping

circles, each identified by a main issue. They are used to describe and compare elements and characteristics of a situation.

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သေတသမားအေနျဖငအမားလကခေသာနားလညမတညေဆာကရနၾကးပမးရာ၌ေျဖၾကားရမညေမးခြနးမား � အသးျပေသာဘာသာစကား (သပၸပညာရပဆငရာ၊ယဥေကးမဆငရာ အသးအနနးမား၊

ျမနမာဘာသာစကား (သ႔) အျခားေသာဘာသာစကား ) သညအားလးနားလညနငပါသလား? � ပကသကဆကႏြယသအားလးတ႔အေနျဖငအျခားေသာပါဝငပတသကသအားလးတ႔၏ပါဝငမအား

သတျပမပါရ႕လား။ � ဤအဖြ႕အားလး၏ပးေပါငးပါဝငမကလတငးသေဘာတပါရ႕လား။ � သေတသနလပငနးစဥတြငပ၍ျပညျပညဝဝပါဝငနငရနအခ႕ေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားကနည

းပညာ (သ႔) ဘ႑ာေရးအရပပးရနလအပပါသလား။မညကသ႔ပပးမညနညး။

သေတသနတြငပါဝငေသာအပစမားသည ေမာလငထားသညမားမတညနငသလအရညအခငး၊ ဥာဏစြမးရညနင သေတသနတြငပါဝငမတ႔၌လညးကြာျခားနငသည။သေတသမားအေနျဖငအမားလကခနားလညမတစရပတညေဆာကလပါကဤကြျပားမမားက ေဖာထတနငရမည။ ခဥးကပပ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား၎တ႔၏ရညမနးခကပနးတငမားကပြငပြငလငးလငး ေဖာထတေျပာဆရန တြနး အားေပးသငသည။သ႔မသာအဆပါပနးတငမားသညတစခနငတစခအခငးခငးထပသညအပငးမားရသလား၊ကြျပားမရသလားဆသညကသေတသနအေနျဖငသနငေပမည။ပမနသးေသာဗဟာတစရပမာပတသကဆကႏြယသမား၏ ေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပကစစညးကငးပျခငးျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးအၾကား၌အမားလကခနငေသာနားလညမတစရပရရျပဆပါကပတသကဆကႏြယသ အသးသး၏ပါဝငမအတငးအတာနင PAR ၏အဓကရညမနးခကမား၊ပနးတငမားကအနစခပထားေသာ စာရြကစာတမးက ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးတ႔အၾကား ေဝမ၍ ျဖန႔ခေပးထားသငသည။ နညးလမးမား အမားလကခေသာနားလညမတစရပတညေဆာကရနအတြကအစညးအေဝးကငးပပအမးမးရပါသည။ဥပမာအားျဖငသကဆငရာကစၥရပမားနငပတသကသညက ြမးကငသမားအားဖတၾကား၍အဆပါမတဆကေတြ႔ဆမမား၌စကား အနညးငယ ေျပာခငးေစျခငးျဖစသည။ဤသ႔အားျဖငပါဝငပတသကသမားအၾကားအခငးခငးေဆြးေႏြးေျပာဆရန လေဆာေပးနငမညဟ ေမာလငရသည။

ေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပအတြကအသးျပနငေသာအခ႕ေသာနညးလမးမားမာ - • ဥးေနာကမနတငးဆငမျပလပျခငး။ ။ဤနညးလမးသည ေမာလငထားသညမားနငကစၥရပမားအားလး

ကစားပြဝငးဆသ႔ယလာေစရနအစျပသညနညးလမးတစရပ ျဇစေလရသည။လငနာရမည အဓက ဥပေဒသမားမာ - � အငဒယာတငးသညအသးဝငသည။ � တစစတစဥး၏အျမငရေထာငနငပတသက၍ (ေဝဖနျခငး၊သးသပျခငး၊တညးျဖတျခငး) စသည

အဆးအျဖတေပးျခငးမျပလပသင။ � ေနာငတြငေဆြးေႏြးရနအတြကအငဒယာအားလးစစညးထားပါ။

• ဗနးသရပျပရပပမား။ ။ဤနညးလမးသညရပပမားကအသးျပ၍ကစၥရပမား၊ အျမငမား၊အငဒယာမား၏ ခတဆကမ၊ဆကႏြယမတ႔က ေဖာထတသည။ဤဗနးသရပျပရပပမားတြငအဓကကစၥရပတစခခငးစက ေဖာျပသညအခငးခငးခတဆကလကရေသာစကဝငးမားနစခ (သ႔) နစခထကပ၍ပါဝငသည။ အေျခအေနတစရပ၏ဝေသသလကၡဏာမားနငအစတအပငးမားကနငးယဥ ေဖာျပရာ၌အသးျပသည။

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The overlapping areas document the links between different groups related to the issue and can form the basis of a shared understanding.

• Field-based mapping exercises: Examples include: � Land use and resources maps, with details about the physical

environment of the site under study (national park, timber logging sites, areas used for shifting cultivation, etc.);

� Social maps, with details on the type of users, families, villages, wealth status, etc.

Participants in the research project draw themselves the map while discussing the issue under study.The resulting map should ideally reflect the consensus of all participants.

Step4: Identify the Research Question(s) After a common understanding of the research objectives has been reached, the next stage is to specifically identify a research question or questions. The list of issues or concerns developed during the previous step (“Building a common understanding”) could be used at this stage. It is from that list that the research question may be chosen. Approach: Selection criteria help rank research questions. They also help to select which research question that is ultimately chosen.

Timber exploitationcompany

Chin householdslivelihoods

Less accessto livelihoods

Limited accessto lands

Non-timberproducts users

National Park

Wood products poachers

Shiftingcultivation

ForestDepartment

Deforestation impact on Chin households livelihoods

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တစခနငတစခထပလကခတဆကလကရေသာဧရယာမားသညကြျပားေသာအပစမားအၾကားကစၥရပနငဆကသြယလကရသညအခတအဆကကညႊနးဆေဖာျပျပးအမားနားလညလကခနငေသာအေျခခအျဖစအသးျပနငသည။

• ကြငးဆငးအေျချပေျမပထတေလကငခနးမား - ဥပမာမားအေနျဖင � (အမးသားသစေတာၾကးဝငး၊က ြနးသစထတလပေရးေနရာမားနင ေရြ႕ေျပာငးေတာငယာအတြက

အသးျပေသာဧရယာမားစသည) ေလလာမညေနရာ၏ရပပငးဆငရာအေသးစတပါဝငေသာ ေျမယာအသးျပပနငအရငးအျမစမားေျမပ

� အသးျပသမားအမးအစား၊မသားစမား၊ေကးရြာမား၊ၾကြယဝခမးသာမအေျခအေနစသညအေသးစတ ပါဝငေသာလမေရးအေျချပေျမပမား

သေတသနစမကနးတြငပါဝငေသာသမားသညေလလာမညအေၾကာငးအရာအေၾကာငးေဆြးေႏြးၾကရငး၎တ႔ကယတငေျမပဆြရနျဖစသည။ရရလာေသာေျမပသညပါဝငသအားလး၏သေဘာတညခကကထငဟပရမည။

အဆင(၄) သေတသနေမးခြနးမားေဖာထတျခငး သေတသနရညရြယခကမားနငပတသက၍အမားလကခနငေသာနားလညမတစရပရရပါကေနာကအဆငအေနျဖင သေတသနေမးခြနးတစရပ (သ႔) ေမးခြနးမားကအတအကေဖာထတရနျဖစသည။ ယခင(အမားလကခေသာနားလညမ တစရပတညေဆာကယသည ) အဆင၌ေဖာထတခေသာကစၥရပမားစာရငးကဤ အဆငတြင အသးျပရနျဖစသည။ ထစာရငးမထတနတ၍သေတသနေမးခြနးကေရြးခယရနျဖစသည။ ခဥးကပပ ေရြးခယမဆငရာစနနးမားသညသေတသနေမးခြနးမား၏အေရးပါမအစအစဥကကညစစဥေပးသည။မညသညသေတသနေမးခြနးအားအဆးသတေရြးခယရမညကလညးကညေပးသည။

Timber exploitationcompany

Chin householdslivelihoods

Less accessto livelihoods

Limited accessto lands

Non-timberproducts users

National Park

Wood products poachers

Shiftingcultivation

ForestDepartment

Deforestation impact on Chin households livelihoods

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Tool: Selection criteria may include feasibility, time-consumption, cost-effectiveness, and ecological, social and economic impacts. They may be entered in a matrix designed to evaluate each issue. The group then rates each issue relative to each criterion (for example, 1, 2, 3 for high, medium, low). The sum of the ratings gives each issue a “priority value”. It can also help the group decide which research questions to choose. The result could be one or a couple of research questions. Questions raised during the session Common interest in the questions Total

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

What are the main causes of deforestation? 3 3 3 9

What are the impacts of deforestation on livelihood among Chin villagers?

3 3 1 7

How can the Forest Dept. control deforestation? 2 1 2 5

How can poaching be prevented? 1 1 1 3

Is the natural park efficiently managed? 2 1 2 5

Etc.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• PAR projects are usually led by groups or communities directly affected by a problem or an issue;

• Actual participation of a wide range of stakeholders is crucial in PAR projects;

• PAR produces answers about this problem or issue which in turn help stakeholders decide which action to take. Ultimately, this decision-making must result in improvements for those affected by the problem or issue;

• PAR researchers act as facilitators;

• PAR projects can use a wide range of research methodologies.

Exercise 1.What is lacking in each of the following steps of the PAR?

-The research organization contacted by a group of Chin elders agreed to undertake a study of deforestation and shifting cultivation practices. -During the PAR, researchers interviewed non-wood products poachers. -Elders then decided to disclose poaching practices in their area by giving the names of poachers. -Just after finding out that land plots included in the national park were confiscated from Chin farmers, the research organization decided to raise the issue with the Ministry of Environment, with the hope that the plots could be given back. -Involvement as defined by the research team was limited to Chin farmers, national park authorities, and logging companies.

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နညးလမး ေရြးခယမဆငရာစနနးမားတြငျဖစနငေခရမ၊အခန၊စရတစကအကးသကေရာကမ၊ေဂဟစနစပငးဆငရာ၊လမေရးဆငရာ၊စးပြားေရးအကးသကေရာကမဆငရာတ႔ပါဝငပါသည။၎တ႔ကကစၥရပတစခခငးစကအကျဖတရနစစဥဒဇငးျပလပထားေသာဇယားအတြငးသ႔ထညသြငးနငသည။ထ႔ေနာကကစၥရပတစခခငးစနငပတသကေသာေရြးခယမစနနးတစခခငးစနငအကျဖတအဆငေပးနငသည။ (ဥပမာ၁၊၂၊၃ဟ၍အျမငဆး၊အလယအလတ၊အနမဆးဟ၍အမတေပးနငသည။) အမတေပးမမားကေပါငး၍စစေပါငးရမတမားျဖငကစၥရပတစခခငးစက“ဥးစားေပးတနဘး”သတမတေပးနငသည။ဤနညးျဖငရညလားေသာကစၥရပမားစာရငးမမညသညသေတသနေမးခြနးကေရြးခယမညဆသညကဆးျဖတနငသည။ရလာဒအေနျဖငတစခ (သ႔) တစခထကပေသာသေတသနေမးခြနးမားျဖစနငသည။ ` ေဆြးေႏြး၍ေပၚထြကလာေသာေမးခြနးမား ေမးခြနးမားအားအမားစတ၀ငစားမႈ စစေပါငး အပစ၁ အပစ၂ အပစ၃ သစေတာျပနးတးမႈ၏အဓကအေၾကာငးရငးမားမာအဘယနညး? ၃ ၃ ၃ ၉ ခငးရြာသားမား၏အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈအေပၚသကေရာကေသာသစေတာျပနးတးမႈ၏အကးသကေရာကမႈမားမာအဘယနညး ?

၃ ၃ ၁ ၇

သစေတာဥးစးဌာနအေနျဖင႔သစေတာျပနးတးမႈကအဘယသ႕ထနးခပႏငသနညး။ ၂ ၁ ၂ ၅ တရားမ၀ငကးေကာသစခတမႈမားကမညက႕သ႕တားဆးမညနညး။ ၁ ၁ ၁ ၃ သဘာ၀ၾကး၀ငးအားထေရာကစြာစမခန႔ခြပါရ႕လား။ ၂ ၁ ၂ ၅ အစရသျဖင႔ အနစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါဝငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• PAR စမကနးမားကျပနာ(သ႔) ကစၥရပမတကရကသကေရာကမရေသာအပစမား(သ႔) ရပရြာလထမ

အမားအားျဖငဥးေဆာငေလရသည။

• ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားမားနငသမမားမားလကေတြ႔ပးေပါငးပါဝငမသည PAR စမကနးမားအတြက

အေရးၾကးသည။

• PAR သညျပနာရပသ႔ကစၥရပအတြကအေျဖထတေပးျပး၎အေျဖမတဆငပါဝငပတသကသမား

အေနျဖငမညသညလပေဆာငမမးျပလပရမညကဆးျဖတသည။အဆးစြနဆးအေနျဖငဆးျဖတခကခမတျခငး

သညျပနာရပသ႔ကစၥရပမသကေရာကမရသမားအပၚအကးသကေရာကတးတကမမားျဖစေပၚရမည။

• PAR သေတသမားသညကညပပးသမားအျဖစေဆာငရြကသည။

• PAR စမကနးမားသညမားျပားလစြာေသာသေတသနနညးလမးမားကအသးျပနငသည။

ေလကငခနး (၁) ေအာကပါေဖာျပပါ PAR အဆငအသးသးတြငမညသညတ႔လအပေနသနညး။

(၅) ခငးလၾကးသမအပစမဆကသြယေဆာငရြကခငးေသာသေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးသညသစေတာျပနးတးမနင ေရြ႔ေျပာငးေတာငယာစကပးသညအေလ႔အထမားက ေလလာမျပရနသေဘာတသည။ (၆) PAR ျပလပစဥအေတာအတြငးသေတသမားသညသစမဟတသညထတကနမားက ခးယထတလပသမားကအငတာဗးသည။ထအခါလၾကးမားမ၎တ႔ေဒသအတြငးရခးယကးေကာသမား၏အေလအထကထတေဖာရနဆးျဖတၾကျပးခးယကးေကာသမား၏အမညမားက ေဖာထတလကၾကသည။ (၇) အမးသားသစေတာၾကးဝငးတြငပါဝငေသာ ေျမကြကမားသညခငးေတာငသမားထမနငငေတာပငအျဖစ သမးယထားေသာေျမကြကမားပါဝငသညကသရျပးေသာအခါသေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးသည ေျမကြကမား ျပနေပးေစလသည ေမာလငခကျဖငထကစၥကသဘာဝပတဝနးကငထနးသမးေရးဝနၾကးဌာနသ႔ တငျပရနဆးျဖတလကသည။ (၈) သေတသနအဖြ႔မ ေဖာထတသတမတေသာပါဝငသညအဖြ႔အစညးမားမာခငးေတာငသမား၊ အမးသားသစေတာၾကးဝငးအာဏာပငမားနငသစထတလပေရးကမၸဏတ႔သာျဖစသည။

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Answers: 1. Participatory process is lacking. From the outset, the research organization

should have discussed with the elders what their concerns were about the issue. This discussion would have started the actual participatory process.

2. The disclosure of the names of poachers here is an ethical issue. All the stakeholders, including elders, should respect the confidentiality of informants and therefore not disclose the names of anyone even if the behaviour of this person is not appreciated.

3. Here also the process is non-participatory: the organization should have discussed with the elders the research findings and decided with the main stakeholders which findings were the most appropriate to communicate and how to communicate them. The issue may also be ethical: communicating too quickly on the issue of land confiscation may back-lash and eventually undermine the claims of Chin farmers.

4. Many more stakeholders should have been consulted during the research, among them: the Forest Department, local authorities, women, other user groups, etc.

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အေျဖမား။ ။ ၁။ပးေပါငးပါဝငမလပငနးစဥမပါဝငပါ။အစကတညးကစတင၍သေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးအေနျဖငကစၥရပနငပတသက ေသာလၾကးသမ၏ဆႏၵက၎တ႔နငအရငေဆြးေႏြးတငပငသငသည။ဤေဆြးေႏြးတငပငမသညတကယတမးပးေပါငး ပါဝငသညလပငနးစဥကအစျပခသငသည။ ၂။တရားမဝငခးယထတလပသမား၏နာမညမားအား ေဖာထတျခငးသညဤေနရာတြငကငဝတပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပ ျဖစသည။လၾကးသမမားအပါအဝငအားလးေသာပါဝငပတသကသမားသညသတငးေပးသမားအားလ ႔ဝကထားမဟ သညအခကက ေလးစားလကနာသငျပးပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၏အျပအမသညမေကာငးသည တငေအာင အမညမားကေဖာထတျခငးမျပသငေပ။ ၃။ဤလပငနးစဥတြငလညးပးေပါငးပါဝငမမရေခ။အဖြ႔အစညးအေနျဖငသေတသနေတြ႔ရခကမားကလၾကးသမမားနငတငပငသငျပးအဓကပတသကဆကႏြယသမားနငအတတကြမညသညေတြ႔ရခကမားကတငျပရနအသငေလာဆးျဖစ မညမညကသ႔တငျပမညကဆးျဖတရမည။အဆပါကစၥရပသညကငဝတပငးနငလညးသကဆငသည။နငငေတာပင အျဖစသမးယသညေျမယာကစၥကအလငစလတငျပေျပာဆပါကေျပာငးျပနအကးသကရာကေစျပးခငးေတာငသမား၏တငျပေျပာဆမကပငတေျဖးေျဖးနငအငအားယတေလာေစနငသည။ ၄။သေတသနလပစဥကာလအတြငးပ၍မားစြာေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားနငတငပငညနငးသငျပး၎တ႔၌သစ ေတာဥးစးဌာန၊ ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမား၊အမးသမးအပစနငအျခားအသးျပသမားအပစစသညျဖငပါဝငသင႔သည။

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BASIC 12. RESEARCH AND ETHICS0

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT :

• Understanding ethical issues of social research; • Learning the basic code of conduct and practice that social researchers must

follow; • Understanding how ethics and politics may interact when conducting social

research projects. WHAT ARE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL RESEARCH ? “Ethical” refers to a set of moral principles followed by a group or a profession specializing in a specific field. The well-known “Hippocratic oath” preventing members of the medical profession from disclosing any information about their patients is such a code of conduct. Ethics in social research hence designates a code of conduct that researchers should always follow when carrying out their research. Example of ethical issues regarding informants: Suppose a research is conducted on a PLHIV (People Living with HIV) community. Here follow three conducts and prac tices that do not follow ethical issues in social research. An y researcher should abstain to follow these types of conducts and practices.

• A researcher pretends to be a PLHIV so as to become member of a Self-Help Group.

In doing so, his/her intrusion into people’s lives under this pretense does not respect the moral conduct a researcher should observe.

• A researcher reports the list of interviewees to th e local authorities.

In doing so, people can be identified: this does no t respect the right to anonymity any research on such sensitive issue has to respect.

• A researcher pretends to be a doctor so as to inter view PLHIV more easily. In doing so, the researcher does not use any inform ed consent and the people interviewed are deceived.

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အေျခခအဆင ၁၂. သေတသနနငကင၀တ ဤအခနးတြင

• လမသေတသနနငပတသကေသာကင၀တပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားအေၾကာငးနားလညေစရန

• လမသေတသမားလကနာရမညအေလအကငမားနငအေျခခကငထးမားအေၾကာငးသငယေလလာႏငေစရန

• လမေရးသေတသနစမကနးမားလပေဆာငရာတြငကင၀တနငမတ႔အျပနအလနပတသကဆကစပပအေၾကာ

ငးနားလညႏငေစရနတ႔ပါ၀ငပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________ လမသေတသနရကင၀တပငးဆငရာနငမပငးဆငရာကစၥရပတ႔မာအဘယနညး။ '" ကင၀တပငးဆငရာ " ဟဆရာ၌လပငနးနယပယတစခတြငအထးျပေသာက ြမးကငသလတစစ (သ႔) က ြမးကငသတ႔မလကနာကငသးေသာစာရတပငးဆငရာစညးမဥးဥပေဒသအစေ၀းတစခကဆလပါသည။အမားသ ေသာ Hippocratic oath " ဟစပကေရတစကမးသစၥာ" ေဆးေလာကသားမားအေနျဖင၎တ႔၏ လနာမား ပတသကေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားကဖြငချခငးမေရာငၾကဥရသညကငထးတစခပငျဖစသည။သ႔အတြကလမသေတသန၏ကင၀တဟဆရာ၌သေတသမားအေနျဖငသေတသနလပငနးလပေဆာငသညအခါ၌အျမလကနာရမညကငထးတစရပပငျဖစသည။

သတငးေပးသမားနငပတသကေသာကင၀တပငးဆငရာကစၥရပဥပမာ - HIV ပးကးစကခထားရသမား PLHIV လစနငပတသကေသာသေတသနတစရပလပေဆာငသညဆပါစ႔။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါအျပအမနင လပေဆာင ပသးရပမာလမသေတသန၏ကင၀တပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားက ေစာငထနးလကနာျခငးမရေခ။ မညသည သေတသမဆအဆပါအျပအမနငအကငမားမ ေရာငရားသငပါသည။ - သေတသတစဥးသညကယထကယထ PLHIV အပစ၏အဖြ႔၀ငတစဥးျဖစရနအတြက PLHIV တစဥး ျဖစဟနေဆာငသည။ဤသ႔ျပလပျခငးကသ႔ေသာအေယာငေဆာင၍လမား၏ဘ၀မားၾကားသ႔ထးထြငး၀ငေရာက ရနအားထတမႈသညသေသသတစဥးအေနျဖငလကနာရမညကင၀တမားက ေစာငထနးျခငးမရေခ။ - သေတသတစဥးသညေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမားထအငတာဗးလပထားသညလ႔စာရငးကတငျပလကသည။ ဤသ႔လပေဆာငလကျခငးျဖငအငတာဗးတြငပါ၀ငသညလမားက ေဖာထတသတမတနငသည။ယငးသည အကဆတ၍ထရလြယေသာကစၥရပမားတြငသေတသနကလကနာရမညအမညလ ႔၀ကမဆသညအခြငအေရးက ခးေဖာကရာေရာကသည။ - PLHIV မားကပမလြယကစြာအငတာဗးနငရနသေတသတစဥးသညဆရာ၀နတစဥးအျဖစဟန ေဆာင သည။ဤသ႔ျပမျခငးသညပါ၀ငသမားအားအသေပး၍သေဘာတခက ေတာငးခမမရျခငး နငအငတာဗး အေမးခရသမားအားလညစားျခငးျဖစသည။

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Besides the ‘ethics’ issue, the researcher’s objectivity in conveying research findings and interpreting them is crucial. Social research should be devoid from opinionated comments made by the researcher. Examples of ethical and political issues in social research:

1. The issues of the historical presence of Buddhist a nd Muslim communities in Rakhine State and their respe ctive claims to historical legitimacy offer a good exampl e of how individuals may conduct “research” through the lens of their own cultural values. As Buddhist researche rs may see the conflict through the lens of Buddhism a nd Muslim researchers through the lens of Islam, many so-called “scientific publications” often take a one-s ided approach. This one-sided approach seeks to justify the anteriority of settlement of one population before the other. In fact, what would be more constructive wou ld be to offer a comprehensive historical approach based on sound evidence and giving space and voice to both communities. Personal views undermine scientific objectivity and as such constitute an important eth ical problem in social research.

2. A research project studying the impact of a develop ment project concludes that the project will undermine t he livelihood of the population located in the area un der consideration. The researcher feels uncomfortable s ince the study is directly funded by the organization implementing the development project. He/she thinks it might be more appropriate to conceal some of the findings. This way, the organization in charge of t he project will go ahead as expected. Hiding some ofthefindings in order to “please” the funder, howe ver, is a serious ethical problem. No findings should be concealed. A good research should be able to remain independentand keep away from politics.

ETHICAL CODE OF CONDUCT IN SOCIAL RESEARCH Below are basic principles that researchers conducting social research should observe: 1. Voluntary Participation Observing the rule of ‘Voluntary Participation’ entails the following:

• Informants must agree to disclose information about themselves; • Informants must be able to provide informed consent (if requested); • Researchers can assume that individual or group behaviourthe researchers have

observed in public settings may be freely reported as part of their findings without prior agreement from those concerned;

• Individuals contacted for research purposes after researchers have observed them in public settings must be informed they were observed in these settings.

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ကင၀တပငးဆရာကစၥရပအျပငသေတသနေတြ႔ရခကမားအားအနကဖြငဆျခငးနင ျပနလညေဖာကသညချခငးတ႔၌ သေတသ၏ဓမၼဓဌာနကမမာလညးအလြနအေရးၾကးပါသည။လမသေတသနအေနျဖငသေတသ၏ကယပငယဆ ခကမားထငျမငခကေပးျခငးမေရာငၾကဥသငပါသည။

လမသေတသနရကင၀တနငမပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမား၏ဥပမာမား ၁။ ရခငျပညနယအတြငးရမြတစလငလထနငဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငလထတ႔၏သမငးေၾကာငးဆငရာတညရမကစၥရပမားနင၎အပစမားမသမငးေၾကာငးဆငရာအေထာကအထားခငလမနငပတသက၍အသးသးတငျပေတာငးဆမမားျပလပေနျခငးသညလပဂၢလအသးသသည၎တ႔၏ကယပငယဥေကးမတနဖးမား၏ရေထာငမားမသေတသနျပလပနငပကထငဟပေစေသာဥပမာေကာငးတစရပျဖစသည။အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငသေသသမားအေနျဖငအဆပါ ပဋပကၡအားဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငအျမငရေထာငမသးသပျပးမြတစလငသေသသမားသညအစၥလာမရေထာငမခဥးကပေသာ ေၾကာင " သပၼနညးကျပစထတေဝမမား " ဟေခၚဆေနၾကသညထတေဝမအမားစမာဘကတစဘကကသာ သးသပခဥးကပေနၾကျခငးျဖစသည။ဤသ႔ဘကတစဘကကသာၾကည၍လအပစတစစသညအျခားလအပစထကအေျခခေနထငမပမေရးကကသညဟျပဆနငရနၾကးစားေနၾကသည။တကယတမးတြငမပမ၍အျပသေဘာေဆာငသည အေနအထားတစရပမာခငလသညအေထာကအထားအေပၚအေျချပေသာအမးမးျခငပါ၀ငေသာသမငးေၾကာငးဆငရာ ခဥးကပမအားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငးလထနစရပစလးအားေျပာဆခြင႔ျပကာေနရာေပးျခငးအားျဖင႔ေသာလညးေကာငး ျပလပသင႔သည။ပဂၢလအျမငမားသညသပၸနညးကဓမၼဓဌာနကမကပကယြငးေစပးဤသ႔ျဖစျခငးသညလမသေတသန၏ကင၀တပငးဆငရာ ျပနာတစရပျဖစသည။ ၂။ ဖြ႔ျဖးေရးစမကနးတစရပ၏သကေရာကမအား ေလလာမ ျပေနေသာသေတသနတစရပသညအဆပါစမကနး ဧရယာအတြငးေနထငၾကသညလထ၏အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဘ၀မားအားစမကနးမမညသ႔ထခကေစသညကေလလာသည။ဤေလလာမသညအဆပါဖြ႔ျဖးေရးစမကနးကအေကာငအထည ေဖာလကရေသာအဖြ႔အစညးမတကရက ေထာကပထားျခငး ျဖစေသာေၾကာငသေသသအေနျဖငစတမသကမသာျဖစရသည။ ယငးသေသသအေနျဖငအခ ႔ေသာရာေဖြေတြ႔ရခကမားအားထနခနထားလငပမသငေတာမညဟထငျမငသည။ ဤနညးျဖငစမကနးတာ၀နရေသာအဖြ႔အစညးသညယခငေမာလငထားသညအတငးဆကလကလပကငသြားမညျဖစ သည။သ႔ေသာရနပေငြေထာကပသေကနပေစရနအတြကအခ ႔ေသာေတြ႔ရခကမားအားဖးကြယထားျခငးအလြနဆးရြား ေသာကငဝတပငးဆငရာျပနာရပျဖစသည။မညသညေတြ႔ရခကကမဆထနခနထားျခငးမျပသငေပ။သေတသ ေကာငးတစေယာကအေနျဖငလြတလပစြာရပတညေနသငပးနငငေရးနငမပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားနင ေဝးေဝး ေနသငသည။

လမသေတသနရကငဝတပငးဆငရာကငထး အာကေဖာျပပါတ႔မာလမသေတသနလပေဆာငၾကေသာသေတသမားအေနျဖငေစာငထနးသငသညအေျခခစညးမဥး မားျဖစသည။ ၁။မမဆႏၵအေလာကပါဝငမ " မမဆႏၵအေလာကပါဝငမ " ဆသညစညးမဥးကေစာငထနးလကနာျခငးဆသညမာေအာကပါ အခကမားက အကးဆကသကေရာကေစပါသည။

• သတငးေပးသမားသည၎တ႔နငပတသကေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားကထတေဖာခြငျပရနသေဘာတရမည။ • သတငးေပးသမားအေနျဖငသရေၾကာငးသေဘာတခက (informed consent) ကေတာငးခသညအခါေပးနငရမည။ • လပဂၢလတစဥး (သ႔) လတစစ၏လမားအၾကား ျပမေနထငေျပာဆပမားနငပတသက၍သေတသမား၏

ေစာငၾကညေလလာထားမအားအဆပါသကဆငရာပဂၢလမားထမတငၾကငခြငျပခကေတာငးခရနမလဘ သေတသမား၏ ေလလာေတြ႔ရခကမားအျဖစလြတလပစြာအစရငခတငျပနငေၾကာငးယဆထားနငပါသည။

• သေတသနရညရြယခကအတြကဆကသြယေဆာငရြကသညလပဂၢလမားအားသေတသမားအေနျဖငလထ အၾကားေစာငၾကညေလလာမျပျခငးျပးသညအခါ၎တ႔သညထသ႔ေစာငၾကညေလလာျခငးခရေၾကာငးက အသေပးရမည။

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In Western countries the notion of ‘informed consent’ often consists in a consent form signed by the informant. In Myanmar, however, signing a piece of paper may frighten informants. Whatever the researcher decides about using a consent form, the ethical principle for the researcher here is to: (1) openly state why the informant is being interviewed; and (2) obtain verbally or in writing the informant’s consent that will allow the researcher to collect personal information about the informant. Informed consent should at least contain:

• The purpose of study; • The possibility of the informant to refusing to answer some questions or to stop

the interview at any moment; • That findings will be used for research purposes; • The informant’s identity will not be disclosed (see below); • The contact details of the researcher.

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အေနာကနငငမား၌ " သေဘာတစာခပ " ဟဆသညအခါစာျဖငခေရး၍သတငးေပးသမလကမတထးထားေသာ စာရြကစာတမးျဖစေလရသည။သ႔ေသာျမနမာနငငတြငမစာရြကတစရြကတြငလကမတထးေစျခငးသညသတငးေပးသအား ေျခာကလန႔ေစနငပါသည။သေဘာတစာခပသးမညမသးမညကအဆးသတတြငမညသ႔ပငဆးျဖတေစကာမဤေနရာတြငသေတသအေနျဖငလကနာရမညကငဝတစညးမဥးမာ (၁) သတငးေပးသအားအဘယေၾကာငအငတာဗးလပသညက ပြငလငးစြာေျပာျပရန (၂) သတငးေပးသ၏ပဂၢလေရးအခကအလကမားကသေတသအေနျဖငစေဆာငးေကာကယနငရန အတြကသတငးေပးသ၏သေဘာတညခကကနတအားျဖငလညးေကာငး (သ႔) စာအားျဖငလညးေကာငးရယထားရန လပါသည။သရေၾကာငးသေဘာတညခကတစရပတြငအနညးဆးပါဝငသငသညမားမာ

• ေလလာမ၏ရညရြယခက

• သတငးေပးသအေနျဖငအခ ႔ေသာေမးခြနးမားကေျဖဆရနျငငးပယနငမနငအခနမေရြးအငတာဗးကအဆး

သတလကအဆးသတနငသညဆသညျဖစေပၚနငေသာအေျခအေနအားအသေပးျခငး

• ေလလာေတြ႔ရခကမားအားသေတသနရညရြယခကမားအတြကအသးျပမညဟဆျခငး

• သတငးေပးသအေၾကာငးကေဖာထတမညမဟတဟဆျခငး (ေအာကတြငၾကညပါ)

• သေတသနငပတသကေသာဆကသြယရနလပစာအတအကတ႔ျဖစပါသည။

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Example of a letter of consent: Research Title : Nutrition for Urban Children under 5 Principal Investigator and Contact Information : [Here you write down

the name of yoursupervisor or organization and cont act information] . Researcher’s Name : [Here you write down your name, organization/instit ution, and

position/class year here] . Purpose of Your Study : Example: I am a researcher belonging to ______ orga nization. In the context of this project, I am conducting a rese arch project on nutrition, pregnancy, and breast-feeding practic es and beliefs among urban communities in Myanmar. The pur pose of the study is to improve nutrition and child-care practi ces for children under 5. Procedures : You will be asked to answer an interview about the above subject for an approximately 1 hour-long interview. Confidentiality : All the information you provide will be strictly co nfidential, and your name will not appear on the questionnaire. Instead, your questionnaire will contain an identification n umber that is known only by the principal investigator of this study. This identification number is used to locate the intervi ew in time and space so we can come back to you if any additio nal information is needed. Note About Voluntary Nature of Participation and St atement About Compensation: Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or may end your participation at any time during th e interview. While we cannot compensate you for your time, your participation will be invaluable to our project as we seek an understanding of nutrition, pregnancy, and breast-f eeding practices and beliefs among urban communities in My anmar. Information About This Study: You will have the opportunity to raise questions ab out this research by asking the interviewer or by contacting the organization. All inquiries are confidential. Participant’s Agreement Statement: If you agree to participate in our study, we would appreciate that you sign your name and indicate the date at wh ich this form was signed. Please kindly givethis form back t o us at the time of the interview. *************************************************** * I have read the information provided above. I volun tarily agree to participate in this study. After it is signed, I understand I will participate to an interview for the project on “Nutrition for Urban Children under 5”. _________________________ _______________________ ____ Name Date Thank you, Sincerely, ______________ _______________________ ____ Your name goes here with your affiliation . Your organization’s name goes here with contact det ails .

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သေဘာတညခကစာေစာငဥပမာ သေတသနေခါငးစဥ။။အသကငါးနစေအာက ျမ႕ေနကေလးမား၏အာဟာရအေျခအေန အဓကစစမးေမးျမနးသနငဆကသြယရနသတငးအခကအလက။။ [ ဤေနရာတြငသင၏အထကလၾကး(သ႔)

အဖြ႔အအစညးနငဆကသြယရနသတငးအခကအလကကခေရးပါ။ ] သေတသ၏အမည။။ [ ဤေနရာတြငသင၏အမည၊အဖြ႔အစညးအသငးအဖြ႔၊ရာထး (သ႔) တကေရာကေနသညအတနးတ႔ကခေရးပါ။ ]

သငေလလာမ၏ရညရြယခက။ ဥပမာ - က ြနေတာ/ က ြနမသည _________ အဖြ႔အစညးမသေတသတစေယာက ျဖစပါသည။ယခစမကနးတြင ျမနမာနငငရ ျမ႕ေနလ႔အဖြ႔အစညးအၾကားအာဟာရပငးဆငရာ၊ ကယဝနေဆာငမဆငရာ၊ န႔ခတကေက ြးမအမအကငမားနငယၾကညထားမမားအေၾကာငးသေတသန ျပလပေနျခငးျဖစပါသည။ ဤေလလာမ၏ရညရြယခကမာငါးနစေအာကကေလးျပစေစာငေရာကမအေလအထနငအာဟာရပငးဆငရာတးတက လာေစရနျဖစပါသည။ လပငနးစဥမား။ ။အထကေဖာျပပါအေၾကာငးအရာနငပကသက၍အၾကမးဖဥးအားျဖငတစနာရခန႔ၾကာျမငမည အငတာဗးအတြက ေမးခြနးမားေျဖဆရနအေမးခရမညျဖစပါသည။ လ ႔ဝကထားမ။ ။ သငထမရရေသာသတငးအခကအားလးအားတငးၾကပစြာလ ႔ဝကထားရမညျဖစျပး ေမးခြနးလႊာေပၚတြငလညးသင၏အမညရမညမဟတေခ။၎အစားသင၏ေမးခြနးလႊာေပၚတြငဤေလလာမႈ၏အဓက စစမးေမးျမနသသာလငသနငသညအမတအသားနပါတသာလငပါရမညျဖစသည။၎အမတအသားနပါတသည အငတာဗးေမးျမနးသညအခနနင ေနရာကအမတအသား ျပရနအတြကသာျဖစျပးအကယ၍ထပေဆာငး သတငး အခကအလကမားလအပခပါကသငထသ႔ ျပနလာနငရနအတြကသာျဖစသည။ မမဆႏၵအေလာကပါဝငသညသေဘာသဘာဝမတခကနငအခေၾကးေငြေပးေချခငးဆငရာေဖာျပခက သင၏ပါဝငမမာသင၏ဆႏၵအေလာကသာျဖစပါသည။သငအေနျဖငပးေပါငးပါဝငရန ျငငးဆနငျပး အငတာဗးလပေနစဥအေတာအတြငးမညသညအခနမဆသင၏ပးေပါငးပါဝငမအားရပစနငခြငရပါသည။သင၏အခန ေပးပါဝငမအတြကက ြနပတ႔အေနျဖငတစစတစရာေသာအခေၾကးေငြမေပးေခနငေသာလညး ျမနမာနငငရ ျမ႕ေန လတနးစားမားအၾကားအာဟာရပငးဆငရာ၊ကယဝနေဆာငမဆငရာ၊န႔ခတကေကြးမအမအကငမားနငယၾကညထားမတ႔အေၾကာငးနားလညနငရနၾကးစားသညက ြနပတ႔၏စမကနးအတြကသင၏ပးေပါငးပါဝငမသညတနဖးမျဖတနငပါ။ ဤေလလာမနငပတသကေသာသတငးအခကအလက။ ဤသေတသနနငပတသက၍သလသညမားကေမးခြနးထတနငေသာအခြငအေရးရမညျဖစျပးေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးသအားျပနလညေမးျမနးျခငး(သ႔) က ြနပတ႔၏အဖြ႔အစညးအားဆကသြယျခငးတ႔ျပလပနငပါသည။ ဤသ႔စစမးေမးျမနးမမားအား လးအားလ႕ဝကထားရမညျဖစပါသည။ ပါဝငေျဖဆသ၏သေဘာတညမဆငရာေဖာျပခက။ ကြနပတ႔၏ ေလလာမတြငပါဝင၍သေဘာတပါကသင၏အမညအားလကမတေရးထးရနဤ ေဖာငပစတြင လကမတထးသညရကစြကထညသြငးေဖာျပပါကကြနပတ႔အေနျဖငမားစြာ ေကးဇးတငရပါသည။ ေကးဇးျပ၍အငတာဗးေမးသညအခန၌ဤေဖာငပစစာရြကအား ျပနလညေပးေစလပါသည။ *************************************************** ************* ကြနပသညအထကတြငေဖာျပပါရေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအားဖတရပးျဖစပါသည။ဤေလလာမတြငက ြနပ အေနျဖငလြတလပသညဆႏၵအေလာကပါဝငရနသေဘာတပါသည။လကမတေရးထးပးပါက " အသကငါး နစ ေအာကျမ႕ေနကေလးမား၏အာဟာရအေျခအေန" စမကနးတြငအငတာဗးေျဖဆရန ပးေပါငး ပါဝင ရလမ မညျဖစ ေၾကာငးသရနားလညပါသည။ _____________________________ _________________________________ အမည ရကစြ ေကးဇးတငစြာျဖင _____________________________ _____________________________ သင၏အမညနငသငပါဝငေသာအဖြ႔အစညး သငအဖြ႔အစညးအမညနငဆကသြယရနလပစာအေသးစတ

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2. No Harm to Subjects Observing the rule of ‘No Harm to Subjects’ entails the following:

• Subjects must be free from serious physical or emotional harm and any harm that the researcher thinks might impede the good conduct of the interview;

• Subjects must be informed of the manifest content of the information they will be asked to reveal about themselves;

• It is permissible to deceive subjects, as long as the deception cannot be anticipated to create physical or emotional harm.

3. Anonymity Observing the rule of ‘Anonymity’ entails the following:

• Both the researcher and the public cannot identify the subject; • Anonymity often is not required during data collection, but sometimes is

preferred; • Typically, personal details that might help identify a person must be removed

from the data after collection is complete; • The exception would be for studies collecting data over long periods, such as

the UNDP household survey conducted each year for an update on household livelihood.

4. Confidentiality Observing the rule of ‘Confidentiality’ entails the following:

• The public cannot identify the subject. • Confidentiality is nearly always required.

Notice the difference between ‘Anonymity’ and ‘Confidentiality’: Anonymity means that the informant cannot be identified, while confidentiality means that only the researcher(s) can identify the informant. 5. No Deception Observing the rule of ‘No Deception’ means that the researcher has to let the research participants know the true purpose of the research at one point before the research is finalized.

• In most cases, the rule of ‘No Deception’ will be observed before collecting data: before interviewing, before conducting a survey, a case study, a PAR, the researcher will inform the participants of the true purpose of the research.

• In very rare cases, the rule of ‘No Deception’ will be observed after collecting data and before doing the reporting: at this stage only, the researcher will inform the participants of the full research purpose.

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၂။ပါဝငသမားအားအႏရာယမရေစမ " ပါဝငသမားအားအႏရာယမရေစရ " ဟေသာစညးမဥးကလကနာျခငးဆသညမာ ေအာကပါအခကမားက အကးဆက သကေရာကေစပါသည။

• ပါဝငသမားအေနျဖငဆးရြားျပငးထန ေသာရပပငးဆငရာ ေဘးအႏရာယ၊စတပငးဆငရာ ေဘးအႏရာယတ႕ႏင႔ တကြအငတာဗးက ေကာငးမြနစြာလပေဆာငႏငရနအဟန႔အတား ျဖစေစမညဟသေတသမထင သည႔မည သည႔ေဘးအႏရယမမဆကငးလြတရမည။

• ပါ၀ငသမားထမ၄ငးတ႕ႏင႔ပတသတေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားေတာငးခယသည႔အခါထအခကအလကတ႕၏ရငးလငးေသာအဓပၸါယရငကအသေပးသရေစရမည။

• ပါ၀ငသမားအားပရယာယသးလပါက၄ငးပရယာယသညပါ၀ငသမားအားရပပငးဆငရာ ( သ႕ ) စတပငးဆငရာအႏရယမရေစပါကသးႏငသည။

၃။အမညမေဖာမႈ “အမညမေဖာမႈ”ဆသည႔စညးမဥးကလကနာျခငးဆသညမာေအာကပါအခကမားအကးဆကသကေရာကေစပါသည။

• ပါ၀ငပတသကသအားသေတသေရာ၊အမားျပညသပါေဖာထတႏငျခငးမရေစရ။ • ေဒတာေကာကယသည႔အဆင႔တြင “အမညမေဖာမႈ”ဆသညမာလအပေလ႔မရ ေသာလညး တစခါတစရမ

လအပႏငပါသည။ • အမားအားျဖင႔ေဒတာေကာကယျခငးအဆင႔ျပးသည႔အခါမညသမည၀ါျဖစေၾကာငးေဖာထတသရေစႏငသည႔ပ

ဂၢလေရးအခကအလကမားကဖယရားပစရမည။ • အမေထာငစမားအသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈႏင႔ပတသက၍ေနာကဆးသတငးအခကအလကမားရရ၍ႏစစဥေ

ကာကယသည႔ UNDP ၏အမေထာငစစစတမးက႔သ႕ေသာကာလၾကာျမင႔စြာေကာကယသည႔ေလ႔လာမႈ မးမားကမခြ ငးခကအျဖစမတယရပါမည။

၄။လ႕၀ကထားမႈ “လ႕၀ကထားမႈ”စညးမဥးတ႕လကနာျခငးဆသညမေအာကပါအခကမားအကးဆကသကေရာကေစပါသည။

• အမား ျပညသအေနျဖင႔ပါ၀ငပတသကသအားသႏငစြမးမရ • “လ႕၀ကထားမႈမာအၿမတမးလလလအပပါသည။”

“အမညမေဖာမႈ”ႏင႔“လ႕၀ကထားမႈ”တ႕အၾကားကြျပားမႈကသတျပမတသားရနမာ“အမညမေဖာမႈ”ဆသညမာ“သတငးေပးသကမညသမသရေဖာထတႏငျခငးမရမႈ” ျဖစျပးလ႕၀ကထားမႈသည “သတငးေပးသမားသေတသ (မား) သာလငသရျခငးျဖစပါသည။” ၅။လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငး လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငးဆသည႔စညးမဥးကေစာင႔ထနးလကနာျခငးဆသညမာသေတသနအဆးမသတမအခနအတြငး သေတသန၏ရညရြယခကအမနကသေတသမသေတသနတြငပါ၀ငသမားအားေပးသျခငးျဖစသည။

• ကစၥရပေတာေတာမားမား၌ “လညးျဖားမႈမရျခငး”ဆသည႔စညးမဥးကေစာင႔ထနးသည ဆသညမာေဒတာ အခကအလကမားမေကာကမ ( အငတာဗးမတငမ၊ျဖစရပေလ႔လာမႈ၊ PAR ၊စစတမးမေကာကယမတ႕၌ ) သေတသသညသေတသနတြငပါ၀ငသမားအားသေတသန၏ရညရြယခကအမနကအသေပးေလ႔ရသည။

• ရားပါး ျဖစရပမားတြင “လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငး”ဆသည႔စညးမဥးက ေစာင႔ထနးရာ၌ ေဒတာ ေကာကယအျပး အစရငခစာမေရးသားမအခန၌မသာလငသေတသသညသေတသနတြငပါ၀ငသမားအားသေတသန၏ ရညရြယခကအျပည႔အစကအသေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။

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CAN A 100% ETHICAL RESEARCH EXIST ? In very rare cases, applying the five rules previously mentioned cannot be fully done. For certain research topics, it can be important for researchers to conceal their identity to subjects. Example: A research project addresses the question of ‘Human Trafficking’. The strict observance of the ‘No Dece ption’ rule means that the researcher must at all times identif y himself/herself as a researcher. However, because o f the sensitivity of the research topic, the researcher w ill probably have benefit in concealing his/her real identity wh ile collecting information. Conducting this research under one’s real identity might be risky for the researcher and the persons who partic ipate in the research.

As a matter of fact, a research project that is 100% ethical may be hard to implement. Nevertheless, it is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that his/her research follows research ethics as much as possible. The following are questions that may help the researcher evaluate ethical issues linked to his/her research:

• How will you explain the purpose of the inquiry and methods to be used in ways that are accurate and understandable to those whose research is concerned with?

• Why should informants participate in your project? • In what ways, if any, will conducting this research put people at risk?

(psychological, legal, political, becoming ostracized by others?) • Can you make sure that promises of confidentiality will be fully honored? • What kind of informed consent, if any, is necessary for mutual protection? • Who will have access to the data? For what purposes? • How will you and your respondent(s) likely be affected by conducting this

research? • Who will be the researcher’s counselor on matters of ethics during the study? • What ethical framework and philosophy informs your work and ensures respect

and sensitivity for those you study, beyond whatever may be required by law? POLITICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL RESEARCH While ethics refer to formal codes of conduct for social research, there are no formal codes of acceptable political conduct. Indeed, there is no notion of political conduct that is agreed by the majority of researchers. For example, doing research on Buddhism in Myanmar may have a political dimension, especially because of the conflicts that have arisen since 2012 between Muslim and Buddhist communities. Whether it is appropriate to study religion in such a context remains a personal choice made by the researcher.

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ရာႏႈနးျပည႔ကင႔၀တလကနာသည႔သေတသနမးရႏငပါသလား ? အထကတြငေဖာျပခ႔ေသာစညးမဥးငါးရပက၁၀၀ % လကနာႏငသညမာရားပါသည။အခ႕ေသာသေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာမားတြငသေတသမားသည၄ငးတ႕မညသမည၀ါျဖစေၾကာငးပါ၀ငသမားအားအသမေပးဘထနခနရန အေရးႀကးပါသည။ ဥပမာ။ လကနကးမႈႏင႔ပတသတ၍သေတသနပေရာဂကတစခဆပါစ႔။ “လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငး”ဆသည႔စညးမဥးအားတငးတငးၾကပၾကပလကနာရနမာသေတသအေနျဖင႔၄ငးသညသေတသနသမားတစဥး ျဖစ ေၾကာငးအခနတငး၌ ေဖာျပႏငရမည။သ႕ရာတြငယခသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာသညအထအရမခေသာ ေၾကာင႔သတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးသည႔အခါတြငသ၏ဇာတရပအမနကထနခနထား ျခငးသညသေတသနသမားအတြကအကးမား ေစပါသည။ ဤက႔သေသာသေတသနမးကမမ၏ဇာတရပအမနျဖင႔ေဆာငရြကပါကသေတသႏင႔တစကြသေတသနတြငပါ၀ငသမားအတြကပါအႏရာယမားႏငပါသည။

လကေတြ႔တြငမရာႏႈနးျပည႔ကင႔၀တလကနာသည႔သေတသနမးကအေကာငအထညေဖာရနအေတာခယဥးပါသည။သ႕ေသာျငားလညးသေတသနတစရပသညသေတသနဆငရာကင႔၀တမားအားတတႏငသမလကနာရနမာသေတသ၏ တာ၀နပငျဖစသည။ဤ ေနရာမစ၍ ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထား ေသာ ေမးခြနးအခ႕မာသေတသအား၄ငး၏သေတသနႏင႔ ပတသတေသာကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားကအကျဖတႏငေစရနအေထာကအက ျပပါသည။

• သေတသနတြငပါ၀ငပတသကသမားအားစစမးေမးျမနးရျခငးရညရြယခကႏင႔အသးျပမည႔နညးလမးမား အေၾကာငးတတကကႏင႔နားလညလြယေစရနသငမညသ႕ရငးျပမညနညး။

• သတငးေပးသမားကသင၏စမကနးတြငအဘယေၾကာသင႔ပါ၀ငသင႔သနညး။ • အကယ၍ရခ႔ပါကမညက႔သေသာနညးလမးမားကသေတသနလပျခငး ေၾကာင႔လအမားက အႏရာယရ

ေစသနညး။ ( စတပငးဆငရာ၊ဥပေဒေရးရာ၊ႏငငေရးဆငရာႏင႔လအျခားလမားမ၀ငးပယထားမႈစသည႔ အႏရာယမား )

• လ႕၀ကထားမႈႏင႔ပတသကေသာကတက၀တမားအားအျပည႔အ၀ေလးစားလကနာမႈရႏငပါသလား။ • အကယ၍လအပပါကအျပနအလနကာကြယမႈေပးႏငရနအတြကမညက႔သ႕ေသာ “သရေၾကာငး

သေဘာတခက”မးလအပလမ႔မညနညး။ • ေဒတာအခကအလကမားကမညသတ႕ရယပငခြင႔ရသနညး။မညသည႔ရညရြယခကမားအတြကနညး။ • ဤသေတသနကလပေဆာငျခငးျဖင႔သငႏင႔သင၏ ေျဖဆသ (မား) အားမညက႔သ႕ေသာအကး

သကေရာကမႈမားရႏငသနညး။ • ေလ႔လာမႈျပစဥအေတာအတြငးကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားႏင႔ပတသတ၍သေတသ၏အတငပငခပဂၢလမာ

မညသျဖစလမ႔မညနညး။ • ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရလအပခကအျပငမညသည႔ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာမေဘာငႏင႔ဒနပငးဆငရာတ႕သညသင

၏အလပအားလႈ႕ေဆာမႈ ေပး၍သငေလ႔လာမႈျပေနေသာသတ႕အားသျမငပငးျခားနားလညမႈ ေလးစားသမႈ ရေစရနမညသ႕ ေသခာမႈရေစသနညး။

လမႈသေတသန၏မပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမား လမႈသေတသနာ၌ကင႔၀တဆသညမာသမရးကလကနာရမည႔ကင႔ထးကဆလျခငးျဖစေသာလညးမပငးဆငရာေဆာငရြကမႈ၌သမရးကလကနာကင႔ထးဟ၍မရေခ။လကေတြ႕တြငသေတသအမားစၾကးမသေဘာတညစြာလကခထားေသာမပငးဆငရာကင႔ထးဟ၍မရေခ။ ဥပမာအား ျဖင႔ - ျမနမာႏငငတြငဗဒၶဘာသာႏင႔ပတသက၍ ျပလပေသာသေတသန၌ႏငငေရးဆငရာရႈေထာင႔ တစရပပါ၀ငေပသည။အထးသျဖင႔၂၀၁၂ကတညးက ျဖစပြားခ႔ေသာမြတစလငအခ႕ႏင႔ဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငအခ႕အၾကား ျဖစပြားခ႔ေသာပဋပကၡ ေၾကာင႔ ျဖစသည။ဤက႔သ႕ေသာအေျခအေနမး၌ဘာသာေရးႏင႔ပတသက၍ ေလ႔လာမႈျပရန သင႔ေလာမႈရမရမာသေတသ၏ကယပငပဂၢလ ေရြးခယမႈတစရပပငျဖစသည။

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The second difference between ethics and politics in social research is that ethics of social research deal mostly with the methods employed while political issues tend to center on the substance and use of research.

For example, conducting a research project on slums and squatters in urban Yangon may raise ethical and political issues:

• From an ethical perspective, a study on illegal squatters in Yangon area might be instrumental in bringing local political leaders to think that squatters have to be evicted from these areas if the slums are clearly described and located in the research report. The researchers in charge might go around this ethical issue by reporting about these squatters without precisely designating their location or by reporting about them at the township level, an administrative level large enough that squatters will unlikely feel the threat of eviction.

• A research project investigates life in squatters’ settlements. Researchers conducting the investigation have to think about the risks their research might pose for the squatters. It might be possible that their research be misused by local authorities to justify the squatters’ eviction, which was not the intended effect of the research.

Social research in relation to contested social issues cannot remain strictly neutral and objective. Taking again the example of Buddhist and Muslim relations in Myanmar, one could say that International scholars animated by politically-correct views are likely to undertake research supporting the idea that both communities ought to live together for their own well-being (social, economical, etc.). However, if a research with solid methodological standing were to support the idea that segregation of communities would eventually be more beneficial for everyone, it would raise political concerns about the existing conflict in Rakhine State. The study could be used by outside parties for fueling further antagonism between these communities. Therefore, it is useful to remember that: 1. Science is not untouched by politics; 2. Science does proceed in the midst of political controversy and hostility; 3. An awareness of ideological considerations enriches the study and practice of

social research methods. Whereas researchers should not let their own values interfere with the quality and honesty of the research, this does not mean that researchers cannot or should not participate in public debates.

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လမႈသေတသန၌ကင႔၀တႏင႔မတ႕အၾကားဒတယကြာျခားခကတစရပမာလမႈသေတသန၏ကင႔၀တသည႔အသးျပေသာနညးလမးမားႏင႔အဓကပတသကျပးမပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားမာသေတသနတြငပါ၀ငသည႔အေၾကာငးအရာႏင႔ သေတသနအားအသးျပပတ႕ႏင႔ပ၍သကဆငပါသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ - ရနကနျမ႕ျပရကးေကာေနထငသမားႏင႔ျမ႕ေနဆငးရသားမားႏင႔ပတသကေသာသေတသနတစရပ လပေဆာငရာ၌ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာႏင႔မပငးႏငငေရးဆငရာကစၥရပတ႕ေပၚေပါကႏငပါသည။

• ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာရႈ႕ေထာင႔တစရပအရ ရနကနဧရယာအတြငးရတရားမ၀ငကးေကာေနထငသမားႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ ေလ႔လာမႈတစရပသညသေတသနအစရငခစာ၌ဤျမ႕ေနဆငးရသားမား အေၾကာငး ရငးလငးစြာေနရာႏင႔တကြေဖာျပပါရကအဆပါေလ႔လာမႈသညလညးေဒသဆငရာႏငငေရးေခါငးေဆာငမား အေနျဖင႔ဤကးေကာသမားအား၄ငးတ႕ေနထငရာဧရယာမားမႏငထတႏငေစရနေထာကအကျဖစသြားေစ ႏငသည။တာ၀နခသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ဤကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာကစၥရပအားေရာငရားႏငရနကးေကာငေန ထငသမား၏ေနရာမားအားအစရငခစာ၌အေသးစတေဖာျပျခငးမျပျခငးသ႔မဟတျမ႕နယအဆင႔အလကသာ ေဖာျပျခငး၊ကးေကာသမားသညဖယရားခရျခငးဆသည႔ျခမးေျခာကမႈကမစးရမရသည႔ေဒသႏရအပခပမႈ အဆင႔၌ေဖာျပျခငးတ႕ျဖင႔ေရာငလြႏငပါသည။

• သေတသနတရပသညတရားမ၀ငကးေကာအေျခခေနထငသမား၏ဘ၀ကစစမးေလ႔လာသည။ဤစးစမးေလ႔လာမႈအားျပလပေသာသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕၏သေတသနသညကးေကာေနထငသမားအတြက အႏရာယကေရာကေစႏငမႈႏင႔ပတသတ၍ၾကတငစဥးစားထားသင႔သည။သေတသနမရညရြယထားသည႔ အခကမဟတေသာဤသေတသနအားေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမားမကးေကာသမားကဖယရားပစရန အတြကအလြအသးျပႏငသည႔အခကမးလညးျဖစႏငသည။

လမႈေရးကစၥရပမားအားဖကျပင၍ဆကစပျပလပရေသာလမႈသေတသနအေနျဖင႔ဓမၼဓဌာနကမႈႏင႔ဘကလကမႈမရျခငးတ႕ကတငးတငးၾကပၾကပမျပလပႏငေပ။ျမနမာႏငငရမြတစလငႏင႔ဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငမား၏ဆကဆေရးဥပမာကတဖနျပနလည ၾကည႔ရႈပါကႏငငေရးအရမနကနေသာအျမငမားလႈ႕ေဆာမႈရေသာႏငငတကာပညာရငမားသညအပစႏစဘကစလး အေန ျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕၏ ( လမႈေရး၊စးပြားေရးစသည႕ ) ကယပငအကးစးပြားတ႕အတြကအတယဥတြ ေနထငသင႔သညဟ ေသာ အငဒယာအခကအလကကအေထာကအပ႔ျပသည႔သေတသနတ႕ျပလပႏငသညဟဆေကာငးဆႏငပါသည။ သ႔ေသာအကယ၍ခငလေသာသေတသနနညးလမးအေပၚအေျချပသည႔သေတသနတစတစရပကအဆပါအပစမားအေန ျဖင႔သးသန႔စခြျခားေနထငျခငးျဖင႔လတငးအတြကအကးရေစႏငသညဟေသာအငဒယာအခကကအေထာကအပ႔ျဖစေစပါကရခငျပညနယအတြငးလကရျဖစေပၚေနေသာပဋပကၡႏင႔ႏငငေရးဆငရာပတသကဆကႏြယမႈကျဖစေပၚေစႏငပါသည။ ျပငပအဖြ႕အစညးမားသညအပစႏစခၾကားရနဘကျဖစျခငးကမးထ႕လႈ႕ေဆာမႈျပရနအတြကဤေလ႔လာမႈကအသးျပႏငပါသည။

ထ႕ေၾကာင႔သတျပမတသားသင႔သညမာ - ၁။သပၸပညာသညႏငငေရးႏင႔ပတသကမႈမရသညမဟတပါ။ ၂။ႏငငေရးဆငရာအျငငပြားမႈႏင႔ရနလမနးတးမႈမားအၾကား၌လညးသပၸပညာကေဆာကရြကရေလ႔ရပါသည။ ၃။အယ၀ါဒဆငရာစဥးစားစရာအခကမားကသတမျခငးျဖင႔လမႈသေတသနနညးလမးမားကင႔သးမႈႏင႔ ေလ႔လာမႈတ႕အားပမ ေကာငးမြနၾကြယ၀ေစပါသည။

သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔၄ငတ႕၏ကယပငတနဘးအျမငမားက၄ငးတ႕လပေဆာငသည႔သေတသနအရညအေသြးႏင႔ရးသားမႈမားႏင႔မေရာယကသင႔ဟဆေသာလညးသေတသမားသညအမား ျပညသဆငရာအေတြးအျမငအား ျပငမႈမား ေဆြးေႏြးျငငးခမႈမား၌ပါ၀ငမလာသင႔ ( သ႕ ) မပါ၀ငႏငပါဟဆလသညမဟတပါ။

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RESPONSIBILITIES AND ETHICS OF THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST Once collected, the data must be interpreted. At this stage, researchers have responsibilities that could be summarized as: researchers must be honest about their findings and their research.

The following are five important rules that researchers, beginners as well as confirmed ones, should follow:

• Reporting of all the findings: the researcher will refrain from concealing findings;

• Credit for findings: when findings are not the researcher’s own, the credit should be given to the person to whom the findings are attributed;

• No plagiarism: a researcher cannot use someone else’s words or thoughts as though they were his/her own. This constitutes intellectual theft. When a researcher uses the words or thoughts that are not his/her own, he has to be clear about who expressed these words or thoughts;

• Scientific adequacy: researcher must be able to explain how the research can potentially contribute to a field of knowledge.

• Research design must account for or avoid biases in: o Participant selection o Data collection o Data analysis o Data interpretation

Other ethical considerations for researchers concern the notion of integrity. Any researcher should commit to:

� The advancement of knowledge � The pursuit and protection of truth � The promotion of rigorous scientific methods � The defense of honesty

WHO TAKES CARE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH ? In foreign countries, most institutions as well as international agencies have an Ethical Review Committee (ERC), principally those working on health-related issues: WHO, PSI,… Two websites useful for ethical and independent review services: www.eandireview.com; http://www2.asanet.org/taskforce/Ethics/

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လမႈေရးသပၸပညာရငမား၏ကင႔၀တမားႏင႔တာ၀နယမႈမား ေဒတာအခကအလကမားေကာကယျပးစးသညႏငတျပငနကအဓပၸါယေကာကယဖြငဆမႈျပလပရမည။ဤအဆင႔တြငသေတသတ႔၏၀တရားမားအားအကဥးခပေဖာျပရပါက “သေတသမားသည၄ငးတ႔၏သေတသနႏင႔ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႔ရ ခကမားႏင႔ပတသတ၍ရးသားမႈရရမည။ ” ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။ ဤတြငအငယတနးသေတသလကသစမား ျဖစေစ၀ါရင႔အေတြ႔အၾကရသမား ျဖစေစလကနာသင႔သည႔အေရးၾကးေသာ စညးမဥးဥပေဒသငါးခကမာ -

• ေတြ႔ရသမအရာအားလးအားအစရငချခငး။ ။ေတြ႔ရမႈတစခ႕တစေလအားထနခနထားျခငးမ ေရာငၾကညျခငးက ဆလပါသည။

• ေတြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔ပတသက၍သကဆငရာမပငရငကအသေပးေဖာျပျခငး။ ။ ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရမႈမားသည သေတသ၏ကယပငမဟတပါကထေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရမႈမားႏင႔သကဆငေသာပဂၢလကအမတအသား ျပေဖာျပရန။

• မပငခြင႔ေဖာ၍ကယပငျဖစေလဟနမလပျခငး။ ။သေတသတစဥးအေနျဖင႔အျခားတစေယာက၏ စကားလးမား ( သ႔မဟတ ) အေတြးအေခၚမားကသ၏ကယပငျဖစေလဟနမလပရ။ ဤသ႔ကယပငျဖစ ေလဟနလပျခငးသညဥာဏပငးဆငရာခးယ (ခးေဖာက ) မႈျဖစသည။တပါးသ၏ စာလးမား၊ အေတြးမားကအသးျပသည႔အခါမညသမည၀ါ၏ကယပငျဖစေၾကာငးရငးလငးစြာေဖာျပရမည။

• သပၸနညးကအရညအခငးရမႈ။ ။သေတသအေနျဖင႔၄ငး၏သေတသနသညသကဆငရာ နယပယႏင႔ ပတသက၍အသပညာတးပြားေစရနအကးျပႏငသည႔အေျခအေနရေၾကာငးကရငးျပႏငရမည။

• သေတသနဒဇငးသညေအာကပါတ႕ႏင႔ပတသက၍တာ၀နယျခငး (သ႕မဟတ) ဘကလကမႈမားအား ေရာငၾကညျခငး

o ပါ၀ငသမားအား ေရြးခယျခငး o ေဒတာအခကအလကေကာကယျခငး o ေဒတာအခကအလကမားစစစမႈျပျခငး o ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအားအဓပၸါယဖြင႔ဆျခငး

သေတသမားအတြကကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာအျခားေသာစဥးစားသင႔သည႔အခကမာ၄ငးတ႕၏ရးသားေျဖာင႔မတျခငးပငျဖစသည။မညသည႔သေတသမဆေအာကပါတ႕အားတာ၀နခသင႔ပါသည။

� အသပညာတးတကျပန႔ပြားေရး � အမနတရားအားလကနာျခငးႏင႔ကာကြယထနးသမးျခငး � သပၸနညးကနညးလမးမားတစသေ၀မတမးလကနာေရးအတြကေဆာငရြကျမင႔တငျခငး � ရးသားမႈအားကာကြယမႈျပျခငး

သေတသနပငးဆငရာကင႔၀တမားကမညသၾကးၾကပသနညး။ ႏငငျခားတငးျပညမား၌ႏငငတကာေအဂငစမားႏင႔အဖြ႔အစညးအေတာမားမားတြငကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ ေလ႔လာ သးသပေရးေကာမတ Ethical Review Committee ( ERC ) တရပရၾကသည။အထးသျဖင႔ကနးမာေရး ပတoကေသာကစၥရပမားတြငလပကငေနသမား- WHO, PSI ….. အစရသျဖင႔။ အခ႕၀ကဘဆဒမားသညကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာသးျခားလြတလပ ေသာသးသပေရး၀နေဆာငမႈမားႏင႔ပတသက၍

အသး၀ငသည - www.eardireview.com; http://www2.asanet.org/taskforce/Ethics

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• Social research always raises ethical and political concerns;

• Ethics in social research designates a code of conduct that researchers should always follow when conducting their research;

• Researchers must be honest about their research;

• Ethics of social research deal mostly with methods used for conducting research

while political issues tend to center on the substance and use of research;

• No social research is untouched by politics. Exercise 1: Each of the following practices refers to a specific ethical rule. Please associate each of these practices to one of these ethical rules.

1. Recording a person without telling him/her that the interview is being recorded. 2. Copy/paste part of a document in a report without quoting the original. 3. Giving to official authorities a list of interviewees. 4. State something even if the research findings show the opposite. 5. Gaining access to disabled people by pretending you can cure them. 6. Hitting children to study the impact of violence on their behaviour.

Answers:

1. Informed consent 2. Plagiarism 3. Confidentiality 4. Honesty in findings 5. Deception 6. Harm to subjects

Exercise 2: Answer the questions

1. Can a research project be fully ethical? 2. Can researchers be fully objective in their research? 3. Are researchers affected by political and social issues? 4. Can researchers participate in debates on social and political issues?

Answers:

1. Yes but with great difficulty 2. No as researchers are also human beings 3. Yes, necessarily 4. Yes if they think that their research has something to tell about these issues

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အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• လမႈသေတသနသညအျမလလပငကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာႏင႔မပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားက ေပၚေပါကေစပါသည။

• လမႈသေတသနရကင႔၀တဆသညမာသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔၄ငတ႕၏သေတသနမားေဆာငရြကရာတြငအျမ

တမးလကနာသင႔ေသာကင႔ထးတစရပကညႊနးဆျခငးျဖစသည။\

• သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕၏သေတသနႏင႔ပတသတ၍ရးသားမႈရရမည

• လမႈသေတသန၏ကင႔၀တသညသေတသနေဆာငရြကရာတြငအသးျပေသာနညးလမးမားႏင႔အဓကပတသကျပးမပငးဆငရာ ( သ႔ ) ႏငငေရးပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားသညသေတသနတြငပါ၀ငေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာႏင႔ သေတသနအားအသးျပပတ႕အေပၚပ၍အဓကထားပါသည။

• ႏငငေရးႏင႔မပတသတသည႔လမႈသေတသနဟ၍မရပါ။

ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး ( ၁ ) ေအာကေဖာျပပါအျပအမတစခစတ႔သညကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာစညးမဥးတစခခႏင႔သကဆငပါသည။ ေကးဇး ျပ၍၄ငးအျပအမတစခစအားသကဆငရာကင႔၀တစညးမဥးတ႕ႏင႔တြဖက ေပးပါ။ ၁။လပဂၢလတစဥးအားအငတာဗးသည႔အခါ၌အသဖမးထားသညကအသမေပးဘအသဖမးယမႈျပျခငး။ ၂။မရငးဇစျမစကမေဖာျပဘစာရြကစာတမးတစေစာင၏တစစတတစေဒသကအစရငခစာ၌တကရကကးယေဖာျပအသးျပျခငး။ ၃။အငတာဗးေျဖဆသမားစာရငးအားဌာနဆငရာအာဏာပငမားအားေပးျခငး။ ၄။သေတသနေတြ႕ရခကမားကဆန႕ကငဘကကေဖာျပေနေသာလညးအျခားအေၾကာငးအရာတစခအားလႊ၍ေဖာျပျခငး ၅။မသနစြမးသမားနင႔ပတသကရငးႏးမႈရႏငေစရနအတြက၄ငးတ႕အားကသေပးႏငသညဟဟနေဆာငျခငး ၆။အၾကမးဖကမႈသညကေလးမား၏အျပအမအေပၚသကေရာကမႈအားေလ႔လာႏငရနအတြကကေလးငယမားရကျခငး အေျဖမား။ ၁။အသေပးသေဘာတညခက ၂။စာေပမပငခြငခးေဖာကျခငး ၃။လ႕၀ကထားမႈ ၄။ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔ပတသတ၍ရးသားမႈ ၅။လည႔ျဖားမႈ ၆။ပါ၀ငသမားအားထခကနာကငေစမႈ (အႏရာယျဖစေစမႈ )

ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး ( ၂ ) ေမးခြနးမားအားေျဖဆပါ။ ၁။သေတသနတရပသညအျပည႔အ၀ကင႔၀တလကနာမႈရႏငပါသလား ? ၂။သေတသမားသည၄ငးတ႕၏သေတသန၌ဓမၼဓဌာနကမႈအျပည႔အ၀ရႏငပါသလား။ ၃။သေတသမားအားႏငငေရးပငးဆငရာႏင႔လမႈေရးပငးဆငရာကစၥရပမားကသကေရာကရပါသလား? ၄။သေတသမားသညအမား ျပညသဆငရာအေတြးအျမငအားျပငမႈမား ( ေဆြးေႏြး ျငငးခမႈမား ) ၌ပါ၀ငႏငသလား? အေျဖမား။ ၁။ရႏငပါသညသ႔ေသာအေတာပငခကခပါသည။ ၂။မရႏငပါ။သေတသမားသညလညးလသားမားပငျဖစေသာေၾကာင႔ျဖစပသည။ ၃။မလႊမေရာငသာပါပငျဖစပါသည။ ၄။ပါ၀ငႏငပါသည။အကယ၍၄ငးတ႕၏သေတသနသညအဆပါကစၥရပမားႏင႔ပတသက၍တစစတစရာေျပာဆစရာရသညဟထငပါက

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INTERMEDIATE 13. RESEARCH AND PROJECT DESIGN

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The steps followed for designing a research project, especially in relation to time and various types of restrictions;

• The design of a Logical Framework used for implementing, monitoring, and evaluating a project.

_____________________________________________________________________

Chapter 1 started with an introduction of how to define a research problem. It drew attention to two preliminary steps: (1) drawing a ‘problem tree’ about the problem investigated; and (2) answering the ‘What, Who, Why, Where, and How?’ questions. For implementing projects addressing social problems, more steps are needed. This means that the researchers have to design the research project. For researchers that already have research experience, the phase of research design means to select the most appropriate research methods relative to the research topic and to plan the research project according to: (1) time constraints; (2) the human and financial resources available; and (3) the physical and administrative limitations of the context. The first part of the Chapter expands on what was explained in Chapter 1. It gives further guidance on how to design research projects which address social problems. The resulting design represents a reference tool which the research team consults throughout the research process and includes in the final project report. The second part of the Chapter is focused on the design of project management with explanations given about a Logical Framework. A Logical Framework is an important reference tool used for project design and its different steps: research design, implementation and monitoring of the project, and evaluation of the project. It is used mostly for livelihood and public health projects. It is important to note that projects focusing on social research onlydo not have to produce Logical Frameworks.

RESEARCH DESIGN IN RELATION TO TIME

Three types of research design can be distinguished in relation to time:

• A longitudinal study is about data collected at different points in time. The longitudinal study allows the research team to assess how changes occur through time.

The Manpower Statistics Division at the Ministry of Labour, Employment, and Social Security has been collecting data about the unemployment and employment rates in Myanmar si nce 1997. The data compiled throughout the years since 1997 c onstitute an example of a longitudinal study .

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၃ - သေတသနႏငစမကနးပစ

ဤအခနးတြင

• သေတသနစမကနးပစခမတရာတြငလကနာရမညအဆငမား၊အထးသျဖငအခနအကန႔အသတႏငအျခားျခားေသာကန႔သတခကမားႏငသကဆငေသာအဆငမား၊

• စမကနးတစခအားအေကာငအထညေဖာရန၊ ေစာငၾကညေလလာရနႏငအကျဖတရနအသးျပေသာ ယတေဗဒမေဘာငတစခ၏ပစတ႔ကတငျပထားပါသည။

____________________________________________________________________________________ အခနး (၁) တြငသေတသနျပနာရပအားဖြငဆပႏငစတငထားသည။ဤတြငပဏာမေျခလမးႏစရပကအသားေပး ေဖာျပရနလအပလာသည။၄ငးတ႔မာ (၁) ေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏငပတသကျပး ‘ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယား’ဆြသားရန (၂) ‘ဘယအရာ၊ဘယသ၊အဘယေၾကာင၊ဘယေနရာ၊ႏငဘယလ’ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆျခငးတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။လမႈ ျပနာမားကေျဖ႐ငးရနစမကနးမားခမတအေကာငအထညေဖာရနအတြကမ၄ငးထကပမေသာအဆငမားလအပ သည။ဆလသညမာသေတသမားအေနျဖငသေတသနပစခမတရနလအပသည။သေတသနလပငနးအေတြ႕အၾက႐ႏင ျပးသားသေတသမားအတြကမသေတသနပစအဆငဟသညသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာႏငခနထးျပးအသငေတာဆး သေတသနနညးလမး ေ႐ ြးခယရျခငးျဖစသည။(၁) အခနကာလခနဆခက (၂) ရ႐ႏငမညလအငအား ေငြအငအား (၃) လပငနးဆငရာ႐ပဝတပငးႏငစမခန႔ခြမႈပငးကန႔သတခကမားႏငစပလဥးျပးစစဥေရးဆြျခငးျဖစသည။

ဤအခနး၏ ပထမပငးသညအခနး (၁) တြင႐ငးလငးထားျပးသားကခ႕ထြငတငျပျခငးျဖစသည။ လမႈျပနာမား အားေျဖ႐ငးမည သေတသနစမကနးမားကမညသ႔ပစခရမညကကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔လမးေၾကာငးေပးထားသည။ ရလဒအေနႏငထြကေပၚလာေသာပစသညသေတသနလပငနးစဥတေလာကလး၊အဆးသတအစရငခစာထြကေပၚလာသညအထသေသတနအဖြ႕မခနကကလပေဆာငရမညလမးညႊနခကျဖစသည။

ဒတယပငးတြငစမကနးပစအားယတေဗဒမေဘာငႏငပတသကေသာ႐ငးလငးဖြငဆခကႏငအတအသားေပး ေဖာျပထား ပါသည။ယတေဗဒမေဘာငသညစမကနးပစႏင၄ငးစမကနးပစ၏အဆငမားျဖစၾကသညသေတသနပစ၊စမကနးအေကာငအထည ေဖာေဆာငေရးႏင ေစာငၾကညေလလာေရး၊စမကနးအကျဖတေရးအဆငတ႔တြငအသးျပမညအေရးၾကးေသာ လကနကကရယာတစချဖစသည။၄ငးအားအသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးႏင ျပညသ႔ကနးမာေရး ေစာငေ႐ာကမႈစမကနးမားတြင အမားအားျဖငအသးျပေလ႐သည။လမႈသေတသနအသားေပးစမကနးမားသာယတေဗဒမေဘာငတစရပဆြသားရနမလအပသညကသတျပရနအေရးၾကးသည။

သေတသနပစႏငအခနဆကႏြယခက

အခနႏငစပလဥး၍သေတသနသးမးသးစားက ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားပါသည။

• ေရ႐ညေလလာခကဟသညကာလအပငးအျခားအလကေကာကယထားေသာအခကအလကမားျဖစသည။

ေရ႐ညေလလာခကျပလပျခငးျဖငအခနကာလအလက ေျပာငးလမႈမားမညသ႔မညပျဖစပြားခသညက

သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ေလလာဆနးစစ၍ရႏငသည။

အလပသမားဝနၾကးဌာန၊လမႈဖလေရးႏငအလပအကငရ႐ေရး႐လစြမးအားအရငးျမစစာရငးအငးဌာနခြသညျမနမာ ႏငင႐အလပအကငရ႐မႈႏင အလပလကမႏနးအား ၁၉၉၇ ခႏစကတညးက စတင၍ စာရငးေကာကယခသည။ အဆပါ ၁၉၉၇ ခႏစကတညးက စတင၍ စာရငးျပစမႈသည ေရ႐ညေလလာခကဥပမာတစချဖစသည။

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• A cross-sectional study collects data over a short period of time and often has large samples.

• A case study is about studying one case (an individual, a group, an organisation) within its social context at one period of time, even if that one time spans months or years (see Chapter on ‘Case Study’ for further details).

Depending on the nature of the project, the availability of data, and the human and financial capacity, the research team may choose to follow one or the other type of research designs.

Option A: If the research team can obtain government statistics produced in the past for the research topic under study, it can be relevant for the research team to update the government data. At the beginning of research, the research team undertakes a first survey that will expand the knowledge about the topic of research and therefore updates the data. The research team can also undertake a second survey one or two years after the beginning of the project. In this case, the research team has chosen a longitudinal study.

Option B: For this option, the questions of the location of the project and the range of issues addressed by the research project are more important matters. If the authorities or the human resources and financial capacity allow the research team to conduct the project in various towns, townships, states, and divisions of Myanmar, but only once, and the research topic can be addressed in its various aspects and root causes, the research team can conduct a cross-sectional study.

The 2014 Census implemented by the Myanmar Governme nt is a type of cross-sectional study because it surveys al l the population of the country at one point in time and asks this population information about their family and profe ssion. This is a case of a cross-sectional study .

Mon State experiences specific types of labour migr ations: many Mon people leave for Thailand in search of a j ob there. While Mon people leave Myanmar, many migrants from Upper Myanmar make their way down to Lower Myanmar and Mo n State. This situation seems quite specific and merits the development of a case study on labour migration in Mon State. Whatever the time spent on this study (it could range from few m onths to more than one year), this may be called a case stud y.

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• ေ႐ာငတခငေလလာခကသညကာလတအတြငးအခကအလကေကာကယမႈျပလပျပးမားေသာအားျဖငနမနာ

ေျမာကျမားစြာေကာကယေလ႐သည။

• ျဖစစဥေလလာခကဟသညျဖစစဥတစခ (လပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၊အပစတစစ၊အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ)

အား၄ငး၏လမႈေရးအေနအထားတစရပအတြငးတစၾကမတစခါတညးေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။(ျဖစစဥေလလာခကႏင

ပတသကျပးအေသးစတကအခနး၄တြငၾကညပါ။)

စမကနးသေဘာသဘာဝ၊အခကအလကရ႐ႏငမႈႏငလအငအားေငြအငအားတ႔အေပၚမတည၍သေတသနအဖြ႕သညတစစတစခေသာသေတသနပစက ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ ေ႐ြးခယမႈ (က) အကယ၍ ေလလာမညသေတသနေခါငးစဥအတြကယခငကအစးရထတျပနခဖးေသာစာရငးအငးအခကအလကမားက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏငရယႏငပါက၄ငးအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအဆပါအစးရအခကအလကမားကအသစျဖညစြကေပးရနသင ေလာပါလမမည။သေတသနစတငခါစတြင ေကာကယေသာပထမဆးစစတမးသညသေတသနေခါငးစဥႏငစပဆက ေသာအသပညာကခ႕ထြငေပးမည ျဖစေသာေၾကာငအခကအလကမားကပါသစလြငေစသည။ဤ တြငသေတသနအဖြ႕ သညေရ႐ညေလလာနညးအား ေ႐ြးခယသငသည။

ေ႐ြးခယမႈ (ခ) ဤတြငသေတသနစမကနးကမညသညေနရာတြငလပေဆာငမည၊မညသညျပနာမးကကငတြယမညစသညေမးခြနး

မားကသာပမအေရးၾကးေတာသည။အာဏာပငမား၏ခြငျပခကႏငလအငအားေငြအငအားသတမတခကတ႔ေၾကာင

သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ျမ႕႐ြာေဒသမားစြာတ႔တြငတစၾကမတစခါတညးသာအလပလပႏငလင ေသာလညးေကာငး၊

သေတသနေခါငးစဥအေနႏငလညး ျပနာ႐႕ေထာငေပါငးစႏငအေၾကာငးရငးခေျမာကျမားစြာအား ေဖာထတ

ႏငလငေသာလညးေကာငးအဖြ႕အေနႏငေ႐ာငတခငေလလာနညးအားအသးျပသငသည။

ျမနမာႏငငေတာအစးရမ ေကာကခေသာ ၂၀၁၄ သနးေခါငစာရငးေကာကခမႈသည ေ႐ာငတခငေလလာမႈ အမးအစားတစချဖစသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ၄ငးစစတမးေကာကယမႈသည ႏငငလဥးေရတစရပလး၏ မသားစႏင အသကေမြးမႈ အခကလကမားအား တစျပငနကတညး ေမးျမနးရယခသညအတြကပငျဖစသည။ ဤသညမာ ေ႐ာငတခငစစတမးေကာကယမႈ အမးအစားတစချဖစသည။

မြနျပညနယတြင ထးျခားေသာ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးအလပလပကငမႈ အမးအစားမားက ေလလာႏငသည။ မြနလမးေျမာကျမားစြာသည အလပအကင႐ာေဖြရန ထငးႏငငသ႔ သြားေရာကေလ႐ၾကသည။ မြနလမးမား ျမနမာႏငငမ ထြကခြာၾကသညနညးတ အထကျမနမာႏငငမ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးလပသားမားသည ေအာကျမနမာႏငငႏင မြနျပညနယတ႔သ႔ ေရာက႐လာၾကသည။ ၄ငးအေနအထားသည အလြနတရာထးျခားလျပး မြနျပညနယတြငး ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးအလပလပကငမႈ ျဖစစဥေလလာခက တးတကေရးအတြက အကးျဖစထြနးေစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး အဆပါ ေလလာခကအတြက ရငးႏးရမည အခနကာလသည (လအနညးငယမ တစႏစေကာအထ ၾကာႏငျပး) ၄ငးအား ျဖစစဥေလလာခကဟ ေခၚသည။

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Option C: Whether existing data for the topic of research selected are available or not does not matter for this option. For this option, the questions of the location of the project’s implementation and the range of issues addressed are more important matters. If the research team can conduct the research in only one place, one township, or one state/division but only over successive periods of time, then it might be appropriate for the research team to conduct a case study. RESEARCH PROCESS Once a problem tree is drawn and the type of research (longitudinal, cross-sectional, or case study) decided, the research team needs to address further issues. At this stage, it is important to give an overview of these different issues and how they are addressed before research is conducted.

• Clarification: while drawing the problem tree, the research team has to be clear about the meaning of the problem or issue addressed by the project.

• Implementation: after drawing the problem tree, the research team discusses which research methods are the most appropriate for the problem addressed and which approach (qualitative and quantitative) is most appropriate to choose relative to the time and other general constraints. The team may decide to use both. Whatever the decision, the research team discusses how the problem or issue can be reduced to one or two variables. This means that the team identifies the aspects of the problem which are the most relevant to measure in order to have a better understanding of the problem under study. These aspects are the variables of the research: measuring them and identifying the nature of the link between the variables will be the main task of the project.

If a research team investigates ‘land security’ in Myanmar, all team members may not know what ‘land security’ is or members may have different views of what it means. The research team should discuss and agree on a definit ion of ‘land security’ by using a dictionary and/or the in ternet. The final definition of the term should be included in all reports produced by the research team. This definition serv es as a reference throughout the project.

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ေ႐ြးခယမႈ (ဂ) ဤေနရာတြင ေ႐ ြးခယထားေသာသေတသနေခါငးစဥအတြက႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားရႏငျခငးမရႏငျခငးသည အေရးမၾကးပါ။မည သညေနရာတြငစမကနးကအေကာငအထညေဖာမည၊မညသညကစၥရပမားကကငတြယမညစေသာ ေမးခြနးမားကသာ ပအေရးၾကးေတာသည။အကယ၍သာသေတသနအဖြ႕သည ေနရာတစေနရာတညး၊ ျမ႕နယတစခတညး၊ သ႔မဟတ ျပညနယ/တငးတစခတညးတြငစဥဆကမျပတသေတသနျပလပႏငသညဆပါက၄ငးအေနျဖင ျဖစစဥေလလာနညးက အသးျပသငပါသည။ သေတသနလပငနးစဥ ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယားဆြသားျပးစးျပးသေတသနအမးအစားလညး (ေရ႐ည၊ ေ႐ာငတခင၊သ႔မဟတ ျဖစစဥ) သတမတ ျပးျပဆပါကသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအျခားေသာကစၥရပမားကဆကလကကငတြယရမည။ ဤအဆငတြငမအဆပါကစၥရပမားအား ေယဘယကကေဖာျပရနႏငသေတသနမျပမ၄ငးတ႔အားမညသ႔မည ပကငတြယရနကသာအေရးတၾကး ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

• ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးျခငး -

ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယားဆြသားရာတြငသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငစမကနးကငတြယေျဖ႐ငးမည ျပနာ (သ႔)

ကစၥရပမားက႐ငး႐ ငးလငးလငးသျမငေနရနလအပသည။

• လပငနးအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး -

ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယားဆြသားျပးသညႏငသေတသနအဖြ႕သညကငတြယေျဖ႐ငးမည ျပနာအတြက

မညသညနညးလမးသညအသငေတာဆး ျဖစသနညးဆေသာအခကက ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။အခနႏင အျခား

ေသာကန႔သတခကေဘာငမားကလက၍အရညအေသြးႏငအေရအတြကနညးမားအနကမညသညနညးလမး

အေကာငးဆးျဖစမညကလညး ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။အဖြ႕အေနျဖငႏစနညးစလးအသးျပလကလညး အသး

ျပႏငသည။နညးနာနႏငပတသညျပးမညသ႔ပငဆးျဖတေ႐ြးခယေစကာမ ျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပအား

ကနး႐ငတစခ (သ႔) ႏစခ ျဖစေအာငမညသ႔ျပလပမညကအဖြ႕တြငးေဆြးေႏြးတငပငရမည။ ေလလာဆ

ျပနာကပမနားလညႏငေစရန ျပနာ၏မညသညမကႏာစာက ေလလာမညနညးဟေသာအခကက

အဖြ႕အေနႏင ေဖာထတရမည။အဆပါမကႏာစာမားမာသေတသန၏ကနး႐ငမားပငျဖစသည။

၄ငးကနး႐ငမားအားတငးတာျခငးႏင၄ငးတ႔အၾကားဆကႏြယမႈက႐ာေဖြျခငးမာစမကနး၏အဓကလပငနးစဥ

ျဖစသည။

သေတသနအဖြ႕တစဖြ႕သည ျမနမာႏငင႐ ‘ေျမယာလျခေရး’ အေၾကာငးက စးစမးေလလာသညဆပါစ႕။ အဖြ႕ဝငမားအားလးအေနျဖင ‘ေျမယာလျခေရး’ က နားမလညႏငသလ တစဥးခငးစအေနျဖငလညး ၄ငးဆလရငးႏင ပတသကျပး သေဘာေပါကပနားလညပ ကြျခားႏငသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင သေတသနအဖြ႕ဝငမားသည အဘဓါန ႏင/သ႔မဟတ အငတာနကက အသးျပျပး ‘ေျမယာလျခေရး’ ဟေသာ ေဝါဟာရ အနကက ေဆြးေႏြးျပး ဘသေဘာတညခက ရယသငသည။ ေနာကဆးရ႐လာေသာ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကက သေတသနအဖြ႕မ ထတေဝသမ အစရငခစာအာလးတြင ထညသြငးေဖာျပသငသည။ အဆပါ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကသည စမကနးတစခလးတြင မျငမးကးကားစရာ ျဖစေစရမည။

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• Population and Sampling: the research team discusses the types of population

targeted by the project and a sampling method. One important question here is the selection of the ‘unit of measurement’: which unit of measurement is the most appropriate for measuring the variable under study? Is it an individual, household, or a group of people? Whatever the answer, the following question may be: what profile of individual/household/group of persons is selected by the research team select that makes it relevant to collect data about? Relatedly to the question is how many of these ‘units’ are going to be measured to ensure that the research is valid. Answering this question about the number of units is concerned with the sample and the sampling method used for this research.

• Choice of Research Methods: a combination of qualitative and quantitative

research methods is usually recommended. But depending on the research topic, the scale of the project, the human and financial capacity, and other criteria, one or the other type of research methods may have to be emphasized.

If a research team investigates the‘discriminations against people living with HIV’ (PLHIV), the team discusses the di fferent ways discrimination can be assessed: there are the discr iminations that PLHIV think they face (‘perceived discrimination’) and there are also real discriminations that PLHIV face. Discrimi nations can also be psychological, physical, sexual, etc.These diffe rent types of discrimination are considered by the research team for designing the research. Then the team has to choose which researc h methods will be the most appropriate, relative to the topic, time a nd general constraints.In-depth interviews (qualitative resear ch) may be appropriate to understand PLHIV’s perceptionsof dis criminations. Meanwhile, survey questionnaire (quantitative resea rch) may be appropriate to understand the general population’s views on discriminations.

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• လဥးေရႏငနမနာေကာကယျခငး -

သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငရည႐ြယသတမတေသာလဥးေရအမးအစားႏငနမနာေကာကယနညးကပါ ေဆြးေႏြး

ညႏငးရမည။အေရးၾကးသညကစၥရပတစခမာ ေလလာမညကနး႐ငအားအသငေတာဆးတငးတာႏငမည

‘အတငးအတာယနစ’ ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖစသည။လပဂၢလတစဥး၊အမေထာငစတစစ၊လအပစတစစ

မညသညအရာကပင ေ႐ြးခယေစကာမ ေနာကဆကတြ ျပလပရနလအပသညမာ မညသ႔ေသာ လပဂၢလ

တစဥး/ အမေထာငစတစစ/ လအပစတစစအမးအစားကသေတသနအတြက ေဒတာအခကအလက

ေကာကယရမညကအဖြ႕အေနႏင ေ႐ြးခယသတမတရန ျဖစသည။၄ငးႏငဆကစပ၍သေတသန၏

အကးဝငဆေလာမႈခငမာေစရနယငးကသ႔ေသာ “ယနစ”အေရအတြကမညမေလာကကတငးတာရ

မညကလညး ေမးခြနးထတရနျဖစသည။အဆပါ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆရနမာနမနာႏငနမနာေကာကယနညးအေပၚ

မားစြာသကဆငမႈ႐သည။

• သေတသနနညးလမးေ႐ြးခယျခငး - အရညအခငးႏငအေရအတြကသေတသနညးလမးႏစခေပါငးစပ

အသးျပျခငးမာပမနအားျဖငသငေလာေကာငးမြနသည။စမကနးအတငးအထြာ၊လႏငေငြအငအားအပါအဝင

အျခားေသာသတမတခကမားေပၚမတည၍ အဆပါနညးလမးႏစသြယအနကမတစခခအားအသားေပးေကာငး

ေပးရမည။

အကယ၍ သေတသနအဖြ႕သည HIV ေရာဂါသညမား ခြျခားဆကဆခရျခငး အေၾကာငးက စးစမးေလလာသညဆပါစ႔။ အဖြ႕အေနျဖင ခြျခားဆကဆမႈက ဆနးစစေလလာႏငမည နညးလမးေပါငးစအား ေဆြးေႏြးတငပငရမည။ ဤတြင ကးစကေရာဂါသညမားအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႔႔ရငဆငေတြ႕ၾကေနရသညဟ ထငျမငယဆထားသညမား (‘စတအထငတြင ခြျခားခရမႈ’) ႐ႏငသလ အမနတကယ ခြျခားဆကဆခေနရသညမား လညး ႐ ႏငသည။ ခြျခားဆကဆမႈသည စတပငးဆငရာ၊ ႐ပပငးဆငရာ၊ လငပငးဆငရာ အစ႐သျဖင အမးမး ျဖစႏငသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အဆပါ ခြျခားဆကဆပ ေပါငးစက သေတသန ပစခရာတြင ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ ယငးေနာကတြင သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာ၊ အခနႏင အျခားေသာ ကန႔သတခက ေဘာငမားအတြငးမေန၍ အသငေတာဆး သေတသန နညးလမးက စဥးစားရမည။ အေသးစတ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးနညး (အရညအေသြး သေတသန) သည ေရာဂါသညမား၏ ခြျခားဆကဆခရမႈအေပၚ ၄ငးတ႔၏ ထငျမငယဆခကက နားလညရန အသငေတာဆး နညးလမးျဖစသည။ တခနတညးမာပင စစတမးေမးခြနးမား ေကာကယနညးမာလညး ေယဘယ လဥးေရတစရပလး၏ ခြျခားဆကဆမႈအေပၚ ထငျမငယဆခကက နားလညေစႏငသည။

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All these different issues (clarification, implementation, population and sampling, choice of research methods) are addressed by the research team at the beginning of the research project. The chart below gives an overview of how these different issues are linked to each other. It sums up the process that a research team has to follow in order to conduct a research project.

LIMITS TO RESEARCH Besides the issues discussed at the beginning of the project, the research team identifies and writes down the different limits that the project is expected to face.

• Time limit: forhow long the research project is conducted;

• Geographical limit: if the selection of study areas was made on the basis of specific constraints, the research team has to explain these constraints;

• Limited availability of data: if the research team needed but had only limited or no access to existing data for conducting the project, this constraint should be clearly expressed.

• Limits in human resources: the research team mentions the number of persons involved in the research project and details for each task performed the number of persons involved.

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အဆပါကစၥရပမားအားလး (ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးျခငး၊လပငနးအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး၊လဥးေရႏငနမနာေကာကယျခငး၊ သေတသနနညးလမးေ႐ြးခယျခငး) ကသေတသနစမကနးအစကတညးကၾကတငစဥးစားထားသငသည။ ေအာကပါ ဇယားတြငအဆပါကစၥရပမားတစခႏငတစခမညသ႔မညပဆကႏြယပကအၾကမးဖငး ေဖာျပထားသည။သေတသန စမကနးတစခလပေဆာငရနသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏငလကနာရနလအပေသာလပငနးစဥကလညးအကဥးခပ ေဖာျပထားသည။

သေတသနကန႔သတခကမား စမကနးအစတြင ေဆြးေႏြးခေသာကစၥရပမားအျပငသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငစမကနးလပေဆာငစဥရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ ရႏငသညအတားအဆးကန႔သတခကမားကစဥးစားေဖာထတျပးစာႏငခေရးထားရနလအပသည။

• အခနကန႔သတခက- သေတသနျပလပရနအခနမညမၾကာမညနညး။

• ေနရာေဒသကန႔သတခက - ေလလာမည ေနရာေဒသက ေ႐ြးခယရာတြငတစစတစရာေသာကန႔သတခက

ေပၚအေျခခလကပါကသေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖငအဆပါကန႔သတခကမားက႐ ငးလငးတငျပရနလအပသည။

• အခကအလကလကလမးမႏငရနကန႔သတခက - အကယ၍သာသေတသနအဖြ႕သညလပေဆာငမည

စမကနးအတြကယခငေလလာ ရငးစြ အခကအလကမားမ႐လငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ရ႐ရနခကခလင

ေသာလညးေကာငးအဆပါကန႔သတခကက႐ငး႐ ငးလငးလငးတငျပရနလအပသည။

• လအငအားကန႔သတခကမား- သေတသနအဖြ႕သညသေတသနစမကနးတြငပါဝငမညလအေရအတြကက

ေဖာျပရမညျဖစျပးလပငနးတာဝနတစခခငးစတြငမညေ႐ြ႕မညမပါဝငလပေဆာငၾကသညကပါအေသးစတ

ေဖာျပရမည။

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• Other limitations: it is possible that the research team may face difficulties when conducting the research. Some interviewees may not be willing to speak freely. Other problems may arise. In all cases, these problems should be clearly mentioned when the final report is written up.

LOGICAL FRAMEWORK

The Logical Framework is a document produced at the beginning of a project. It is central to the project cycle, i.e. from the beginning of the project, mid-term of the project, to the end of the project. The Logical Framework serves as a reference for successive steps of a project: design, implementation & monitoring, and evaluation.

CAUSE &

EFFECT

INDICATORS SOURCES OF

INDICATORS

ASSUMPTIONS

GOAL

OBJECTIVE

OUTPUTS

ACTIVITIES

The Logical Framework gives a summary of

• What the project is about; • How the projects attempts to achieve its objectives; • What impact is expected from the project.

Goal: The Goal Statement means that the project implemented by the organization is part of an overall strategy of the government, international institutions, and CSOs to address a broad issue or problem.

Any reference should link the Goal Statement to overall development goals promoted nationally or, even possibly, internationally.

Implementation &

Monitoring

Research Design (see chart on the previous page)

Evaluation Start of the project

End of the project

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• အျခားေသာကန႔သတခကမား - သေတသနတစချပလပေသာအခါတြငသေတသနအဖြ႕သညအခကအခမား

ရငဆငရႏငဖြယ႐ပါသည။လေတြ႕ေမး ျမနးခရသအခ႕မာလြတလပစြာေျပာဆရနမဝမရျဖစေနႏငသလအျခားအျခား

ေသာ ျပနာမားလညး ေပၚေပါကလာႏငပါသည။မညသ႔ပငျဖစေစ ေနာကဆးပတအစရငခစာက ေရးသားသည

အခါတြငအဆပါ ျပနာမားအား႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငး ေဖာျပရနလပါသည။

ယတေဗဒမေဘာင

ယတေဗဒမေဘာငဆသညမာစမကနးကနဥးပငးကတညးက ေရးသားျပးစးရမညမတတမးတစချဖစသည။ စမကနးစ၊ လယ၊ဆး၄ငးကသာဗဟျပလပေဆာငရမညျဖစသည။စမကနးတြငအစဥလကျဖစေသာပစ၊အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးႏင ေစာငၾကညေလလာျခငး၊အကျဖတျခငးအဆငမားတြငယတေဗဒမေဘာငအားမျငမးကးကား ျပသြားမညျဖစသည။

အေၾကာငးႏငအကးသကေရာကမႈ

အညႊနးကနးမား အညႊနးကနးမလ ၾကတငခန႔မနးခက

ပနးတင

ရညမနးခက

ရလဒမား

လပငနးစဥမား

ယတေဗဒမေဘာငသည ေအာကပါတ႔အားအႏစခပေပးသည။၄ငးတ႔မာ -

• စမကနးသညမညသ႔ေသာစမကနးျဖစသနညး • စမကနး၏လရငးပနးတငကဆကေရာကျပညမေစရနမညသ႔မညပ ျပလပသနညး • စမကနးမမညသ႔ေသာအကးရလဒက ေမာမနးသနညးတ႔ျဖစၾကသည။

ပနးတင။ ။ပနးတငေၾကညာခကဆသညမာအဖြ႕အစညးမအေကာငအထညေဖာလကေသာစမကနးသညအစးရ၊ အျပညျပညဆငရာအသငးအဖြ႕မားႏငလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမား (CSOs) မားမၾကးမားကယျပန႔ေသာကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာတစခခကကငတြယေျဖ႐ငးရနရညသနေသာဗဟာေျမာကလပေဆာင ခကၾကးတစခ လး၏အစတအပငးသာျဖစေၾကာငးဆလသည။မညသညကးကားခကမဆပနးတငေၾကညာခကမသည ႏငငေတာအဆငအထ (သ႔မဟတပ၍ ျဖစေကာငးျဖစႏငစြာ) ႏငငတကာအဆငအထ ျမငတငထား သညဖြျဖးတးတကေရးပနးတငမားႏငဆကစပမႈ႐သငသည။

အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး ႏင

ေစာငၾကညေလလာျခငး

သေတသန ပစ (ေရ႕စာမကႏာမပက ၾကညပါ)

အကျဖတျခငး စမကနး အဥးအစ

စမကနး နဂး

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Objective: The Objective Statement explains how the project can help change the behaviour and/or performance of the project beneficiaries, or help facilitate institutional change. It is advisable to have only one objective stated in the Logical Framework.

Output: The Outputs are the concrete results that the project will achieve when it

is completed. They also describe the value added by the project. The Outputs are not the activities developed by the project

Increase of food availability and improved liveliho od of smallholders and landless farmers in rural Myanmar. This is a goal that the Myanmar government, interna tional institutions, and NGOS generally wish to promote. I t is part of an overall strategy toward the development of the country and it is also included in the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) promoted by the United Nati ons.

Effective use by the rural poor of the resources on which they depend for livelihood The project helps small holders gain a better under standing of their rights and landless farmers organize thems elves so as to secure more diversified job opportunities (no t necessarily directly related to farming). The proje ct also helps to raise land and labour productivity by dive rsifying employment and food production.

Output 1: Groups of local organizations created.

Output 2: Knowledge and skills of farming technique s by rural poor expanded.

Output 3: Management of harvested products improved .

Output 4: Rural infrastructure repaired and expande d.

Output 5: Micro-credit schemes established and oper ational.

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ရညမနးခကမား။ ။ရညမနးခကတြငစမကနးသည၄ငးေကးဇးျပမညသမား၏အျပအမႏငသ႔မဟတလပ ကငေဆာင

႐ြကပကမညသ႔မညပ ေျပာငးလေစရနအကအညေပးႏငသညက႐ ငးလငးတငျပသည။ ဤတြငအၾကျပလသညမာယတေဗဒမေဘာငတြငရညမနးခကတစခတညးသာထညသြငးထားရန ျဖစသည။

ရလဒ။ ။ရလဒဆသညမာစမကနး ျပးဆးသညအခါတြငရ႐လာမညလကဆပလကကငျပႏင သည အေျဖမားပင

ျဖစသည။၄ငးတ႔သညစမကနးမ ေနာကတးျဖညသြငးလကသညတနဖးကလညး ေဖာျပေပးသည။ ရလဒမားမာစမကနးမ ေဖာေဆာငလကသညလပငနးစဥမားမဟတ ေပ။

ျမနမာႏငင ေကးလကေဒသမားတြင စားနပရကၡာရ႐မႈ အေျခအေနျမငမားေစေရး၊ ေျမပင႐ငအေသးစားမား ႏင ေျမယာမ လယသမားမားတ႔၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးလပငနး အေျခအေနတးတကျမငမားေစေရး ဤသညမာ ျမနမာႏငငေတာအစးရ၊ အျပညျပညဆငရာ အဖြြ႕အစညးမားႏင အနဂအမား မားေသာအားျဖင ျမငတငေဆာင႐ြကလေသာ ရညမနးခကပနးတငတစချဖစသည။ ၄ငးသည တငးျပည အလးစ ဖြ႕ျဖးတးတကေရး ဗဟာတစခ၏ တစစတတစေဒသျဖစျပး ကလသမဂၢ၏ ေထာငစႏစ ဖြ႕ျဖးတးတကေရး ပနးတငမားတြငလညး ထညသြငးထားသည။

ေတာေနဆငးရသားမား၏ အသကေမြးမႈလပငနးမား မတညရာျဖစေသာ သယဇာတမားအား ၄ငးတ႔အေနျဖင အကး႐႐ အသးချခငး စမကနးသည ေျမပင႐ငအငယစားမားအား ၄ငးတ႔၏ ရပငခြငမားအေၾကာငး ပမနားလည သေဘာေပါကေစမည။ ေျမယာမ လယသမားမားကလညး စညးလးညညြတေစျပး ၄ငးတ႔အတြက (ေျမယာထြနယက စကပးမႈႏင တက႐ကပတသကခငမ ပတသကမည) အလပအကင အခြငအလမးမား က ေပါေပါမားမား ရ႐ ေစမည။ အလပအကငႏင စားနပရကၡာထတလပမႈ အမးအစား ေျမာကျမားစြာ ဖနတးေပးျခငးျဖင စမကနးသည ေျမယာႏင လပအား ထတလပႏငစြမးက ျမငတငေပးႏငသည။

ရလဒ ၁။ ။ ေဒသခအဖြ႕အစညးမား ထေထာငေပးျခငး။ ရလဒ ၂။ ။ ေကးလကေန ဆငးရသားမား၏ လယယာစကပးေရး နညးပညာပငးဆငရာ အသပညာႏင စြမးရညပငး ခ႕ထြငျခငး ရလဒ ၃။ ။ သးႏရတသမးခန ထြကကနမား စမခန႔ခြရာတြင တးတကလာျခငး ရလဒ ၄။ ။ ေကးလကေဒသ အေျခခအေဆာကအအပငး ျပငဆငျပး ကယျပန႔လာေစျခငး ရလဒ၅။ ။ အေသးစား ေခးေငြလပငနးမား ထေထာငေပးျခငးႏင လပငနးလညပတေစျခငး

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Activities: Activities are the main steps implemented during the project. Activities are not usually detailed in the Logical Framework. Details about these activities are given in the Work Plan.

Indicators: Indicators listed in the second column of the Logical Framework give explanations on how the goal, objective, and the outputs are measured or assessed.

Source of Indicators:Indicators for each output is measured or assessed based on field

research or survey conducted by the project team. Assumptions: Assumptions are all types of conditions that enable a project to

be completed as expected. They are listed in the Logical Framework in the right column and may include weather, stability of market prices, institutional stability, etc.

# (Number) of groups of poor farmers created; # (number) of women’s organizations.

Output 1 (Groups of local organizations created)

Output 2 (Adequate knowledge and skills)

Output 3 (Management of harvested products)

Output 4 (Rural infrastructure)

Output 5 (Micro-credit)

# (Number) of training and participatory training h eld during the project; % (Percentage) of small holders who understand bett er their rights (a survey is conducted to know the percentag e). # (Number) of storage facilities for harvested prod ucts; % (Percentage) of harvested products safely stored in these facilities.

% (Percentage) of road and irrigation works repaired, maintained. # (Number) of road and irrigation works built durin g the project.

# (Number) of Community micro - credit groups operating effectively. # (Number) of facilitators trained for micro-credit . %(Percentage) of rural poor beneficiaries reached b y the program.

Goal Objective

% (Percentage) increase in the average income of ru ral poor household targeted by the project.

Increase in the number of land certificates obtaine d by small holders; Increase in the number of crops produced.

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လပငနးစဥမား။ ။လပငနးစဥမားဟသညစမကနးလပေဆာငေနစဥအတြငးခမတအေကာင အထညေဖာသည အဓကအဆငမားျဖစၾကသည။မားေသာအားျဖငလပငနးစဥမားအားယတေဗဒမေဘာငတြငအေသးစတ ေဖာျပေလမ႐ပအလပလပမညအစအစဥတြငသာအေသးစတေဖာျပေလ႐သည။

အညႊနးကနးမား။ ။ယတေဗဒမေဘာငဒတယေကာလစာရငးပါအညႊနးကနးမားသညပနးတင၊ ရညမနးခကႏငရလဒမားတငးတာပႏင ေလလာဆနးစစပက႐ငးျပထားသည။

အညႊနးကနးမလ။ ။ရလဒတစခခငးစ၏အညႊနးကနးမားအားတငးတာရာတြင (သ႔) ေလလာဆနးစစရန

အတြကစမကနးအဖြ႕မစစတမးေကာကယျခငး (သ႔) ကြငးဆငးသေတသနျပျခငးတ႔ ျပလပရမည။

ၾကတငခန႔မနးခက။ ။စမကနးတစခ ေမာလငထားသလ ျပးေျမာကေအာငျမငေစႏငသည အေျခအေန

အရပရပကၾကတငခန ႔မနးခကမားဟေခၚသည။၄ငးတ႔အားယတေဗဒမေဘာငညာဘက ေကာလတြငစာရငးျပထားျပး (ရာသဥတ၊ ေစးကြက႐ေစးႏနးမားတညျငမမႈ၊ အဖြ႕အစညးပငးတညျငမမႈစသညျဖင) ပါဝငႏငသည။

ရလဒ ၁ (ဖြ႕စညးျပး ေဒသတြငး အဖြ႕အစညးမား)

ရလဒ ၂ (လေလာကေသာ ဗဟသတႏင ကၽြမးကငမႈ စြမးရည)

ရလဒ ၃ (ရတသမးျပး သးႏမားအား စမခန႔ခြျခငး)

ရလဒ ၄ (ေကးလကအေျခခ အေဆာကအအ)

ရလဒ ၅ (အေသးစားေခးေငြ)

ပနးတင

ရညမနးခက

ဆငးရသားလယသမားမား ဖြ႕စညးထေထာငေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးမား (အေရအတြက) #

အမးသမးအဖြ႕အစညးမား (အေရအတြက) #

စမကနးကာလအတြငး ျပလပေသာ သငတနးႏင လအမား ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမႈ ျပႏငေသာ သငတနး (အေရအတြက) #

အဆပါ အေဆာကအအမားတြင လျခစတခစြာ သေလာငႏငမည ရတသမးျပး သးႏမား (ရာခငႏနး) %

ရတသမးျပး သးႏမား သေလာငသမးဆညးမည အေဆာကအအ (အေရအတြက) #

အဆပါ အေဆာကအအမားတြင လျခစတခစြာ သေလာငႏငမည ရတသမးျပး သးႏမား (ရာခငႏနး) %

ထနးသမးျပငဆငျပး လမးႏငေရေထာကပမႈ (ရာခငႏနး) % စမကနးကာလအတြငး ေဆာကလပျပးစးခေသာ လမးႏင ေရေထာကပမႈ (အေရအတြက) #

ထထေရာကေရာက အလပလပေသာ လ႕အဖြ႕အစညး မကခ႐ခရကဒစ အဖြ႕မား (အေရအတြက) # အေသးစားေခးေငြလပငနးအတြက အတြက ေလကငသငၾကားေပးထားေသာ လပငနးပငးကၽြမးကငသ (အေရအတြက) # စမခက လကလမးမသမ အကးေကးဇးျဖစထြနးေသာ ေကးလကေန ဆငးရသား (ရာခငႏနး) %

စမကနး ရည႐ြယပစမတထားသည ေကးလကေန ဆငးရသား အမေထာငစ၏ တးတကလာေသာ ပမးမဝငေငြ (ရာခငႏနး) %

ေျမ႐ငအငယစားမား လကဝယတြင ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ အေထာကအထား စာ႐ြကစာတမးမား တး၍ ပငဆငလာေစရန၊ သးႏအထြကတးလာေစရန။

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Below is a blank Logical Framework

LOGICAL

FRAMEWORK

INDICATORS SOURCE OF

INDICATORS

BASELINE END OF

PROJECT

ASSUMPTIONS

GOAL

OBJECTIVE

OUTPUT 1

OUTPUT 2

ACTIVITIES

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

• Design of a research project involves discussion between research team members to clarify the research topic, define how the topics and its variables will be measured and assessed, and select which research methods are used. It also involves discussion of possible limits to the research;

• Design of a project management (which is larger than a research project) is summed up in a Logical Framework, which indicates what a social project is about, how it will reach its objectives, and what impact it expects to have. It also discusses the challenges that the project may face during its implementation.

• Both the research design and the logical framework are documents that serve as reference tools for the team of people who are responsible for the implementation of projects (whether it is a research project or a more largely community-oriented, health-related, or livelihood-related project).

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ေအာကတြငယတေဗဒမေဘာငတစခအားကြကလပခန၍ ေဖာျပထားသည။

ယတေဗဒ မေဘာင

အညႊနးကနးမား အညႊနးကနးမလ ေအာကထစ စမကနးနဂး ၾကတငခနမနးခက

ပနးတင

ရညမနးခက

ရလဒ၁

ရလဒ၂

လပငနးစဥမား

အႏစခပအေနႏငဤအခနးတြငမတသားစရာအဓကအခကမားမာ

• သေတသနပစခမတရာတြငသေတသန ေခါငးစဥႏငစပလဥးျပးသေတသနအဖြ႕ဝငမားၾကား႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငး သျမငထားရန ေဆြးေႏြးတငပငရမည။ ေခါငးစဥႏငကနး႐ငမားအားမညသ႔မညပတငးတာမည၊ ေလလာ ဆနးစစမည၊မညသညသေတသနနညးလမးကအသးျပမညဆေသာအခကကတတကကသတမတျပး ျဖစရမည။သေတသန၏တငးတာ၍ရႏငသညနယနမတသတမတခကကလညးထညသြငးေဆြးေႏြးရမည။

• သေတသနစမညႊနၾကားေရးပစ (၄ငးမာသေတသနစမကနးထကၾကးေလးသည) သညယတေဗဒမ ေဘာငထ ထညသြငးထားရမည။၄ငးမေဘာငသညလမႈသေတသနဆသညမာအဘယအရာျဖစသည၊ရညမနးခကမား မညသ႔မညပ ေအာငျမငႏငမည၊မညသ႔ေသာအကးသကေရာကမႈမား႐မညကညႊနျပသည။ စမကနး အေကာင အထညေဖာရာတြငၾကေတြ႕ရမညအတားအဆးအဟန႔အတားမားကလညးၾကတငခန႔မနး ထားရမညျဖစသည။

• (သေတသနစမကနးျဖစေစ၊ပမၾကးကယေသာအစအဖြ႕အေျချပကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ/ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးဆငရာစမကနးပငျဖစေစ) စမကနးအေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြငတာဝန႐သမား အတြကသေတသနပစႏငယတေဗဒမေဘာငသညအကးအကားျပရမညစာ႐ြကစာတမးမား ျဖစၾကသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 14. CASE STUDY THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• What defines a case study; • How a case study is structured; • How to prepare and conduct a case study.

_____________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS A CASE STUDY? The case study is a research approach aiming at understanding a case in the most comprehensive way possible. For this reason, case study research often involves the use of multiple methods for collecting data, although its approach is primarily qualitative. By using multiple sources of data (both qualitative and quantitative) researchers may attain the richest possible understanding of a case. Case studies focus on one single instance, phenomenon or social unit (one individual, one political event, one group, one organization, etc.) within its social context over a limited time span. The formulation of the research topic defines in great part the case study. Researchers define the boundaries of the topic, that is “what is and what is not” the case. These boundaries have to be continually kept in focus. Case studies are therefore oriented toward specific issues rather than generalities. One common mistake done by researchers is to attempt to answer a question that is too broad.

Case studies can be of three types:

• Intrinsic (self-explaining): The case study is used to understand a single case as this case is in itself very interesting (e.g. how one organization succeeded in implementing a particular program, or how a singer became a politician). A case may be interesting either because of its uniqueness, or because its commonality which make it possible to understand a wider phenomenon (for example, studying how a farmer applies for a land use certificate helps one tounderstand the registration process as a whole).

Studying the creation of one political party within the context of Myanmar’s 2015 election may be done through a ca se study. However, studying the democratization process in My anmar is not appropriate for a case study because of the wide sc ope of factors that have to be taken into account: colonia l and post-colonial history, the relation between Myanmar and other countries, Myanmar culture and power relationships, relationships between the central government and et hnic groups, etc.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၄- နမနာျဖစရပ

ဤအခနးတြင

• နမနာျဖစရပေလလာျခငးကအဓပၸါယဖြငဆျခငး • နမနာျဖစရပေလလာခကတစရပအားမညသ႔မညပတညေဆာကျခငး • နမနာျဖစရပေလလာခကတစရပကမညသ႔မညပျပငဆငတညေဆာကျခငး

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နမနာျဖစရပေလလာမႈဆသညမာအဘယနညး နမနာျဖစရပေလလာမႈဆသညမာ ျဖစရပတစခကအတတႏငဆးၿခင၍နားလညႏငေစရနရညရြယေသာသေတသနနညး စနစတစချဖစသည။ဤအေၾကာငးရငးေၾကာငပင ျဖစရပေလလာမႈသညအေျခခအားျဖငအရညအခငးနညးလမး ဆနေသာလညးနညးစနစ (Method) ေပါငးမားစြာကအသးျပ၍အခကအလကရယေသာနညးမားပါ၀င ေနရ ျခငး ျဖစသည။အခကအလကအရငးအျမစမးစအရညအေသြး၊အေရအတြကႏစခစလးကအသးျပျခငးအားျဖငသေတသပဂၢလ မားအေနျဖငျဖစရပတစခကအျပညစဆးနားလညႏငမညျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမားမာတစခတညးေသာျဖစရပျခငးရာသ႔မဟတလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ(လတစဥးတစေယာက၊ႏငငေရး ျဖစရပတစခ၊အပစတစစ၊အဖြ႕အစညးတစခစသည) ေပၚတြငသာအခနကာလသတမတခကတစခအတြငး၎၏လမႈ ပတ၀နးကငတစခအတြငးေဆာငရြကျခငးျဖစ၏။သေတသမားက ေလလာမညအေၾကာငးအရာႏငပတသက၍ျဖစရပ ဟတျခငးမဟတျခငးအေပၚတြငခြျခားႏငမညနယနမတမားကသတမတၾကသည။ဤနယနမတမားကအဓကအာ႐စးစကထားရမညျဖစသည။ထ႔ေၾကာငပငဤျဖစရပေလလာမႈမားကေယဘယသေဘာတရားမားထကသးျခားျဖစေသာကစၥရပ မားအေပၚတြငဥးတညေဆာငရြကၾကသည။သေတသမားျပေလျပထရသညအမားတစရပမာကယျပန႔လြနးေသာျပနာတစရပကအေျဖရာရနႀကးပမးျခငးႏငေလလာမႈတစခ၏ရညရြယခ12ကမားမာအဆမတနမားျပားေနျခငးတ႔ပငျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈကသးမးသးစားခြျခားႏငသည။

• Intrinsic (self-explaining) – ျဖစရပကယ၌ကပငအလြနတရာစတဝငစားစရာေကာငးေသာေၾကာငအဆပါ ျဖစရပ တစခ တညးအားေလလာျခငးကျဖစရပေလလာမႈဟေခၚသည။ (ဥပမာအဖြ႕အစညးတစရပက အစအစဥတစရပကအေကာငအထညေဖာေဆာငရာတြငမညကသ႔ေအာငျမငမႈရရခသည။သ႔တညးမဟတ အဆေတာတစေယာကကမညကသ႔ႏငငေရးသမားျဖစသြားခသညအစ႐ေသာျဖစရပမား)။ျဖစရပတစခသညတမထးျခားျခငးေၾကာငလညးစတဝငစားစရာေကာငးသလ၊ပမကယဝနးေသာျဖစစဥၾကးတစခလးကသေဘာ ေပါကနားလညေစမညဘသေဘာသဘာဝပါ႐ျခငးေၾကာငလညးစတဝငစားစရာေကာငးႏငသည။ (ဥပမာ - လယသမားတစေယာကေျမယာအသးခခြငလကမတအားမညကသ႔အသးခသညကေလလာျခငးအားျဖင စာရငးသြငးသညလပငနးစဥတစရပလးကပါနားလညသြားႏငသည။)

ျမနမာႏငင၏ 2015 ေရြးေကာကပြတညးဟေသာ အေျခအေနတစရပတြင ႏငငေရးပါတတစခ ဖနတး တညေထာငျခငးက ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစချဖင ေလလာစးစမးရနျဖစႏငေသာျငား ျမနမာႏငင၏ ဒမကေရစျပျပငေျပာငးလ မႈျဖစစဥ တစရပလးကေလလာရနအတြကမ ျဖစရပေလလာခကတစရပ ေလသာေလလာမညဆပါက သငေလာမႈ ရမညမဟတေပ။ အေၾကာငးမာထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည အခကအလကမားျဖစေသာ ကလနေခတႏင ကလနေခတလြနသမငး၊ ျမနမာႏငငႏင အျခားႏငငမား၏ ဆကဆေရး၊ ျမနမာယဥေကးမႈႏင အာဏာလပပငခြင ရသမား ဆကဆေရး၊ ဗဟအစးရႏင လမးစမားအၾကား၊ ဆကဆေရးစသညတ႔မာ ကယျပန႔လျခငးေၾကာငပင ျဖစသည။

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• Instrumental : The case study may help identify some underlying structural problems that reflect a larger issue. For example, the case study of 'Daw Tin Tin', a patient living with HIV/AIDS, provides insights into Myanmar’s healthcare problems. In this instance, the problems which affect Daw Tin Tin may help identify structural problems in Myanmar’s healthcare system and produce data that reflect these structural problems.

• Collective (multiple): Several cases sharing similarities are compared in order to understand one particular problem or issue.

Advantages of Case Studies:

• The case study is one of the most suitable research approaches to highlight the complexity of one issue.

• Case studies are particularly relevant for studying the relationship between one issue and a wide-range of factors influencing it.

• Case studies allow a deep understanding of social life. • Case studies’ findings are generally considered reliable as they rely on

different research methods (even quantitative data). • Case studies make it possible to crosscheck the findings of one research

method (for example, observation) with the findings of another research method (for example, household survey).

Limitations of Case Studies:

• Case studies are considered too small and specific to be generalizable. • Intensive exposure to the case may lead to biased findings. For example, if

developing a close relationship with the subject under study, the researcher may adopt the subject’s point of views rather than keeping an objective eye on the issue.

WHEN TO USE CASE STUDIES? A case study should be used when:

• The research focuses on answering “how” and “why” questions. • The research aims at investigating the context in which the problem under study

has happened. • The boundaries are not clear between the problem or issue and its context.

A study on how migrants from a particular community proceeds with decision-making cannot be done without underst anding the socio-economic conditions at the place of origin, a nd the socio-economic conditions expected at the place of destination, etc.

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• ပစယျဖစရပ - ဤျဖစရပေလလာမႈကပမ၍ႀကးမားေသာကစၥအေၾကာငးအရာတစရပကထငဟပေစ၊ ျပနာတညေဆာကပေကာရးကရာေဖြေတြ႕ရေစရနအေထာကအကျပေပးသည။ဥပမာအားျဖင ေဒၚတငတငဆသအပခအငဗြေအဒစလနာတစဥးသည ျမနမာႏငငအတြငးရကနးမာေရး ေစာင ေရာကမႈဆငရာ ျပနာမားကနားလညသျမငလာေစရနအေထာကအကျဖစသည။ဤဥပမာတြင ေဒၚတငတင ေတြ႕ႀကလကရရေသာ ျပနာမားက ျမနမာႏငငကနးမာေရးေစာငေရာကမႈ စနစ အတြငးႀကေတြ႕ရ ေသာ ျပနာမား၏အေနအထားပစအခကမညသ႔မညပရႏငသညကသရေစၿပး ဤျပနာအေနအထားမားကထငဟပေစေသာအခကအလကမားကရရႏငေစသည။

• Collection စေပါငးျဖစရပေလလာမႈ - အလားသ႑ာနတျခငးရာမားကကယစရၾကေသာ ျဖစရပမားက ႏႈငးယဥၿပး ျပနာသ႔မဟတအေၾကာငးျခငးရာတစရပကနားလညေစရန ေဆာငရြကျခငးျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ၏ေကာငးကးမား • အျခငးအရာတစခ၏ရႈပေထြးမႈကအေလးေပးေဖာျပရနအတြကသငေလာမႈအရဆးသေတသနနညးလမး ျဖစျခငး။ • အေၾကာငးကစၥတစရပႏင၎အားလႊမးမးမႈရေသာအေၾကာငးရငးအေတာမားမားအၾကားဆကစပမႈကေလ

လာရာတြငအထးသျဖငဆကႏြယလကရျခငး။ • လမႈဘ၀ႏငလမႈဘ၀၏အခ႕ေသာသြငျပငလကၡဏာမားကနးကပစြာသရ၍နက႐ႈငးစြာနားလညႏငေစျခငး။ • သေတသနျပလပလကရေသာအေၾကာငးအရာတစခတြင ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမထြကေပၚလာေသာ ေတြ႕ရ

ခကမားမာ (အေရအတြကအေျချပအခကအလကမားပငပါ၀ငႏငသည) သေတသနနညးစနစ (Method) အမးမးေပၚတြငမခေနရသညအားေလာစြာ၎ေတြ႕ရခကမားကကးစားယၾကညႏငမႈရ သညဟသတမတၾကျခငး။

• သေတသနနညးစနစတစချဖငအေျဖရာရာမထြကေပၚလာေသာေတြ႕ရခကမား (ဥပမာ-ေစာငၾကည ေလလာျခငး၊ observation) ကအျခားသေတသနနညးတစခ (ဥပမာ-အမေထာငစ မားအတြငး စစတမးေကာကယျခငး) မထြကေပၚလာေသာေတြ႕ရ ခကမားႏငျပန လနတကဆင စစေဆးရနျဖစႏငျခငး။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမား၏အကန႔အသတမား • ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမားမာ ေသးငယလြနးၿပး ေယဘယၿခငသးသပမႈမား ျပလပရနမာသးျခား

အထးျပဆနးလြနသညဟသးသပၾကျခငး၊အမနအားျဖငလဥးေရအားလးအတြကကယစားျပႏငမႈမရျခငး။ • ျဖစရပတစခကေလလာရာတြငအလြနအမငးထေတြ႕မႈေၾကာငဘကလကမႈရေသာေတြ႕ရခကမားထြကေပၚ

လာႏငျခငး (ဥပမာ-ဆရေသာသေတသနျပလပရာတြငပါ၀ငလက၇ေသာအေမးျမနးခပဂၢလႏင နးကပစြာရငးႏးကၽြမး၀ငလာျခငးကယငးအေမးျမနးခပဂၢလ၏ပဂၢလကအယအဆမားကလကခၿပး သေတသနကစၥရပေပၚတြငဓမၼဓဌာနကေသာအျမငထားရရနအလားအလာမားနညးပါးလာႏငျခငး။

ျဖစစဥေလလာမႈကအသးျပရမညအခန

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈကအသးျပရမညအခနမာ - • ‘အဘယသ႔’ႏင‘အဘယေၾကာင’ဆေသာေမးခြနးမားကအထးအာ႐စကရန

• သေတသနလပငနး၏ရညရြယခကမာေလလာခကရေသာျပနာရပရေနသညအေျခအေနစးစမးေလလာရနျဖစျခငး • သေတသနလပရမညကစၥရပသ႔မဟတျပနာႏင၎တ႔၏ဆကစပအေနအၾကားနယနမတမာျပတသားမႈမရျခငး။

လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပမ ေျပာငးေရြ႕အေျခခေနထငသမား၏ ဆးျဖတခကခမတမႈက မညကသ႔ ေဆာငရြကၾကသညဆသည ကစၥရပကေလလာရာတြင ၎တ႔မလေနထငခၾကေသာ ေဒသ၏ လမႈစးပြား ေရးအေျခအေနမားႏင ၎တ႔ေရာကရလကေနၾကေသာ ေဒသတြငေမာလငထားၾကေသာ လမႈစးပြားေရး အေျခအေနမားက သရနားလညမႈမရပ သေတသနျပအေျဖရာႏငမည မဟတေခ။

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A good method to see whether a case study is appropriate for a research topic is to think of the “natural” boundaries of the topic by asking oneself: “Where does the subject end in time and in space relative to the number of stakeholders?” PREPARING A CASE STUDY As noted above, good case studies depend primarily on the definition of “the case”. The definition of the case under study can be done primarily in two steps:

- Defining the boundaries of the subject. - Define the key questions of the research.

A case study is often represented as a circle. The center is the core of the research interest and the edge delineates what is and what is not the case.

1. Determining the case: unit of analysis Asking the following questions may help to determine what the case is:

- Do I want to “analyze” an individual? - Do I want to “analyze” agroup? - Do I want to “analyze” a program? - Do I want to “analyze” a process? - Do I want to “analyze” a difference between organizations?

Answering these questions along with talking to a colleague can be effective strategies for further delineating a case.

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ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစခမာသေတသနျပလပမညအေၾကာငးအရာအတြကသငေလာမႈရမရသးသပၾကညရႈႏငေစမညနညးလမးေကာငးတစခမာမမကယကယမမ “အခနကာလ၊ေနရာေဒသႏငပါ၀ငပတသကသမား၏ အေရအတြကႏင ပတသက၍ မညသညအပငးတြငေလလာသညဘာသာရပအေၾကာငးအရာအဆးသတမညနညး”ဟေသာေမးခြနးမားကေမးျမနးလက သေတသနျပမညအေၾကာငးအရာ၏သဘာ၀နယနမတမားကစဥးစားထားရနျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစခကျပငဆငျခငး အထကကျပဆခၿပးသကသ႔ျဖစရပေလလာမႈေကာငးျဖစလာေစရနမာ “၎ျဖစရပ”ကမညကသ႔အဓပၸါယဖြငဆ သညဆသညအေပၚတြငအေျခခအားျဖငမတညသည။ေလလာမႈျပလကရေသာျဖစရပ၏အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကမာအေျခခအားျဖငအဆငႏစဆငေပၚတြငတညမလကရ၏။

- အေၾကာငးအရာ (Subject) ၏နယနမတကအဓပၸါယဖြငဆသတမတျခငး။ - သေတသနတြငအေျဖရာမညအဓကေမးခြနးမားကအဓပၸါယဖြငဆသတမတျခငး။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈအားစကဝငးျဖင ကယစားျပ ေဖာျပေလ႐သည။ဗဟခကမာသေတသနအဓကစတဝငစားသည အေၾကာငးအရာ ျဖစျပးအနားသားမားမာအဘယအရာမာ ျဖစရပျဖစျပး၊အဘယအရာမာ ျဖစရပမဟတသညက ပငးျခားျပထားသည။

၁။ျဖစရပကသတမတျခငး - ခြျခမးစတျဖာရနယနစမား ျဖစရပကသတမတရာတြငေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားေမးျခငးျဖငအေထာကအကျဖစေစပါသည။

- လပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာကအားခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာမည

- အပစတစခ

- အစအစဥတစရပ

- ျဖစစဥ

- အဖြ႕အစညးမားအၾကားကြျပားျခားနားမႈ ဤေမးခြနးမားကလပေဖာကငဖကတစဥးႏငအတေျပာဆ၍ေျဖၾကားျခငးကျဖစရပတစခကဆကလကထပမပငးျခားသတမတႏငေရးအတြကနညးလမးေကာငးမားျဖစလာႏငပါသည။

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2. Framing the research questions – literature review Case study research generally answers questions beginning with "how" or "why”. The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their inter-relationships. In formulating the research questions, researchers have usually much benefit in conducting a literature review. The literature review will help identify what research is available on the topic. Based on the findings of an existing research, the researcher may be able to formulate insightful questions that have not been yet addressed. Careful definition of questions at the beginning of the research determines where to look for evidence and also the most appropriate method of analysis. 3. Types of case study Besides the three sorts of possible case studies (intrinsic, instrumental and collective), the purpose of the case study may differ depending on whether it is about:

A research project investigates the following quest ion: “What make Karen migrants settled in IDP camps in the pas t 10 years decide whether to return or not to return to their village of origin?” This question can be investigated in two w ays: (1) A case study investigating the decision making process of Karen migrants settling in a particular IDP camp du ring the last 10 years; (2) A case study investigating the experiences of K aren migrants settled during the last 10 years in an IDP camp and /or in the village for returnees. In case study (1), the focus would be on the decisi on making of this group of migrants analyzed as process. In case study (2), the focus would be on individual s and the experiences of recently arrived Karen migrants.

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၂။သေတသနေမးခြနးကတညေဆာကျခငး - စာအပစာတမးေလလာခက ျဖစရပေလလာမႈျဖငျပလပေသာသေတသနလပငနးမားတြင ေယဘယအားျဖင “မညသ႔မညပ”ႏင “မညသညအတြက ေၾကာင”ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖၾကားၾကသည။ ေမးခြနးမားကလညးအနညးကဥးမေလာကေသာ အျဖစ အပကမားသ႔မဟတအေျခအေနမားႏင၎တ႔အၾကားအျပနအလနဆကႏြယမႈမားကဥးတညေမးျမနးထားသည။ သေတသနေမးခြနးမားကပေဖာတညေဆာကရာတြငသေတသမားအေနျဖငစာအပစာတမးေလလာခက (Literature Review) ျပလပျခငးျဖငအကးေကးဇးမားရရႏငသည။စာအပစာတမးေလလာခက ေၾကာငသေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသကျပးမညသညသေတသနျပခကအားရ႐ႏငမညကသေစသည။႐ျပးသားသေတသနမေတြ႕႐ခကမားကအေျခချပးသေတသသညယခငကရာေဖြဆနးစစမႈမျပရေသးေသာပညာသားပါသညေမးခြနးမားကျပလပလာႏငမညျဖစသည။ သေတသနစတငခါစကပင ေမးခြနးအဓပၸါယဖြငဆမႈကနေသခာစြာ ျပလပထားခမသာအေထာကအထားမားမညသည ေနရာတြင႐ာေဖြမည၊မညသညနညးလမးကအသးျပပါကအသငေတာဆးျဖစမညကဆးျဖတသတမတႏငမည။

၃။ျဖစရပေလလာမႈအမးအစားမား သးမးေသာျဖစရပေလလာမႈမား (မလ၊ပစယ၊စေပါငး) အျပငေအာကပါအေၾကာငးရပမားအေပၚမတည၍ျဖစရပ ေလလာမႈ၏ရညရြယခကသညလညးေျပာငးလႏငပါသည။

သေတသနစမကနးတရပတြင ေအာကပါျပနာက အေျဖရာ၏ “IDP စခနးမားတြင လြနခေသာ ၁၀ ႏစတာကာလမ အေျခခေနထငခၾကေသာ ကရငလမး ေရြ႕ေျပာငး ေနထငသမားအဖ႔ ၎တ႔ေနထငရာမလေဒသမားသ႔ ျပနလညေနထငၾကျခငးျပျခငး၊ မျပျခငးႏင ပတသကေသာ ဆးျဖတခကမားခမတရာတြင မညကသ႔ေသာ အေၾကာငးရပမား အေပၚမတည၍ဆးျဖတၾကသနညး။”ဤေမးခြနးက နညးလမးႏစမးျဖင အေျဖရာႏငပါသည။ (၁) IDP စခနးတစခအတြငး ၿပးဆသည ၁၀ႏစတာကာလအတြငး ေနထငခၾကေသာ ကရငလမးမားပါ ေရြ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခေနထငျခငးအေပၚ ဆးျဖတခၾကသညျဖစစဥက စးစမးအေျဖရာသညျဖစရပ ေလလာခကတစရပ အားျဖငလညးေကာငး (၂) ကရငလမးေရြ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခေနထငသမား၏ ၿပးခသည ၁၀ႏစတာကာလအတြငး IDP စခနးမားအတြငး အေတြ႕အႀကမား သ႔မဟတ မမေနရပေဒသသ႔ ျပနလညေနထငသမား၏ အေတြ႕အႀကမားက ဆနးစစေလလာ အေျဖရာေသာျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစခအားျဖင လညးေကာငးေဆာငရြကႏငပါသည။ ပထမျဖစရပေလလာမႈတြင ဤေရြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမား အပစ၏ဆးျဖတခကခမတမႈက ျဖစစဥတစရပ အေနျဖင ခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ ဒတယျဖစရပေလလာမႈတြငပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာကခငးစက သ႔မဟတ မၾကာေသးမကမ ေရာကရလာ သည ကရငလမးေရြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမား၏ အေတြ႕အႀကက ဥးစားေပးေလလာသည။

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• Exploring a case: the case study will be exploratory. This type of case study is particularly useful for assessing the impact of a program or event which has no clear and distinguishable outcomes;

• Describing a case: the case study will be descriptive, with the aim of describing a particular event in real life context. For example, this could be the description of a livelihood program in a particular location, explaining the obstacles encountered, the good and bad practices, etc.;

• Investigating a particular research topic: the case study will be explanatory. It

seeks explanations for an issue or outcomes for which causes are not easily identified using only one single research method.

4. Conceptual Framework After defining the scope of the case study (identifying the boundaries of the case, formulating research questions, and choosing the appropriate type of case study), the researcher needs a conceptual framework. The conceptual framework is meant to improve as research is conducted based on the findings. It helps:

• Identify the type of respondents who should be included in the study; • Identify the types of links between the topic’s various aspects: the core of the

research topic, contextual elements, limits of the case study, constraints of the research, etc. This is done at first based on the literature review and the researcher’s experience. These links are then further detailed and refined all along the research process;

• Distinguish between causes and consequences; • Decide which data sources and research methods should be used.

A conceptual framework is shown below for a case study on the “impacts of the implementation of a child-friendly education curriculum”.

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• ျဖစရပကစးစမးေလလာျခငး - ျဖစရပေလလာမႈသညပဏာမစးစမးေလလာမ ႈျဖစလမမည။ ဤအမးအစားသည သသာထင႐ားမႈမ႐သညရလဒမား ျဖစေပၚေစသညအစအစဥတစရပ (သ႔) ျဖစစဥတစခ၏သကေရာကမႈက ဆနးစစရာတြငအထးအသးဝငသည။

• ျဖစရပကပေဖာျခငး - ျပငပေလာကအေျခအေနတြင ျဖစပကေနသညအျဖစအပကတစခက ေဖာျပရန ရညရြယခကျဖင ျဖစရပ ေလလာမႈသညေဖာျပညႊနးဆမႈ ျဖစလာလမမည။ဥပမာအားျဖငအရပ ေဒသတစခခမ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးလပငနးဆငရာအစအစဥတစရပက ေဖာျပထားျပး၄ငးတြငၾကေတြ႕ေနရသည အခကအခအတားအဆးမား၊အေလအကငေကာငးႏငအေလအကငဆးမားစသညျဖင . . . ။

• သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာတစရပကစးစမးျခငး - ဤျဖစရပေလလာမႈမးသည႐ငးလငးဖြငဆသည

အမးအစားျဖစသည။ဤတြငသေတသနနညးစနစတစမးတညးကအသးျပျပးအေၾကာငးရငးမား ေဖာထတေလလာရနမလြယကသညကစၥရပတစခ (သ႔) ရလာဒမားအတြက ေျဖ႐ငးခကမား႐ာေဖြသည။

၄။သေဘာတရားေရးရာစညးေဘာင (Conceptual Framework)

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ၏ျမငကြငး (ျဖစရပ၏နယနမတမားကခြျခားသတမတျခငး၊ သေတသနေမးခြနးမား ဖနတးတညေဆာကျခငးႏင သငျမတေလာကနမညျဖစရပေလလာမႈကေရြးခယျခငး)ကသတမတၿပးေသာအခါသေတသအေနျဖငသေဘာတရားေရးရာစညးေဘာင (Conceptual Framework) တစခလအပလာသည။ရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားအေပၚအေျခခ၍သေတသနလပငနးက လပေဆာငရသညျဖစ၍သေဘာတရားေရးရာစညးေဘာငကပမေကာငးမြနေအာငျပလပရမညသာျဖစသည။ဤသေဘာတရားစညးေဘာငသည-

• ေလလာမႈတြငပါ၀ငသငေသာေမးခြနးေျဖဆမညသမားကသတမတရာတြငအေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။ • သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာမား (Topics) ၏အမးမးေသာသြငျပငလကၡဏာမားျဖစၾကသညအတြငးပငး၊

ဆကစပမႈရေသာအစတအပငးအဂၤါရပမား၊ျဖစရပေလလာမႈေဆာငရြကရာတြငေရြ႕ရေသာကန႔သတခကမား၊သေတသနလပရာတြငရေနသာအကန႔အသတမား၊၎တ႔အားလးအၾကားမဆကစပမႈမားကခြျခားသတမတရာတြငအေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။ဤကသ႔ခြျခားသတမတရာတြငပထမဆးအေနျဖငဘာသာရပနယပယေလလာဆနးစစခကႏငသေတသ၏အေတြ႕အႀကမားေပၚအေျခခရမည။ဤဆကစပမႈမားကသေတသနျဖစစဥတေလာကဆကလကအေသးစတ၍အေေခာကငသြားရမညျဖစသည။

• အေၾကာငးရငးမားႏငအကးဆကမားကခြျခားရာတြငအေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။ • မညသညအခကအလကအရငးအျဖစမားႏငမညသညသေတသနနညးစနစ (Method)

ကအသးျပမညကဆးျဖတရာတြငအေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။ သေဘာတရားေရးရာစညးေဘာငဥပမာတစရပက “ကေလးသငယမားအတြကအဆငေျပေစမညပညာေရး သင႐းညႊနးတမးတစရပကေဖာေဆာငရာတြငျဖစေပၚလာေသာအကးသကေရာကမႈမား”ႏငပတသက၍ေဆာငရြကႏငဖြယရမညျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပကေအာကတြငအဆျပထားပါသည။

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When the research begins, the conceptual framework here does not show the links between the various elements. When the research is in progress, the researchers can refine the framework and determine how the different elements are linkedamong one another. The final conceptual framework includes all the themes that were addressed during data collection and data analysis.

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သေတသနလပငနးစတငေသာအခါအထကတြငေဖာျပထားေသာသေဘာတရားစညးေဘာငတြငအစတအပငးအမးမး၏ အၾကားဆကစပမႈမားက ေဖာျပထားျခငးမရပါ။သေတသနလပငနးက ေဆာငရြကေနစဥအခါတြငသေတသမားသည ၎စညးေဘာငကျပနလညအေခာကငၿပးယငးအစတအပငးမားကမညသ႔ဆကစပေနပက ေဖာထတသတမတေပးရမည။ ေနာကဆးထြကေပၚလာေသာသေဘာတရားစညးေဘာငတြငအခကအလကစေဆာငးျခငးႏင၎အခကအလကမားကခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာျခငးအဆငတ႔တြငထြကေပၚလာေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမနသမကထညသြငးသြားမညျဖစသည။

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CONDUCTING A CASE STUDY 1. Data Sources The diversity of data sources and research methods that can be integrated into a case study increases the potential for reliable and credible results: this is called triangulation of data. Potential data sources may include, but are not limited to: documentation, archival records, interviews, physical artifacts, direct observations, and participant-observation. In comparison to other qualitative approaches, case study can integrate quantitative survey data. This combination of qualitative and quantitative data helps reach a comprehensive understanding of the problem under study. Each data source is one piece of the “puzzle”; each piece contributes to the researcher’s understanding of the whole problem.

2. Data Analysis Just like any other qualitative approach the data collection and analysis occur concurrently. The type of analysis needed depends on the type of case study. Generally-speaking, it is important during the analysis phase to reconsider the hypothesis made at the beginning of the research. This helps focus the analysis on the data which are directly relevant to the case study. At the same time, this helps discard data which may not be directly related to the research question. Data sources should not be treated independently and findings reported separately. This is not the purpose of a case study. On the contrary, the researcher must ensure that the data and findings are combined. By doing this, the overall case is better understood. The relationships between external and internal factors and the research questions, and the causes and consequences are also better identified.

Literature Review

Quantitative data

Key Informant Interviews

Survey

Focus Group Discussions

Participatory Action ResearchDirect observation

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ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပျပလပျခငး ၁။အခကအလကရငးျမစမား အခကအလကရငးျမစအမးအစားစလငမႈႏငသေတသနနညးစနစမားကစစညး၍ျဖစရပေလလာမႈအေပၚတြငေပါငးစညးႏငမႈကယၾကညကးစားႏငဖြယရသည။သေတသနရလဒမားထြကေပၚလာႏငမညအလားအလာကပမေကာငးမြနေစသည။အခကအလကရငးျမစမားတြငမတတမးတငျခငးမား၊စစညးထားေသာမတတမး၊အငတာဗးမား၊ပစၥညးပစၥယမား၊တကရကစစမးေလလာမႈမား၊ေလလာမႈတြငပါ၀ငေသာအစမးသပခပဂၢလမားကေလလာမႈမားပါ၀ငသည။သ႔ရာတြင၎တ႔သာလငမဟတအျခားေသာနညးလမးမားလညးရႏငပါသည။အျခားေသာအရညအေသြးအေျချပနညးလမးမား (Qualitative approaches) မားႏငႏႈငးယဥပါကျဖစရပေလလာမႈသညအရညအတြကအေျချပအခကအလကမားကစေဆာငး၍ ေပါငးစပႏငမညအခြငအေရးကဖနတးေပးပါသည။ဤအရညအေသြးအေျချပအခကအလကမားႏငအေရအတြက အေျချပအခကအလကမားကေပါငးစညးျခငးျဖငေလလာေနေသာျပနာတစရပကၿခငမနားလညႏငေစပါသည။ အခကအလကရငးျမစတစခစသည “ျပနာ”၏အစတအပငးတစရပ၎အစတအပငးတစခစကသေတသ၏ ျပနာတရပလးအေပၚနားလညႏငစြမးကျဖညဆညးေပးပါသည။

၂။အခကအလကမားကခြျခမးစတျဖာျခငး အျခားေသာအရညအေသြးအေျချပအခကအလကစေဆာငးမႈႏငခြျခမးစတျဖာမႈမားမာတၿပငနကျဖစေပၚၾကသည။လအပ ေသာခြျခမးစတျဖာမႈမးမာျဖစရပေလလာမႈပစေပၚတြငတညမေနပါသည။ေယဘယအားျဖငသေတသနလပငနး၏အစဥးပငးတြငစဥးစားခေသာအႏမာနယဆခက (Hypothesis) ကခြျခမးစတျဖာဆနးစစေလလာသညအဆင (Analysis Phase) တြငျပနလညသးသပရနအေရးႀကးပါသည။ဤသ႔ေဆာငရြကျခငးျဖငျဖစရပေလလာမႈႏင တက႐က ဆကႏြယ ေနေသာ အခကအလကမားကခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာဆနးစစျခငးကအာ႐စကလပေဆာငႏငေစရနအေထာကအကျပပါသည။တခနတညးမာပငသေတသနေမးခြနးႏငတကရကဆကစပပတသကမႈမရေသာအခကအလကမားကပယရားႏငေစရနလညး အေထာကအကျပသည။ အခကအလကရငးျမစမားကခြထတ၍သေတသနေတြ႕ရခကမားကသးျခားအစရငခတငျပျခငးမးကေဆာငရြကမႈမျပသငပါ။ ဤကစၥရပမာျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပ၏ရညမနးခကမဟတပါ။သေတသအေနျဖငအခကအလကမားနငရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခက မားကေသခာကနစြာေပါငးစညးေပးရပါမည။ဤကသ႔ေဆာငရြကျခငးအားျဖငျဖစရပတစခလးကပမေကာငးမြနစြာၿခငသ ေဘာေပါကႏငမညျဖစပါသည။ျပငပႏငအတြငးပငးအေၾကာငးရငးမား (external and internal factors) ႏင သေတသန ေမးခြနးမားအၾကား၊အေၾကာငးရငးမားႏငအကးဆကမားအၾကားဆကႏြယမႈကလညးပမေကာငးမြနစြာပငး ျခားသတ မတေပးႏငမညျဖစပါသည။

Literature Review

Quantitative data

Key Informant Interviews

Survey

Focus Group Discussions

Participatory Action ResearchDirect observation

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3. Reporting Reporting about a case study can be a difficult task due to the complex nature of this approach. It is usually difficult to report about the findings in a concise manner, and yet it is the researcher’s responsibility to explain a complex problem in a way that is readily understood by the reader. The goal of the report is to let the reader feel as if the he/she had been an active participant in the research and let him/her consider whether the study findings could apply to another situation. A case study report typically contains at least:

• A description of the case: the main research questions, what is and what is not included in the case (the limits);

• The different data sources and research methodology used; • An analysis of the case emphasizing the following questions: What was

involved in the situation or problem? What are the direct and indirect causes of this situation or problem? What are the short-term and long-term impacts of the situation or problem?

The researchers must emphasize the links among the different factors influencing the situation under study; • If possible, the results from the case study should be compared with other

existing research findings. The comparison can help draw a contrast between the findings, help support both findings, or help bring new insights into these findings.

Tip 1: Reconsidering the original hypothesis will ensure that: a) research questions are addressed by the report, b) the research remains focused and avoids pointless data analysis.

Tip 2: In order to help the readers understand and to raise their interest in the case study, the reporting can follow either one or both of the approaches: a) tell a story; AND/OR b) use a chronological approach.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• A case study is a qualitative research approach that may use both qualitative and quantitative research methods;

• A case study is particularly suitable for exploring a complex problem;

• A case study is about answering “how” and “why” questions when the causes of a problem are difficult to distinguish from its consequences;

• Case studies can be used to study individuals or processes.

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၃။အစရငခတငျပျခငး (Reporting) ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပအေၾကာငးကအစရငခတငျပရနမာ၎ေဆာငရြကပေဆာငရြကနညး၏႐ႈပေထြးလေသာသေဘာ သဘာ၀ေၾကာငပငလငခကခလေသာကစၥတစရပျဖစေနပါသည။မားေသာအားျဖငရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားကကစလစစြာတင ျပရနခကခသည။သ႔ေသာျငား႐ႈပေထြးေသာကစၥရပတစခကစာဖတသအဆငသငနားလညသေဘာေပါကေအာငတငျပေပး ရနမာသေတသ၏တာ၀နျဖစပါသည။အစရငခတငျပခက (report) ၏ရညရြယခကမာစာဖတသ အဖ႔ မမကယကယ ယငးသေတသနလပငနးစဥတြငပါ၀ငသတစေယာကအလားခစားမႈကေပးစြမးႏငၿပးဤသေတသနမရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားကအျခားေသာအေျခအေနတစရပတြငအသး၀ငႏငမႈရမရစဥးစားသးသပခြငေပးရနျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတြငသာမနအားျဖငအနညးဆးပါ၀ငရမညမာ • ျဖစရပကသရပေဖာတငျပေပးခက၊အဓကသေတသနေမးခြနးမား၊ျဖစရပတြငပါဝငသညအရာ၊မပါဝငသညအရာ

(ကန႔သတခကမား) • မတကြျပားေသာအခကအလကရငးျမစမားႏငအသးျပေသာသေတသနစနစ (Research Method) • ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားကအေလးေပးလကျဖစရပကခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာခကျဖစရပ - ဤအေျခအေနသ႔

မဟတျပနာရပတြငမညသညအေၾကာငးအရာပါ၀ငသနညး။ဤအေျခအေနသ႔မဟတျပနာရပတြငမညသညအရာမားကတက႐ကသ႔မဟတသြယ၀ကအေၾကာငးရငးခမားျဖစသနညး။ဤအေျခအေနသ႔မဟတျပနာပါေရတ-ေရရညအကးသကေရာကႏငမႈမားသညအဘယနညး။ သေတသအေနျဖငေလလာလကရေသာအေၾကာငးအရာအေပၚလႊမးမးမႈရေသာကြျပားျခားနားသညအေၾကာငးရငးမားအၾကားဆကစပမႈကအေလးေပးရမည။

• ျဖစႏငပါကျဖစရပေလလာမႈမရလဒမားကအျခားတညရေနေသးေသာသေတသနရလဒမားႏငႏႈငးယဥေလလာသငပါသည။ဤကသ႔ႏႈငးယဥေလလာျခငးျဖငရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားအၾကား ျခားနားခကက ေဖာျပႏငမည။သ႔တညးမဟတ၎ရလဒႏစခလးက ေထာကခေပးႏငမည။သ႔တညးမဟတဤ ရာေဖြေတြ႕ရမႈမားအေပၚအျမငသစမား ေဆာငၾကဥးေပးႏငမည ျဖစပါသည။

အႀကျပခက။ သေတသနဆငရာမလအနမာနယဆခက(hypothesis) ကျပနလညသးသပျခငးအားျဖင (က) သေတသနေမးခြနးကအစရငခစာတြငဥးတညေျဖၾကားႏငျခငး၊ (ခ) သေတသနလမးေၾကာငး ဥးတညရာက မယမးယငေစပမလအပေသာအခကအလကမားကခြျခမးစတျဖာသးသပျခငးမားမေရာငလႊႏငေစျခငးဟေသာအကးေကးဇးမားကရရေစမညျဖစပါသည။

အႀကျပခက၂။ စာဖတသအားျဖစရပတြငစတ၀ငစားလာေစရနႏငနားလညလာေစရန အလငာ အစရငခစာတြငေအာကပါနညးလမးမားကတစခမဟတတစခသ႔မဟတႏစခလးျဖစေစလကနာႏငပါသည။(က) အျဖစအပကကတငျပေပးရန (ႏင/သ႔မဟတ) (ခ) ရကစြအလကေဖာျပေသာနညးကအသးျပႏငသည။

အႏစခပတငျပရန၊ဤအခနးမမတမေစရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• ျဖစရပေလလာမႈဆသညမာအရညအေသြးသေတသနခဥးကပေလလာနညးျဖစျပးအရညအခငးနညးေရာ၊ အရညအတြကနညးပါအသးျပေကာငးျပႏငသည။

• ႐ပေထြးေသာျပနာတစရပကစးစမးရာတြငျဖစရပေလလာမႈသညအထးသငေလာေသာနညးတစရပျဖစသည။

• ျဖစရပေလလာမႈဆသညမာျပနာတစရပ၏အေၾကာငးရငးမားႏငအကးဆကမားကကြျပားေအာငလပေဆာငရာတြငခကခသညအခါ “မညကသ႔ျဖစသည”ႏင“မညသညအတြကေၾကာငျဖစသည” ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆျခငးျဖစသည။

• ျဖစရပေလလာမႈကလပဂၢလမားႏငျဖစစဥမားကေလလာရနအတြကအသးျပႏငသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 15. QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The different tools used for analysing quantitative data;

• The graphic way of illustrating quantitative data analysis; • The advantages and disadvantages of using these tools for quantitative data

analysis. ______________________________________________________________________ QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND ITS TOOLS Quantitative research uses quantitative data analysis. Quantitative data analysis involves the use of statistical analyses to produce evidence. It is therefore focused on measurement. It usually tries to answer questions about “why” and looks for a comparison of groups. It intends to establish an association, a relationship, or a cause and effect between these groups.

Commonly used quantitative data analyses are univariate analyses. This means analyses that tell researchers something about one variable only. Univariate analyses are descriptive in nature.

Several measurements can be used for univariate analyses: 1. Frequency Distribution: frequency or number of cases in each category of a

variable. 2. Measures of Central Tendency/average/location: the most common

measurements of central tendency are the mode (designed for nominal level variables), median (designed for ordinal level variables), and mean (designed for interval level variables).

3. Measurements of Dispersion/spread/variability: the most common

measurements of dispersion are range, variance, and standard deviation. Bivariate and Multivariate Analyses also exist and are used by professional statisticians. They are beyond the scope of this manual and will not be explained detailed here. 1. Frequency Distribution

Frequency distribution is a list of all the scores for a sample or population indicating the number of times that each score occurs. The data are grouped into mutually exclusive categories showing the number of observations in each category. In a frequency distribution, each variable is considered one at a time. A frequency distribution for a variable produces a table of frequency counts, percentages, and cumulative percentages for all the values associated with that variable.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၅ - အေရအတြကဆငရာေဒတာအခကအလကစစစေလ႔လာမႈ ဤအခနးတြင -

• အေရအတြကဆငရာေဒတာအခကအလကမားအား ေလ႔လာစစစမႈျပရာတြငအသးျပသည႔အမးမးေသာနညးလမးမား

• အေရအတြကဆငရာေဒတာစစစမႈအားသရပျပေဖာျပရာတြငသးေသာဂရပပနညးလမးမား

• အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစမႈနညးလမးမားအသးျပျခငး၏အားသာခကမားႏင႔အားနညးခကမား

တ႕ပါ၀ငသည။ _______________________________________________________________________________________ အေရအတြကဆငရာစစစမႈႏင႔၄ငး၏နညးလမးမား

အေရအတြကစထားသေတသနနညးလမးသညအေရအတြကဆငရာေဒတာစစစမႈကအသးျပပါသည။အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစမႈတြငအေထာကအထားမား ျပစရရရနအတြကစာရငးအငးဆငရာ ေလ႔လာစစစမႈမားအသးျပျခငးတ႕ ပါ၀ငပါသည။သ႕အတြကတငးတာေလ႔လာမႈမားအေပၚတြငအထးျပအာရထားပါသည။ဤသ႕ ျပလပရာတြင “အဘယ႔ေၾကာင႔နညး ” ဆသည႔ ေမးခြနးအား ေျဖဆရနၾကးစားျပးအပစမားအၾကားႏႈငးယဥ ေလ႔လာမႈကရာေဖြသးသပပါသည။ အဆပါအပစမားအေၾကာငးတရားႏင႔အကးတရားမား၊ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈ၊ခတဆကမႈတ႕က ေဖာထတႏငရနၾကးစားပါသည။ အသးမားသည႔အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈမားမာ - ဧကတနဘးေျပာငးလမႈစစစျခငး(Univariate analyses) တ႕ ျဖစပါသည။ဆလသညမာဤ ေလ႔လာစစစမႈနညးလမးမားသညသေတသမားအားကနးရငတစလး အၾကာငးသာ ေျပာျပႏငသည။ဧကတနဘး ေျပာငးလမႈစစစျခငးတ႕သညသေဘာသဘာ၀အားျဖင႔သရပ ေဖာျပ သသည႔ပစ မးျဖစပါသည။

ဧကတနဘး ေျပာငးလစစစျခငးအတြကအသးျပေသာတငးတာေလ႔လာမႈမားမာ - ၁။ထပၾကမျပန႔ခက။ ။ကနးရငတစလး၏အပစအသးသးတြငျဖစရပမား(Frequency Distribution) အေရအတြကသ႔မဟတၾကမႏႈနး

၂။ဗဟညႊတခက၊ပမးမ၊တညေနရာတ႕အားတငးတာျခငး။ ။ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈအတြကအသးအမား (Measures of Central Tendency /Average/Location) ဆးေသာတငးတာမႈပစမားမာ -ၾကမမားကနး (Mode(နာမကနးရငမားအတြက nominal level variables)အလယကနး (၀ါ)တစ၀ကကနး (Median (စဥျပကနးရငမားအတြက Ordinal level variables)ပမးမကနး (၀ါ) သမတကနး (Mean (ကြာျခားခကကနးရငမားအတြက Interval level variables) တ႕ျဖစၾကသည။ ၃။ၾကျပန႔မႈ / ျပန႔ႏ႕မႈ / ေျပာငးလမႈတ႕အားတငးတာျခငးMeasurements of Dispersion / Spread / Variability။ ။ၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာမႈအတြကအသးအမား ဆးေသာတငးတာမႈပစမားမာ -ကနးစဥတနး range၊ ေျပာငးလြမႈ variance၊ စေသြဖညမႈ standard deviation တ႔ျဖစၾကသည။

ဒြတနဘးေျပာငးလမႈ Bivariate ႏင႔ဗဟတနဘးမားေျပာငးလမႈစစစေလ႔လာမႈ Multivariate Analyses ရၾကေသာလညး ကြမးကြငသစာရငးအငးပညာရငမားသာအသးျပၾကပါသည။သ႕အတြကဤလကစြစာမတြငအေသးစတရငးျပမညမဟတပါ။ ၁။ထပၾကမျပန႔ခက (Frequency Distribution) ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကဆသညမာနမနာအပစသ႔မဟတလဥးေရအပစၾကး၏အမတၾကမႏႈနးမား ျဖစေပၚမႈက ေဖာျပသည႔အမတမားအားလး၏စာရငးတစရပျဖစပါသည။ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအားအပစတစခခငးစ၌ ေလ႔လာမႈအၾကမအေရအတြကမားက ေဖာျပသညသးျခားစတညရေသာအပစခြမားအတြငးသ႔အပစဖြ႔သြငးပါသည။

ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကတစခတြငကနးရငတစလးအားတစၾကမသာစဥစားပါသည။ကနးရငတစလးအတြကထပၾကမ ျပန႔ခကတစခအေနျဖင႔အဆပါကနးရငႏင႔ဆကစပလကရေသာတနဘးမားအားလးျဖစသည႔ၾကမႏႈနးအေရအတြက၊ရာခငႏႈနးမားႏငစေပါငးရာခငႏႈနးမားဆငရာဇယားတစခ ျပစရရပါသည။

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For example: Frequency distribution table of students’ enrollment in classes in a high school is shown in the following table:

Standard Male Female Total Percent Cumulative percentage

X standard 79 68 147

11.9% 11.9%

IX standard 86 75 161

13.0% 25.0%

VIII standard 95 103 198

16.0% 41.0%

VII standard 111 122 233

18.9% 59.9%

VI standard 115 125 240

19.4% 79.3%

V standard 120 135 255

20.7% 100.0%

Total 606 628 1,234

100.0%

Frequency distribution can be shown in graphic forms. The three commonly used graphic forms of frequency distribution are: histograms, bar charts, and frequency polygons. Other graphic forms are stem and leaf diagram and scatter plots diagram. A Histogram is a graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The class frequencies are represented by the heights of the bars and the bars are drawn adjacent to each other. Variable must be continuous variable (interval or ratio).

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ဥပမာ - ေအာကေဖာျပပါဇယားမာအထကတနးေကာငးတစေကာငးရအတနးအသးသးသ႔ေကာငးအပႏေသာ ေကာငးသားမား၏ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကဇယားတစချဖစပါသည။ အတနး ကား မ စစေပါငး ရာခငႏႈနး စေပါငးရာခငႏႈနး

၁၀တနး ၇၉ ၆၈ ၁၄၇

၁၁.၉ % ၁၁.၉%

၉တနး ၈၆ ၇၅ ၁၆၁

၁၃.၀% ၂၅.၀%

၈တနး ၉၅ ၁၀၃ ၁၉၈

၁၆.၀% ၄၁.၀%

၇တနး ၁၁၁ ၁၂၂ ၂၃၃

၁၈.၉ % ၅၉.၉%

၆တနး ၁၁၅ ၁၂၅ ၂၄၀

၁၉.၄% ၇၉.၃%

၅တနး ၁၂၀ ၁၃၅ ၂၅၅

၂၀.၇ % ၁၀၀.၀ %

စစေပါငး ၆၀၆ ၆၂၈ ၁၂၃၄

၁၀၀.၀%

ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကအားဂရပပစမားျဖင႔လညး ေဖာျပႏငပါသည။ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကကဂရပပစျဖင႔ေဖာျပရာတြငအသး အမားဆး ေသာဂရပပစသးမးမာ - ဟစၥတဂရမမား (Histograms) ၊ဘားခပမား (Bar charts) ၊ႏင႔ဖရကြငစပလဂြနမား (Frequency polygon) တ႔ျဖစပါသည။အျခားေသာဂရပပစႏစမးအေနျဖင႔ပငစညအရြကပ (Stem and leaf diagram) ႏင႔အျပန႔ျပပ (Scatter plots diagram) တ႔လညးပါရပါသည။

ဟစၥတဂရမ (Histogram) တစခသညအပစအတနးအစားမား classes က ေရျပငည၀ငရးတြင ေဖာျပျပးထအပစ အတနးအစားမား၏ၾကမႏႈနးမား class frequencies က ေဒါငလက၀ငရးေပၚတြင ျပဆသည႔ဂရပတစခ ျဖစပါသည။ အပစအတနးအစားမား၏ၾကမႏႈနမားကဘားေခာငးမား၏အျမင႔ ျဖင႔ ေဖာျပျပးထဘာေခာငးမားက တစခႏင႔ တစခကပလကဆြေလ႔ရပါသည။ကနးရငအေနျဖင႔စဥဆကကနးရင Continuous variable (ကြာျခားခက (သ႔ ) အခး interval or ratio) ဆငရာကနးရငျဖစရပါမည။

၃၀၀

အတနး

ၾကမႏႈနး

ပမးမကနး = ၇.၁၇ စေသြဖညမႈ = ၁.၆၅၈ အေရအတြက N = ၁၂၃၄

၂၀၀

၁၀၀

၄ ၆ ၈ ၁၀

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In this example, a histogram of the students studying at different grades (see data in the tableabove) was created. The mean has a value of 7.17 and the SD of 1.658. A Bar graph is a graph that illustrates nominal data with the scores/categories along the x-axis and the frequencies on the y-axis. The scores are not ordered and, unlike a histogram, the bars do not touch each other. The heights correspond to the number of times the score occurs, similar to histogram. The variable can be categorical (nominal or ordinal).

In this example, the majority of students in the sample were White. The next largest group was Hispanic. The smallest representative groups were Black, Asian, and Indian. A Frequency polygon consists of line segments connecting the points formed by the class midpoint and the class frequency.

AGE

22.5017.5012.507.502.50

Cou

nt

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

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ဤဥပမာတြငအတနးအသးသး၌ပညာသငၾကားေနၾကေသာေကာငးသားမား၏ဟစၥတဂရမအားေဖာျပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။ (အထကေဖာျပပါဇယားမေဒတာအခကအလကမားအားၾကည ႔ပါ) ။အတနးမား၏ပမးမတနဘးမာ ၇.၁၇တနးျဖစျပး စေသြဖညမႈ SD မ၁.၆၅၈ျဖစပါသည။

ဘားဂရပ (Bar Graph) တစခသညနာမ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား nominal data မားကသရပေဖာရာ၌ X ၀ငရးေပၚတြငရမတမား / အပစခြမားအား ေဖာျပျပးၾကမႏႈနးမားက Y ၀ငရး ေပၚတြင ေဖာျပပါသည။ ဟစၥတဂရမတစခက႔သ႔မဟတပရမတမားသညအစဥအတငးမဟတပါ။ဘာေခာငးမားသညလညးတစခႏင႔တစခမထေခ။သ႔ေသာဟစၥတဂရမက႔သ႕ပငဘားေခာငးမား၏အျမင႔သညရမတအၾကမအေရအတြက ျဖစေပၚမႈမားအားကယစား ျပသည။ကနးရငအေနျဖင႔အပစကနးရင Categorical (နာမသ႔မဟတစဥျပ nominal or ordinal) ဆငရာကနးရငျဖစပါသည။

ဤဥပမာတြငနမနာအပစ၏အမားစေသာေကာငးသားမားမာ -လျဖမားျဖစပါသည။ဒတယအၾကးဆးအပစမာ စပနစကား ေျပာဟစၥပနးနစအပစျဖစပါသည။အနညးဆးအပစမားမာလမညးမား၊အာရသားမားႏင ႔အႏၵယႏြယဖြားမားျဖစပါသည။ ဖရကြငစပလဂြန ( ၾကမႏႈနးပလဂြန ) Frequency Polygon တြငအပစအတနးအစားမား၏အလယမတ (Class Midpoint) ႏင ႔အတနးအစားၾကမႏႈနး (Class Frequency) တ႔ကဆကစပေပး ေသာမဥးအစတအပငးမားပါ၀ငသည။

22.5017.5012.507.502.50

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

အၾကမေရ

အသက

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Comparing a histogram to a frequency polygon

The two graphs shown above have the same information about education but present different shapes. A Stem and Leaf diagram is a frequency distribution table which provides a visual picture of the distribution. The Stem and Leaf diagram contains two columns, the left column contains the stems, consisting of all but the last digit, and the right column contains the leaves, the last digit in the number. To construct a stem-and-leaf display, the observations must first be sorted in ascending order. Here is a set of current annual salaries in USD for a Stem and Leaf diagram. Salaries: 40,000 41,000 15,000 30,000 15,000 34,000 24,000 31,000 32,000 81,000 33,000 46,000 50,000 85,000 27,000 and 30,000

Current Salary Stem-and-Leaf Plot

Frequency Stem & Leaf

2.00 1 .55

2.00 2 . 47

6.00 3 . 001234

3.00 4 . 016

1.00 5 . 0

2.00 Extremes (>=81250)

Stem width: 10000

Each leaf: 1 case(s)

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ဟစၥတဂရမတစခႏင႔ၾကမႏႈနးပလဂြနတစခတ႔အားႏႈငးယဥျခငး

အထကပါဂရပပႏစခမာပညာေရးႏင႔ပတသကေသာတညေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအားေဖာျပျပးကြျပားျခားနားေသာပေဖာမႈမးရပါသည။ ပငစညႏင႔အရြကျပပ (Stem and Leaf diagram)ဆသညမာ ျပန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး (distribution) ကသရပ ျပကားခပျဖင႔ေဖာျပေသာထပၾကမျပန႔ခက (Frequency Distribution) ဇယားတစချဖစပါသည။ ပငစညႏင႔ အရြကျပပတြင ေကာလႏစခပါ၀ငျပးလက၀ဘကေကာလတြင ေနာကဆးဂဏနးမလြ၍အကနလးက ေဖာျပ ေသာပငစညမားပါ၀ငျပးလကယာဘကေကာလတြငနပါတတစခ၏ ေနာကဆးဂဏနးက ေဖာျပေသာအရြကမား ပါ၀ငပါသည။

ပငစညႏင႔အရြကျပပတစခကေရးဆြျပရနအတြကေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားကဥးစြာငယစဥၾကးလကစရပါသည။ပတြငပါရသညမာလကရႏစအလကလစာအေမရကနေဒၚလာမားအားပငစညႏင႔အရြကျပပျဖင႔ေဖာျပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။

လစာမား၄၀၀၀၀၊၄၁၀၀၀၊၁၅၀၀၀၊၃၀၀၀၀၊၁၅၀၀၀၊၃၄၀၀၀၊၂၄၀၀၀၊၃၁၀၀၀၊၃၂၀၀၀၊၈၁၀၀၀၊၃၃၀၀၀၊၄၆၀၀၀၊၅၀၀၀၀၊၈၅၀၀၀၊၂၇၀၀၀၊ႏင႔၃၀၀၀၀

ပငစည- ႏင႔- အရြကပျပ လကရလစာ ၾကမႏႈနး ပငစည ႏင႔ အရြက

၂ . ၀၀ ၁.၅၅ ၂.၀၀ ၂.၄၇

၆.၀၀ ၃.၀၀၁၂၃၄ ၃.၀၀ ၄.၀၁၆ ၁.၀၀ ၅.၀ ၂.၀၀ အစြနးမား (>=၈၁၂၅၀) ပငစညအကယ ။ ။ ၁၀၀၀၀ အရြကတစရြကစ ။ ။ ျဖစရပတစခစ

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A Scatter plot illustrates the relationship between two continuous variables.

In this example, the relationship between Gross Domestic Product per capital (X axis) and average male life expectancy (Y axis) of countries in 1995 is shown. They are positively correlated. Exercise Which measure of frequency distribution will a researcher use for the age distribution of a survey? Why? Answer: Frequency tables and histograms are the best frequency distribution as age is a continuous variable. Summary Statistics Summary statistics is a single value that summarizes the observed value of a variable. It is part of the data reduction process and it has two types: (1) measures of central tendency/average and (2) measures of dispersion/variability/spread. Summary statistics describes the shape of the distribution of a set of observations. It is necessary for precise and efficient comparisons of different sets of data because the location (average) and shape (variability) of different distributions may be different.

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အျပန႔ျပပ Scatter plotတစခသညတစဆကတညး ျဖစေသာကနးရငႏစလး၏ဆကႏြယမႈက ေဖာျပသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင၁၉၉၅ခႏစတြငတငးျပညမားရတစဥးခငးအလကျပညတြငးအသားတငထတလပမတနဘး( X၀ငရး ) ႏင႔အမးသားမား၏ပမးမသကတမး ( Y ၀ငရး) တ႕၏ဆကသြယခကက ေဖာျပထားသည။၄ငးတ႔သည အေပါငးလကၡဏာသေဘာေဆာငခတဆကလကရသည။

ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး သေတသတစေယာကအေနျဖင႔စစတမးတစရပအတြကအသကျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးအားေဖာျပရနမညသည႔ထပၾကမျဖန႔ခကတငးတာမႈကသးလမ႔မညနညး။အဘယေၾကာင႔နညး၊

အေျဖ။။ၾကမႏႈနးျပဇယားႏင႔ဟစၥတဂရမတ႔သညအေကာငးဆးထပၾကမျပန႕ခက ျပပမား ျဖစၾကျပးအသကအရြယ သညစဥဆကကနးရင Continuous variable ျဖစေသာေၾကာင႔ ျဖစသည။ အႏစခပစာရငးအငး (Summary Statistics) အႏစခပစာရငးအငးသညကနးရငတစလးအား ေလ႔လာထားသည႔တနဘးကအႏစခပ ေဖာျပသည႔တန ဘးတစချဖစပါသည။၄ငးသည ေဒတာအခကအလကေလာ႔ခ ျခငးဆငရာလပငနးစဥ၏တစစတတစေဒသ ျဖစျပးအမးအစားအား ျဖင႔ႏစမးရပါသည။ (၁) ဗဟညႊတခက / ပမးမတ႕အားတငးတာမႈမားႏင႔ (၂) ၾကျပန႔မႈ၊ ေျပာငးလမႈ၊ ျပန႔ႏ႕မႈတ႕အားတငးတာမႈဟ၍ ျဖစသည။အႏစခပစာရငးအငး ေလလာမအစတစရပ၏ ျဖန႔ကက ကနးစဥတနး၏ပသဏၭာနက ေဖာျပေပးပါသည။အမးမး ေသာ ျဖန႕ကကကနးစဥတနးမား၏ပသ႑ာန ( ေျပာငးလမႈ ) ႏင႔တညေနရာ (ပမးမ) တ႕သညမတညၾကေသာေၾကာင႔ကြျပားေသာေဒတာအစမားအားထထေရာကေရာကႏင႔တက ေသာ ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာမႈမား ျပလပရနလအပပါသည။

အမးသားမားပမးမသကတမး

လတစဥးခငးအလကျပညတြငး အသားတငထတလပမႈတနဘး

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No. ofPeople

Factor Y

Population A Population B

Same VariabilityDifferent Locations

No. ofPeople

Factor X

Population A

Population B

Different VariabilitySame Location

Measures of central tendency alone are not sufficient to describe the distribution of populations. The factor X in the first graph shows the distribution of populations A and B. Both have the same mean but different variability. The factor Y in the second graph shows the distribution of populations A and B. Both have the same variability but a different mean. 2. Measure of Central Tendency Commonly used measures of central tendency are means, median, and mode. Mean, median, and mode are different kinds of ‘averages’ and can produce very different answers for the same set of data. This variation depends on the shape of distribution. An (arithmetic) mean is the product of the division of the arithmetic sum of observations by the number of observations. Median is the mid-point of a set of ordered observations. And mode is the most frequently occurring observation in the dataset.

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ဖ ဪရ ါ ပရညǪ

ရ ǫǪ ရ ဖ Ǫ Y

ǯ ဩǯ ဩါ ဏဤǮေဖ ဪသဧေါ ပ A

ညဪင ဧါ ဘဥါ ဏဥǮေဖ ာဓဏဩǯ Ǫ ာဏဥေါ ဘဥါ ဎပဥ

ǯ ဩǯ ဩါ ဏဤǮေဖ ဪသဧေါ ပ B

လအေရအတြက

အခကအလကX

စစေပါငးလဥးေရ B

ကြျပားေသာေျပာငးလမႈပစတညေသာေနရာ

စစေပါငးလဥးေရ A

ဗဟညြတခကတငးတာမႈျဖင႔သာဆလငလဥးေရအပစမား၏ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးကေဖာျပ၍မလေလာကေပ။အခကအလက X ကေဖာျပသည႔ဂရပပတြငလဥးေရစစေပါငး A နင႔ B တ႕၏ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးေဖာျပရာ၌ ႏစခစလးသညပမးမကနးတေသာလညးကြျပားေသာေျပာငးလမႈပသ႑ာနရၾကသည။အခကအလကY ကေဖာျပသည႔ဂရပပတြငလဥးေရစစေပါငး A ႏင႔ B တ႕၏ျဖန႕ကကကနးစဥတနးေဖာျပရာ၌ တညေသာေျပာငးလမႈ ပသ႑ာနရၾကေသာလညးပမးမကနးမာမတေခ။ ၂။ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈ အသးမားေသာဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈမားမာ - ပမးမကနး (သမတကနး) Mean၊အလယကနး (တစ၀ကကနး) Median ႏင႔ၾကမမားကနး Mode တ႔ ျဖစသည။ဤပမးမကနး၊အလယကနး၊ႏင႔ၾကမမားကနးတ႕သည “ပမးမတနဘးအမးကြ” အမးမးတ႔ ျဖစၾကျပးတညေသာအခကအလက ေဒတာအစတစခတညးမပငအေျဖအမးမးရရႏငပါသည။ ဤသ႔အေျဖမား၏ ေျပာငးလမႈမာ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး၏ပသ႑ာန ေပၚတြငမတညပါသည။ (ဂဏနးသခာၤ) ပမမကနး (arithmetic) mean သည ေလ႔လာမႈကနးမား၏ ေပါငးလဒအား ေလ႔လာမႈကနးအေရအတြက ျဖင႔စား၍ရေသာရလဒျဖစပါသည။ အလယကနး Median သညစစဥေနရာခထားေသာကနးမားအစရအလယမတကနးျဖစပါသည။ ၾကမမားကနး Mode သည ေဒတာအစရအၾကမအေရအတြကအမားဆးျဖစေပၚသည႔ကနးျဖစသည။

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2.a. Mean The mean is the most commonly used measure of location. It is calculated by adding all observed values and dividing by the total number of observations. Notations • Each observation is denoted as x1, x2, … xn • The total number of observations: n and summation process = Sigma : Σ

• The mean: X =Σ xi /n Example 1: The duration of stay (in days) in a hospital for nine patients observed were: 8, 25, 7, 5, 8, 3, 10, 12, and 9. There were 9 observations (n=9); the sum of all observations was 87; and the mean duration of stay was 87 / 9 = 9.67. Example 2: The incubation periods (in days) of a disease for nine patients observed were 8, 45, 7, 5, 8, 3, 10, 12, and 9. There were 9 observations (n=9); the sum of all observations =107; and the mean incubation period = 107 / 9 = 11.89. Advantages of using mean • The mean is used as the basis of many statistical tests; • It is a good statistical summary for a symmetrical distribution. Disadvantages of using mean • The mean is less useful for an asymmetric distribution; • It can be distorted by outliers (the extremes values of the observations), therefore

giving a less “typical” value. 2.b. Median • The median describes literally the middle value of the data set; • It is defined as the value above or below which half (50%) the observations fall. Computation of the median • Arrange the observations in order from smallest to largest (e.g. ascending order) or

the other way round; • Count the number of observations “n”. If “n” is an odd number, the median equals the value of (n+1)/2th observations. If “n” is an even number, the median equals the average of the n/2th and (n /2)+1th observations.

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၂။က။ပမးမကနး ပမးမကနးသညတညေနရာကတငးတာသည႔ ေနရာျပတငးတာမႈ (Measure of Location) အသးအမားဆးကနးျဖစပါသည။ကနးဂဏနးတနဖးမားအားလးက ေပါငးရနကနးအေရအတြကစစေပါငး ျဖင႔စားျခငး ျဖင႔ ‘ပမးမကနး ( ၀ါ ) သမတကနး ’ ကရရသည။

သေကၤတမားအား ျဖင႔ • ကနးအသးသးက x1, x2, ------ xn ဟသတမတပါက • ကနးအေရအတြကစစေပါငးnေပါငးျခငး = Sigma : ∑ • ပမးမကနး X = ∑xi / n

ဥပမာ ( ၁) ။။လနာ၉ဥး ေဆးရတကရသည႔ရကမားမာ - ၈၊၂၅၊၇၊၅၊၈၊၃၊၁၀၊၁၂၊၉ ( ရက ) တ႕ျဖစသည။ ကနး( လနာ) အေရအတြက၉ ( n = ၉ ) ၊ကနးမားအားလးေပါငးလဒ၈၇ ေဆးရတကသည႔ပမးမၾကာခန၈၇ / ၉=၉.၆၇

ဥပမာ ( ၂ )။။လနာ၉ဥးတြငေရာဂါတစစေရာဂါပးၾကာခနရကမားမာ၈၊၄၅၊၇၊၅၊၈၊၃၊၁၀၊၁၂၊၉။ ကနး( လနာ ) အေရအတြက၉ ( n = ၉ ) ၊ကနးမားအားလးေပါငးလဒ = ၁၀၇ေရာဂါပးခနသမတကနး = ၁၀၇/၉=၁၁.၈၉

ပမးမကနးအသးျပျခငး၏အားသာခကမား • မားစြာေသာစာရငးအငးဆငရာစမးသပမႈမား၏အေျခခအျဖစအသးျပပါသည။ • ေခါကရးညျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး (Symmetricaldistribution) တစခအတြကစာရငးအငးဆငရာအႏစခပ

ေကာငးတစခ ျဖစသည။

ပမးမကနအသးျပ ျခငးအားနညးခကမား • ေခါကရးမညေသာျဖန႕ကကကနးစဥတနး (Asymmetrical distribution)

တစခအတြကအသး၀ငမႈနညးပါသည။ • ပမနမဟတေသာအစြနးေရာကတနဘးမား (Outliers) မားေၾကာင႔ပပကယြငးႏငျခငး ( ၀ါ )

သမတကနးတနဘးေျပာငးႏငသျဖင႔ “စနမနာ”တနဘးအျဖစသးနငျခငးမရေျခ

၂။ခ။အလယကနး (၀ါ) တစ၀ကကနး (Median) • အလယကနး ( ၀ါ ) တစ၀ကကနးဆသည႔အတငးေဒတာမား၏အလယေခါငကေသာတနဘးကယသည။ • ၄ငး၏တစဖကတစခကစတြငကနေဒတာမား ( ၅၀ % စ ) ရၾကသည။

အလယကနးအားတြကခကျခငး

• ေကာကယရရေသာ ေဒတာမား ( သ႕ ) ကနးမားကအငယဆးမအၾကးဆး ( ငယစဥၾကး ) စလကပါ။သ႔မဟတၾကးစဥငယလကလညးစႏငပါသည။

• စစေပါငးကနးအေရအတြက “n” ကေရတြကပါ။ အကယ၍nသညမဂဏနးျဖစပါကအလယကနးသည ( n+1)/ 2 အၾကမ ေျမာကကနး၏တနဘးျဖစသည။ အကယ၍ ‘n’ သညစဂဏနးျဖစပါကအလယကနးသည( n/2 ) အၾကမေျမာကႏင႔ (n/2) +1 အၾကမေျမာကဂဏနးတ႕၏ပမးမတနဘးျဖစသည။

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Example 1: To find the median of the following values: 10, 20, 12, 3, 18, 16, 14, 25, 2, arrange the numbers in increasing order as 2 , 3, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25; the median is 14. Example 2: Suppose there is one more observation (8): 2 , 3, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25, median = mean of 12 & 14 = 13. Advantages of using median • The median is unaffected by extreme values. Disadvantages of using median • The median does not contain information on the other values of the distribution. It

is selected only for its rank and its value can vary within 50% without seriously affecting the data analysis.

• The median is less amenable to statistical tests. 2.c. Mode The mode of a distribution is the value that is observed most frequently in a given set of data. It is obtained by: • Arranging the data in sequence from low to high; • Counting the number of times each value occurs; • Selecting the most frequently occurring value is the mode. Example 1: Annual salaries (in 100,000 Kyats) for ten respondents are 4, 3, 3, 2, 3, 8, 4, 3, 7, 2. To calculate the mode, the researcher has to arrange the values in order as follows: 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 7, 8. The mode is four times “3”. Example 2: The incubation periods for the hepatitis (in days) were 29, 31, 24, 29, 30, 25. To calculate the mode, arrange the values in order: 24, 25, 29, 29, 30, 31. The mode is 29. Specific measure of the mode • There may be no mode when each value is unique; • There may be more than one mode when more than one peak occurs; • The mode can be misinterpreted when a distribution is skewed; • The mode is not of great use for statistical tests; • The mode is not based upon all observations. Which measure of central tendency to use? If a researcher considers the duration (days) of absence from work of 21 labourers because of sickness, the data collected are: 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, 59, and 80 days. Therefore the mean is 11 days. However, as 19 out of the 21 labourers were absent for less than 11 days, the data was distorted by extreme values. In contrast to the mean, the median is 5 days. Therefore the median is a better measurement for this particular dataset.

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ဥပမာ(၁) ။ ။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါဂဏနးမား၁၀၊၂၀၊၁၂၊၃၊၁၈၊၁၆၊၁၄၊၂၅၊၂တ႕၏အလယကနးကရာရနအတြက အဆပါဂဏနးမားကငယစဥၾကးလကစလကေသာအခါ၂၊၃၊၁၀၊၁၂၊၁၄၊၁၆၊၁၈၊၂၀၊၂၅ ျဖစျပးအလယကနးသည ‘၁၄ ’ ျဖစသည။ ဥပမာ ( ၂ ) အကယ၍ဂဏနးတစလး ‘၈’ကထပတးလကပါက၂၊၃၊၈၊၁၀၊၁၂၊၁၄၊၁၆၊၁၈၊၂၀၊၂၅ဟ၍ရသညတြင အလယကနး = ၁၂ႏင႔၁၄တ႕၏ပမးမတနဘး = ၁၃ဟ၍ရပါသည။

အလယကနးအသးျပျခငး၏အားသာခကမား

အလယကနးသညအစြနးေရာကတနဘးမား၏သကေရာကမႈဒဏမခရပါ။ အလယကနးအသးျပျခငး၏အားနညးခကမား အလယကနးတြင ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးရအျခားတနးဘးမား၏သတငးအခကအလကမပါ၀ငေပ။၄ငးအား ေနရာအလကေရြးခယျခငး ျဖစျပး ေဒတာစစစမႈကဆးဆးရြားရြားသကေရာကမႈမရေစဘ၅၀ % အတြငး၌၄ငး၏ တနဘးမာေျပာငးလႏငသည။အလယကနးသညစာရငးအငးဆငရာစမးသပမႈမား၌အမားျပင၍ရႏငခသည။

၂။ဂ။ၾကမမားကနး (Mode)

ျဖန႕ကကကနးစဥတနး (distribution) တစခ၏ၾကမမားကနးသညေပးထားေသာေဒတာအစအတြငးအၾကမအေရ အမားဆး ေတြ႕ရေသာတနဘးျဖစသည။၄ငးကေအာကပါအတငးရာႏငပါသည။

• ေဒတာမားကငယရာမၾကးရာသ႔အစဥအတငးစပါ။ • တနဘး ( ေဒတာ )တစခခငးစအား ေတြ႔ရေသာအၾကမအေရအတြကက ေရတြကမတသားပါ။ • အၾကမအေရအတြကအမားဆးေတြ႔ရေသာတနဘးသည “ၾကမမားကနး”ျဖစသည။

ဥပမာ ( ၁ ) ။ ။ေျဖဆသ၁၀ဥး၏ႏစအလကလစာ ( သနးဂဏနး ျဖင႔ ) မားမာ၄၊၃၊၃၊၂၊၃၊၈၊၄၊၃၊၇၊၂ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။ ၾကမမားကတြကခကရနအတြကသေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေပးထားေသာတနဘးမားက၂၊၂၊၃၊၃၊၃၊၃၊၄၊၄၊၇၊၈ဟ၍ ျပနလညစစဥပါသည။ ေလးၾကမေတြ႔ရေသာ ‘၃’သညၾကမမားကနး ျဖစပါသည။ ဥပမာ ( ၂ ) ။ ။အသညးေရာငေရာဂါကးစကခရေသာသမား၏ ေရာဂါပးခန (ရကမား ျဖင႔) မားမ၂၉၊၃၁၊၂၄၊၂၉၊၃၀၊၂၅ ဟ၍ျဖစသည။ၾကမမားကနးကတြကခကရနအတြကတနဘးမားက၂၄၊၂၅၊၂၉၊၂၉၊၃၀၊၃၁ဟသည႔အစဥအတငး ျပနစပါသည။ၾကမမားကနးမာ “၂၉” ျဖစပါသည။ ၾကမမားကနးႏင႔ပတသတေသာအခကမား

• တနဘးတစခစသညတစၾကမစသာပါ၀ငပါက “ၾကမမားကနး”မရဘျဖစႏငသည။ • အမားဆးေတြ႕ရသည႔အၾကမအေရအတြကမာတစခထကပ၍ရပါကၾကမမားကနးတစခထကပ၍လညးရႏငသည။ • အကယ၍ ျဖန႕ကကကနးစဥတနးတစဘကဘကသ႔တမးေစာငးေနပါကၾကမမားကနးကအဓပၸါယ ေကာကမား

ႏငပါသည။ • စာရငးအငးပငးဆငရာစမးသပမႈမားအတြကၾကမမားကနးကအေကာငးဆးအသး ျပႏငသညမဟတပါ။ • ၾကမမားကနးသည ေလ႔လာမႈအားလးအေပၚအေျချပသညမဟတပါ။

မညသည႕ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈကသးမညနညး။ အလပသမား၂၁ဥး၏ဖားနာမႈေၾကာင႔အလပပကသည႔ (ရကေပါငး) ၾကာခနကသေတသတစဥး အေနျဖင႔စဥး စားသးသပ၍ေဒတာအခကအလကမားေကာကယရရသညမာ၁၊၁၊၂၊၂၊၃၊၃၊၄၊၄၊၄၊၄၊၅၊၆၊၆၊၆၊၇၊၈၊၉၊၁၀၊၁၀၊၅၉၊ႏင႔၈၀ရကတ႔ျဖစၾကသည။သ႔အတြကရရလာေသာပမးမကနးမာ၁၁ရကျဖစပါသည။သ႔ေသာတကယတမးတြငမလပသား၂၁ဥးအနက၁၉ဥးမာ၁၁ရကေအာကသာပကကြကပါသည။အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမားေၾကာင႔သာေဒတာအခကအလကပယြငးသြားျခငးျဖစသည။ဤေနရာတြငပမးမကနးႏင႔မတသည႔အခကမာအလယကနး၅ရကသာ ျဖစပါသည။သ႔အတြကဤ ေဒတာအစအတြကမ “အလယကနး ” သညပမဆေလာေသာတငးတာမႈျဖစပါသည။

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The type of the distribution determines the measure of central tendency to use. Choice of measure of central tendency for symmetric distributions • Any of the central/location measures can be used; • The mean has definite advantages if subsequent computations are needed. Choice of measure of central tendency for asymmetric or skewed distributions • For skewed distributions, the mean is not suitable; • If some observations deviate too much from others in the same series, then the

median is the appropriate measure. The median is adapted when there are extreme values;

• The mode is the most common value.

In the example above, the distribution is not symmetric. The mean is 10.8, the median is 10.0 and the mode is 13.5. 3. Measure of Dispersion (Measures of Dispersion/spread/variability) The measure of central tendency provides important information about the distribution. However, it does not provide information concerning the relative position of other data points in the sample. Therefore, measures of dispersion are needed. Common measures of dispersion are range, percentiles and quartiles, variance, and standard deviation. 3.a. Range The range is a simple measure of dispersion. Computing the range is taking the difference between the lowest value and the highest value.

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ျဖန႔ကကကနစဥတနး (distribution) အမးအစားသညမညသည႔ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈကအသးျပရမညက အဆးအျဖတေပးပါသည။

ေခါကရးညျဖန႕ကကကနးစဥတနး (Symmetric distribution) မားအတြကဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈေရြးခယအသးျပပ

• မညသည႔ဗဟညႊတခက (သ႕) ေနရာျပတငးတာမႈကမဆသးႏငပါသည။ • ဆကလကတြကခကမႈမား ျပလပရနလအပပါကပမးမကနး (၀ါ) သမတကနးအားအသးျပျခငး သညအား

သာခက ေကာငးစြာရပါသည။

ေခါကရးမညေသာ( သ႕ ) တစဘကဘကသ႔ေစာငးယြငးေသာျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး asymmetric or skewed distributions မားအတြကဗဟညႊြတခကတငးတာေရြးခယအသးျပပ

• တဘကဘကသ႔ေစာငးယြငးေသာျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနမားအတြကပမးမကနးသညမသင႔ေတာပါ။ • စးရးတတစခထ၌အခ႕ေသာကနးမားသညအျခားေသာကနးမားထကမားစြာေသြဖညမႈရပါက “အလယကနး”

သညပမသင႔ေလာေသာတငးတာမႈျဖစပါသည။အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမားပါ၀ငပါက“အလယကနး”ကသးသင႔ပါသည။ • ၾကမမားကနးသညအေတြ႔ရအမားဆးေသာတနဘးျဖစပါသည။

အထကပါဥပမာတြင ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးသည ေခါကရးညမဟတပါ။ပမးမကနးသည၁၀.၈၊အလယကနး ၁၀ႏင႔ၾကမမားကနး၁၃.၅ ျဖစပါသည။ ၃။ၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာျခငး Measure of Dispersion (ၾကျပန႔မႈ / ျပန႔ႏ႕မႈ / ေျပာငးလမႈတ႕အားတငးတာမႈမား Measure of Dispersion / Spread / Variability) ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈသည ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးႏင႔ပတသက ေသာအေရးၾကးသတငးအခကအလကမား ေထာကပ႔ေပးပါသည။သ႔ေသာနမနာအစရအျခားေသာ ေဒတာအမတမားႏင႔ပတသတမႈအေနအထားနင႔သကဆင ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားမရႏငပါ။သ႔အတြကၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာမႈ Measure of dispersion လအပပါသည။အသးမားေသာၾကျပန႔မႈတငးတာသည႔ပစမားမာကနးစဥတနး range ၊ပါစငတငးလႏင႔ကြာလတငး percentiles and quartiles ေျပာငးလြမႈ variance ႏင႔စေသြဖညမႈ standard deviation တ႕ ျဖစၾကပါသည။ ၃။က။ကနးစဥတနး (Range) ကနးစဥတနးသညရးရငး ေသာၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာမႈပစ ျဖစပါသည။ကနးစဥတနးကတြကခကရရရနအတြကအျမင႔ဆးတနဘးႏင႔အနမ႔ဆးတနဘးႏစခၾကားကြာျခားခကကယရပါသည။

အလယကနး = ၁၀ ၾကမမားကနး = ၁၃.၅

ပမးမကနး = ၁၀.၈

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Limitation of the range • The range says nothing about the values between extremes; • The range is not stable: As the sample size increases, the range can change

dramatically; • Statistics cannot be used to look at the range.

Example: A researcher takes a sample of 10 heights measured in cm. Here are the results: 70, 95, 100, 103, 105, 107, 110, 112, 115, and 140 cm. The lowest (Minimum) value is 70cm and the highest (Maximum) value is 140cm; therefore, the range is 140 – 70 = 70cm. Percentiles and quartiles Percentiles are those values in a series of observations which are arranged in ascending order of magnitude. When the distribution is divided into two equal parts, the median is the 50th percentile. Quartiles are the values which divide a series of observations, arranged in ascending order, into 4 equal parts. The median is the 2nd quartile. The median is the measure of the “centre” of the data, the middle value (if n is odd) or average of the two middle values (if n is even). Quartiles divide the set of ordered values into 4 equal parts. The inter-quartile range Inter-quartile range is the central portion of the distribution. It is calculated as the difference between the third quartile and the first quartile. It includes about one half of the observations but leaves out one quarter of the observations from both ends. Limitations of the inter-quartile range • Only takes into account two values; • Not a mathematical concept upon which theories can be developed. Example: Values are 29, 31, 24, 29, 30, and 25. Arrange them as 24, 25, 29, 29, 30, and 31. First quartile (Q1) is the value of (n+1)/4=1.75 and Q1 is 24+0.75 = 24.75 Third quartile (Q3) is the value of (n+1)*3/4=5.25 and Q3 is 30+0.25 = 30.25 Inter-quartile range = Q3 – Q1 = 30.25 – 24.75= 5.5 3.b. Variance The variance measures how far a set of numbers is spread out. A small variance indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean and hence to each other, while a high variance indicates that the data points are very spread out from the mean and from each other. 3.c. Standard Deviation The standard deviation takes the square root of the variance. The limitation of the standard deviation is that it is sensitive to outliers.

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ကနးစဥတနး၏အကန႔အသကမား • ကနးစဥတနးတြငအစြနးေရာကတနဘးမားႏင႔ပတသက၍ေျပာဆႏငျခငးမရပါ။ • ကနးစဥတနးသညတညျငမမရဘနမနာအစ၏အရြယအစားၾကးလာသညႏင႔အမကနးစဥတနးသညလညးမား

စြာ ေျပာငးလႏငပါသည။ • ကနးစဥတနးကၾကည႔ကာမႏင႔စာရငးအငးကအသးမျပႏငပါ။

ဥပမာ - သေတသတစဥးသညစငတမတာ ျဖင႔တငးတာထားသညအရပအျမင႔၁၀ခက နမနာရယပါသည။ ရလာဒမားအေနျဖင႔၇၀၊၉၅၊၁၀၀၊၁၀၃၊၁၀၅၊၁၀၇၊၁၁၀၊၁၁၂၊၁၁၅၊ႏင႔၁၄၀စငတမတာတ႔ျဖစၾကပါသည။အနမ႔ဆး (အနညးဆး) တနဘးမာ၇၀စငတမတာ ျဖစျပးအျမင႔ဆး ( အမားဆး ) တနဘးမာ၁၄၀စငတမတာ ျဖစသျဖင႔ ကနးစဥတနးပမာဏမာ၁၄၀-၇၀ = ၇၀စငတ ျဖစပါသည။

ပါစငတငးလႏင႔ကြာတငးလ Percentiles ႏင႔ Quartiles ပါစငတငးလ ( ရာႏႈနးအေျချပတနဘး ) ဆသညမာပမာဏအလကငယစဥၾကးလကစစဥထားေသာကနးမား စးရးတြ၏တနဘးမား ျဖစပါသည။ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးအားညတညမႏစပငးပငးလကပါကအလယကနးသည ၅၀ၾကမေျမာကပါစငတငးလ ျဖစပါသည။

ကြာလတငးလမားဆသညမာကနးမားစးရးတြကငယစဥၾကးစစဥထား ျပးေလးပငးအညအမပငးထားသည႔တနဘးမား ျဖစပါသည။အလယကနးသညဒတယေျမာကကြာတငးလ ျဖစပါသည။အလယကနးသည ေဒတာမား၏ “ဗဟ” ခကကတငးတာမႈျဖစျပး ( ကနးလးအေရအတြက n သညမဂဏနးတနဖးျဖစပါက ) အလယေခါငတနဘးျဖစျပး (ကနးလးအေရအတြက n သညစဂဏနး ျဖစပါက) အလယေခါငရတနဘးႏစခ၏ပမးမတနဘး ျဖစပါသည။ ကြာတငးလမားသညအစဥလကစစဥထားေသာတနဘးမားအစက ေလးပငးအညအမပငးထား ျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ (inter-quartile range) အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ The inter-quartile range မာျဖန႕ကကကနးစဥတနး၏ပငမအစတအပငးျဖစသည။ တတယေျမာကကြာတငးလႏင႔ပထမကြာတငးလတ႔အားျခားနားျခငးအားျဖင႔တြကခကရယႏငပါသည။ေလ႔လာေသာကနးမား၏တ၀ကခန႔မာအငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥအတြငးကေရာကျပးကနေလးပတစပစမာအစြနးႏစဖကကေရာကပါသည။ အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ၏အကန႔အသတမား

• တနဘးႏစခကသာထည႔သြငးစဥးစားပါသည။ • သ၀ရမားဆကလကတညေဆာကယႏငေသာသခာၤဆငရာအယအဆတစရပမဟတေခ။

ဥပမာ - တနဘးမားအေနျဖင႔၂၉၊၃၁၊၂၄၊၂၉၊၃၀၊၂၅ဟ၍ရၾကသည။ ျပနလညစစစလကေသာ အခါ၂၄၊၂၅၊၂၉၊၂၉၊၃၀၊ႏင႔ ၃၁ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။ ပထမကြာတငးလ( Q1 ) သည ( n+၁) / ၄ = ၁.၇၅၏တနဖးႏင႔ Q1သည၂၄ + ၀.၇၅ = ၂၄.၇၅ တတယကြာတငးလသည( n+၁) * ၃/ ၄ = ၅.၂၅၏တနဖးႏင႔ Q 3သည၃၀ + ၀.၂၅ အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ = Q3 – Q1 = ၃၀.၂၅-၂၄.၇၅ = ၅.၅

၃။ခ။ေျပာငးလမႈ (Variance) ေျပာငးလြမႈသညကနးဂဏနးနပါတအစတစခအေနျဖင႔မညမအထျပနႏ႕မႈရသညကတငးတာသည။အနညးငယေသာ ေျပာငးလြမႈဆသညမာ ေဒတာအမတမားသညပမးမကနးႏင႔ ေသာလညး ေကာငးအခငးခငး ေသာလညး ေကာငး အလြနနးကပစြာတညရေနျခငးကဆလျပးၾကးမားေသာ ေျပာငးလြမႈဆသညမာ ေဒတာအမတမားသညပမးမကနးမ ေသာလညးေကာငးအခငးခငးေသာလညး ေကာငးအလြနၾကျပန႔ ေ၀းကြာစြာရၾကျခငးကဆလပါသည။

၃။ဂ။စေသြဖညမႈ (Standard Deviation) စေသြဖညမႈ Standard Deviation သညေျပာငးလြမႈ Variance ႏစထပကနးရငး ျဖစသည။၄ငးသညပမန မဟတေသာ တနဖးမား Outliers မားႏင႔ပတသကလာလငအကန႔အသတရပါသည။

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Summary of measures of dispersion

Measure Advantages Disadvantages

Range • Obvious • Easy to calculate

• Uses only 2 observations • Increases with the sample size • Can be distorted by outliers

Inter-quartile range

• Not affected by extreme values

• Uses only 2 observations • Not amenable to further

statistical treatment

Standard deviation • Uses every value • Suitable for further analysis

• Highly influenced by extreme values

Choosing a measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion Type of distribution Measure of central tendency Measure of dispersion

Normal • Mean • Standard deviation

Skewed • Median • Inter-quartile range

Exponential or logarithmic

• Geometric mean • Consult with a statistician

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• The choice of a tool for quantitative data analysis depends on the data collected. Depending on the value of data and how these values are distributed within the sample studied, the researchers have to consider which tool is most relevant for analytical purposes;

• A frequency distribution for a variable can be presented as a frequency table or in graphic forms. The three most commonly-used graphic forms are: histograms, bar charts, and frequency polygons;

• Commonly-used measures of central tendency are means, median, and mode. Mean is the product of the division of the arithmetic sum of observations by the number of observations. Median is the mid-point of a set of ordered observations. Mode is the most frequently occurring observation in the dataset;

• Measures of dispersion provide information concerning the variability of the sample. Common measures of dispersion are range, percentiles and quartiles, variance and standard deviation.

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ၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာျခငးအႏစခပ တငးတာမႈ အားသာခကမား အားနညးခကမား

ကနးစဥတနး Range

• သသာထငရား • တြကခကရနလြယက

• ေလ႔လာမႈကနး၂ခသာအသးျပ • နမနာအစအရြယအစားႏင႔အတတကြၾကးလာႏင • ပမနမဟတေသာတနဘးမားေၾကာင႔ပပကယြငးႏင

အငတာကြာတငးကနးစဥ Interquartile range

• အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမား၏သကေရာကမႈမရ

• ေလ႔လာမႈကနး၂ခသာအသးျပ • စာရငးအငးဆငရာဆကလကေလ႔လာမႈမားအတြက

ျပငဆငျခငးမျပႏင

စေသြဖညမႈ Standard deviation

• တနဘးအားလးကအသးျပ • ဆကလကစစစေလ႔လာမႈမားအတြက

သင႔ေလာ

• အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမား၏လႊမးမးမႈဒဏကျမင႔မားစြာခရ

ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈႏင႔ၾကျပန႕မႈအားတငးတာမႈတ႕အၾကားေရြခယျခငး ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးအမးအစား Type of distribution

ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈ Measure of central tendency

ၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာျခငး Measure of dispersion

ပမန • ပမးမကနး • စေသြဖညမႈ

တစဘကသ႔ယြငးေစာငး • အလယကနး • အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ

ထပညႊနးဆငရာသ႔မဟတ ေလာ႔ဂရမသမမစဆငရာ

• ဂၾသေမၾတပမးမကနး • စာရငးအငးပညာရငမားႏင႔တငပငပါ

အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာ ေလ႔လာစစစမႈမားတြငနညးလမးတစရပရပက ေရြးခယအသးျပရျခငးမာ ေကာကယစေဆာငးသည႔ ေဒတာမားအေပၚမတညပါသည။ ေဒတာမား၏တနဘးေပၚမတည၍လညးေကာငး ေလ႔လာသည႔နမနာအစအတြငး၌အဆပါတနဘးမာတညရေနပေပၚမတည၍လညးေကာငးသေတသမားအေန ျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာစစစရနအတြကမညသည႔နညးလမးသညအသင႔ေလာဆးျဖစမညကစဥးစားဆးျဖတရပါသည။

• ကနးရငတစလး၏ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကအားၾကမႏႈနးဇယားတစခသ႔မဟတဂရပပမား ျဖင႔သရပေဖာတင ျပႏငပါသည။ သးအမားဆးေသာဂရပပသးမးမာ - ဟစၥတဂရမ၊ဘားခပႏင႔ၾကမႏႈနးပလဂြနတ႔ ျဖစပါသည။

• အသးမားေသာဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈတ႔မာ- ပမးမကနး၊အလယကနးႏင႔ၾကမမားကနးတ႔ျဖစပါသည။

ပမးမကနးသည ေလ႔လာသည႔ကနးဂဏနးမား၏စစေပါငးကကနးအေရအတြက ျဖင႔စား၍ရေသာရလာဒ ျဖစပါသည။အလယကနးသညငယစဥၾကးစစဥထား ေသာကနးဂဏနးအစ၏အလယမတတနဘးျဖစပါသည။ ၾကမမားကနးမာ ေဒတာအစအတြငးအၾကမအမားဆးျဖစေပၚေသာကနးျဖစပါသည။

• ၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာျခငးဆသညမာနမနာအစတစရပ၏ေျပာငးလသည႔ပႏင႔ပတသကေသာသတငးအခက

အလကမား ျဖစပါသည။အသးမား ေသာၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာနညးမားမာကနးစဥတနး Range ၊ပါစငတငး Percentile ႏင႔ကြာတငးလ Quartile ၊ ေျပာငးလြမႈ Variance ႏင႔စေသြဖညမႈ Standard Deviationတ႕ျဖစၾကပါသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 16. QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT :

• The different steps analyzing qualitative data; • The importance of linking different sets of data and connecting them to broader

topics as part of the analysis; • The transformation ofqualitative data connected to a larger context into

findings. ____________________________________________________________________ WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS ? Qualitative data is all sort of information gathered by the researcher through qualitative research methods. These methods include focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, case studies, participative learning appraisals, participative action research, etc. Once information is collected, the data has to be processed by the researcher in order to produce findings that can be analyzed. For quantitative research, quantitative data produces answers that can be expressed numerically. For qualitative research, qualitative data is more concerned with views and feelings expressed by informants.Qualitative data analysis also results in the interpretation by the researchers of the meaning of these views and feelings. Analysing the data consists in putting the informants’ views and feelings into the larger context of the issue under study. The analysis is mainly about searching for patterns of development, patterns of crisis, or patterns of behaviour, etc. that explain a particular issue, situation and context. The data produced through qualitative research can come from different sources: observation, notes, interview tapes and transcripts, newspapers, surveys and questionnaires, etc. Such materials are called ‘data’. The ‘data’ contain the information that the researcher is seeking. The ‘data’ may also provide partial or full answers to questions and hypothesis defining the research. However, these ‘data’ are not usable as such. Qualitative data analysis hence consists in applying analytical methods to data so that they may be used to inform research questions and hypothesis. The main steps in the analysis of qualitative data are:

• Organizing data • Coding and categorizing data • Ensuring reliability and validity of data • Interpreting data

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၆ - အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ ဤအခနးတြင

• အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာမားစစစေလ႔လာမႈ ျပလပရာတြငလကနာရနရမညမတညသည႔အဆင႔မား - • စစစေလ႔လာမႈလပငနးစဥ၏အစတအပငးျဖစေသာမတကြျပားေသာေဒတာအစအသးသးအားပမကယျပန႔ေသာ

ေခါငးစဥမားႏင႔ခတဆကရနအေရးၾကးပ • အရညအေသြးစထားေဒတာမားအားပမကယျပန႔ေသာအေနအထားအရေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားအျဖစသ႕ခတ

ဆကအသြငေျပာငးျခငး _____________________________________________________________________________________ အရညအေသြးစထားေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈဆသညမာအဘယနညး အရညေသြးစထားေဒတာဆသညမာသေတသမအရညေသြးစထားသေတသနနညးလမးမားအားျဖင႔စေဆာငးရရေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအားလးကဆလသည။အဆပါသေတသနနညးလမးမားတြငဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြမား၊အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၊ျဖစရပေလ႔လာမႈမား၊ကယတငပါ၀ငသငယသးသပမႈျပျခငး၊အလပျဖင႔ပေပါငးပါ၀ငသေတသနျပျခငးစသညျဖင႔ပါ၀ငႏငသည။ သတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးရရသည႔အခါစစစေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငေသာေတြ႕ရခကမားအျဖစထတလပႏငရနသေတသအေနျဖင႔ေဒတာမားကကငတြယသးသပသည။

အေရအတြကစထားသေတသနတြငကနးဂဏနးမားအျဖစ ေဖာျပႏငေသာအေျဖမားအားအေရအတြကစထား ေဒတာမားမထတႏႈတယရသည။အရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနတြငမအရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာမားသညသတငးေပးသမားမေဖာျပေသာအျမငမားမႏင႔ခစားမႈမားမပါ၀ငေသာအဓပၸါယမားႏင႔ပ၍သကဆငသည။

အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစမႈသညသေတသမားမအဆပါအျမငမားႏင႔ခစားမႈမား၏ အဓပၸါယကအနက ဖြင႔ဆျခငးျဖစသည။ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈတြငသတငးေပးသမား၏ အျမငမားႏင႔ခစားခကမားက ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပမည႔ကစၥရပ၏ကယျပန႔ေသာအေျခအေနအေနအထားသ႕ထည႔သြင႔ေလ႔လာမႈျပျခငးျဖစသည။

စစစ ေလ႔လာမႈသညမားေသာအားျဖင႔ဖြ႕ျဖးမႈအေနအထား၊ပဋပကၡအေနအထား၊ (သ႕ ) အျပအမပငးဆငရာ ျဖစေပၚမႈ စသညျဖင႔ကစၥရပတစခ၊အေျခအေနတစရပ၊အေနအထားတစခအားဖြင႔ဆရငးျပႏငရနရာေဖြ ေဖာထတရျခငး ျဖစသည။ အရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနအား ျဖင႔ရရလာေသာ ေဒတာမားသညမတကြျပာ ေသာရငးျမစအမးမးမရရႏငသည။

ေလ႔လာမႈမား၊မတစမား၊အငတာဗးတတေခြႏင႔မတတမးမား၊သတငးစာမား၊စစတမးေကာကယမႈမားႏင႔ ေမးခြနး လႊာမားစသညတ႕ ျဖစသည။၄ငးအေထာကအထားမားက “အခကအလကအၾကမးမား”ဟေခၚသည။ထ “အခက အလကအၾကမး”မားတြငသေတသမရာေဖြလကရေသာသတငးအခကတ႕ပါ၀ငသည။ထ “အခကအလက အၾကမး”မား အေနျဖင႔သေတသန ျပလပရာေဖြလကရေသာအဆၾကမးႏင႔ ေမးခြနးမားအတြကအေျဖမားတစစတတစပငးသ႕မဟတ အျပည႔အစပါ၀ငႏငသည။ သ႕ေသာဤ “အခကအလကအၾကမးမားက”သညအတငးအသးျပ၍မရေခ။ထ႕ေၾကာင႔အရညအေသြဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈတြငသေတသန ေမးခြနးမားႏင႔အဆၾကမးတ႕အတြကအေထာကအက ျပအသးျပႏင ေသာ ေဒတာမားကစစစေလ႔လာသည႔နညးလမးမားအသးျပရျခငတ႕ပါ၀ငသည။ အရညအေသြးဆငရာေဒတာမားကစစစေလ႔လာမႈျပရနအဓကအဆင႔မားမာ -

• ေဒတာမားအားစစညးျခငး • ေဒတာမားအားအပစဖြ႕ျခငးႏင႔အမတအသားျပျခငး • ေဒတာမားအေထာကအထားခငလမႈႏင႔ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈတ႕အား ေသခာေစျခငး • ေဒတာမားအားအနကဖြင႔ဆျခငး

တ႕ျဖစသည။

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ORGANIZING DATA 1. Getting familiar with the data Before starting to organize the data obtained from interviews and other sources, it is necessary to get familiar with these data. In other words, the first work the researcher should perform is to re-read/re-listen the data. If tape-recorded interviews have not yet been transcribed on paper this must be done first before analysis. It is important to remember here that tape-recorded interviews should nevertheless been transcribed as soon as possible after the interview itself. This is for back-up purpose (i.e. in case the tape gets lost). It is also for research purpose: the researcher will have better knowledge of what the interview missed in terms of data and can therefore look for these missing data when conducting additional interviews. The researcher has to read the content of interviews and other data collected. By going through the content of all the data collected, the researcher will have an early idea of the kind of information it contains. 2. Organizing the data After collecting data, the best way to organize it is to consider again the key questions that the research project seeks to answer and to determine how well the data could provide some clues about these key questions. This means assessing whether the data is: (1) extremely relevant to the research question; (2) very relevant; (3) relevant; or (4) partly relevant. Research example: Research subject: The socio-economic impact of out-migration from Eastern Myanmar. Key questions:

- How remittances are used in the households - How out-migration changed livelihood patterns of villagers - Social benefits and costs of migration

Main research topics:

- Livelihoods: o Remittances o Land ownership/Land use

- Social issues: o Social cohesiveness o Child care o Protection issues (drug use)

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ေဒတာမားအားစစညးျခငး

၁။ေဒတာမားႏင႔ရငးႏးကြမး၀ငေအာငျပျခငး တြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈႏင႔အျခားေသာရငးျမစမားမရရလာေသးေဒတာမားကစစညးျခငးမျပမအဆပါေဒတာမားႏင႔ရငးႏးကြမး၀ငေအာငလပရနလအပပါသည။ဆလသညမာသေတသအေနျဖင႔ပထမဆးျပလပရမည႔အလပမာေဒတာမားကျပနလညဖတရႈျခငး၊ျပနလညနားဆငျခငးျပလပရနျဖစသည။

အကယ၍တတျဖင႔အသသြငးဖမးယထားေသာအငတာဗးအားစာရြကေပၚသ႕ခ၍မတတမးသြငးျခငးမျပရေသးပါကပါ၀ငသည႔အေၾကာငးအရာမားကစစစေလ႔လာမႈမျပမေနာကထပတစၾကမျပနလညနားဆငရနလအပပါသည။ဤေနရာတြငမတသားရနအေရးၾကးေသာအခကမာတတျဖင႔အသသြငးထားေသာအငတာဗးမားအားအငတာဗးျပးလငျပးခငးေစာႏငသမေစာလငစြာမတတမးသြငးရနျဖစပါသည။ဤသ႕ျပလပရျခငးမာအကယ၍မားတတေခြပကစဆးရႈးသြားပါကအရနထားရရနရညရြယခကျဖစပါသည။၄ငးသညသေတသနရညရြယခကအတြကလညးအသး၀ငပါသည။သေတသအေနျဖင႔ျပလပခ႔သည႔အငတာဗးမားတြငမညသည႔ေဒတာမားလအပေနေသးေၾကာငးသရႏငျပးထလအပေသေဒတာမားကေနာကထပအငတာဗးမားထပလပသည႔အခါရာေဖြႏငသည။

သေတသအေနျဖင႔အငတာဗးတြငပါ၀ငသည႔အေၾကာငးအရာမားႏင႔အျခားစေဆာငးရရေသာေဒတာမားကဖတထားသင႔သည။စေဆာငးရရေသာေဒတာအာလးတြငပါ၀ငသည႔အရာမားကဖတရႈစစေဆးျပးျပဆပါကသေတသအေနျဖင႔မညသည႔သတငးအခကအလကအမးအစားမားပါ၀ငသညကပထမဆးအေနျဖင႔သရႏငသည။

၂။ေဒတာမားအားစစညးျခငး ဒတာမား ေကာကယျပး ေသာအခါစစညးရနအေကာငးဆးနညးလမးမာသေတသနစမကနးမ ေျဖဆရနၾကးစားသည႔ အဓက ေမးခြနးၾကးမားကထည႔သြငးစဥးစားရန ျဖစ ေဒတာမားအေနျဖင႔ဤ ေမးခြနးၾကးမားအားမညသည႔သလြန စမးေပးႏငသညကတကဆငစစေဆးၾကည႔ရန ျဖစသည။ဆလသညမာ ေဒတာမားအေနျဖင႔ (၁) သေတသန ေမးခြနးႏင႔အလြနအမငးဆေလာကတကဆငသည (၂) အေတာပငဆေလာတကဆငသည (၃) ဆေလာတကဆငသည။ (၄) တစစတတစပငးဆေလာတကဆငသည။ - ဆသညကသးသပစစေဆးရန ျဖစသည။

သေတသနဥပမာ သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာ။ ။ျမနမာျပညအေရ႕ဖားမျပညပသ႕ထြကခြာအေျခခေနထငမႈ၏လမႈ-စးပြားအေပၚ

အကးသကေရာကမႈ အဓကေမးခြနးမား - -ေငြလႊေပးပ႕သည႔ေငြကအမေထာငစမားတြငအသးျပပ -ျပညပသ႕ထြကခြာေျပာငးေရႊ႔မႈသညေကးရြာသားမား၏အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈပသ႑နကေျပာငးလေစပ -ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခမႈလမႈေရးဆငရာအကးေကးဇးမားႏင႔စရတစကမား

အဓကသေတန ေခါငးစဥမား -အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈမား • ေငြလႊေပးပ႕မႈ • ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ / ေျမယာအသးျပမႈ

-လမႈေရးကစၥရပမား • ရပရြာစညးလးညညြတမႈ • ကေလးသငယျပစေစာင႔ေရာကမႈ • ကာကြယေစာင႔ေရာကေရးကစၥရပမား ( မးယစေဆး၀ါသးစြမႈ )

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Data should be organized according to these topics in a way that is easy to look at. One easy way to do so is to make annotations next to the text in a column (as shown below). It is usually helpful to write these annotations in a different color.

Example of annotating interviews and notes:

Remittances

Livelihoods

Land Use

Social impact

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ေဒတာမားကၾကည႔ရႈရနလြယကသည႔နညးလမး ျဖစေသာဤ ေခါငးစဥမားအတငးစစညးေဖာျပသင႔သည။ထသ႕ ျပလပရနလြယကေသာနညးလမးတစရပမာ ( ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပပါရသည႔အတငး ) စာသားမား၏ ေဘးေကာလတြငအဓပၸါယဖြင႔မတစေရးျခငး ျဖစသည။အဆပါမတစမားကကြျပားျခားနား ေသာအေရာငမားအသးျပပါကပမအသး၀ငအေထာကအကျပပါသည။

အငတာဗးႏင႔မတစမားအားအဓပၸါယဖြင႔မတခကချခငးဥပမာ။ ထငးႏငငမ ေငြလႊေပးပ႔ျခငးမား သည ကနရစခ႔သည႕ရြာသား မား အား အကးရေစပါသည။ အမယာမား၊ ေမာေတာငဆငကယ ထငးတယလဖနး ၊ ျမနမာတယ လဖနး ၊ ခငခငခ႕ခ႕ ေဆာကထားေသာ သစသားအမမား ၊ အတျဖင႔တစပငးေဆာကထားေသာ အမမား က ေတြ႕ ႕ရပါသည။ဘနးေတာၾကး ေကာငးရျပး ဘနးၾကးမား သည ရြာရဘာသာေရးအခမးအနား မား က ဥးေဆာငၾက ပါသည။ကေလး ေတာ ေတာ မား မား ေကာငးေနၾကျပး ရြာမ တစမင ခန႔ေ၀သည႔ လပ ပပေကးရြာ တြင ေကာငး သြား တကၾကရပါသည။ ေကးရြာရကယ၀နေဆာင အမးသမးမား က ျပစေစာင႔ေရာက ၍ သားဖြား ဆရာမလညး ရပါသည။ ကရင အမေထာငစ ေလးစရျပး ကနအမေထာငစ မား မာ မြနလမးမား ျဖစၾကပါသည။ အမားစ မာ စကခငး မား တြင အလပလပ ၾကျပး ရာဘာ ၊ ကြမးသး ႏင႔ စပါးခငး တ႕ ျဖစၾကပါသည။ လယကြငး စပါးခငးမား တြင လအနညးငယ သာ လပၾကျပး ကနသမား မာ ၄ငးတ႕၏ ရာ စကခငး က ႏစစဥ တးခ႕ ရန သာ ၾကးစားၾကပါသည။

သ႕႕ေသာ ဤ သည မာ လညး ယခငႏစ ၀ငေငြအေပၚ မတညပါသည။ ရြာသား မား အေနျဖင႔

လြနခ႔ေသာ ႏစ အနညးငယ ခန႔ က ဆလင ေကးရြာ သည အစးရ စစတပႏင႔ ေကအနယ စစတပ ႏစဘကစလး ၏ ထနးခပမႈ ေအာကတြင ရခ႔ပါသည။ သ႕ အတြက ေျမယာ အသးျပပႏင႔ ေျမယာ မတပတင ျခငး ကစၥမာ သပျပး အေရးမပါပါ။ ၾကည႔ရသညမာ အလပလပရန ရြာမထြကခြာသြားေသး ေကးရြာ သားအမား စ အေနျဖင႔ ပကဆျပနျပး ေျမ၀ယထား ကာ ၄ငး တ႕ အမျပန လာ သည႔ အခါ တြင ထေျမကြက မား ၌ အလပလပရန ျဖစပရပါသည။ ေကးရြာတြင မြန ၊ ဗမာ ၊ႏင႔ ကရင စကားမား ေျပာဆသးစြ ၾကပါသည။

ယေန႔ေခတ လငယအမားစ ၾကးမာ ထငးႏငငသ႕ အလပလပ ရန ထြကခြာ သြားၾကပါသည။ အခ႕ေသာ လငယမား သည ၄ငတ႕ ၏ မဘမား အား “ခငဗား တ႕ ကပက ဒလ ဆကဆေနရင ထငးက ထြကသြားလကမယ ” ဟ၍ စတဆးသည႔အခါ တငး ျခမးေျခာက အၾကပကငတတၾကပါသည။

ေငြလႊေပးပ႕မႈမား

အသကေမြး၀မး ေၾကာငး ေနထငမႈ

ေျမယာအသးျပမႈ

လမႈေရး အကး သကေရာကမႈ

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Once annotated, data can be organized in a chart according to the different research questions and topics. Topics Interviews Notes Livelihood Interview 1 Interview 2 Remittances Land ownership / Land use

My son who is working in Bangkok sends us around 100,000 kyats per month. Thanks to this money we bought a 2-acre plot of land where we grow rubber trees.

Make a list of recurring words, ideas, concepts, themes

Social issues Social cohesiveness Child care Protection issues

Some young people threaten their parents to go to Thailand. (…) The problem is that grandparents don’t have the same authority over their grandchildren as their own parents do. Some young people do what they want to do. They value center on getting money more than learning their own language and traditions Many infants and young people here are left without parents. Their parents migrate to Thailand for work. Some young people feel left aside and consume drugs.

Make a list of recurring words, ideas, concepts, themes

This method of organizing and displaying data allows the researcher to look at answers and views given by respondents about each topic. In the right column, the researcher notes recurring ideas and themes that are organized into different categories. For example: amounts of remittances, different types of use of remittances, positive and negative impacts of out-migration, etc.

Tip: It is useful to identify and differentiate between(1) the questions and topics that are central to the research; and (2) those that are simply included in the interview guide as important, but not essential. Once the key questions are answered, other questions may be considered to further enhance the findings or to identify additional research questions.

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ေဒတာမားကအဓပၸါယဖြင႔မတစမားခေရးျပးပါက၄ငတ႕ကသေတသနေမးခြနးမားႏင႔ေခါငးစဥမားအတငးဇယားခပတြငစစညးေဖာျပႏငပါသည။ ေခါငးစဥမား အငတာဗးမား မတစမား အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈ အငတာဗး ( ၁ ) အငတာဗး၂ ေငြလႊေပးပ႔မႈ ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ / ေျမယာအသးခမႈ

ဗနေကာကမာအလပလပေနတ႔ကြနမတ႕ရ႕သားကလစဥတစလတစသနးကပေလာကကြနမတ႕ဆျပနပ႔ေပးပါတယ။ ဒလပ႔ေပးတ႔ေငြေၾကးေၾကာင႔ကြနမတ႕ေျမႏစဧကေလာက၀ယျပးရာဘာစကပးပါတယ။

ထပတလလပါရသည႔စကားလးမား၊အငဒယာမား၊အေတြးအျမငမား၊အေၾကာငးအရာမားကစာရငးတစရပျပစပါ

လမႈေရးကစၥမား လမႈေရးစညးလးည ညြတမႈ ကေလးသငယ ျပစေစာင႔ေရာကမႈ ကာကြယေစာင႔ေရာက ေရးကစၥမား

အခ႕ ေသာလငယမားသညထငးႏငငသ႕သြားမညဟ၄ငတ႕၏မဘမားအား ျခမးေျခာကၾကသည။ (------) ျပနာရပမာဘးဘြားမားအေနျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕၏ ေျမးျမစမားအေပၚသတ႕၏မဘမား ေလာကၾသဇာမေညာငးေခ။အခ႕ေသာလငယမားသညသတ႕လပခငသညကလပၾကသည။ပကဆပရေရးကသာတနဘးထား ျပး၄ငးတ႕၏ကယပငဘာသာစကားႏင႔အစဥအလာမားသငယေစာင႔ထနးရနအေလးမထားၾကေခ။ ေမြးကငးစကေလးမားစြာႏင႔လငယကေလးမားမာမဘမားမရဘစြန႕ခြာထားခရသည။၄ငတ႕၏မဘမားသညအလပလပရနထငးႏငငသ႕ေျပာငးေရႊ႕အေျခခေနထငၾကသည။အခ႕ေသာလငယေလးမားသညစြန႕ပစမႈဒဏခစားရျပးမးယစေဆး၀ါးသးစြၾကသည။

ထပတလလပါရသည႔စကား လးမား၊အငဒယာမား၊အေတြးအျမငမား၊အေၾကာငးအရာမားကစာရငးတစရပျပစပါ

ဤက႔သ႕ေဒတာမားကစစညးေဖာျပသည႔နညးလမးသညသေတသအား ေျဖဆသမားမသကဆငရာေခါငးစဥမားအေၾကာငး ေဖာျပသည႔အေျဖမားႏင႔အျမငမားကၾကည႔ရႈခြင႔ ျပေပးသည။လကယာဘကေကာလတြငသေတသအေနျဖင႔ထပတ လလပါရသည႕အငဒယာမားႏင႔အေၾကာငးအရာမားကမတခကခမတစ ေရးသားႏငျပးမတကြျပားသည႔အပစအသးသးသ႕ စစညးေဖာျပႏငသည။ဥပမာအား ျဖင႔ ေငြလႊသည႔ပမာဏမား၊ ေငြလႊသည႔ပစအမးအစားမား၊ ျပညပသ႕ထြကခြာအေျခခမႈ ေကာငးကးႏင႔ဆးကးမားစသညျဖင႔

စကားျမြက။ ။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါအေၾကာငးအရာႏစခအၾကားခြျခာ၍ ေဖာထတသတမတရန အေရးၾကး ပါသည။ (၁) သေတသနအတြကအဓကက ေသာ ေခါငးစဥမားႏင႔ ေမးခြနးမား (၂) အငတာဗး လမး ညႊနတြငပါ၀ငရမသာအေရးၾကး ျပးအဓကမရမျဖစမဟတေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမားတ႕ ျဖစသည။အဓက ကေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆ ျပးေသာအခါအျခား ေမးခြနးမားအေနျဖင႔ ေတြ႕ရခကမားကပ၍ အေထာကအက ျပ ေစရနသ႕မဟတ ေနာကထပသေတသန ေမးခြနးမား ေဖာထတရနအတြကသာျဖစသည။

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CODING AND CATEGORIZING THE DATA Once frequently expressed words or views have been identified and received annotations, it is then useful to organize them into codes and categories. This is called coding and categorizing the data.

Topic: Migration and drug use

Questions Answers Categories

Who organize drug production and organization? Who are the drug users? What is the impact of drugs on the village?

Drugs are made and produced in some rubber plantations in the area. There is one man who distributes drugs in the village. In the past, he was very poor and recently he built a wonderful house after selling drugs. Small sellers take the drugs from him and sell to the village users. They are not only selling but also use the drug. Young people use drugs on some occasions, when they meet with their friends or at pagoda festivals or seasonal festivals in the village. Among the addicted persons, most have worked before in Thailand. When they are back to the village, they still continue to use the drugs. And these persons can afford the price of the drugs if they managed to save money. In another village of the township, five people were arrested during the last three months for selling drugs. But there are still many sellers in the village. Drug use has been increasing for some years. Many people from this township have been sent to the Drug Hospital because of overdoses. Although village elders and headman know who the drug sellers are, they can’t take any action against those persons.

Link between drugs and livelihood Social cohesiveness Link between migration and drug use Link between drugs and livelihood Link between migration and drug use Health impact Social cohesiveness

Each of the categories (on the right) has one or more associated themes that give a deeper and comprehensive meaning to the data. Different categories can be gathered under one main over-arching theme.

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ေဒတာမားအားအပစခြျခငးႏင႔အမတအသား ျပျခငး ေျဖဆသမားမမၾကာခဏ ေဖာျပသည႔စကားလးမားႏင႔အျမငမားက ေဖာထတသတမတ၍အဓပၸါယဖြင႔မတစ ထတျပး ေသာအခါ၄ငးတ႕ကအပစခြမားႏင႔အမတအသားမားအျဖစသ႕စစညးေဖာျပသင႔သည။ဤသညက ေဒတာမား အပစ ခြျခငးႏင႔အမတအသားျပျခငးဟေခၚသည။

ေခါငးစဥ။။ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈႏင႔မးယစေဆးသးစြမႈ

ေမးခြနးမား အေျဖမား အပစခြမား

မးယစေဆး၀ါးထတလပျခငးႏင႔ျဖန႕ျဖးေရာငးချခငးကမညသဥးစးလပေဆာငသနညး။ မးယစေဆးသးစြသမားမာအဘယသမားနညး။ ရပ႐ြာအတြငးမးယစေဆးေၾကာငမညသညအကးဆကမား ျဖစပြားရသနညး။

မးယစေဆး၀ါးထတလပျခငးက ေဒသတြငးရအခ႕ေသာ ရာ ဘာစကခငးမား၌ ျပလပၾကသည။ရြာထတြငမးယစ ေဆး၀ါးျဖန႔ခသတစဥးရသည။ယခငဆလင၄ငးသညမၾကာေသးမကပငမးယစေဆးမားေရာငးချပးအလြနဆငးရျပးအမၾကးအမေကာငးတစလးကေဆာကလပႏငခ႔သည။လကခြအေရာငးသမားမားအေနျဖင႔ထသထမာမးယစေဆး၀ါးမားယကာရြာထရသးစြသမားထေရာငးခ ၾကသည။ထသတ႕သညလညးေရာငးခရမမဟတဘလကယတငလညးသးစြၾကသည။

လငယမားအေနျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕အေပါငးအေဖာအခငးအခငးဆမၾကသည႔အခါလညးေကာငးရြာတြငဘရားပြသ႕မဟတအျခားရာသအလကပြေတာမားရသည႔အခါတြငလညးေကာငးထအခနအခါမားတြငမးယစေဆးသးစြေလ႔ရသည။ေဆးစြသမားအၾကား၌အမားစမာယခငကထငးႏငငတြငအလပလပဖးၾကသမား ျဖစၾကသည။၄ငးတ႕ရြာသ႕ ျပနလာၾကေသာအခါ၌လညးမးယစေဆးကဆကလကသးစြၾကသည။၄ငးအျပငဤသမားအေနျဖင႔ပကဆစေဆာငးမလငမးယစေဆးဖးတတႏငၾကသည။ ျမ႕နယအတြငးရအျခားေသာ ေကးရြာတစရြာ၌မမယစေဆး ေရာငးခမႈျဖင႔

လြနခ႔သည႔သးလအတြငး၌လငါးဥးအဖမးခခ႔ရသည။သ႕ေသာ ေကးရြာ

တြငး၌အျခား ေသာ ေရာငးခသအမားအျပားရေသးသည။ လြနခ႔

ေသာႏစမားအတြငးမးယစေဆးသးစြမႈမာတးတကမား ျပားလာသည။

ဤျမ႕နယအတြငးရလအမားအျပားသညမးယစေဆးအလြနအကြ သးစြမႈေၾ

ကာင႔မးယစေဆးျဖတေဆးရသ႕ပ႔ေဆာငခ႔ရသည။ေကးရြာေခါငးေဆာငမာ

းႏင႔ေကးရြာလၾကးမားအေနျဖင႔မးယစေဆးေရာငးခသမားမညသတ႕ျဖစေၾ

ကာငးသေသာလညး၄ငးတ႕ႏင႔ပတသတ၍တစစတစရာအေရးယေဆာငရြ

ကႏငျခငးမရေခ။

မးယစေဆးႏင႔အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈအခတအဆက လမႈေရးစညးလးညညႊတမႈ ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခေနထငမႈႏင႔မးယစေဆးသးစြမႈအၾကားအခတအဆက မးယစေဆးႏင႔အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈအခတအဆက ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈႏင႔မးယစေဆးသးစြမႈအၾကားအခတ

ကနးမာေရးအကးသကေရာကမႈ လမႈေရးအရာစညးလးညညြတမႈ

(လကယာဘကတြငေဖာျပထားေသာ ) အပစခြအသးသးအေနျဖင႔ေဒတာမား၏အဓပၸါယကပ၍နကနကရႈငးရႈငးႏင႔ ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔နားလညေစရနအတြကတစခသ႕မဟတတစခထကပ၍ဆကစပလကရေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမားရသည။မတညေသာအပစခြအသးသးကျခငမေသာပငမအၾကာငးအရာၾကးတစရပ၏ေအာကတြငထည႔သြငးထားႏငသည။

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Example:

One of the themes that emerge from the previous interview on drug use is the link between migration and socio-economic opportunities:

• Drugs is a means to improve livelihood: “In the past, he was very poor and recently he built a wonderful house after selling drugs”; “Drug dealers take the drug from him and sell to the village users”.

• Drug use also refers to social status and activities: “Among the addicted persons, most have worked before in Thailand”; “Young people use drugs […] at pagoda festivals or seasonal festivals in the village”.

The same theme, i.e. ‘link between migration and socio-economic opportunities’, may be found in other issues, such as the link between remittances and how people use these remittances when, for example, they build larger houses and buy expensive items and therefore display their wealth. FOSTERING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF DATA Reliability is concerned with the consistency of findings. Reliability requires researchers to be consistent in the way in which research is conducted and data analyzed. Consistency throughout the research consists in implementing research methodology and conducting interviews with informants (FGDs, interviews, etc.) in the same manner throughout time. Consistency in data analysis requires the researcher(s) to systematically use the same method throughout data analysis. Validity concerns the adequacy between what is being investigated or measured and the methodology used to investigate or measure the issue. As underscored in other chapters, each research method is designed to investigate specific situations. The use of an inappropriate method to investigate a situation may lead to invalid findings. If the project involves only one lead researcher, it is important that he/she develops a systematic and consistent way of carrying out the research and analyzing its findings. If the project involves an entire team, developing a systematic approach and maintaining consistency throughout the process is critical to produce “good data.”

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ဥပမာ မးယစေဆး၀ါးသးစြမႈႏင႔ပတသက၍ ျပးခ႔ေသာအငတာဗးမေပၚထြကလာေသာအေၾကာငးအရာတစရပမာ - ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခ ေနထငမႈႏင႔လမႈ - စးပြားအခြင႔အလမးမားအၾကားခတဆက ျဖစသည။

• မးယစေဆးသညအတကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဘ၀တးတကေရးလမးေၾကာငးတစရပျဖစသည။“အရငတနးကဆရငသကအလြနဆငးရျပးမးယစေဆးမားေရာငးချပးေနာကမၾကာေသးမကပငအမၾကးအမေကာငးတစလးေဆာကႏငခ႔ပါတယ” . “မးယစေဆးေရာငးခတ႔သေတြကသ႔ဆကေဆးေတြ ယျပးအသးျပတ႔ရြာသား ေတြဆေရာငးခပါတယ”

• မးယစေဆးအသးျပမႈသညလမႈေရးအဆင႔အတနးႏင႔လပရပမားကလညးညႊနးဆပါသည။ ။ေဆးသးစြ သေတြၾကားမာအမားစဟာထငးႏငငမာအရငကအလပလပခ႔ၾကသေတြျဖစပါတယ “လငယမားအေနန႔[-----] ရြာဘရားပြေတာေတြန႔အျခားရာသအလကပြေတာေတြမာမးယစေဆး၀ါးအသးျပၾကပါတယ။ ”

တညေသာအေၾကာငးအရာျဖစေသာ (ဆလသညမာ - ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခေနထငမႈႏင႔လမႈ - စးပြားအခြင႔အလမးမား အၾကားအခတအဆက) ကအျခားေသာကစၥရပမားတြငလညးေတြ႔ႏငပါသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ေငြ လႊေပးပ႔မႈႏင႔ အဆပါ ေငြလႊမႈမားအားလအမားအသးျပပအခတအဆကဥပမာအားျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕အေနျဖင႔အမၾကးၾကးမားေဆာကလပျခငးႏင႔ေစးၾကးေသာအရာမား၀ယယသးစြျခငးအားျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕၏ၾကြယ၀မႈကေဖာျပသည႔အခါမား။ ေဒတာမားအေထာကအထားခငလမႈႏင႔ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈတ႕အားအားေကာငးေစျခငး အေထာကအထားခငလမႈ Reliability သည ေတြ႕ရခကမား၏ ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈႏင႔သကဆငသည။ အေထာက အထားခငလမႈရရနသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔သေတသနလပေဆာငသည႔အခါတြငလညး ေကာငး ေဒတမားအား စစစသးသပရာတြငလညး ေကာငး ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈရရေစရနလအပသည။သေတသနတစရပလးေရ႕ ေနာက ညညြတမႈရေစရနမာအခနတငးတြငသေသတနနညးလမးမားအားတညေသာပစျဖင႔အေကာငအထည ေဖာ၍ တညေသာပစျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသမားႏင႔အငတာဗးမား ( ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးျခငး၊ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနး ျခငးစသည႔ ) တ႕ ျပလပရနလအပသည။ ေဒတာစစစ ေလ႔လာမႈ၌ ေရ႔ ေနာကညညြတမႈဆသညမာသေတသ ( မား ) အေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာစစစမႈကာလာတစေလာကလးတညေသာနညးလမး ျဖင႔စနစတက ျပလပျခငးကဆလသည။

ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈ Validity ဆသညမာစးစမးေလ႔လာတငးတာသည႔အေၾကာငးအရာႏင႔ကစၥရပအားစးစမး ေလ႔လာတငးတာရာတြငအသးျပသည႔နညးလမးတ႕ကကညမႈကဆလသည။အျခား ေသာအခနးမားတြင ေဖာျပခ႔ သလပငသေတသနနညးလမးတစခစသညသကဆငရာအေျခအေနတစရပရပအားစးစမးေလ႔လာမႈ ျပႏငရနဒဇငး ျပလပထား ျခငး ျဖစသည။အေျခအေနတစရပအားစးစမးေလ႔လာမႈ ျပရနမသကဆငေသာနညးလမးျဖင႔အသးျပ ေလ႔လာမပါကဆေလာမႈမရေသာ ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႕ရခကမားသာ ေပၚထြကလာမည ျဖစသည။

စမကနးတစရပအေနျဖင႔ဥးေဆာငသသေတသတစဥးသာပါ၀ငပါကထသအေနျဖင႔စနစက၍ေရ႔ေနာကညညြတမႈရေသာနညးလမးတစရပအားသေတသနလပျခငးႏင႔ေတြ႕ရခကမားအားစစစသးသပျခားတြငအသးျပရနအေကာငအထည ေဖာရနအေရးၾကးပါသည။စမကနးအေနျဖင႔အစအဖြ႕အလက ျဖစပါကစနစတကခဥးကပပနညးလမးႏင႔လပငနးစဥ တစေလာက ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈရေစရနထနးည ေဆာငရြကထား ျခငး ျဖင႔ “ေကာငးမြန ေသာ ေဒတာအၾကမးမား ” ရရ ေစရာတြငအေရးၾကးပါသည။

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Hereafter are different steps to test the validity and reliability of data:

a. Testing findings and hypotheses: as general themes and patterns emerge from the data, it is important to go through the data, carefully searching for instances that may go against these general patterns. Instances that may go against the general patterns are too often discarded since they don’t fit into the patterns and themes of the data. However it is just as important that these are carefully examined and reported. Possible explanations should be thought out as well.

b. Assessing the researcher’s effect: the interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee may be influenced by the characteristics and features of both parties. Differences in age, gender, education, background, and language all have an impact on the outcome of the interview. In some cases, this impact may be only small; in others, it may be significant. Acknowledging this impact in the research methodology may reduce the risk of potential bias generated by the interaction between the interviewer and interviewee.

c. Validating and confirming findings: “triangulation” is probably the best

method to ensure the validity of qualitative findings. Triangulation is about testing the findings by using different research sources, different methods or different researchers. Triangulating sources means interviewing different members of the community and different stakeholders and assessing whether what they say about one topic lead to similar findings. Triangulating research methods means addressing the same research question through different methods. Finally, triangulating researchers means comparing the findings produced by different researchers using the same research method.

d. Obtaining feedback from informants: a good way to validate findings and,

most of all, validate the researcher’s interpretation of these findings is to seek the advice and points of view of informants formerly involved in the research. Organizing a focus group discussion with these informants and presenting them the research findings and the interpretation of these findings helps test the researcher’s findings.

e. Comparing codes and categories: it is useful to compare the different ways

data is organized into themes and categories. This comparison is an occasion for colleagues to discuss how these themes and categories are defined.

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ဤေနရာတြင ေဒတာမား၏အေထာကအထားခငလမႈႏင႔ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈအားစစေဆးရနအဆင႔အသးသးမာ - ( က ) တြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔အဆၾကမးမားအားစစေဆးျခငး။ ။ ေဒတာမားမ ေန၍အေထြေထြအေၾကာငးအရာမားႏင႔ ပစရပမား

ေပၚထြကလာရာထအေထြ ေထြပစရပႏင႔ဆန႔ကငဘကျဖစေသာအေၾကာငးအရာ ေလးမားက ေဒတာမား အၾကားဂရတစကႏ႕ႏ႕စပစပရာေဖြဖ႕ရနလအပသည။ထအေထြေထြပစရပႏင႔မတကဆငေသာအေၾကာငးအရာ ေလးမားသည ေဒတာမား၏ပစရပႏင႔မတကဆငေသာအေၾကာငးအရာေလးမားသည ေဒတာမား၏ ပစရပႏင႔ အေၾကာငးအရာမားတြငအ၀ငခြငကမျဖစမႈေၾကာင႔မၾကခဏဆသလဖယရားပစေလ႔ရသည။သ႕ေသာ၄ငးတ႕ကဂရတစကစမးသပစစေဆးျပးအစရငခတငျပကာ ျဖစႏငေခရေသာ ရငးလငး ဖြင႔ဆ ခကမားအားထည႔စဥးစားျပး ျဖစေၾကာငး ျဖစရနလညအေရးၾကးပါသည။

( ခ ) သေတသ၏သကေရာကမႈအားသးသပျခငး။ ။ေတြ႕ဆးေမးျမနးသႏင႔ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးျခငး ခရသၾကား ဆကဆေရး ဆကႏြယမႈသညႏစဘကစလးသြငျပငလကၡဏာမားႏင႔၀ေသသလကၡဏာမား၏လႊမးမးမႈကခရပါသည။အသကအရြယ၊ကားမ၊ပညာေရး၊အျခားေနာကခအေၾကာငးတရားမား၊အသးျပသညဘာသာစကား စသညတ႕အားလးသည အငတာဗးရလဒေပၚသကေရာကမႈရပါသည။ေပၚသကေရာကမႈရပါသည။တစခ႕ကစၥမားတြငဤသကေရာကမႈအတငးအတာသညေသးငယျပးအခ႕ကစၥမားတြငမသသာပါသည။သေတသနနညးလမးရဤသကေရာကမႈအားထည႔သြငးစဥးစားျခငးျဖင႔ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးသႏင႔ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးျခငးခရသအၾကားဆကႏြယမႈေပၚထြကလာသည႔ျဖစႏငေခရေသာဘကလကမႈအႏရယကေလာ႔ခႏငပါသည။

( ဂ ) ေတြ႕ရခကမားအားခငလ ေစျခငးႏင႔ကး ေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈရေစျခငး။ ။“သးေထာင႔စစစေဆးနညး”သည အရညအေသြးစထား ေတြ႔ရခကမး၏ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈအား ေသခာမႈရေစရနအေကာငးဆးေသာ နညးလမး တစခ ျဖစ ေကာငး ျဖစႏငသည။သးေထာင႔စစစေဆးနညးသညမတညေသာသေတသနရင ျမစမား၊ မတညေသာ သေတသနနညးလမးမားႏင႔မတညေသာသေတသမားအားအသးျပ၍ ေတြ႕ရခကမားက စမးသပစစေဆးျခငး ျဖစသည။သးေထာင႔စရငးျဖစမားအသးျပျခငးဆသညမာရပရြာလထ အတြငးရမတည ေသာသမားႏင႔ မတညေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနး ျခငး ျပ၍၄ငးတ႕ ေျပာၾကား ေသာတစခတညး ေသာ ေခါငးစဥႏင႔ပတသက၍ ဆငတေသာအေျဖမား ေတြ႕ရခကမား ေပၚထြကလာမႈ ရမရကသးသပစစေဆးျခငးျဖစသည။သးေထာင႔စ သေတသန နညးလမးအသးျပျခငးဆသညမာတညေသာသေတသန ေမးခြနးတစခအားမတညေသာသေတသန နညးလမးမား အသးျပ၍အေျဖရာျခငးက ေခၚသည။ ေနာကဆးအေျဖင႔သးေထာင႔စသေတသမားအသးျပျခငးဆသညမာတညေသာ သေတသနနညးလမးကအသ ျပ၍မတညေသာသေတသအသးသးမသေတသနလပ ေဆာင၍ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ရလာဒမားကႏႈငးယဥ စစေဆးျခငးက ေခၚပါသည။တ႕ ျပလပရနလအပသည။ ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ၌ ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈ ဆသညမာသေတသ (မား) အေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာစစစမႈကာလာတစေလာကလးတည ေသာနညးလမး ျဖင႔စနစတက ျပလပ ျခငးကဆလသည။

(ဃ) သတငးေပးသမားထမတ႔ျပနမကရယျခငး။ ။သေတသန ေတြ႔ရခကမား၏ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမနင အထးသျဖင အဆပါေတြ႔ရခကမားအားသေတသ၏အနကဖြငဆခကမား၏ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမတ႔အားစစေဆးရနနညးလမး ေကာငးတစရပမာသေတသနတြငပါဝငခသညသတငးေပးသမား၏အၾကဥာဏနငရေထာငအျမငမားသးသပရယျခငး ျဖစသည။အဆပါသတငးေပးသမားနငဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပျပလပကာသေတသနေတြ႔ရခကမားအား၎တ႔ထတငျပကာထေတြ႔ရခကမား၏အနကဖြငေစျခငးျဖငသေတသ၏ ေတြ႔ရ ခကမားအားစမးသပစစေဆးနငသည။

(င) အပစခြမားနငအမတအသား 'ကဒ' မားအားနငးယဥျခငး။ ။ ေဒတာမားအားအပစခြမားနငအေၾကာငးအရာ ရပမား အသးသးသ႔စစညး ေဖာျပထားသညမတညေသာနညးလမးအသးသးနငးယဥ ေလလာျခငးသညလညး အသးဝငပါသည။ ဤနငးယဥေလလာမသညလပေဖာေဆာငဖကမားအၾကားဤအေၾကာငးအရာရပမားနငအပစခြမားသတမတပက ေဆြးေႏြးရနျဖစသည။

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f. Acknowledging the influence of external factors: besides the researcher’s own character and its possible impact on the research, there may be many other factors to consider. Among them is the time (during the day, month, and year) at which interviews were conducted. It is also important to remember if persons other than the interviewees were present during the interview. These persons may have influenced the interviewee and his/her answers to the questions. Other factors that may influence the research include: power relationships, inter-cultural relationships, etc.

EXPLAINING , LINKING , AND INTERPRETING DATA An efficient way to explain, link, and interpret data is to organize them into a problem tree. As recommended in Chapter on “Defining a Research Problem”, it is strongly recommended to draw a problem tree at the first stage of the research project.This problem tree reflects the researcher(s) understanding of the issue under study. It presents various issues and their possible links that are related to the overall problem under study. The researcher’s understanding of the overall problem is usually not comprehensive; it may also be biased. After data is collected, it is recommended to draw, at the analysis stage, a new problem tree. At this stage, the problem tree is expected to be more precise, have more information, and reflect a more comprehensive understanding of the problem (see again Chapter on ‘Defining a Research Problem’). When attempting to explain findings and their possible links, it is useful to consider the following questions:

• Are these findings expected findings based on the literature? • Are there any major unexpected findings? • How are these findings different/similar to what the literature on the same topic

states?

To answer these questions, researchers may refer to different references: • Existing literature • Personal notes and observations: side notes taken and observations made by the

researcher during the research as well as during the data review process help put the data into a larger context. Any thoughts which come to the researcher’s mind when reading the data may help determine which interpretation can be made of the views expressed by the informants.

• Key informants and collaborators: as already explained before, some trusted key informants as well as collaborators may help find explanations for specific ‘data’. Key informants are more likely to bring in an “insider’s view” that can help explain ‘data’.

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(စ) ျပငပအေၾကာငးတရားမား၏လႊမးမးမကအသအမတျပျခငး။ ။သေတသ၏ကယပငစရက လကၡဏာနင ၎ဝေသသ လကၡဏာမား၏သေတသနအေပၚလႊမးမးမအျပငအျခားေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမားစြာကလညးထညသြငးစဥးစားရနရပါသည။၎တ႔အနကအငတာဗးျပလပသညအခန (တစေန႔တာအေတာအတြငး၊လ၊နစစသညျဖင) ကလညးထည သြငးစဥးစားရပါမည။အငတာဗးျပလပစဥအေတာအတြငးအငတာဗးေျဖဆသမားအျပငအျခားသမားလညးရမရဆသညအခကမာလညးအေရးၾကးပါသည။အဆပါေဘးလမားအေနျဖငအငတာဗးေျဖဆသနင၎၏အေျဖမားအေပၚလႊမးမးသကေရာကမရနငပါသည။သေတသနအပၚလႊမးမးမရရနငေသာအျခားေသာအခကမားမာ - အာဏာပတသက ဆကဆေရးနငမတညေသာယဥေကးမမားအၾကားဆကဆေရးစသညတ႔ျဖစပါသည။

ေဒတာမားအားရငးလငးဖြငဆျခငး၊ခတဆကျခငးနငအနကဖြငျခငး ဒတာမားအားရငးလငးဖြငဆ၊ခတဆက၊အနကဖြငရနထေရာကေသာနညးလမးတစရပမာ၎တ႔အား ျပနာအေျချပပ Problem tree တစခအျဖစစစညးေဖာျပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ “သေတသန ျပနာအားဖြငဆျခငး” အခနးတြင အၾကျပထားသညအတငးသေတသနစမကနး၏ပထမအဆင၌ျပနာအေျချပဇယား Problem tree တစရပေရး ဆြရနအထးအၾကျပလပါသည။ဤျပနာအေျချပဇယားသညသေတသ၏ ေလလာမညကစၥရပအားနားလညမက ထငဟပပါသည။၎သညမားေျမာငလစြာေသာကစၥရပမားနင၎ကစၥရပမားမ ေလလာမည ျပနာရပၾကးတစခ လးနင ျဖစနငေခရသညပတသကဆကႏြယမအခတအဆကမားကတငျပနငပါသည။ ျပနာရပၾကးတစခလး အားသေသသ၏နားလညနငမမာအျမလလ ျပးျပညစျခငးမရနငပါ။ဘကလကေသြဖယမမားရနငပါသည။ ေဒတာမားေကာကယစေဆာငးျပးေနာကေဒတာစစစေလလာမအဆင၌ျပနာအေျချပဇယား ေနာကထပအသစတစခ ဆြရနအၾကျပလပါသည။ဤအဆငတြငျပနာအေျချပပသညပမတကလာရနရျပး၊သတငးအခကအလကပမစလငစြာ ျဖင ျပနာအေၾကာငးပမျခငနားလညမကထငဟပပါသည။ [“သေတသန ျပနာအားဖြငဆျခငး ”ကတစခါ ျပနၾကည႔ပါရန ] တြ႕ရခကမားႏင႔၄ငးတ႕၏ျဖစႏငေခရေသာအခတအဆကမားကဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးရနၾကးစားရာ၌ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားကထည႔သြငးစဥးစားသင႔ပါသည။

• ဤေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားသညစာေပမားအေပၚအေျချပေသာေမာလင႔ထားသည႔ေလ႔လာေတြ႕ရခကမားျဖစပါသလား။ • ေမာလင႔မထားသည႔အဓက ေလ႔လာေတြ႕ရခကမားတစစတစရာရပါသလား။ • အေၾကာငးအရာတေခါငးစဥျဖင႔စာေပးမား၌ေဖာျပပါရမႈမားႏင႔ယခေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားသညမညသ႕ကြျပာ

(သ႕) တသနညး။

ဤေမးခြနးမားကေျဖဆရနမာသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔မတကြျပားေသာအကးအကားမားကကးကားရမညျဖစသည။ • လကရရျပးသားစာေပမား • ပဂၢလမတစမားႏင႔ရာေဖြေလ႔လာမႈမား။ ။သေတသနျပလပစဥအတြငးေဘးမတစ မတသား ထားမႈႏင႔

သေတသမသတထားေစာင႔ၾကည႔ေလ႔လာမႈမားအပါအ၀ငေဒတာမားျပနလညသးသပသည႔လပငနးစဥမားအေနျဖင႔ေဒတာမားကပမကယျပန႔ေသာေနာကခ၀နကငအေနအထားႏင႔ခတဆကရာတြငအေထာကအကျပပါသည။ေဒတာမားအားဖတရႈစဥအတြငသေတသ၏စတအတြငးေပၚလာသည႕အေတြးမားသညလညးသတငးေပးေျဖၾကားသမားေဖာျပသညအျမငမားကမညသ႕အနကဖြင႔ရမညဟဆးျဖတရာတြငအကအညေပးပါသည။

• အဓကသတငးေပးေျဖၾကားသမားႏင႔လကတြလပေဆာငသမား။ ။ေရ႕တြငရငးလငးေဖာျပခ႔သလပင အခ႕ေသာ ယၾကညစတခရသည႔သတငးေပးသမားႏင႔အတလကတြလပေဆာငသမားသည “ေဒတာအၾကမး”မားအားဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးရာတြငအကအညရပါသည။ (ခ႕ေသာ) အဓကသတငးေပး သမားအေနျဖင႔“ေဒတာအၾကမးမား”ဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးရာ၌“အတြငးလအျမင”အျဖစအသး၀ငပါသည။

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• Collecting information, which researchers call data, is only the beginning of the research process;

• Qualitative data analysis consists in organizing, coding, validating and explaining the different data;

• Qualitative data analysis is concerned with meaning, views and representations

from the informants;

• Qualitative data analysis results from the researcher’s interpretation of the findings.

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အႏစခပရလင၊ဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• သေတသမားမ “ေဒတာ”ဟေခၚဆေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားစေဆာငးျခငးမာသေတသနလပငနးစဥ၏

ကနဥးအဆင႔သာျဖစသည။

• အရညအေသြးစထားေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈတြငအမးမးေသာေဒတာမားအားစစညးျခငး၊အမတအသားျပျခငး၊ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈအားစစစျခငး၊ႏင႔ဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးျခငးတ႕ပါ၀ငပါသည။

• အရညအေသြးစထားေသာေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈသညသတငေပးေျဖၾကားသမားထမကယစားျပေဖာျပခကမာ

း၊အျမငမား၊အဓပၸါယမားနင႔သကဆငပါသည။

• အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈသည ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႔ရခကမားအားသေတသ၏ အနကဖြင႔ဆျခငးမေပၚထြကလာေသာရလာဒလညးျဖစပါသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 17. USING SECONDARY SOURCES OR EXISTING DATA

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The difference between primary data and secondary data;

• The benefits of using secondary or existing data;

• The problems related to the use of secondary or existing data. ______________________________________________________________________ Using secondary sources as a research method is recommended to researchers who have some preliminary research experience. This said, existing sources that are related to the topic investigated should be read by anyone regardless of his/her acquaintance with social research and its methods.

Primary data are those that researchers have collected themselves. Secondary data originate elsewhere.

Secondary data is the gathering and/or use of existing data for purposes other than those for which they were originally collected. In social research, it is often the case that researchers have to use official or quasi-official statistics. In this case, these statistics are secondary data. These secondary data may be obtained from many sources, including articles, database, surveys, compilations, reports, and many other types of data.

For example, researchers can collect enrollment rates at one school throughout several years to examine education trends: this will be the primary data for the researchers.

This data can then be compared with school enrollment rates for a particular State/Region or yearly national data compiled by the Central Statistical Organization (CSO). In this case, and in the context of the research, the data provided by the CSO will be used as secondary data for the research.

Secondary data are used during the exploratory phase for expressing the general ideas. Then they are used at the design phase for defining sampling frames and drafting the questionnaire. Lastly, when writing the report they can be used as reference points for comparative purposes. Secondary data is also used when direct data collection is impossible, costly and/or time consuming.

For example, when mapping agricultural land use for a report, researchers might use existing ground-referenced data or satellite sensory imagery from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Another example: in developing the situation and rationale for insecticide poisoning prevention program, researchers might collect information from the Public Health Department about the number of people in a community who have reported insecticide poisoning as part of their job.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၇ တဆငခအရငးျမစမားသ႔မဟတ႐ျပးသားအခကအလကမား

ဤအခနးသည

• မရငးအခကအလကႏငတဆငခအခကအလကမားအၾကား ျခားနားခက

• တဆငခ (သ႔) ႐ျပးသားအခကအလကမားအသးျပျခငး၏အကးရလဒ

• တဆငခ (သ႔) ႐ျပးသားအခကအလကမားကအသးျပျခငးႏငစပလဥးေသာျပနာမား

_____________________________________________________________________________________

ကနဥးအေတြ႕အၾက႐ျပးသားသေတသမားအေနျဖငတဆငခအခကအလကမားကသးရနသငေတာပါသည။လမႈသေတသနႏင၄ငးလပထးလပနညးကသနားလညေစကာမ ေလလာသညအေၾကာငးအရာႏငသကဆငသည႐ျပးသား သတငးအခကအလကမားအားဖတ႐သငသည။

တဆငခအခကအလကဟသည႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားအား၄ငးတ႔မလစေဆာငးစဥကရည႐ြယရငးမဟတေသာအျခားတပါးေသာရည႐ြယခကျဖငအသးျပရနအလ႔ငာစေဆာငးျခငးႏင/သ႔မဟတအသးျပျခငးကဆလသည။မားေသာအားျဖငလမႈသေတသနတြငတရားဝင (သ႔) အေတာအတနတရားဝငေသာစာရငးအငးအခကအလကမားက အသးျပသည။

ဤတြငအဆပါစာရငးအငးအခကအလကမားကတဆငခအခကအလကဟ ေခၚသည။၄ငးတဆငခ အခကအလကမား အား ေဆာငးပါး၊ ေဒတာေဘစ၊စစတမး၊စေဆာငးသမးဆညးခက၊အစရငခစာႏငအျခားအခကအလကအမးအစား ေျမာကျမားစြာပါဝငေသာအရငးျမစမားစြာမရ႐ႏငသည။

ဥပမာပညာေရးလားရာလမးေၾကာငးကဆနးစစရနအတြကသေတသမားသည ေကာငးတစေကာငးတညးမ ေကာငးသားမား ေကာငးဝငခြငရသညႏနးထားကႏစေပါငးအတနၾကာေအာငစေဆာငးရယႏငပါသည။ ၄ငးသညသေတသမားအတြကမရငးအခကအလကမား ျဖစလာပါလမမည။

အဆပါအခကအလကမားအား ျပညနယ/တငးတစခခ၏ ေကာငးဝငခြငႏနးႏငႏငးယဥႏငသည။သ႔တညးမဟတ ဗဟစာရငး႐းမစေဆာငးထားေသာႏစစဥႏငငလးကၽြတအခကအလကမားႏငႏငးယဥႏငသည။ဤကစၥႏငသေတသန ေဘာငအတြငးတြငဗဟစာရငး႐းမရ႐ေသာအခကအလကမားအားတဆငခအခကအလကမားအျဖစအသးျပသည။

တဆငခအခကအလကမားသည ေယဘယသေဘာတရားမားက ေဖာျပရနပဏာမအဆငတြငအသးျပသည။ ၄ငးေနာကနမနာေကာကယမည ေဘာငကန႔သတရနအတြကပစခသညအဆငႏင ေမးခြနးလႊာျပလပသညအပငးတြင လညးအသးျပသည။ ေနာကဆးအစရငခစာေရးသားသညအခနတြငတကဆငစစေဆးရနအကးအကား အေနျဖင အသးျပႏငေသးသည။တဆငခအခကအလကမားအားအခကအလကတက႐က ေကာကယရနမျဖစႏငသည အခါမး၊အခနႏင ေငြေၾကးအကနကမားသညအခါမးတြငအသးျပသည။

ဥပမာအစရငခစာအတြကလယယာေျမအသးျပမႈက ေျမပျပလပေသာအခါသေတသမားသညစားနပရကၡာႏင လယယာေျမအဖြ႕အစညး (Food and Agriculture Organization - FAO) မ႐ရငးစြ ေျမမကႏာျပင အခကအလကမားႏင ျဂဟတမ႐ကကးထားေသာပရပမားကအသးျပေပမည။အျခားဥပမာ။ ။လပငနးခြငအေနအထား ေကာငးမြနေစေရးႏငပးသတေဆးအသးျပမႈတားျမစေရးအစအစဥတြငသေတသမားသည ျပညသ႔ကနးမာေရးဌာနသ႔ သြားေရာကျပးရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕တစခအတြငးလပငနးခြငပးသတေဆးအသးျပသညဟသတငးေပးပ႔အစရငခထားသမားအေရအတြကကသတငးစေဆာငးရယရမည။

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SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data can be from quantitative sources. These could be published statistics from national government sources such as demographic data (census, vital statistics, cancer registrations, etc.); administrative; government surveys; local government sources; or other sources such as political parties, academic and research institutes, international sources (the European Union, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund). It could also be unpublished or electronic source from data archives, on-line access to national computing centers, and international sources on the internet.

Secondary data can also be from qualitative sources. Sources for qualitative research can be biographies, diaries, memoirs, letters, newspapers, novels & literature, handbooks, policy statements, planning documents, reports, and historical & official documents.

In Myanmar, most of these statistics are provided by the government. Using statistics from the government will raise various issues especially about data accuracy. It is crucial that the researcher using secondary data addresses the issue reliably. The researcher has to explain why he/she thinks that these secondary data are accurate and why he/she can therefore use them for his/her research. In examining the issue of accuracy, the researcher will address the issue of validity and the issue of reliability of these statistics.

ACCURACY OF SECONDARY DATA

Reliability (precision, reproducibility) is the degree of stability exhibited when a measurement is repeated under similar condition. Do the data provided by the government accurately report what they say they report? For example, are the data of the Central Statistical Organization reliable and reproducible for comparative purposes? This problem is not specific to Myanmar and applies alsoto a certain degree in other countries such as US, UK, Europe, and Japan.

Validity is the degree to which a measurement or study reaches a correct conclusion based on a fair understanding of the situation under study. Validity can be divided into two categories: internal and external validity.

Internal validity is the extent to which the results of an investigation accurately reflect the true situation of the population under study. External validity, also being called generalizability, is the extent to which the results of a study are applicable to other population. If the findings of a survey reflect the true situation of water and sanitation in the study sites in rural areas of Myanmar, the survey has internal validity. If the findings also reflect the situation in other rural areas of Myanmar, the survey has external validity.

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တဆငခအခကအလကမား၏အရငးအျမစ

တဆငခအခကအလကမားသညအေရအတြကဆငရာရငးျမစမားမ ျဖစႏငသည။၄ငးတ႔မာႏငငေတာ အစးရမ ထတေဝေသာ (သနးေခါငစာရငး၊အေရးၾကးေသာစာရငးအငးအခကအလကမား၊ ကငဆာေရာဂါသည စာရငး စသညတ႔ကသ႔) လဥးေရဆငရာအခကအလကမား၊အပခပေရးဆငရာ၊အစးရစစတမးမား၊ ျပညနယအစးရ အရငးျမစမားကသ႔စာရငးအငးအခကအလကမား ျဖစႏငသလႏငငေရးပါတမား၊ပညာရပဆငရာႏင သေတသန အဖြ႕အစညးမား၊အျပညျပညဆငရာအသငးအဖြ႕မား (ဥေရာပသမဂၢ၊အကးတစးပြားဖကႏငဖြ႕ျဖးေရး အဖြ႕အစညး၊ ကမာၻ႕ဘဏ၊အျပညျပညဆငရာ ေငြေၾကးရပေငြ) မအရငးအျမစမားလညး ျဖစႏငသည။ အခက အလကမား စေဆာငး သမးဆညးရာ ေမာကြနးတကမားမပႏပထတေဝျခငးမျပေသာ (သ႔) အလကထေရာနစရငးျမစ၊ အမးသားကြနပတာ ဌာနမားသ႔အြနလငးမတဆငအသးျပခြငႏငအငတာနကေပၚ႐ႏငငတကာမသတငးရငးျမစမားတ႔မလညးရ႐ႏငသည။

တဆငခအခကအလကမားသညအရညအခငးဆငရာရငးျမစမားမလညး ျဖစႏငသည။အရညအခငး သေတသန အတြကအရငးျမစမားမာအတပၸတ၊ဒငယာရ၊မတတမး၊ ေပးစာ၊သတငးစာ၊ဝတႏငရသစာေပ၊လကစြစာအပမား၊ မဝါဒေၾကညာခက၊စမခကမတတမး၊အစရငခစာ၊သမငးဆငရာႏငတရားဝင႐းသးမတတမးတ႔ ျဖစႏငပါသည။

ျမနမာႏငငတြငအဆပါစာရငးအငးအခကအလကအမားစကအစးရကသာ ေပးစြမးႏငသည။အစးရထတျပနေသာ အခကအလကမားကအသးျပရာတြငတကမနကနမႈႏငစပလဥးျပးအဘကဘကမ ျပနာ႐ႏငသည။ တဆငခ အခကအလကမားကအသးျပေသာသေတသအေနျဖငတကမနကနမႈႏငပတသကျပးတငျပရနမာအလြနအေရးၾကးသည။သေတသအေနျဖငအဆပါတစဆငခအခကအလကမားကမညသညအေၾကာငးေၾကာငမနကနသညဟထငျမငယဆပါသည၊ထ႔ေၾကာင၄ငး၏သေတသနတြငထညသြငးအသးျပပါသညက႐ငးလငးတငျပရနလအပသည။တကမနကနေရးျပနာက ေဝဖနဆနးစစရာတြငသေတသအေနျဖငအဆပါအခကအလကမား၏သကဆငအကးဝငမႈႏင အေထာကအထားျပႏငမႈတ႔ကတငျပရမည။

တဆငခအခကအလကမား၏တကမနကနမႈ

အေထာကအထားျပႏငမႈ (တကမႈ၊တသမတတညးျဖစမႈ) ဟသညတငးတာမႈတစခအားအျခားအလားတအေနအထား တစခတြငထပမျပလပလကေသာအခါထငေပၚလာသညတညျငမမႈအဆငအတနးကဆလသည။အစးရထတျပနေသာ အခကအလကမားသည၄ငးတ႔ညႊနးသေလာကတကစြာအစရငခပါ၏ေလာ။ဥပမာဗဟစာရငးအငးအဖြ႕မအခကအလကမား သညအလားတရည႐ြယရငးကစၥရပမားတြငအေထာကအထားျပႏငပါသေလာ။တသမတတညး ျဖစႏငပါသေလာ။ ၄ငးျပနာသည ျမနမာႏငငတစႏငငတညးႏငသာသကဆငသညမဟတပအေမရကန ျပညေထာငစ၊အဂၤလန၊ ဥေရာပႏင ဂပနႏငငမားတြငပါအတငးအတာတစခအထအကးဝငေနသည။

သကဆငအကးဝငမႈဟသည ေလလာဆအေျခအေနတစရပက ေကာငးစြာနားလညသေဘာေပါကျပးတငးတာခက တစခ (သ႔) ေလလာမႈတစခသညမနကနေသာ ေကာကခကခႏငသညအေနအထားကဆလပါသည။ သကဆငအကးဝငမႈအားကန႔သတအကးဝငမႈႏငထပဆငအကးဝငမႈဟ၍အပငးႏစပငးခြႏငပါသည။

ကန႔သတအကးဝငမႈဟသည ေထာကလမးရ႐လာေသာရလဒမားသည ေလလာဆလဥးေရတစရပ၏အေျခအေနမနက မညေ႐ြ႕မညမအထတကေသခာစြာထငဟပႏငသညဟေသာအရညအေသြးမးကဆလသည။ထပဆငအကးဝငမႈ၊တနညးအားျဖင ေယဘယျပႏငစြမးသည ေလလာမႈတစရပမရ႐လာေသာရလဒမားသညအျခားတပါးေသာ လဥးေရအတြက မညေ႐ြ႕မညမ ျပနလညအသးခ၍ရႏငသညဟေသာအရညအေသြးကဆလသည။စစတမး၏ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည ေလလာမႈျပခေသာ ျမနမာႏငငေကးလကေဒသပငးမ ေရႏငမလာစနစက ေကာငးစြာထငဟပေဖာျပႏငပါကအဆပါ စစတမးသညကန႔သတအကးဝငမႈ႐သည။အကယ၍ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည ျမနမာႏငင႐အျခားေသာ ေကးလက ေဒသပငးမား၏အေနအထားကပါထငဟပေဖာျပႏငပါက၄ငးစစတမးသညထပဆငအကးဝငမႈ႐သည။

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All available data on Myanmar can then be compared with the official data provided by the government. What is important to remember is the need to compare the corresponding data between different providers of data, and to not just rely on one provider.

WHEN ACCURACY OF DATA IS LACKING

When comparison is not possible and when accuracy of data is lacking, the researcher has to start the report by writing: “The following data available from __ (name of the organization which provided the data) have to be examined with great caution. The validity of this data is subject to debate because ….”. The researcher then has to explain why the data is subject for debate. The problem of accuracy may be a problem of (1) a biased research hypothesis, (2) research method, (3) sampling, (4) data collection, etc… The researcher then explains the most likely possibility.

ADVANTAGES OF USING EXISTING DATA SOURCES

1. Development of a research plan: Secondary information is essential to most research project at the design stage.

2. Cost and time: Secondary data potentially offer good quality at a fraction of the cost of primary research.

3. Quality of data: Many data sources such as official UK surveys offer excellent quality data.

4. Longitudinal Data Analysis: Secondary data such as data by the Central Statistical Organization offers great potential for analysing a situation or a problem throughout time.

5. Detailed analysis: Large national sample surveys such as Census 2014 make it possible the analysis of small or very distinct groups of people.

6. New analysis: Re-analysing existing data can result in new interpretations of this data.

LIMITATIONS OF USING EXISTING DATA SOURCES

1. No control: Using secondary data offers the researcher no control over the quality of data or the variables included. These secondary data may have been produced for a different purpose. There will be problems with definitions and comparability over time as well as problems of validity and representativeness. Researchers may not be aware the sources of error and bias when using secondary data.

2. Complexity of data: Large-scale national statistics are usually complex in their structure. The researcher has to spend time to become acquainted with the data and how they were initially produced.

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ဤသ႔ျဖင ျမနမာႏငငႏငပတသကျပးရ႐ႏငသမအခကအလကမားသညအစးရထတျပနေသာတရားဝင အခက အလကမားျဖငႏငးယဥႏငသည။အေရးၾကးသညမာအဖြ႕အစညးတစခတညးမထတျပနေသာအခကအလကမားကသာအားမကးပအဖြ႕အစညးအသးသးမထတျပနလကသညသတေၾကာငးကြသတငးအခကအလကမားကႏငးယဥေလလာရနျဖစသည။

အခကအလကမားတကမႈမရေသာအခါဝယ

ႏငးယဥေလလာမႈမျပႏငေသာအခါႏငအခကအလကမားတကမႈမရေသာအခါတြငသေတသသည“ေအာကေဖာျပပါ အခကအလကမားအား__ (အခကအလကထတျပနေသာအဖြ႕အစညးအမည) မရ႐ချခငးျဖစျပးသတၾကးစြာထား၍ ေလလာဆနးစစရမည။အဆပါအခကအလကမားမထြကေပၚလာေသာရလဒသညအျငငးပြားစရာ႐ပါသညအဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ . . . ”ဟ၍အစရငခစာကစတငေရးသားရမည။ယငးေနာကတြငသေတသအေနႏင သတငးရလဒမားသည အဘယေၾကာငအျငငးပြားဖြယျဖစပကဆကလက႐ငးလငးရမည။တကမႈႏငစပလဥးေသာ ျပနာသည (၁) ဓမၼဓ႒ာနမကေသာသေတသနယဆခက (၂) သေတသနထး/နညးလမး (၃) နမနာေကာကယမႈ (၄) အခကအလက စေဆာငးမႈစသည ျပနာမားေၾကာင ျဖစႏငသည။သေတသအေနျဖင၄ငးတ႔အနကမမညသည ျပနာက ျဖစႏင ေခပမားသညက႐ငးျပေပးရမည။

႐ရငးစြအခကအလကရငးျမစမားအသးျပရျခငး၏အကးေကးဇးမား

၁။ သေတသနအစအမတစခအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး - တဆငခသတငးအခကအလကမားသညသေတသန စမကနးအမားစပစခသညအဆငတြငမျဖစမေနလအပသည။

၂။ အခနႏငကနကမႈစရတ - တဆငခအခကအလကမားမအေျခခသေတသနအတြက ကနကစရတ နညးနညးႏငရလဒအရညအေသြးေကာငးေကာငးထြကေပၚလာႏငစရာ႐သည။

၃။ အခကအလကအရညအေသြး - အဂၤလနမတရားဝငထတျပနေသာစစတမးမားကသ႔ေသာ အခကအလကရငး ျမစအေျမာကအျမားမအခကအလကမားမာအရညအေသြးအထးေကာငးမြနသည။

၄။ အခကအလကမားေရ႐ညစစစေလလာခက - ဗဟစာရငးအငးအဖြ႕အစညး (Central Statistical Organization) မထတျပနေသာအခကအလကမားကသ႔ေသာတဆငခအခကအလကမားသည ျပနာရပတစရပ (သ႔) အေျခအေနတစရပကအခနႏငအမစစစေလလာႏငမညအေနအထားမး ေပးစြမးႏငေလသည။

၅။ အေသးစတစစစေလလာျခငး - ၂၀၁၄သနးေခါငစာရငး ေကာကယမႈကသ႔ေသာႏငငႏငအဝမးကယျပန႔စြာ နမနာေကာကယသညစစတမးမားေၾကာငနညးပါးေသာ (သ႔) အလြနတရာသးသန႔ဆနေသာ လအပစမားက စစစေလလာႏငလာသည။

၆။ စစစေလလာမႈအသစ - ႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားအား ျပနလညစစစေလလာျခငးျဖင၄ငးအခက အလကမားႏငပတသကျပးအဓပၸါယေကာကယမႈအသစမား ျဖစေပၚလာႏငသည။

႐ရငးစြအခကအလကရငးျမစမားအသးျပျခငး၏အကန႔အသတမား

၁။ ထနးခပမႈမ႐ျခငး - တဆငခအခကအလကမားအသးျပရာတြငသေတသအေနျဖင အခကအလက ပငးဆငရာႏငပါဝငေသာကနး႐ငမား၏အရညအေသြးကထနးခပရနမစြမးသာေခ။အဆပါတဆငခအခကအလကမားသညအျခားတပါးေသာရည႐ြယခကျဖငစေဆာငးထတလပချခငးျဖစသညအေလာကအခနၾကာလာသညႏငအမအဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကမား၊ႏငးယဥႏငစြမး၊အကးဝငႏငစြမးႏငကယစားျပမႈပငးတ႔တြင ျပနာ ျဖစေပၚလာႏငသည။တဆငခအခကအလကမားအသးျပရာတြငသေတသအေနျဖငအမားအယြငး ျဖစသြားႏငစရာ၊အဂတမကငးလြတႏငစရာမးလညး ျဖစသြားႏငသည။

၂။ အခကအလကမား႐ပေထြးမႈ - ႏငငႏငအဝမးကယျပန႔စြာေကာကယေသာစာရငးအငးမားမာ မားေသာအားျဖငဖြ႕တညမႈပငးလြနစြာ႐ပေထြးသည။သေတသအေနျဖင၄ငးအခကအလကမားႏငကၽြမးဝငေစရန၊၄ငးအခကအလကမားအားကနဥးပငးတြငမညသ႔မညပစေဆာငးရ႐ခပကသ႐နားလညေစရနအခနယရမညျဖစသည။

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3. Confidentiality: All data collected by national statistical offices must protect the privacy of individual respondents, whether persons or businesses.

4. Regulation: Research practices related to existing statistics are also regulated in some countries. It is also likely this will be the case in Myanmar in the near future.

SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

Sources of secondary research data can come from many sources.

Official International data or statistics come from:

• Government (U.K., France, U.S.A., South Africa etc.);

• International bodies, especially the EU (Eurostat) and the United Nations;

• Bodies set up by governments: e.g. Health Authorities, the Police, Development Agencies;

• Local Authorities.

Here are some websites that could be of relevance and use to future research:

• Central Statistical Organization (CSO):www.csostat.gov.mm

• Ministries in Myanmar:www.myanmar.cm/myanmar-government-info/ministries-in-myanmar.html

• United Nations: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/ww2000/

• CIA World Factbook: www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/

• World Bank: www.worldbank.org

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• Secondary data is the gathering and/or use of existing data for purposes other than those for which they were originally collected;

• When using secondary data, the researcher has to assess their validity and reliability;

• After assessing their validity and reliability, the researcher has to precisely give all the references related to the data (year produced, publisher, page, etc.);

• There are many sources of secondary research data. It is recommended to compare the same data between different providers of data, and to not just rely on one provider.

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၃။ လ႕ဝကသမးဆညးထားမႈ - အမးသားစာရငးအငး႐းမားမ ေကာကယထားေသာ အခကအလကအားလးသည လပဂၢလတစဥးခငးျဖစေစ၊စးပြားေရးလပငနးမားျဖစေစ၊ ေျဖဆထားသမနသမ၏ကယေရး အခကအလကမားက ကနးေသေပါကလ႕ဝကထားေပလမမည။

၄။ လပငနးပငး - ႐ရငးစြစာရငးအငးမားႏငစပလဥးျပးသေတသတ႔၏လပကငပကအခ႕ႏငငမားတြင စညးမဥး ဥပေဒမားျဖငသတမတျပဌာနးထားသည။မၾကာျမငေသာ ေနာငအနာဂတ ျမနမာႏငငတြငလညးထနညးတ ျဖစလာႏငသည။

တဆငခအခကအလကရငးျမစမား

တဆငခအခကအလကမားကအရငးျမစေျမာကျမားစြာမရ႐ႏငသည။

ႏငငတကာမတရားဝငအခကအလကမားႏငစာရငးအငးမားက

• အစးရ (အဂၤလန၊ ျပငသစ၊အေမရကန၊ ေတာငအာဖရကစသညျဖင)၊

• အျပညျပညဆငရာအဖြ႕အစညးမား၊အထးသျဖငဥေရာပသမဂၢ (Eurostat) ႏငကလသမဂၢ၊

• အစးရမဖြ႕စညးထေထာငေပးေသာအဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ဥပမာ - ကနးမာေရးဆငရာအာဏာပငမား၊ရတပဖြ႕၊ဖြျဖးတးတကေရးကယစားလယမား၊

• ဌာေနအာဏာပငမား

ေအာကပါတ႔မာ ေနာကတြငသေတသနျပသညအခါသကဆငအသးဝငႏငသညအငတာနကဝဘဆဒမားျဖစၾကပါသည။

• Central Statistical Organization (CSO):www.csostat.gov.mm

• Ministries in Myanmar:www.myanmar.cm/myanmar-government-info/ministries-in-myanmar.html

• United Nations: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/ww2000/

• CIA World Factbook: www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/

• World Bank: www.worldbank.org

အႏစခပေသာဤအခနးတြငမတသားရနအေရးၾကးေသာအခကမားမာ

• တဆငခအခကအလကဟသည႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားအား၄ငးတ႔မလစေဆာငးစဥကႏငမတျခားနားေသာရည႐ြယခကအတြကအသးျပျခငးႏင/သ႔မဟတစစညးျခငးျဖစသည။

• တဆငခအခကအလကမားအသးျပေသာအခါသေတသအေနႏင၄ငးတ႔၏အကးဝငႏငစြမး၊အကးအကား ျပႏငစြမးကဆနးစစေလလာရမည။

• အဆပါအခကအလကမား၏အကးဝငႏငစြမးႏငအကးအကား ျပႏငစြမးကဆနးစစေလလာျပးေသာ အခါ သေတသသညအခကအလကမားႏငစပဆငေသာအကးအကားအားလးက ေစစပတကစြာ ေဖာျပေပးရမည။ (ထတျပနေသာႏစ၊ထတေဝသ၊စာမကႏာအစ႐သျဖင . . . )

• တဆငခသေတသနအခကအလကမားအတြကအရငးျမစမားစြာ႐သည။တစစတစေယာကတညးထတေဝလကေသာအခကအလကမားကအားမကးပမတညေသာထတေဝသအသးသး၏သတေၾကာငးကြအခကအလကမားကႏငးယဥေလလာၾကညရနလညးအားေပးတကတြနးလသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 18. EVALUATION RESEARCH

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The various tools available for conducting evaluation research;

• The use of SWOT Analysis and Stakeholder Analysis;

• The specific quantitative techniques for measuring changes.

WHAT IS EVALUATION RESEARCH? Evaluation research is concerned with assessing whether social programs have succeeded or failed. It is not a research method, but it uses research procedures to investigate how effective the social programs under examination have been. In this specific case, research methods are used for assessing social programs. In other words, the objective of evaluation research is to assess whether social programs have reached their intended results. There are three main reasons for conducting evaluation research. The first reason is to assess the needs. This is an analysis of the existence and severity of a problem and an assessment of the number of affected people. It is also called needs assessment. The second reason is to conduct a cost-benefit analysis. This is a research that compares all expenses of the program (its costs) to its benefits (estimates of the program’s benefits). The costs and benefits are analysed in comparison with alternative options. The third reason to conduct evaluation research is to assess the outcomes. It is a research that ‘sums up’ the effects of a program, policy, or law in accomplishing the goal or intent of the program, policy, or law in question. It is also called program evaluation or outcome assessment. The purpose is to evaluate the impact of social projects, health projects, or environmental projects, etc. Many methods, like the survey, focus group discussion, or qualitative interview can be used when the researcher conducts evaluation research. Use of both qualitative and quantitative research methods is encouraged for evaluation research. As opposed to baseline study, evaluation research is conducted after a program is finished. As opposed to case study which is conducted independently of any project, evaluation research is linked to a specific project. OBJECTIVES OF EVALUATION RESEARCH

The objectives of evaluation research are: • To make a judgment about the worth or merit of a program or activity; • To improve a program; • To help support the design and development of a program or organization; • To create new knowledge. Before conducting an evaluation research, the researcher should be ready to answer the following questions.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၈ - အကျဖတသေတသန ဤအခနးတြင

• အကျဖတသေတသနလပေဆာငရနအတြကအသးျပႏငေသာနညးလမးအမးမးအေၾကာငး • SWOT စစစေလလာျခငး (SWOT Analysis) ႏငပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားေလလာစစစျခငး

(Stakeholder Analysis) တ႔အေၾကာငးေဆြးေႏြးတငျပျခငး • ေျပာငးလမႈမားအားတငးတာရာတြငအသးျပေသာအေရအတြကဆငရာအခ႕ေသာနညးလမးမားအေၾကာငးတ႔

ပါ၀ငပါသည။ ______________________________________________________________________________________ အကျဖတသေတသန အကျဖတသေတသနသညလမႈေရးအစအစဥမားေအာငျမငသလား၊က႐ႈးသလားဆသညကသးသပျခငးႏငသကဆငသည။ ၄ငးသညသေတသနနညးလမးတစရပမဟတေသာလညးသေတသနလပထးလပနညးမားကသး၍ေလလာလကရေသာ လမႈေရးအစအစဥမား၏ထေရာကမႈအတငးအတာကစးစမးေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ဤသ႔လပေဆာငရာတြငသေတသနနညး လမးမားကသး၍လမႈေရးအစအစဥမားကသးသပေလလာရျခငးျဖစသည။တနညးအားျဖငမအကျဖတသေတသန၏ရညရြယ ခကမာလမႈေရးအစအစဥမားအေနျဖင၄ငးတ႔ေမာမနးထားေသာရလဒမားျပညမျခငးရမရကသးသပေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ အကျဖတသေတသနလပေဆာငရျခငးအေၾကာငးရငး “သး”ရပရပါသည။ပထမအေၾကာငးအရာမာလအပမႈမားက သးသပျခငးျဖစသည။ဤသညမာျပနာတစရပျဖစတညမႈ၊အတမအနကႏင၄ငး၏႐ကခတမႈဒဏခရေသာလဥးေရပမာဏ တ႔ကသးသပေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။၄ငးကလအပခကေလလာမႈ (Needs Assessment) ဟလညးေခၚဆသည။ ဒတယ အေၾကာငးအရာမာ-စရတ-အကးစစစေလလာမႈ (Cost–benefit analysis) လပေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။ လပငနး အစအစဥတစရပ၏ကနကမႈအားလး (၄ငး၏စရတမား)က၄ငး၏အကးေကးဇးမား (လပငနးအစအစဥ အကးေကးဇးမား၏ ခန႔မနးပမာဏ)တ႔ႏငႏႈငးယဥေလလာသညသေတသနတစရပျဖစသည။ဤကသ႔စရတ-အကး စစစေလလာမႈမးျပလပ၍ေရြးခယစရာနညးလမးမားအားႏႈငးယဥၾကညျခငးျဖစသည။အကျဖတသေတသနလပရျခငး၏တတယအေၾကာငးအရငးမာရလဒမားကအကျဖတရနျဖစသည။၄ငးသညလပငနးအစအစဥ၊မ၀ါဒ၊ဥပေဒသတစရပ၏ပနးတင(သ႔) ရညရြယခကသ႔ေရာကရျပညမျခငးဆငရာထေရာကမႈအတငးအတာမားက“စေပါငး”ၾကညျခငးႏငဆငသည သေတသန တစရပျဖစသည။ရညရြယခကမာလမႈေရးစမကနးမား၊ကနးမာေရးစမကနးမား၊သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာစမကနးမားစသညတ႔၏အကးသကေရာကမႈကအကျဖတျခငးျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနျဖငအကျဖတသေတသနကလပေဆာငသညအခါစစတမးေကာကယျခငး၊ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးျခငး၊အရညအေသြးဆငရာေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပလပျခငးတ႔ကသ႔ေသာနညးလမးမားစြာကအသးျပႏငသည။အကျဖတသေတသနအားလပေဆာငသညအခါအေရအတြကစထားသေတသနနညးလမးမားေရာအရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနနညးလမးမားပါႏစမးစလးကအသးျပရနတကတြနးလပါသည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ (Base Line Study) ႏငဆန႔ကငဘကအေနျဖငအကျဖတသေတသနအားလပငနး အစအစဥတစခၿပးဆးမသာလပေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။မညသညစမကနးႏငမဆကစပမႈမရသးသန႔လပေဆာငေသာျဖစရပေလလာမႈ (Case Study) ႏငဆန႔ကငဘကအေနျဖငအကျဖတသေတသနသညစမကနးတစရပရပႏင ပတသက၍ လပေဆာငရျခငးျဖစသည။ အကျဖတသေတသန၏ဥးတညခကမား အကျဖတသေတသန၏ဥးတညခကမားမာ -

• လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ (သ႔) လပငနးေဆာငတာတစရပ၏တနဘး (သ႔) အကးေကးဇးအားႏႈငးခနဆးျဖတရန

• လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပအားတးတကေစရန • လပငနးအစအစဥ (သ႔) အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ၏ဒဇငးႏငဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးအားအေထာကအကျပအကအညေပးရန • အသပညာအသစမားျပစရန

အကျဖတသေတသနတစရပမလပေဆာငမသေတသအေနျဖငေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားအားေျဖဆႏငရနအဆငသငျဖစေနသငသည။

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What evaluation questions need to be answered?

Questions may be related to program implementation and/or program impact. Also questions may be related to the project logical framework (for details on logical framework, see Chapter on ‘Research Design’, Intermediate Level). What research methods should be used? • Direct Observation • Records and Documentation • Information from relevant stakeholders METHODS OF EVALUATION RESEARCH

Both qualitative and quantitative research methods are used for conducting evaluation research. QUALITATIVE TOOLS FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH Besides interviews, the other qualitative tools typically used by researchers for evaluation research are Stakeholders Analysis and SWOT Analysis. Stakeholder Analysis is a process of identifying the individuals or groups that are likely to affect or be affected by a proposed project, and sorting them according to their impact on the project and the impact that the project will have on them. It is conducted before starting the project. SWOT Analysis is a structured planning method used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) of the organization involved in a project/program. Stakeholders Analysis The institution that operates in the community may influence outcomes. It is important to take the various stakeholders into account before carrying out the project. The organization needs to identify all entities–local and national government, CBOs, international and national NGOs, research institutions, private sector, donors, and the beneficiaries – which may have something to gain or lose from the outcomes of the project. These entities are defined as stakeholders, individuals or institutions with interests in the process and outcomes of intended activities. It is important to identify and understand the relationship between stakeholders and the proposed project. Key individuals may have personal interests in the project or some stakeholders may benefit more than others.

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မညသညအကျဖတေမးခြနးမားေျဖဆရနလအပသနညး။ မးခြနးမားအေနျဖငလပငနးအစအစဥအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး၊လပငနးအစအစဥ၏သကေရာကမႈတ႔ႏငပတသကႏငပါသည။ထ႔ျပငေမးခြနးအေနျဖငစမကနးဆငရာစဥးစားမႈယတေဘာင (သ႔) စမကနးအေျချပဇယား (Project Logical Frame Work) ႏငလညးဆကဆငႏငပါသည။ (Logical Frame Work) ႏငပတသက၍အေသးစတကအခနး “သေတသနဒဇငး” Intermediate Level တြငၾကည႐ႈပါ။) မညသညသေတသနနညးလမးမားအသးျပမညနညး။

• တက႐ကေလလာေစာငၾကညျခငး • မတတမးမတရာမားႏငစာရြကစာတမးအေထာကအထားမား • သငေလာေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားထမသတငးအခကအလကမား

အကျဖတသေတသနနညးလမးမား အကျဖတသေတသနတစရပလပေဆာငရာတြငအေရအတြကစထားသေတသနနညးလမးေရာ၊အရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနနညးလမးပါႏစမးစလးအသးျပပါသည။ အကျဖတသေတသနအတြကအရညအေသြးစထားသတသနနညးလမးမား သေတသမားအေနျဖငအကျဖတသေတသနတစရပလပေဆာငရာ၌ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးသညနညးအျပငအသးမားေသာအျခားေသာအရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနဆငရာနညးလမးႏစရပမာ - ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားစစစေလလာျခငး (Stakeholder Analysis) ႏင SWOT စစစေလလာျခငး (SWOT Analysis) တ႔ျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားေလေလာစစစျခငးဆသညမာအဆျပစမကနးတစရပမသကေရာကမႈရေသာလပဂၢလမား၊လအပစမား (သ႔) စမကနးအေပၚသကေရာကမႈရမညလပဂၢလမား၊လအပစမားအားေဖာထတသတမတၿပး ၄ငးတ႔ကစမကနးအေပၚသကေရာကမႈအတငးအတာသ႔မဟတစမကနးမ၄ငးတ႔အေပၚသကေရာကမႈအတငးအတာအလကစစဥသတမတသညလပငနးစဥတစရပျဖစသည။ဤသ႔ျပလပျခငးကစမကနးမစတငမျပလပေလရသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈဆသညမာစမကနးတစရပ (သ႔) လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပႏငပတသကမႈရ ေသာအဖြ႕အစညး၏ အားသာခကမား (Strengths) အားနညးခကမား (Weaknesses)၊အခြငအလမးမား (Opportunities) ႏငၿခမး ေျခာကမႈမား (Threats) တ႔ကေလလာအကျဖတရနသးေသာစနစတကအစအမေရးဆြေရးနညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားစစစေလလာျခငး (Stakeholder Analysis) ရပရြာလထအၾကားတြငလပငနးေဆာငရြကေသာအဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖငရလဒမားအေပၚလႊမးမးမႈရႏငပါသည။။သ႔အတြကစမကနးတစရပမစတငမအမးမးေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားထညသြငးစဥးစားရနအေရးႀကးပါသည။စမကနး၏ရလဒမားမေန၍တစစတစရာအကးအျမတရရေသာသ႔မဟတတစစတစရာဆး႐ႈးနစနာႏငသည - ေဒသႏရႏင ႏငငေတာအဆငအစးရမား၊စဘအမား၊ျပညတြငးႏငႏငငတကာအငနဂအမား၊သေတသနအဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ပဂၢလကက႑၊အလရငမားႏငအကးေကးဇးခစားသမား - စသညလပဂၢလမားႏငအဖြ႕အစညးမားအားေဖာထတသတမတ ႏငရနလအပပါသည။ဤသမားသညလပငနးေဆာငတာမား၏ရလဒမားႏငလပငနးစဥမားတြငအကးစးပြားတစစတစရာပတသကမႈရေသာလပဂၢလမား၊အဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ပါ၀ငပတသကဆကႏြယသမားျဖစၾကပါသည။ ဆာငရြကမညစမကနးႏင၄ငးစမကနးႏငပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအၾကားဆကႏြယမႈအားလညးနားလညထားရနအေရးႀကးပါသည။အခရာကေသာလပဂၢလအခ႕အေနျဖငစမကနးႏငပတသက၍ပဂၢလစတ၀ငစားမႈသ႔မဟတပဂၢလအကးစးပြားတစစတစရာရေကာငးရႏငပါသည။အခ႕ေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားသညအျခားသမားထကစမကနးထမအကးေကးဇးပမခစားရႏငပါသည။

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There are four main steps in conducting a Stakeholder Analysis: 1. Organize a brainstorming session. Identify all the peoples, groups, and

organizations that will affect or be affected by the project and list them in the column under stakeholder.

2. Identify the specific interests these stakeholders have in the project. Record these under the column stakeholder’s interest in the project

3. Evaluate the importance of stakeholder’s interests in the success or failure of the proposed project? Assign A for very important, B for fairly important and C for not very important. Record these letters in the column entitled “Assessment of the Impact”.

4. Consider how you could do to get stakeholder support and reduce opposition. What kind of information will they need? Record your strategies of obtaining their support or reducing their obstacles to the project in the last column in the matrix.

Example: Topic of the Stakeholders Analysis: Sanctioning the construction of a primary school in a remote village of the Delta. A school governance committee is formed and a Stakeholder Analysis conducted.

Stakeholder Stakeholder’s interest in the project

Assessment of the impact (if the construction of the school is sanctioned)

Potential strategies to obtaining support or reducing obstacles

1. Ministry of Education (MOE)

High, establishing A advocate for the need of school in the village

2. Village Development Committee (VDC)

High, establishing and maintaining

A participate in the process of application

3. Parent Teacher Association (PTA)

High, establishing and maintaining

B collaborate with MOE and VDC to get a school sanction

4. Teachers Moderate, teaching B seek commitment to teach at the village

5. Potential students High, learning C encourage enrollment in the classes

6. Villagers/parents High, educating their children

C Urge to send their children to school request to contribute to partial costs of buildings

7. Businessmen in the villages

Low, not very much interested

C persuade to contribute as main donors of the school buildings

8. Bookstore owner High, expecting to increase book sales

C negotiate to sell books at a fair prices

9. Boat owners Low, anticipated to be requested for transportation

C persuade them to support the transportation of students to/from school

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ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားစစစေလလာမႈျပလပရာတြငအဓကအဆငႀကးေလးဆငရပါသည။ ၁။) စေပါငးေဆြးေႏြးသညဥးေႏာကမနတငးဆငမႈတစရပျပလပပါ။စမကနးအေပၚသကေရာကမႈရမည (သ႔)

စမကနးအေပၚသကေရာကမႈရမညလမား၊အပစမားအဖြြ႕အစညးမားအားလးကေဖာထတသတမတ၍ "ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား" ေကာလဇယားတြငစာရငးသြငးပါ။

၂။) အဆပါပတသကဆကႏြယသမား၏စမကနးႏငပတသကေသာ၄ငးတ႔၏ အထးသျဖငစတ၀ငစားမႈမားက ေဖာထတသတမတပါ။၄ငးက "စမကနးႏငပတသက၍ပါ၀ငဆကႏြယသမား၏စတ၀ငစားမႈ" ဟေသာ ေကာလဇယားတြငမတတမးသြငးပါ။

၃။) အဆျပစမကနးေအာငျမငမႈသ႔က႐းမႈအေပၚပါ၀ငဆကႏြယသမား၏စတပါ၀ငစားမႈမား သညမညမအေရးပါ သညကအကျဖတပါ။"က" အလြနအေရးပါသည။ "ခ" အေတာအသငအေရးပါသည။ "ဂ" သပအေရးမပါဟ၍ သတမတေပးပါ။ဤအကၡရာမားက "သကေရာကမႈအားသးသပမႈ" ဟသညေကာလတြငမတသားပါ။

၄။) ပတသတဆကႏြယသမား၏ေထာကခမႈရရရနႏငဆန႔ကငမႈမားေလာခႏငရနမညကသ႔ လပေဆာငႏင မညကစဥးစားပါ။ထ႔အတြက၎တ႔အေနျဖငမညကသ႔ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားလအပမညနညး။ဇယားကြက၏ေနာကဆးေကာလတြငစမကနးႏငပတသကေသာ၎တ႔၏အတားအဆးမားကေလာချခငးသ႔မဟတေထာကပမႈကရရေစျခငးဆငရာသင၏ဗဟာမားကမတတမးသြငးပါ။

ဥပမာ - ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားစစစေလလာမႈျပလပျခငးဆငရာအေၾကာငးအရာ။ ။ျမစ၀ကၽြနးေပၚ

ေဒသရေ၀းလေခါငဖားေကးရြာတစရြာ၌မလတနးေကာငးေဆာကလပျခငးဆငရာခြငျပခက။ေကာငးႀကးၾကပေရးေကာမတတစရပဖြ႕စညး၍ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားေလလာစစစမႈတစရပျပလပပါသည။

စဥ ပတသကဆက

ႏြယသမား

စမကနးႏငပတသက ၍ပတသကဆကႏြယ သမား၏စတ၀ငစားမႈ

သကေရာကမႈအားသးသပမႈ (အကယ၍ ေကာငးေဆာကလပမႈအားခြငျပခကရပါက)

အတားအဆးမားေလာခရန (သ႔)ေထာကခမႈအားရရရနအသးျပႏငေသာဗဟာမား

၁။ ပညာေရး၀နႀကးဌာန(MOE) ျမငမား။ ယမားဖြယမရ။

က ေကးရြာတြငစာသငေကာငးရရနလအပမႈအား တကတြနးေျပာဆ

၂။ ေကးရြာဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးေကာ မတ (VDC)

ျမငမား။ယမားဖြယမရ။ဆကလက တညတ။

က ေကာငးေဆာကလပရနေလာကထားမႈလပငနး

၃။ မဘဆရာအသငး ျမငမား။ယမားဖြယ မရ။ဆကလကတညတ။

ခ ေကာငးေဆာကခြငခြငျပမန႔ရရရနအတြက MOE, VDC တ႔ႏငပးေပါငးေဆာငရြက

၄။ ဆရာမား အသငအတင။ သငၾကားေရး

ခ ေကးရြာတြငစာသငၾကားေပးလစတကေဖာထတရန

၅။ အလားအလာရေသာ ေကာငးသားမား

ျမငမား။ သငယေရး

ဂ ေကာငးအပႏေရးတကတြနးရန

၆။ ရြာသားမား/မဘမား ျမငမား။၎တ႔၏ ကေလးမားအား ပညာေပးလျခငး။

ဂ ၎တ႔၏ကေလးမားအားေကာငးသ႔ေစလႊတရနတကတြနး။အေဆာကအဥေဆာကလပေရးကနကမႈတစစတတစေဒသအားကခၾကရနေမတာရပခ

၇။ ေကးရြာရစးပြားေရးလပငနးရငမား

နမပါး။သပစတပါ၀ငစားျခငးမရ

ဂ ေကာငးအေဆာကအဥးမားအတြကအဓကအလရငမားအျဖစထည၀ငရနဆြေဆာငရန

၈။ စာအပဆငပငရင

ျမငမား။စာအပေရာငးအားတကရနေမာလင

ဂ စာအပမားအားသငတငေသာေစးႏႈနးမားျဖငေရာငးခရနညႇႏႈငး

၉။ ေလပငရငမား

နမပါး။သယယပ႔ေဆာငေရးအတြကေမတာရပခရနေမာလင။

ဂ ေကာငးသားမားေကာငးသ႔အသြားအျပနသယယပ႔ေဆာငေရးအတြကအကအညေပးေရးဆြေဆာငရန

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SWOT Analysis

A SWOT Analysis is a tool used in institutional assessment to capture and identify an organization’s geographic and programmatic scope of action, perceived effectiveness and level of acceptance and support by community members and local institutions. Strengths: Internal attributes that are helpful to the organization to achieving its

objective Weaknesses: Internal attributes that are harmful to the organization to achieving its

objective Opportunities: External factors that help the organization achieve its objective Threats: External factors that are harmful to the organization’s achievement of its

objective After identifying the SWOT’s, identification of the factors and their interdependence helps to clarify the steps needed to achieve the organization’s objectives. A SWOT Analysis helps to focus on strengths, minimize threats, and take the greatest possible advantage of opportunities available to the organization. When carrying out SWOT analysis, it should be realistic and rigorous. SWOT Analysis Template

Strengths What do you do well? What unique resources can you draw on? What do others see as your strengths?

Weaknesses What could you improve? Where do you have more limited resources than others? What are others likely to see as your weaknesses?

1. 2. 3.

1. 2. 3. . Opportunities

What opportunities are open to you? What trends could you take advantage of? How can you turn your strengths into opportunities?

Threats What threats could harm you? What is your competition doing? To which threats do your weaknesses expose you?

1. 2. 3.

1. 2. 3.

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SWOT စစစေလလာျခငး Swot စစစေလလာျခငးဆသညမာအဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ၏ပထ၀၀ငပငးဆငရာႏငအစအစဥပငးဆငရာလပငနး အတငးအတာ၊ၿခငနားလညေသာထေရာကမႈပမာဏ၊ရပရြာလထႏငေဒသခအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ပပးကညမႈႏငလကခႏငမႈပမာဏတ႔ကစစညးေဖာထတေသာအဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာသးသပေလလာမႈနညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ အားသာခကမား။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင၎၏ဥးတညခကကျပညမေရာကရေစရန

အေထာကအကျဖစေစေသာအဖြ႕အစညးအတြငးပငးဆငရာဂဏသတမား။ အားနညးခကမား ။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင၄ငး၏ဥးတညခကကျပညမေရာကရေစရန

အဟန႔အတားျဖစေစေသာအဖြ႕အစညးအတြငးပငးဆငရာဂဏသတမား အခြငအလမးမား ။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင၎၏ဥးတညခကကျပညမေရာကရေစရန

အေထာကအကျဖစေစေသာအဖြ႕အစညးျပငပအေၾကာငးတရားမား။ ၿခမးေျခာကမႈမား ။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင၎၏ဥးတညခကကျပညမေရာကရေစရန

အဟန႔အထားျဖစေစေသာအဖြ႕အစညးျပငပအေၾကာငးတရားမား။ ဤသ႔ SWOT ကေဖာထတသတမတၿပးသကာလအေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင၎တ႔၏အျပနအလနတညမမႈက သရထားျခငးျဖငအဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင၎၏ရညမနးခကမားကျပညမေစရနလအပေသာလပငနးအဆငမားကရငးရငးလငးလငးသေစရနအေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈအေနျဖငအားသာခကမားအေပၚ အေျချပကာ၊အားနညးခကမားကေရာငရားၿပး၊အဖြ႕အစညးအတြကအေျခအေနေပးေသာအခြငအလမးမားထမအေကာငးဆးေသာအေနအထားကဖမးယဆပကငႏငေစရနအကအညေပးပါသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈကလပေဆာငရာတြင လကေတြ႕ကၿပးတကေသခာမႈရသငပါသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈနမနာပစ

အားသာခကမား (Strengths) -မညသညအရာကေကာငးစြာလပေဆာငႏငသနညး။ -မညသ႔ေသာထးျခားသညအရငးအျမစမားအေပၚအေျချပႏငသ နညး။ -အျခားသမားမမညသညအရာမားကသင၏အားသာခကမား အျဖစ႐ႈျမငသနညး

အားနညးခကမား (Weaknesses) -မညသညအရာကပမတးတကေအာငလပေဆာငႏငသနညး။ -အျခားသမားထကစာလငသငတြငခ႕ငေနေသာအရာမားမာ အဘယနညး။ -အျခားသမားမမညသညအရာမားကသင၏အားနညးခကမား အျဖစ႐ႈျမငႏငသနညး။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

အခြငအလမးမား (Opportunities) -မညသညအခြငအလမးမားသငအတြကအသငရေနသနညး။ -မညသညလမးေၾကာငးမားကအခြငအေရးယအသးခႏငသနညး။ -သင၏အားသာခကမားကအခြငအလမးမားျဖစေအာငမညသ႔လပေဆာငႏငသနညး။

ၿခမးေျခာကမႈမား (Threats) -မညသညၿခမးေျခာကမႈမားကသငကအဟန႔အတားျဖစေ စသနညး။ -သင၏ၿပငဆငမႈအေနအထားမညကသ႔ရသနညး။ - မညသ႔ေသာၿခမးေျခာကမႈမားသညသငအားနညးခကမားအားပ၍ဆး႐ြားေစသနညး။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

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Example

Situation: Farmers in Shan State do not make profit despite the high market demand for crops and the crops’ potential added value. The example shows a SWOT analysis when farmers face acute problems.

Strengths Weaknesses • Natural topography is ideal for

horticulture • Good knowledge and skills on

horticulture growing • Easy access to local market • Helpful government and NGOs

• Easily perishable in nature • Limited storage and infrastructure • Lack of skills in value addition • Slow adoption of technological

changes

Opportunities Threats • Government support for trainings and

infrastructure development

• Monopoly by brokers • Environmental degradation • Higher land prices • Increasing prices of inputs such as

fertilizers

QUANTITATIVE TOOLS FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH

Program evaluation primarily focuses attention on the outcomes of a program. The focus of any program evaluation is answering the basic question: Were the objectives of the program met? That is, was there a positive change in the measures the program was designed to improve?

There are three general ways of measuring change.

1. Before and after design;

2. Comparative design;

3. Double difference method.

1. Before-and-after design: In a before and after design, the researcher gathers information about key outcome items both before the program and after the program to determine whether the change that was anticipated has actually occurred (TA-TB from the graph below).

The ‘before-and-after’ design is the preferred method to measure change. It requires advanced planning. The measurements made “before” need to be taken before the start of the program.

This method, however, measures only the impact of an individual program. Without similar measures taken for other programs or no program at all, there is no way to assess the comparative value of a program.

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ဥပမာ။ ။ရမးျပညနယရေတာငယာသမားမားအေနျဖငေကာပသးႏမားႏငတနဘးျမႇငထတကန အျဖစျပ လပႏင ေသာေကာကပသးႏသမား၏ေစးကြက၀ယလအားျမင႔မားလကရေသာလညးအကးအျမတရေအာငမလပႏငၾကဘျဖစေနၾကသည။ဤဥပမာတြငဆးရြားေသာျပနာမားႏငရငဆငေနၾကရေသာေတာငယာသမားမား၏အေျခအေနအား SWOT စစစေလလာမႈျပလပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ အားသာခကမား (Strengths) အားနညးခကမား (Weaknesses) -သဘာ၀ေျမမကႏာသြငျပငသညဥယာဥၿခေျမစကပးရနအေကာငး ဆးအေနအထားတြငရသည။ -ဥယာဥၿခစကပးျခငးႏငပတသကေသာအသပညာႏငအရည အခငးတ႔ေကာငးစြာရၾကသည။ -ေဒသခေစးကြကႏငလြယလငတကခတဆကႏငသည။ -အကညရႏငေသာအငနဂအမားႏငအစးရတ႔ရၾကသည။

-လြယလငတကပကစးဆး႐ႈးႏငသညသဘာ၀ရသည။ -သေလာငထားသႏငမႈႏငအေျခခအေဆာကအဥတ႔မာ အကန႔အသတျဖငရသည။ -တနဘးျမႇငထတကနအျဖစသ႔ေျပာငးလႏငရန အရညအခငးမရၾကပါ။ - နညးပညာဆငရာေျပာငးလမႈမားကလကလမးမႏငရန ေႏးေကြးသည။

အခြငအလမးမား (Opportunities) ၿခမးေျခာကမႈမား (Threats) -အစးရမအေျခခအေဆာကအဥးမားဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးႏငသင တနးမားပ႔ခေပးျခငးတ႔အကအညရသည။

-ပြစားမား၏လက၀ါးႀကးအပမႈ -သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငယယြငးပကစးမႈ -ေျမယာေစးျမငတတမႈ -ဓါတေျမၾသဇာကသ႔ေသာသြငးအားစမား၏ ေစးႏႈနးျမႇငတကလာမႈ

အကျဖတသေတသနအတြကအေရအတြကခထားသေတသနနညးလမးမား လပငနးအစအစဥအားအကျဖတသးသပရာ၌၎လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ရလဒမားအေပၚအထးသျဖငအာ႐ထားလပေဆာငရသည။မညသညလပငနးအစအစဥအားအကျဖတသးသပျခငးမဆ- "လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ရညမနးခကမားျပညမပါသလား" ဆသညေမးခြနးအားေျဖဆရေလရသည။ဆလသညမာတးတကမႈရရနဒဇငးေရးဆြထားေသာလပငနးအစအစဥအားေလလာတငးတာမႈျပရာ၌အျပသေဘာေဆာငသညေျပာငးလမႈတစစတစရာရခသလားဆသညအခကပငျဖစသည။ ေျပာငးလမႈအားတငးတာရာ၌ေယဘယနညးလမး 'သး' ရပရပါသည။ ၁။ မစတငမႏငအၿပးသတကာလဒဇငး (Before and after design) ၂။ ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငး (Compartative design) ၃။ ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငးနညးလမး (Double Difference method) ၁။မစတငမႏငအၿပးသတကာလဒဇငး၌သေတသအေနျဖငေမာလငထားသည ေျပာငးလမႈတစစတစရာ ျဖစေပၚခသလား (ေအာကေဖာျပပါဂရပရ TA- TB) ဆသညကဆးျဖတႏငရနအတြကလပငနးအစအစဥမစတငမႏင ၿပးဆးသည ကာလႏစရပစလးရအဓကရလဒမားႏငဆငေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားက ေကာကယစေဆာငးသးသပသည။ ဤ "မစတငမႏငအၿပးသတကာလဒဇငး" အားအေျပာငးအလအားတငးတာရနအတြကပမသးစြ ေလရသည။ အဆငျမင စမကနးေရးဆြမႈလအပပါသည။မစတငမလအပေသာတငးတာမႈမားသညလပငနးအစအစဥမစတငမျပလပထားရနလအပပါသည။ သ႔ေသာဤနညးလမးသညလပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ၏သကေရာကမႈမားကသာတငးတာႏငပါသည။အျခားေသာလပငနးအစအစဥမားႏငအလားတေလလာတငးတာမႈမရသျဖငအဆပါလပငနးအစအစဥ၏ႏႈငးရတနဘးအားသးသပႏငျခငးမရပါ။

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2. Comparative design: In a comparative design, the researchers identify or create two or more groups that are similar to each other prior to the start of the program and that are expected to continue to exhibit similarities. The difference, however, is in the implementation of the program. In the experiment, some groups receive the experimental treatment (the program). Others may experience other programs, variations of the program, or no program at all (the control groups). The researchers evaluate the effectiveness of the program by comparing each group on the outcome measures. (TA-CA from the graph below)

A comparative design is used when comparison of the program with other programs or several variations of the program is important, or when no “before” measure is possible, such as when the evaluation was decided upon after the program was started.

3. Double difference method: The World Bank introduced the double difference method. The method compares outcomes (over time), before and after a policy change, of a group affected by the change (the treatment group) to a group not affected by the change (the control group).

Take mean value of each group’s outcome before and after treatment and calculate the “difference-in-differences” (DD) of the means. Treatment effect = (TA-TB) – (CA-CB)

Treatment group Control group

Before TB CB

After TA CA

CA

TA

CB

TB

Time

Impa

ct

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၂။ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငး (Comparative design) ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငးတြငသေတသမားအေနျဖငလပငနး အစအစဥအားအကျဖတသးသပမညအစားလပငနးအစအစဥမစတငမပစတဆငတေသာအပစႏစစသ႔မဟတႏစစထကပေသာအပစမား (အဆပါအပစမားသညအလားတအေတြ႕အႀကမားဆကလကေတြ႕ႀကမညအပစမား)က ေဖာ ထတသတမတပါသည။စမးသပမႈျပလပရာ၌အခ႕အပစမားသည (လပငနးအစအစဥအတငး) လကေတြ႕ စမးသပမႈ အျပခရပါသည။အျခားေသာအပစမားအေနျဖငအျခားေသာလပငနးအစအစဥမားအတငးသ႔မဟတ ေလလာမည လပငနးအစအစဥ၏မကြမားအတငး၊သ႔မဟတ၊လပငနးအစအစဥလး၀မရျခငးတ႔ကၾကေတြ႔ ေစပါသည။ (ထနးခပ အပစမားဟေခၚပါသည။) သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ထေရာကမႈအတငးအတာကအပစအသးသး၏ ရလဒမားအားတငးတာမႈျပ၍ႏႈငးယဥျခငးအားျဖငအကျဖတပါသည။ (ေအာကပါဂရပပ၌ TA-CA အတငး) ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငးကလပငနးအစအစဥတစရပအားအျခားေသာလပငနးအစအစဥမားႏငႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈျပလ၍လညးေကာငး၊လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ၏မကြမားအားႏႈငးယဥေလလာရနအေရးၾကး၍လညးေကာငးအသးျပေလရပါသည။သ႔မဟတပါကလညးလပငနးအစအစဥစတငၿပးမအကျဖတသးသပျခငးျပမညဟဆးျဖတသျဖငလပငနးအစအစဥစတငၿပးမအကျဖတအကျဖတသးသပျခငးျပမညဟဆးျဖတသျဖငလပငနးအစအစဥမစတငမကာလမတငးတာေလလာမႈမားမျပလပႏငေတာသညအခန၌လညးသးေလရပါသည။ ၃။ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငးနညးလမး (Double Difference method) ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငးနညးလမးကကမ႓ာဘဏမစတငမတဆကအသးျပခပါသည။ဤနညးလမးတြငအေျပာငးအလဆငရာမ၀ါဒတစရပမေဖာေဆာငမႏင ေဖာေဆာငၿပးကာလ၌အေျပာငးအလ၏သကေရာကမႈရ ေသာအပစ (စမးသပအပစ)ႏငအေျပာငးအလမသကေရာကမႈမရေသသာအပစ (ထနးခပအပစ) တ႔၏ရလာဒမား (အခနကာလအလကေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚ) ႏႈငးယဥတငးတာပါသည။

အပစအသးသး၏မစတငမႏငအၿပးသတကာလစမးသပမႈရလဒမား၏ပမးမကနးတနဘးကယပါ။ပမးမကနးမား၏ "ျခားနားျခငး၏ျခားနားမႈမား" difference-in-differences (DD) ကတြကခကပါ။စမးသပမႈ၏ထေရာကမႈ = (TA-TB) – (CA-CB) စမးသပအပစ (Treatment group) ထနးခပအပစ (Control group)

မစတငမ (Before) TB CB

အၿပးသတကာလ (After) TA CA

အခနကာလ

သက

ေရာက

မႈ

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For example, the researcher would like to evaluate the impact of evening classes for tenth standard students. Evening classes are offered to those who would like to take extra-classes in the evening to better understand the lessons. The researcher compares the average difference between the second term test scores and first term test scores among students who took evening classes (treatment group). However, to be able to control for other confounding factors, the researcher also compares the average difference between the second term test scores and first term test scores among students who did not take night classes (control group). Then the researcher compares the difference between the average differences of treatment and control groups by using Double Difference methods to obtain a valid estimate of the impact of evening classes. TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• The evaluation research assesses whether social programs have reached their intended results;

• Use of both qualitative and quantitative research methods is encouraged for evaluation research;

• Common qualitative tools for evaluation research are Stakeholder Analysis and SWOT Analysis;

• Quantitative tools for evaluation research are before and after design, comparative design, and double difference method. It is important to choose the appropriate evaluation methods to achieve the purposes of the evaluation.

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ဥပမာအားျဖင။ ။သေတသအေနျဖင၁၀တနးေကာငးသားမား၏ညေနပငးအခနပသငတနးမား၏ သကေရာကမႈက အကျဖတတငးတာလသည။သငခနးစာမားအားပမနားလညသေဘာေပါကလသမားအတြကအတနးခနျပငပညေနပငးအခနပသငတနးမားပ႔ခေပးပါသည။သေတသအေနျဖငညေနပငးအခနပယေသာေကာငးသားမား (စမးသပအပစ)၏ ဒတယအစမးအမတမားႏငပထမအစမးအမတမား၏ပမးမျခားနားခကကႏႈငးယဥၾကညသည။သ႔ေသာအျခားေသာေရာေထြးေစႏငသညအခကမားအားထနးခပႏငရနအလ႔ငာသေတသအေနျဖငညေနပငးအခနပမယေသာေကာငးသားမား (ထနးခပအပစ)၏ဒတယအစမးအမတမားႏငပထမအစမးအမတမား၏ပမးမျခားနားခကကလညးႏႈငးယဥၾကညသည။ထေနာကညေနပငးအခနပသငတနးမား၏သကေရာကမႈကေျခေျချမစျမစခန႔မနးႏငရနအတြကႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငးနညးလမးကအသးျပ၍စမးသပအပစႏငထနးခပအပစတ႔၏ပမးမျခားနားခကမား၏ျခားနားခက (ကြားျခားမႈ)တ႔ကႏႈငးယဥၾကညပါသည။ အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• အကျဖတသေတသနသညလမႈေရးလပငနးအစအစဥမားအေနျဖင၎တ႔၏ရညမနးရလဒမားအားျပညမျခငးရမရကသးသပပါသည။

• အကျဖတသေတသနလပေဆာငရာတြငအေရအတြကစထားသေတသနနညးလမးမားေရာအရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနနညးလမးပါႏစမးစလးအသးျပရနတကတြနးလပါသည။

• အကျဖတသေတသနအတြကအသးမားေသာအရညအေသြးစထားသေတသနနညးလမးမာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားစစစေလလာျခငးႏင SWOT စစစေလလာျခငးတ႔ျဖစပါသည။

• အကျဖတသေတသနအတြကအသးျပေသာအေရအတြကစထားသေတသနနညးလမးမားမာမစတငမႏငအၿပးသတကာလဒဇငး (Before and After design)၊ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငး (Comparative design) ႏငႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငးနညးလမး (Double difference method) တ႔ျဖစပါသည။အကျဖတရျခငး၏ရညရြယခကကျပညမေစရနသငေလာေသာအကျဖတသေတသနနညးလမးမားအားေရြးခယအသးျပရနအေရးႀကးပါသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 19. SUPPORTING DETAILS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The importance of distinguishing between facts and opinions when a researcher writes a report;

• The need to support findings with evidence, whatever this evidence is qualitative or quantitative.

______________________________________________________________________ As already mentioned, research is about expanding knowledge about a topic or a problem. It is about using supporting details collected during the research process. These supporting details represent evidence that was not known before. It supports the general observations made about the topic which is investigated. There are three types of supporting evidence:

• Examples • Quotes • Statistics

Before explaining each type of supporting evidence, a crucial point must be clarified: research relies on facts, not on opinions. More precisely, what researchers collect from the research process is evidence that will support facts. What researchers do not do is to give their opinion on these facts (see Chapter on ‘Research and Ethics’).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FACTS AND OPINIONS

Opinions are personal observations based on someone’s beliefs or attitudes. Researchers conducting research have to refrain from asserting their own personal opinion at any time. Chapter 1 of the manual emphasized that researchers have to start the research process in an open-minded way. Then chapters detailing interviewing methods emphasized the neutral role of the interviewer who let the respondent express his opinions. The main point to remember here is that: while the interviewer/researcher may report about the respondent’s personal opinion, the interviewer/researcher himself/herself never expresses his/her own opinion. Here are some examples of opinions:

• Men are better drivers than women; • Smoking is a bad habit; • English is an easy language to learn.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၉ - ေထ ာက ကျ ပအေသးစတအခကအလကမား ဤအခနးသည

• သေတသတစေယာကအေနႏငအစရငခစာ

ေရးသားေသာအခါအေၾကာငးအရာအခကအလကႏငထငျမငခကအၾကား ျခားနားေစရနမာအေရးၾကးေၾကာငး • အေၾကာငးအရာအခကအလကမားအားအရညအခငးဆငရာအေထာကထားမားျဖငျဖစေစ၊အေရအတြကဆင

ရာအေထာကထားမားျဖငျဖစေစ ေထာကပအားျဖညေပးရနလအပေၾကာငးတငျပထားပါသည။ ______________________________________________________________________________

ေဖာျပချပးသညအတငးပငသေတသနဟသညတစစတစခေသာအေၾကာငးအရာ (သ႔)

ျပနာတစရပႏငစပလဥးေသာအသပညာကခ႕ထြငျခငးျဖစသည။သေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြငးစေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ

ေထာကပအားျဖညေပးမညအေသးစတအခကအလကမားကအသးျပျခငးပငျဖစသည။အဆပါ ေထာကပအားျဖညေရး အေသးစတအခကမားသညယခငထငသာ ျမငသာမ႐ေသာသကေသသာဓကမားအားကယစားျပႏငသည။ ေလလာ

ေထာကလမးဆအေၾကာငးအရာႏငပတသကေသာ ေယဘယစးစမးခကကလညးအားျဖညေပးႏငသည။ ေထာကကသကေသအမးအားသးမး႐သည။

• ဥပမာ

• ေကာကႏတခက

• စာရငးအငး

ေထာကကျပသကေသတစခခငးစက႐ငးလငးတငျပျခငးမျပမအလြနတရာအေရးၾကးေသာအခကတစခကက႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငးသေစလသည။သေတသနဟသညအေၾကာငးအရာအခကအလကမား ေပၚတြငအေျခခသည။ ထငျမငယဆ

ခကေပၚတြငအေျခခသညမဟတ။ထ႔ထကပ၍တကစြာဆရပါမသေတသနလပငနးစဥမသေတသမားရယစေဆာငးသညမာအခကအလကကခငမာေအာင ျပလပေပးမညသကေသသကာယမား ျဖစၾကသည။အခကအလကမားႏင

စပလဥးျပး၄ငးတ႔၏ထငျမငယဆခကေပးျခငးကမ ျပလပေလမ႐ၾကေခ။(‘သေတသနႏငကငဝတ’အခနးတြငၾကညပါ)

အခကအလကႏငထငျမငယဆခကၾကားျခားနားခက

ထငျမငယဆခကဟသညလတစဥးတစေယာကမ၄ငး၏ယၾကညခက (သ႔) စတေနစတထားေပၚတြငအေျခခေသာ

ပဂၢလဓဌာနစးစမးခကျဖစသည။သေတသနလပငနးတစခကလပကငေဆာင႐ြကေနေသာသေတသမားသည၄ငးတ႔၏

ပဂၢလဓဌာနထငျမငယဆခကအားအလြနတရာအသားေပးျခငးမးအားမညသညအခနအခါမး၌မဆ ေ႐ာင႐ားရမည။ လမးညႊနစာအပပါအခနး (၁) တြငသေတသမားသညလြတလပပြငလငးေသာစတထားျဖငသေတသန လပငနးစဥအား စတငရမညဟအေသအခာညႊနၾကားထားသည။လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးပနညးလမးမားအားအေသးစတ႐ငးလငးဖြငဆေသာအခနး မားတြငလညး ေမးခြနးေမးသသည ေျဖဆသ၏ထငျမငယဆခကကစတတငးကလြတလပစြာ ေဖာျပေပးခြငေပးရမညဟ၍

ေမးခြနးေမးသ၏အဂတကငးေသာအခနးက႑ကအထးတလညတငျပထားသည။အဓကမတသားထားရနမာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသ/သေတသသည ေျဖဆသ၏တကယေရထငျမငခကကအစရငခႏငေသာလညး၄ငး၏ထငျမငယဆခကက မဘယေသာ

အခါမထညသြငးေဖာျပျခငးမျပရ။

ဤသညမာထငျမငယဆခကဥပမာအခ႕ျဖစၾကသည

• အမးသားယာဥေမာငးမားသညအမးသမးယာဥေမာငးမားထကပေတာၾကသည။ • ေဆးလပေသာကျခငးသညဆးဝါးေသာအကငစ႐ကျဖစသည။ • အဂၤလပစာသညတတလြယေသာဘာသာစကားျဖစသည။

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If a respondent expresses any of these opinions, the researcher has to report it and turn the respondent’s opinion into a quote (see the ‘Quote’ section below on how to turn someone’s statement into a quote). In no way, however, should the interviewer/researcher directly express his/her own personal opinion even if he/she agrees with the respondent’s opinion. By contrast, the following sentences are facts because they are based on research:

• Driving while making a phone call or sending a text message increases the risk of traffic accident;

• Smoking causes cancer;

• Younger people have less difficulty in learning foreign languages.

Please note the causal link between the two events/situations/problems and the probabilistic nature of this link. These facts, however, remain very general. The researcher needs to produce facts supported by evidence. FACT NOT SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE VS. FACTS SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE A researcher is expected to give evidence that is supported by facts. People who are not convinced by the facts stated above about driving, smoking, and language learning, can always contradict them. If the researcher offers facts supported by evidence, it will be far more difficult to contradict the facts. Opinion Many people believe that imported food in Myanmar

may carry risk for consumers’ health. Fact which needs proof Milk powder imported from abroad has been cited by

many consumers as potentially harmful. Fact supported Melamine contained in imported milk powder is banned by evidence in many countries because of its harmful effects on

babies’ health.

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ေမးခြနးေျဖၾကားသသညအထကပါအေၾကာငးအရာတစခခကထငျမငခကအျဖစေပးလာပါကသေတသသည၄ငးကအစရငခရမညျဖစျပး ေကာကႏတခက ျပလပတငျပရမညျဖစသည။ (ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပမည ‘ေကာကႏတခက’ အပငးတြငတစစတစေယာက၏အဆျပခကကမညသ႔မညပ ေကာကႏတခကျပလပတငျပရမညက ေလလာပါ။)

လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသ/သေတသသည ေျဖၾကားသ၏ထငျမငခကကသေဘာတလကခေနသညတငမညသ႔ ေသာ

အေၾကာငးတစတရာႏငမ၄ငး၏တကယေရထငျမငခကကတက႐ကေဖာျပျခငးမးမျပရ။ အထကဥပမာႏငဆန႔ကငစြာ ေအာကပါဝါကတ႔မာသေတသနအေပၚအေျခခေသာအခကအလကမား ျဖစၾကသည။

• ကားေမာငးစဥဖနးေျပာျခငး (သ႔) ဖနးမကေဆခပ႔ျခငးတ႔ေၾကာငယာဥမေတာတဆမႈ ျဖစပြားႏငေခပမားသည။

• ေဆးလပေသာကျခငးေၾကာငကငဆာေရာဂါျဖစေစႏငသည။

• အသကငယ႐ြယသမားမာႏငငျခားဘာသာစကားသငယရနတြငမားစြာခယဥးမႈမ႐ေခ။

ျဖစရပႏစခ/အေျခအေနႏစခ/ျပနာရပႏစခအၾကားအေၾကာငးတရားဆကႏြယမႈႏင၄ငးဆကႏြယမႈ၏ ျဖစတနရာ

သေဘာသဘာဝကသတျပပါ။သ႔တငေအာငအဆပါအခကအလကမားသညလြနစြာ ေယဘယ ဆနေနေသးသည။

သေတသနလပငနး၏တာဝနမာသကေသခငလေသာအခကအလကမား ေဖာထတေပးရနျဖစသည။

သကေသမျပႏငေသာအခကႏငသကေသျပႏငေသာအခက

အမားေမာလငသညမာသေတသသညအခကအလကမားကခငမာေစမညသကေသျပခကက

ေပးစြမးႏငရေပမည။အထကတြင ေဖာျပထားေသာကားေမာငးျခငး၊ ေဆးလပေသာကျခငး၊ဘာသာစကားေလလာျခငးဆငရာအေၾကာငးအခကမားအားသေဘာမတသတ႔အဖ႔အျမတေစဆန႔ကငႏငသည။အကယ၍သာသေတသသညသကေသျပႏငေသာအခကအလကမားကသာ

ေပးစြမးႏငပါကအဆပါအခကအလကမားကဆန႔ကငျငငးဆရနလြနစြာခယဥးေပလမမည။ ထငျမငခက ႏငငျခားမတငသြငးေသာစားေသာကကနမားသည

စားသးသမား၏ကနးမာေရးက ေဘးျဖစေစသညဟ

ျပညသအမားစကယၾကညယဆၾကသည။

သကေသလအပေသာအခက စားသးသမား၏အဆအရႏငငရပျခားမတငသြငးေသာ

ႏ႔မႈန႔မားသညဥပါဒျဖစေစႏငသည။ သကေသ႐ေသာအခက မယလမငးပါဝငေသာႏငငျခားမတငသြငးသညႏ႔မႈန႔မားသည

ကေလးငယမား၏ကနးမာေရးကထခကေစသညအတြကႏငင ေတာေတာမားမားတြငတားျမစထားသည။

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EXAMPLES AS SUPPORTING DETAILS Examples used as supporting details are usually taken directly from the data collected by the researcher during the field research, survey, or interviews.

When examples are not directly related to the research and are used by the researcher in the report, these examples should be cited with references. Examples taken from other studies are especially useful for comparative purposes. But when using them for comparative purposes, the researcher must ensure that the comparison makes sense. The comparison can show two opposing or similar examples.

A research project investigates the discriminations that People Living with HIV (PLHIV) face in their daily lives. Interviews with PLHIV persons show that all intervi ewees complain about the difficulties they encounter in a ccessing health services. However, simply mentioning the difficult access to health services is not enough. The researcher must underst and what makes this access to health services difficult. The researcher will ask the PLHIV interviewees to m ention examples about this difficult access to health serv ices. One example could be about the financial difficulti es a PLHIV faces in paying for the medical treatment. The rese archer is encouraged to ask further details: how much is a tr eatment? How much can the person afford for the treatment? Is there any possibility of financial support? Another example could be about how the PLHIV avoids visiting the clinic because he/she feels the people will dis criminate him/her. The researcher is encouraged to ask furthe r details: does the PLHIV person feel that he/she will be trea ted by the nurses or doctors differently at the clinic? What s pecific experience did the PLHIV go through when he/she vis ited the clinic for the treatment? Answers to these questions could be evidence for th e researcher and help support the analysis.

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ဥပမာမားအားေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကအေနျဖငအသးျပျခငး ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကမားအေနျဖငအသးျပေသာဥပမာမားအားပမနအားျဖငသေတသကြငးဆငးသေတသနျပလပစဥတြငလညးေကာငး၊စစတမးေကာကယစဥတြငလညးေကာငး၊လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈျပလပစဥတြငလညးေကာငးစေဆာငးရ႐ခေသာအခကအလကမားမတက႐ ကယငငသးစြသည။

ဥပမာမားသညသေတသနႏငတက႐ကဆကစပမႈမ႐ပအစရငခစာတြငထညသြငးအသးျပထားပါကအဆပါဥပမာမားအားအကးအကားႏငတကြ ေဖာျပေပးရမည။ အျခားေသာ

ေလလာခကမားမထတႏတယထားေသာဥပမာမားသညႏငးယဥေလလာမႈျပရနအလြနတရာအသးဝငသည။သ႔ေသာလညး၄ငးတ႔အားဤကသ႔ႏငးယဥေလလာရနအသးျပေသာအခါအဆပါႏငးယဥမႈသညယတတနေစရမည။ႏငးယဥမႈတြငဆန႔ကငဘကဥပမာႏစခက ျပသႏငသလဆငတဥပမာႏစခလညး ျပသႏငသည။

သေတသနစမကနးတစခသည အတခအငဗြေရာဂါသညမား ၄ငးတ႔ေန႔စဥဘဝတြင ခြျခားဆကဆေနရမႈ အေၾကာငးက

ေထာကလမးေလလာသညဆပါစ႔။

ေရာဂါသညမားအား လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးၾကညေသာအခါ ၄ငးတ႔ ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ ရ႐ႏငရန အခကအခမား

ရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ေနရေၾကာငးက ညညးညေျပာဆၾကသည။

သ႔ေစကာမ ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ မရ႐သည အခကအခမား ေဖာျပေန႐ျဖင မလေလာကေပ။ သေတသအေနျဖင

မညသညအတြကေၾကာင ဤသ႔ကနးမာေရးအေစာငအေ႐ာကခရန ခကခေနရသနညးဆေသာအခကက နားလညေအာင

ျပလပရနလအပသည။

ထ႔ေၾကာင ၄ငးကးစကေရာဂါသညမားအား လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးရာတြင ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈခယရန ခကခပက

ဥပမာကစၥရပမားျဖင ေဖာျပေပးရန ေတာငးဆရမည။

ကးစကေရာဂါသည ေဝဒနာ႐ငမား ရငဆငေနရေသာ အခကအခကမားစြာထမ ျဖစတနရာေသာ ဥပမာတစခမာ ေဆးကသမႈ

စရတေပးရန ေငြေၾကးအၾကပအတညး ၾကေနရျခငးမး ျဖစသည။ ဤတြင သေတသအေနျဖင အေသးစတထပမ

ေမးျမနးရနလအပသညမာ - ေဆးကသမႈစရတ မညမ႐သနညး။ ေဝဒနာ႐ငတစဥးလင ေဆးကသမႈအတြက မညမ

တတစြမးႏငသနညး။ ေငြေၾကးေထာကပမႈ ရ႐ရန အလားအလာ႐ပါသလား။

ေနာကထပျဖစႏငစရာ ဥပမာတစခမာ ကးစကေရာဂါသညအေနျဖင လအမား၏ ခြျခားဆကဆခရမညက စး႐ြ႕သညစတျဖင

ေဆး႐ေဆးခနးမားက ေ႐ာင႐ားေနျခငးမးျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင အေသးစတထပမေမးျမနးရနလအပသညမာ -

ကးစကေရာဂါသညအေနျဖင ေဆးခနး႐ဆရာဝနႏင သနာျပမားမ ၄ငးအား တမးတဖဆကဆသညဟ ခစားရပါသလား။

ေဆးကသမႈခယရန ေဆးခနးသြားေသာအခါတြင မညသ႔ေသာအေတြ႕အၾကမး ခစားရပါသနညး။

အဆပါ ေမးခြနးမားအတြက အေျဖမားသည သေတသအတြက သကေသသာဓကမားျဖစႏငျပး စစစေလလာမႈျပရနလညး

အေထာကအပျဖစေစႏငသည။

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QUOTES AS SUPPORTING DETAILS Quotes are the words and statements expressed by a person who is considered knowledgeable about the topic under investigation. A quote refers to what a person said orally or in writing. It can be an indirect quote or a direct quote. Whatever the case, the quote has to be transcribed exactly as it was expressed by the author. For a written statement made by an author, besides re-typing the quote just exactly as it was expressed, the researcher mentions very precisely the source of the quote.

It is often the case that quotations will be made from words expressed by key informants when interviewed during the data collection phase of the research project. Depending on whether the research team is allowed by the respondent to refer to his/her real name, the researcher may or not use the real name of the interviewee in the final research report. If not allowed, the researcher may use a different name and mentions that the name is changed because of the sensitivity of the topic. One important point to remember about quotes is that anyone can be quoted by a researcher as long as the person who is quoted is knowledgeable about the topic which is under investigation. It is often believed that quotes only report the words of famous persons. But quotes can also report the words of anyone whose experience, life, or knowledge about the topic under investigation reflects well the problems addressed.

A research project investigates the environmental a wareness of young adults in Myanmar. In the introduction of the report, it may be useful to quote an expert who has done previ ous studies about environmental awareness in another country. T he quote will give some background about the notion (“enviro nmental awareness”) that is being studied. The quote may appear as shown below:

As P. Harju-Autti mentions, “Environmental awareness is a very abstract concept and measuring it in an absolute manner is not feasible”.

In addition to the quote itself, the researcher cit es the source where the quote was taken from. The referenc e includes the title of the article or book, the publisher’s name, the year of publication, the issu e number, and page number. As opposed to the quote wh ich is made in the body of the report, the reference is of ten placed at the bottom of the page, as a footnote. Th is is shown below: P. Harju-Autti, “Measuring Environmental Awareness in nineteen States in India”, University Journal of Environmental Research and Technology, 2013, Vol. 3, Issue 5, 544.

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ေကာကႏတခကမားအား ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကအေနျဖငအသးျပျခငး ေကာကႏတခကမားဟသညစးစမးေလလာေနသညအေၾကာငးအရာႏငစပလဥးျပးနားလညကၽြမးကငသဟယဆခထားရသတစဥး၏အဆအမန႔ႏငအဆျပခကမားတ႔ျဖစၾကသည။တစစတစေယာကစကားအေနျဖင ေျပာၾကားလကေသာ

(သ႔) ေရးသားလကေသာအရာက ေကာကႏတခကျပလပ၍ရႏငသည။ ေကာကႏတခကသညတက႐ကသ႔မဟတတဆငခ ျဖစႏငသည။ မညသ႔ပငျဖစေစ ေကာကႏတခကအားမလ ေရးသားသ/ေျပာၾကားသဆခသညအတငးအတအကကးယေဖာျပရမည။ စာေရးဆရာတစေယာကေယာက၏

ေရးသားခကအတြကမမလဆခသညအတငး၏သညမလြျပနလညကးယ႐ကႏပေဖာျပရမညအျပငမညသညေနရာမ

ေကာကႏတယသညဆသညကပါတပါတညး ေဖာျပရမည။

မားေသာအားျဖငအခကအလကစေဆာငးသညအဆငအတြငးေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးခသညအဓကအခကအလကေပးသမား (Key informants) ၏ ေျပာစကားမားအား ေကာကႏတခက ျပလပေလ႐ သည။သတငးေပး ေျဖၾကားသ၏အမညနာမအားအဆးသတအစရငခစာတြငထညသြငးအသးျပျခငးမျပျခငးမာ၄ငး ေျဖၾကားသ၏ခြငျပျခငးမျပျခငးေပၚတြငမတညသည။အကယ၍ခြငျပခကမရပါကသေတသသညအျခားအမညနာမတစခခကအသးျပျပးအေၾကာငးအရာ၏အကဆတမႈေၾကာငအမညလႊေျပာငးေဖာျပထားေၾကာငးက ေဖာျပေပးရမည။ ေကာကႏတခကႏငပတသကျပးသတျပရနမာစးစမးေလလာေနသညအေၾကာငးအရာႏငပတသကျပးႏစပကၽြမးကငသမညသ႔ကမဆ ေကာကႏတကးကားႏငသည။ ေကာကႏတကးကားခကသညထင႐ားေကာၾကားသတ႔၏အဆအမန႔မားသာ

ျဖစၾကသညဟမားေသာအားျဖငယၾကညယဆေလ႐သည။အမနစငစစမညသမဆ၄ငး၏ဘဝ၊အေတြ႕အၾက၊အသပညာ

သေတသနစမကနးတစခသည ျမနမာျပည႐ အ႐ြယေရာကျပး လငယမား၏ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင အသအျမင

ႏးၾကားမႈ အေၾကာငး စးစမးေလလာသညဆပါစ ႔။ အစရငခစာ မတဆကပငးတြင တျခားတႏငင၌ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင

အသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈ အေၾကာငး ေလလာခဖးသ ပညာ႐ငတစဥးဥး၏ အဆအမန႔အား ေကာကႏတေဖာျပႏငလင

အသးတညေပလမမည။ အဆပါ ေကာကႏတခကသည ေလလာေနသည အေၾကာငးအရာ (“သဘာဝပတဝနးကင

အသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈ”) ၏ ေနာကေၾကာငးရာဇဝင အခ႕က ေဖာျပႏငပါလမမည။

ေကာကႏတခကသည ေအာကေဖာျပပါအတငး ျဖစႏငသည။

ပ ဟာဂ အကတ ဆခသညအတငး “သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ အသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈမာ လကဆပလကကငျပရန

ခကခေသာ သေဘာတရားတစချဖစျပး ၄ငးအား တတကကတငးတာရနမာ လကေတြ႕ကေသာ ကစၥမဟတေခ။” ၁

၄ငးေကာကႏတခက၏ ေနာကဆကတြအေနျဖင သေတသသည အဆပါ ေကာကႏတခကအား မညသညေနရာမ

ရယေၾကာငးက အကးအကားျပဆရသည။ အကးအကားေဖာျပရာတြင ေဆာငးပါး (သ႔) စာအပ၏ ေခါငးစဥ၊ ထတေဝသအမည၊ ထတေဝသညႏစ၊ အတြအမတႏင စာမကႏာတ႔ပါဝငရမည။ အစရငခစာ၏ စာကယပငးတြင ေဖာျပသည ေကာကႏတခကမား ႏငမတပ အကးအကားက စာမကႏာေအာကေျခတြင ေအာကေျခမတစအျဖစေဖာျပေပးရမည။ ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသညက ၾကညပါ။ ၁ ပ ဟာဂ အကတ “အႏၵယ႐ျပညနယတစဆယကးခတြင သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ကၽြမးဝငမႈအေၾကာငးတငးတာျခငး”၊ ပတဝနးကင သေတသနႏင နညးပညာ တကသလဂာနယ၊ ၂၀၁၃၊ အတြ ၃၊ အမတ ၅၊ ၅၄၄

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သည ေလလာဆအေၾကာငးအရာႏငစပဆကေနျပးကငတြယေနသည ျပနာရပမားအား ေကာငးစြာထငဟပႏငျခငး႐ပါက ေကာကႏတကးကား၍ရသည။ A research project about livelihood in rural communities can quote words of a farmer because his statement is well-informed and clearly expresses details about the difficult situation that farmers face in their daily life.

Direct Quotes Direct quote is made as follows:

– The president said, “ the situation will improve” .

Note that the words of the person quoted have to be exactly the same as what he/she said and be enclosed with quotation marks “ …….” . Indirect Quotes

• Indirect quote is made as follows:

– The president said that the situation will improve.

– According to the president, everyone has to agree for the situation to improve.

Note here that there are no quotation marks. Only the term ‘that’ is added as a link between the two clauses. For indirect quotations the following verbs are often needed: assert indicate suggest insist agree claim report state write declare mention say STATISTICS AS SUPPORTING INFORMATION Data collected from a survey conducted during the research project can be turned into statistics by the researcher as it was explained in the ‘Analysis of Quantitative Data’ Chapter. Data collected will be turned into various types of graphs or charts as shown below. Besides the graphic representation, all data are given explanations by the researcher.

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ေကးလကအစအဖြ႕မား၏အသကေမြးမႈလပငနးအေၾကာငးသေတသနျပရာတြငလယသမားတစဥး၏ ေျပာစကားမားက

ကးကားႏငသည။အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ၄ငး၏ ေျပာၾကားခကသညလယသမားမား ေန႔စဥရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ေနရေသာ

အေသးစတအခကအခမားက႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငးႏင ေကာငးစြာ ေဖာျပႏငစြမး႐ျခငးေၾကာင ျဖစသည။

တက႐ကေကာကႏတကးကားခက တက႐ကေကာကႏတကးကားခကဟသည ေအာကပါအတငးျဖစသည။

– “အေျခအေနေကာငးမြနလာလမမယ”ဟသမၼတက ေျပာၾကားခသည။

ေျပာၾကားသ၏စကားရပအား၄ငးေျပာၾကားခသညအတငး၏သညမလြ ေကာကႏတကးကားရမညျဖစျပးမကေတာငအဖြငအပတ“…….”ထထညသြငးထားရမည။

တဆငခေကာကႏတကးကားခကမား

• တဆငခ ေကာကႏတကးကားခကဟသည ေအာကပါအတငးျဖစသည။

– အေျခအေနေကာငးမြနလာလမမညဟသမၼတမ ေျပာၾကားခသည။

– သမၼတ၏ေျပာၾကားခကအတငးလတငးကလညးအေျခအေနေကာငးမြနလာလမမညဟသေဘာတ

ယဆလကၾကေလသည။

ဤတြငမကေတာငအဖြငအပတမပါသညကသတျပရမည။ ‘မညဟ’ဟေသာစကားလးျဖငသာစကားရပႏစခအားဆကစပေပးထားသည။တဆငခေကာကႏတကးကားခကမားအတြကပမနအားျဖငေအာကပါၾကယာမားအသးျပၾကပါသည။ assert indicate suggest insist agree claim report state write declare mention say

စာရငးအငးမားအား ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကအေနျဖငအသးျပျခငး သေတသနစမကနးအတြငး ျပလပေသာစစတမးမားမာစေဆာငးရ႐ေသာအခကအလကမားအား ‘အေရအတြကဆငရာ

အခကအလကမားအားစစစၾကညျခငး’အခနးတြင႐ငးလငးျပဆထားသညအတငးစာရငးအငးကနးဂဏနးမားအျဖစ

ေျပာငးလ ျဖညသြငးႏငသည။စေဆာငးျပးအခကအလကမားအား ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသကသ႔ဇယားကြက၊ စကဝငးစတစသညပသဏၭာနအမးအစား ေျမာကျမားစြာျဖင ေဖာျပႏငသည။ဇယားကြကကနးဂဏာနးျပမႈမားအျပင အဆပါအခကအလကမားႏငပတသကျပးသေတသမ႐ငးလငးခက ေပးရမည။

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A research project investigates environmental of yo ung adults in Myanmar. A survey was conducted in various parts of the country. The graph shown below is about respondents living in the Mon State. Besides the graph, it is important t o give explanations.

Knowledge about environmental protection, as the graph above shows, is clearly gained

through the media. More than 60% of the respondents mention that they know about the

issue by reading newspapers or watching TV and a little more than 50% by listening to radio.

The combined part of media (internet included) is therefore predominant. By contrast, less

than 30% of the respondents have gained knowledge about the issue through discussion

with colleagues at work. When environmental protection campaigns are initiated by various

stakeholders (be they governmental or from the civil society), the media will have to be

considered as the main avenue for disseminating messages about environmental

protection.

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သေတသနစမကနးတစခသည အ႐ြယေရာကျပး လငယမား၏ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ အသပညာ ဗဟသတအေၾကာငး

စးစမးေလလာထားသည။ ျမနမာႏငငေနရာအႏ႕အျပားတြင စစတမးေကာကယမႈတစခလညး ျပလပထားသည။ ေအာကပါ

ဇယားကြကတြင မြနျပညနယမ စစတမးေျဖဆေပးသမားအား ေဖာျပထားေပးသည။ ဇယားကြကေဖာျပေပးရမညအျပင

႐ငးလငးခကေပးရနမာလညး အေရးၾကးသည။

အထကပါ ဇယားအရ ႐ငးလငးေသခာစြာ သရသညမာ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ထနးသမးေစာငေ႐ာကေရး ဆငရာ ဗဟသတသည မဒယာမ တဆငရ႐ေၾကာငးပငျဖစသည။ ၆၀ % မကေသာ ေျဖၾကားသမားက ၄ငးတ႔သည သဘာဝပတဝနးကငအေၾကာငးက သတငးစာဖတျခငး သ႔မဟတက တဗၾကညျခငးျဖင သ႐ရေၾကာငး ေျဖဆျပး ၅၀% သာသာမေလာကက ေရဒယ နားေထာငျခငးျဖင သ႐ ေၾကာငး ေဖာျပၾကသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ (အငတာနက အပါအဝင) မဒယာအမးအစားေပါငးစမ အဓက ကလြနးလသည။ ၄ငးႏင ဆန႔ကငစြာ ၃၀% ပငမျပညေသာ ေျဖဆသမားက အလပတြင လပေဖာကငဖကမားႏင ေဆြးေႏြးရငး အဆပါ ဗဟသတက ရ႐ၾကသညဟ ဆသည။ (အစးရျဖစေစ၊ အရပဘက အဖြ႕အစညးမားမ ျဖစေစ) အဖြ႕အစညးေပါငးစမ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ထနးသမးေစာငေ႐ာကေရးအတြက အငတကအားတက လပ႐ားၾကေသာအခါ မဒယာအား အေရးပါေသာ သတငးျဖန႔ျဖးေရး ၾကားခလကနကအျဖစ အသးျပရန စဥးစားသငသည။

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Another example is shown below with explanations given by the researcher in addition to the graphic representation. The chapter about ‘Using Existing Data’ detailed how existing data outside of the research project may be used. When using existing data, the research explains the relevance of this data for the research and why the data is reliable. Just like for quotations, the researcher will cite the source where the statistics are taken from. For instance, if the statistics are based on data collected from a specific survey, the researcher will start the sentence with the following:

• According to the data collected from the survey conducted by _____________ (name of the organization), XX% of persons who ……

If statistics are taken from official reports, the researcher will start the sentence with the following:

• According to the report produced by ________ (name of the organization/institution), XX% of persons who …..

Answers to the question about the practice of disposing rubbish show that more than one

third of the respondents choose to burn home rubbish. Few respondents declare throwing

rubbish in the river but many report throwing them in streams with the result that they

probably end up in the river or contribute to clog the streams themselves. Only 18% of the

respondents declare disposing rubbish by using the city rubbish collection truck. This rather

small number would warrant further research: why do so few people use the city rubbish

collecting truck? Is the service not reliable enough for people to use it? Is there mistrust

from the people towards the service provided by the city council?

Burnt (36%)

City rubbish collection truck (18%)

In the stream (13.2%)

Dump area designated by city council (13%)

Rubbish bin on side street (11%)

Buried (6%)

In the river (2.8%)

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ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသညအျခားတပါးေသာဥပမာတစခတြငဇယားကြကႏငတကြသေတသ၏

ျဖညစြက႐ငးလငးခကကပါ ေဖာျပထားသည။

‘႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားကအသးျပျခငး’အခနးတြငလက႐သေတသနျပငပမလာေသာ႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားကမညသ႔မညပအသးျပရသညကအေသးစတ ေဖာျပထားသည။၄ငး႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားကအသးျပသညအခါ အဆပါ အခကအလကမားသညလကရသေတသနတြငအကးဝငသကဆငေၾကာငးႏငမညသညအတြကေၾကာငကးကားေလာကစရာျဖစေၾကာငးက႐ငးျပေပးရနလသည။ ေကာကႏတခကမားတြငသကသ႔ပငသေတသသညအဆပါအခကအလကမားအားမညသညေနရာမယငငအသးျပသညကအကးအကားျပရမည။

ဥပမာအကယ၍စာရငးဇယားမားအားစစတမးတစခခမစေဆာငးရ႐ေသာအခကအလကမားေပၚတြငမတညျပး ျပလပထားသညဆပါကသေတသသည ေအာကပါဝါကျဖငစတငရမည။

• ________________ (အဖြ႕အစညးအမည) မ

ျပလပေသာစစတမးမစေဆာငးရ႐သညအခကအလကမားအရXX% မေသာလဥးေရသည . . .

အကယ၍စာရငးဇယားမားအားတရားဝငအစရငခစာမားမရ႐သညဆပါကသေတသအေနျဖင

ေအာကပါဝါကျဖငစတငရမည။ • ________________ (အဖြ႕အစညးအမည) မ ျပလပေသာစစတမးအရXX% မေသာလဥးေရသည . . .

အမႈကမညသ႔စြန႔ပစသနညးဆေသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆေသာ အေျဖမားအရ သးပတစပထကမကေသာ ေျဖၾကားသတ႔သည အမတြငးအမႈကက မး႐႕ပစၾကသည။ အနညးစမာ ျမစထသ႔ စြန႔ပစသညဟ ေျဖၾကားထားသည။ အမားစမာမ ေခာငးထသ႔ စြန႔ပစၾကရာ ၄ငးမတဆင ျမစထသ႔ စးဆငးသြားသည။ သ႔မဟတကလညး ေျမာငးဝတြင ပတဆ႔သြားတတသည။ ၁၈% မသာ အမႈကစြန႔ပစရန စညပငအမႈကကားက အသးျပၾကသည။ အဆပါ လနညးစေၾကာင သေတသန ထပမျပလပရန လအပလာသညမာ - အဘယေၾကာင လနညးစသာ စညပငအမႈကကားက အသးျပသနညး။ အဆပါ ဝနေဆာငမႈသည လမားအတြက စတေကနပအားကးေလာကစရာ မ႐၍ေလာ။ ျမ႕ေတာစညပငမ ေဆာင႐ြကေပးေသာ အဆပါ ဝနေဆာငမႈအား ျပညသ႔ဘကမ မယၾကညမႈ တစတရာ ႐ေနပါသေလာ။

Burnt (36%)

City rubbish collection truck (18%)

In the stream (13.2%)

Dump area designated by city council (13%)

Rubbish bin on side street (11%)

Buried (6%)

In the river (2.8%)

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Statistical data taken from other studies are especially useful for comparative purposes. But when using them for comparative purposes, the researcher must ensure that the comparison makes sense. The comparison can show two opposing sets of data. It can also show similar problems in different contexts or times. TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

• Supporting details can be examples, quotes, or statistical data;

• Quotes reports the words of a person knowledgeable about the problem addressed and who gives an informative perspective about this problem;

• Both examples and statistical data taken from existing studies can be used for comparative purposes.

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အျခား ေလလာခကမားမလာေသာစာရငးအငးဆငရာအခကအလကမားသညႏငးယဥေလလာမႈျပရနအလြနတရာ

အသးဝငသည။သ႔ေသာလညး၄ငးတ႔အားႏငးယဥေလလာရနအသးျပသညအခါတြငႏငးယဥခကသညယတ႐ရနလအပသည။ႏငးယဥေလလာခကတြငဆန႔ကငဘကအခကအလကႏစစက ျပႏငသည။မတညေသာအေျခအေနအခနအခါ မားအတြငးမဆငတ႐းမား ျပနာရပမားကလညး ျပသႏငသည။

အခပအားျဖငဤအခနးတြငမတသားရနလအပေသာအဓကအခကမားမာ -

• ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကမားမာဥပမာမား (သ႔) ေကာကႏတကးကားခကမား (သ႔)

စာရငးအငးအခကအလကမားျဖစႏငသည။

• ေကာကႏတကးကားရာတြငသကဆငရာ ျပနာရပႏငပတသကျပးကၽြမးကငသ၊

ျပနာရပကခကကလကက ျမငေအာငျပလပေျပာဆႏငသအားကးကားေလ႐သည။

• ႐ရငးစြ

ေလလာခကမားမရ႐ေသာဥပမာျဖစေစ၊စာရငးအငးအခကအလကမားျဖစေစႏငးယဥေလလာရနအသးျပႏင

သည။

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INTERMEDIATE 20. WRITING A REPORT

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The importance of writing a report in clear way for readers that may or may not be familiar with the problem addressed;

• The need to follow a typical outline for report-writing; • The use of supporting details when writing the analysis.

A report is a document written by the researcher(s) involved in the research process. The report disseminates the findings of the research. The report has therefore to be clear in its contents and wording. Readers who may not have knowledge about the problem addressed by the report should be able to gain knowledge about it, its causes, and its consequences in a very informative and clear way. Researchers do not write a report for themselves but for future readers. These future readers may be experts in the field, donors, politicians, or people who implement future projects based on the findings of the report…Because of this diversity of future readers, the emphasis must be on the clarity of the report. A report is the final phase of the research project, and also one of the most important elements in the entire research project. A report conveys the general purpose of the research project, explains the different steps followed to achieve these purposes, discusses the data, and formulates conclusions (including sometimes recommendations) based on the discussion of the data. FIRST TWO PAGES OF THE REPORT

The research report starts with the research title and the executive summary.

1. Research title: the title has to give a concise idea of what will be discussed in the report.

This usually means the three following information: (a) the problem or issue addressed by the research project, (b) the types of populations targeted by the research project; and (c) the area in which the research project was conducted.

2. Executive Summary (recommended): the executive summary is written for future readers who most likely do not have time to read the entire report. It is NOT intended to explain how the researchers conducted the research.

Therefore, the executive summary usually has the following sections: (a) purpose of the research; (b) main findings; (3) and (possibly) recommendations, if the research project is intended to support advocacy activities about the problem addressed by the project.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၂၀ - အစရငခစာေရးသားျခငး ဤအခနးတြင

• အစရငခစာေရးသားရာတြင ေဖာျပပါ ျပနာရပႏငအစမးသကသကျဖစေနေသာစာဖတသမား ႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငးသျမငေအာင ေရးသားရန

• အစရငခစာေရးသားျခငးဆငရာမကလကနာရနလအပပ • စစစေလလာခကေရးသားေသာအခါေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကမားအားအသးျပျခငးအေၾကာငး

တ႔ကေဖာျပထားပါသည။

__________________________________________________________________________________________

အစရငခစာဟသညသေတသနလပငနးစဥတြငပါဝငေသာသေတသမ ျပစေရးသားလကသညစာတမးတစခ ျဖစသည။ အစရငခစာသညသေတသနေတြ႕႐ခကမားက ျပနလညျဖန႔ေဝေပးသည။သ႔ျဖစပါ၍အစရငခစာပါ အေၾကာငးအရာပငးႏင

စကားလးအသးအႏနးတ႔သည႐ငးလငးမႈ႐ရမည။အစရငခစာတြငထညသြငး ေဖာျပထားသည ျပနာႏင ကၽြမးဝငမႈ မ႐ေသာစာဖတသပငလငမညသညနညးႏငမဆ၄ငးျပနာရပအေၾကာငး၊ ျပနာ၏အေၾကာငးတရားမား၊ ဆငကအကးသကေရာကမႈမားအေၾကာငးကခကကလကကႏင႐ငးလငးစြာသျမငေစရမည။ သေတသမားသညအစရငခစာက၄ငးတ႔ဘာသာဖတရနေရးသားသညမဟတ။ ေ နာ ငပငးတြငဖတ႐မည

စာဖတသမားအတြက ေရးသားျခငးျဖစသည။စာဖတသမားမာအဆပါနယပယတြငကၽြမးကငသမား (သ႔) အလ႐ငမား (သ႔) ႏငငေရးသမားမား(သ႔)အစရငခစာပါ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားကအေျချပျပးေနာကတြငစမကနးမား အေကာငအထည

ေဖာမညလမားစသညစသညျဖင . . . စာဖတသအမးအစားမားျပားလြနးလသညျဖစ၍ အစရငခစာက႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငး ႐ေစရနအထးအေလးေပးရမည။ အစရငခစာသညသေတသနစမကနး၏ ေနာကဆးအဆငျဖစျပး၄ငးစမကနး၏အေရးအၾကးဆးအစတအပငးတစခလညး ျဖစသည။အစရငခစာသညသေတသနစမကနး၏ ေယဘယရည႐ြယခကမားကေဖာျပေပးႏငသည။ အဆပါ ရည႐ြယခကမားကဆကေရာက ျပညမေအာငအဆငဆင ေဆာင႐ြကခရပက႐ငးျပေပးႏငသည။ အခကအလကမားက

ေဆြးေႏြးတငျပႏငသည။အဆပါ ေဆြးေႏြးခကေပၚမတညျပးေကာကခကဆြသားခကမား (အပါအဝငတခါတရ အၾကေပးခကမား) ျပ လ ပ ေပ းႏငသ ည။

အစရငခစာ၏ပထမစာႏစမကႏာ

သေတသနအစရငခစာကသေတသနေခါငးစဥ၊မတတမးအကဥးခပတ႔ျဖငစတငရမည။

၁။သေတသနေခါငးစဥ - ေခ ါငးစဥက ျမင႐မျဖငအစရငခစာတြငမညသညကစၥရပအားေဆြးေႏြးတငျပလမမညက

တတပပသေစရမည။ ေခါငးစဥသည ေဖာျပပါအခကသးခကကေဖာျပေပးႏငရမည။၄ငးတ႔မာ (က) သေတသနစမကနး တငျပေျဖ႐ငးရနၾကးစားသည ျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပ (ခ) သေတသနစမကနးရညစးသညလဥးေရအမးအစား (ဂ)သေတသနစမကနး ျပလပရာအရပေဒသတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

၂။မတတမးအကဥးခပ (ေထာကခအၾကျပခက) - မတတမးအကဥးခပသည ေနာကပငးတြငဖတ႐မညစာဖတ

သမား၊အထးသျဖငအစရငခစာအစအဆးဖတ႐ရနအခနမေပးႏငသမားအတြက ေရးသားျခငး ျဖစသည။ မတတမးအကဥးခပတြငသေတသနကမညကသ႔ေဆာင႐ြကခပကတငျပရနရည႐ြယရငးမ႐ေပ။ မတတမးအကဥးခပတြင ေဖာျပပါအပငးမားပါဝငသည။၄ငးတ႔မာ (က) သေတသန၏ရည႐ြယခက (ခ) အဓက

ေတြ႕႐ခကမား (၃)အကယ၍သေတသနစမကနးသည ေျဖ႐ငးရနၾကးစားေနေသာ ျပနာရပမားႏင

စပလဥးျပးလပေဆာငသငသညမားကေထာကခတငျပလပါကေထာကခအၾကျပခကမားက (ထညသြငးေကာငး)

ထညသြငးႏငသည။

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CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH

After the research title and the executive summary, the report gives descriptions about the context of the research. 3. Introduction: Why the research project was developed, with what objectives, and (possibly) what hypothesis is behind the project are questions to be addressed in this section. 4. Background of the research or Overview of the Problem: A brief description of the general context in which the issue under study developed. 5. Literature review: Adiscussion of the sources available and the state of the knowledge of the issue under study.

Introduction The main objective of this research is to identify how the CCA trained teachers see CCA integration in the curriculum of m onastic schools. A secondary objective is an attempt to assess the pos itive and negative effects of CCA integration in the monastic schools. Background The Child Centered Approach (CCA) was introduced in Myanmar in the late 1990s as way to promote children’s creativity, anal ytical skills, critical thinking, and problem solving skills. With the help ofUNICEF and JICA, the Ministry of Education started to trai n primary school teachers. Today CCA has also been adopted in monast ic schools. According to Westwood, “CCA methods are considered as the best practice for children [...] Moreover, most CCA methods are c oncerned not only with knowledge construction but also with the devel opment of effective learning strategies. That is why in CCA the process of learning is often considered more important than the acquisition of a ctual knowledge”. (What teachers need to know, Peter Westwood, 2008, Page-26&27) Literature Review When preparing and conducting the research, the fol lowing secondary sources were reviewed:

- A research paper published by Marie Lall. It is abo ut CCA in monastic schools in Myanmar.

- P. Westwood’s book “What teachers need to know”. Th e author discusses about direct teaching methods, student-ce ntred methods and what are the effective teaching methods. Moreov er, the book also assesses the various ways of students’ learnin g assessment as well as why so many teachers and some education aut horities seem reluctant to adopt the effective teaching methods c ame out of researches.

- Etc.

Note: This example is a much shortened version of a report produced asan exercise developed during a training on social rese arch methods; it is given here for clarification purposes only.

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သေတသနမေဘာင

သေတသနေခါငးစဥႏငမတတမးအကဥးခပေနာကတြငသေတသနမေဘာငအားအစရငခစာတြင႐ငးလငးတငျပရမည။ ၃။နဒါနး - သေတသနစမကနးအားအဘယေၾကာင ေဖာေဆာငခရပ၊မညသညရည႐ြယခကမားျဖင ေဖာေဆာငခရပႏင (ျဖစႏငလင) မညသညထငျမငယဆခကသညစမကနးေနာကကြယတြင႐ေၾကာငးစေသာေမးခြနးမား အားယငးအပငး တြငတငျပရမည။ ၄။သေတသနေနာကခရာဇဝငႏငျပနာရပ၏ေယဘယအျမင -ေလလာသညျပနာရပ ေပၚေပါကလာပ၏

ေယဘယအေနအထားကအကဥးခပေဖာျပေပးပါ။ ၅။သကဆငရာစာအပစာတမးေလလာခက - အခကအလကအရငးျမစမားအေၾကာငးေဆြးေႏြးတငျပခကႏင ေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏငစပလဥးျပးသ႐နားလညထားသညအဆငကတငျပပါ။

နဒါနး သေတသန၏ အဓကရည႐ြယခကမာစစေအသငတနးဆငးဆရာမားအေနျဖင ဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားတြင စစေအထညသြငးအသးျပသည ကစၥကမညသ႔မညပ ႐ျမငၾကပကေထာကလမးရန ျဖစသည။ ဒတယရည႐ြယခကမာဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားတြင စစေအထညသြငးအသးျပျခငး၏ အကးအျပစတ႔ကေလလာဆနးစစရန ျဖစသည။

ေနာကခရာဇဝင

ကေလးမား၏ တထြငဖနတးမႈစြမးရည၊ စစစေလလာႏငစြမး၊ ကးေၾကာငးဆငျခငေဝဖန သးသပႏငစြမး ႏင ျပနာေျဖ႐ငးႏငစြမးတ႔ ျမငတငေပးႏငရနအလ႔ငာကေလးဗဟျပသငၾကားနညး (Child Centre Approach-CCA) က ျမနမာႏငငတြင ၁၉၉၀ ခႏစမား ေႏာငးပငးတြင မတဆကအသးျပလာသည။ UNICEF ႏင JICA တ႔၏ ကညမႈျဖင ပညာေရးဝနၾကးဌာနသည မလတနးဆရာမားအားစတင ေလကငသငၾကားေပးခသည။ လက႐တြင စစေအနညးနာကဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားတြငပါ အသးျပလာျပျဖစသည။ ဝကစဝတဒ၏ အဆအရ “စစေအသည ကေလးမားအတြက အေကာငးဆးေသာသငၾကားနညးအျဖစ ယဆထားသည။ [. . . ] သညအျပင စစေအနညးနာအမားစသည အသပညာျဖညတငးတညေဆာကျခငးႏင သာမကထထမမေလလာဆညးပးႏငမည နညးလမးမားဖြျဖးေရးႏငပါ သကဆငသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ စစေအတြင ေလလာသငယသည ျဖစစဥသည အသပညာရ႐ေရးထကပင ပမအေရးပါသညဟယဆသည။” (What teachers need to know ၊ ပတာဝကစဝတဒ၊ ၂၀၀၈၊ စာ - ၂၆၊ ၂၇)

သကဆငရာစာအပစာတမးေလလာခက

သေတသနအား ျပငဆငရာတြငႏင ျပလပေနစဥတြင ေအာကပါ တဆငခအရငးျမစမားအားေလလာရမည။ - ေမရေလာေရးသားထတေဝေသာသေတသနစာတမးတစေစာင။ ျမနမာျပည႐ ဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားမ

စစေအအေၾကာငးတငျပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ - ပ၊ ဝကစဝတဒ၏ စာအပ “What teachers need to know”။ စာေရးသသည တက႐ကသငၾကားနညးမား၊ ေကာငးသားဗဟျပ

သငၾကားနညးမား၊ မညသ႔ေသာနညးလမးမားသည ထေရာကေသာသငၾကားနညးမား ျဖစေၾကာငးကေဆြးေႏြးတငျပထားသည။ ထ႔အျပင စာအပတြင ေကာငးသားမား၏ သငယမႈပငးဆငရာကေလလာဆနးစစႏငသည နညးလမးမားကလညးေလလာတငျပထားသည။ ၄ငးနညးတ အဘယေၾကာင ဆရာမားႏင ပညာေရးဆငရာအာဏာပင မားအေနျဖင သေတသနမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာရလဒမားကအသးျပရန တြန႔ဆတေနရသနညးဆေသာအခကကပါ တငျပထားသည။

- စသည စသညျဖင . . .

သတျပရန - ဤဥပမာသည လမႈသေတသနနညးနပငးဆငရာသငခနးစာအတြက ထတႏတထားေသာအစရငခစာပစငယမသာျဖစျပး ႐ငးလငးျမငသာေစေရးအတြကသာရည႐ြယရငးျဖစသည။

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In the example given aboveabout perceptions of CCA teaching methods (“Background” section), it is important to note that Westwood’s quotation was cited in full. The researcher makes it clear about who said what. The researcher does NOT copy the words of an author as if these words were the researcher’s own words. Following international practices of report-writing , any quotation reporting the words of an author should be re-transcribed just as they appear in the source cited by the author (whether it is taken from a report, an article, a book, etc.). CONDUCT OF THE RESEARCH

After describing the general context of the project, the report explains how it was conducted. 5. Research methods used: The researchers mention whether they chose quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, or both. If it is relevant, the researchers may also try to:

• Explain the relevance of the research methods used in relation to its purpose (why they choose some research methods and not others);

• Identify the variable under study (with detail about the independent/dependent variables);

• Provide details about the categories created for studying the variable(s) (if relevant);

• Provide details about the sample, sampling techniques, number of persons involved, age group, gender balance, and social status.

Once explanations of the selected research methods are given, the researchers clarify the limitations and obstacles to the research. 6. Limitations to the research: Some limits are known by researchers right at the beginning of the project, some are known in the course of the research process;

• Time constraints (how much time was allocated to researcher to conduct research);

• Budget constraints; • Explanations as to whether these constraints forced researchers to select

specific research methods);

• Obstacles encountered when conducting research (if relevant) like: reluctance of respondents to speak or lack of cooperation from any authorities involved in the research process.

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အထကေဖာျပပါဥပမာသညစစေအသငၾကားနညးအေပၚထငျမငယဆခကအေၾကာငး (“ေနာကခရာဇဝင”အပငး)

ျဖစသည။ဝကစဝတဒ၏စကားကေကာကႏတကးကားရာတြငအျပညအဝေဖာျပထားျခငးကအေရးတၾကးသတျပရနလအပသည။သေတသအေနႏငမညသမညဝါေျပာဆေၾကာငးက႐ငးလငးျမငသာေအာငတငျပေပးရမည။သေတသသညစာေရးသေျပာစကားကကးယျပးမမစကားျပလပျခငးမးလးဝမ႐ေစရ။ ႏငငတကာစႏနးႏငညေသာအစရငခစာေရးထးကလကနာသညအေနျဖငစာေရးသတစဥး၏ ေကာကႏတကးကားခကက

မလရငးျမစတြငစာေရးသေဖာျပထားသညအတငးတေသြမတမး ျပနလညပႏပေဖာျပရမည။ သေတသနလပေဆာငျခငး

သေတသနစမကနး၏ ေယဘယအေၾကာငးအရာပငးကေဖာျပျပးသညေနာကတြင၄ငးသေတသနက မညသ႔မည

ပေဆာင႐ြကခပကအစရငခစာတြငဆကလကေဖာျပရမည။ ၅။အသးျပခေသာသေတသနနညးလမး - သေတသမားအေနျဖငအေရအတြကသေတသနနညး (သ႔)

အရညအခငးသေတသနနညး (သ႔) ႏစနညးစလးအသးျပခေၾကာငးကေဖာျပရမည။ အကယ၍သကဆငအကးဝငပါကသေတသမားအေနျဖငဆကလကျပး -

• သေတသနရည႐ြယခကႏငစပလဥးျပးအသးျပခေသာသေတသနနညးလမးမား၏အကးဝငသကဆငပက႐င

းျပေပးပါ။

(သေတသမားအေနျဖငအဘယေၾကာငဤနညးကသးျပးအဘယေၾကာငထနညးကအသးမျပခေၾကာငး)

• (လြတလပကနး႐င/ မခကနး႐ငအေသးစတႏငတကြ) ေလလာသညကနး႐ငမားအေၾကာငးကေဖာျပပါ။

• (အကယ၍သကဆငပါက)

ကနး႐င(မား)အားေလလာရနအတြကဖနတးလကေသာအပစကြမားအေၾကာငးကအေသးစတတငျပေပးပါ။

• နမနာ၊နမနာေကာကယနညးမား၊ပါဝငေသာလအေရအတြက၊အသကအ႐ြယအပစ၊ကားမအေရအတြကမေခ၊

လမႈေရးအဆငအတနးတ႔ကအေသးစတေဖာျပေပးပါ။

ေ႐ြးခယအသးျပခေသာသေတသနနညးလမးမားအေၾကာငးက႐ငးလငးတငျပျပးသညႏငတျပငနကသေတသနအတြကအတားအဆးအခကအခမားအေၾကာငးက႐ငးျပေပးရမည။ ၆။သေတသနအတြကအခကအခမား - အခ႕အခကအခမားသညသေတသနစမကနးအစကတညးကသ႐ရျပးအခ႕မာမစမကနးကာလအေတာအတြငးမသာသ႐ရသည။

• အခနအကန႔အသတ (သေတသနျပလပရနသေတသအားအခနမညမ ေပးထားသနညး)။

• ဘ႑ာေရးကန႔သတခက။

• အဆပါကန႔သတခကမားေၾကာငသေတသနနညးလမးတစတရာကမျဖစမေန

ေ႐ြးခယခရပါက႐ငးလငးခကေပးရန။

• (သကဆငမႈ႐ပါက) သေတသနျပလပေနစဥရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ခရေသာအတားအဆးမား။ဥပမာ -

ေမးခြနးေျဖၾကားသညသမားေျဖၾကားေပးရနတ႔ဆငးေနျခငး၊သေတသနလပငနးစဥတြငပါဝငသညအာဏာပင

မားမပးေပါငးပါဝငမႈျခငးအစရေသာကစၥရပမား။

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RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH

It is important to spend time on the analysis. A research project is not simply about collecting data, it is also about putting this data into perspective, that is, what can be learned from this data. The researcher should not think that the figures or the data “speak for themselves”! 8. Presentation of the findings and Analysis: There are various structures that researchers can follow in order to present the research findings and analyze them. Depending on the research topic, the researcher may choose one of the three structures (a) or (b) or (c):

(a) Structure divided into information about Attitude, Knowledge, and Practices that break from what was initially thought about the issue under study: how does the data collected during the research differ from what was known about the topic before conducting the research; how does it confirm it?

OR

(b) Statements with supporting evidence arranged in order of importance as defined by informants involved in the research;

OR

Methodology or Research Methods used This research was conducted in a nunnery education school from Mingalardon Township, Yangon Division. The research used both qualitative and quantitative measurements. The latt er, in the form of a survey questionnaire, was based on a convenience sa mpling method. As for the qualitative research, four semi-structured inte rviews with teachers were separately conducted. Each interview lasted ar ound about one hour. The findings are based on the analysis of the infor mation given by these teachers alone. Limitations to the research The quantitative research based on a survey questio nnaire used convenience sampling and for the qualitative resear ch 4 teachers from one nunnery education school were interviewed. Ther efore, though the research sampling site may not represent the rest o f teachers working in monastic/nunnery education schools, the findings wi ll certainly be reliable and useful mainly for thenunnery education sector and for further research as well. Note: This example is a much shortened version of a report produced as an exercise developed during a training on social r esearch methods; it is given here for clarification purposes only.

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သေတသနရလဒမား စစစေလလာမႈအပငးတြငအခနေသခာေပးရနအလြနအေရးၾကးသည။သေတသနစမကနးဟသညအခကအလကစေဆာငး႐မသာမဟတေပ။အခကအလကမားကအျမင႐ေထာငတစခအျဖစေျပာငးလေပးရမညျဖစျပး၄ငးမဘာကေလလာႏငမညနညးဟ၍ပငျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနျဖငကနးဂဏနးဇယားကြကမားက “သဘာသာေျပာလမမည”ဟမယဆသငေပ။ ၈။ေတြ႕႐ခကမားႏငစစစေလလာခကအားတငျပျခငး - သေတသနေတြ႕႐ခကမားအားတငျပရနႏငစစစေလလာရနသေတသမားလကနာေဆာင႐ြကႏငသညပစမးစ႐ သည။သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာေပၚမတညျပးသေတသသညပစသးခအနကမတစခ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။

(က) သေဘာထား၊အသပညာႏငလကေတြ႕ဟ၍သတငးအခကအလကမားအားခြျခားထားေသာပစသည

ေလလာသညကစၥရပႏငပတသကျပးနဂမလထငျမငယဆထားသညမကြထြကေနသည။သေတသနလပေဆာငေနစဥအတြငးစေဆာငးရ႐ေသာအခကအလကမားသညသေတသနမျပလပမၾကတငသ႐ထားေသာအေၾကာငးအရာႏငမညသ႔မညပကြျပားေနသနညး။၄ငးအခကအားမညကသ႔အတညျပသနညး။

(သ႔) (ခ)သေတသနတြငပါဝငေသာအခကအလကေပးသမား၏အဆအတငးအေရးၾကးသညအလကစစဥထားသည၊ေထာကကသကေသႏငတကြအဆျပခကမား

(သ႔)

နညးန သ႔မဟတ သေတသနနညးလမးမား ဤသေတသနအားရနကနတငး၊ မဂၤလာဒျမ႕နယ႐ သလ႐ င စာသငေကာငးတစခတြင ျပလပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ သေတသနတြင အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက တငးတာခကမားထညသြငးထားသည။ အေရအတြက တငးတာခကမားအားစစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာပစျပစ၍ ၾကရာနးစပ နမနာေကာကယနညးကအသးျပျပးေကာကယထားသည။ အရညအခငးသေတသနအတြကမဆရာမားအားလခြျပးအထကအေလာက ပစခထားေသာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈမားျပလပခပါသည။ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈ တစခခငးစသည တစနာရခန႔ၾကာပါသည။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည ဆရာမားထမသာ ရ႐ခေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားကစစစေလလာျခငးေပၚ၌ တညေဆာကထားပါသည။ သေတသနအတြက အခကအခမား စစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာကအေျချပေသာအေရအတြက သေတသနအတြက ၾကရာနးစပ နမနာေကာကယနညးကအသးျပျပးအရညအခငးသေတသနအတြကမသလ႐ငစာသငေကာငးမ ဆရာ (၄) ေယာကတညးကသာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးခသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ သေတသနနမနာစေဆာငးရာေနရာသည အျခားေသာဘနးၾကး/သလ႐င စာသငေကာငးမားတြင အလပလပလက႐ေသာဆရာမားကကယစားျပလမမညမဟတေသာလညးေတြ႕႐ခကမားကမသလ႐င စာသငေၾကာငးပညာေရးအခနးက႑အတြက ကနးေသကးကားေလာကျပးအသးတညပါလမမည။ သတျပရန - ဤဥပမာသည လမႈသေတသနနညးနပငးဆငရာသငခနးစာအတြက ထတႏတထားေသာအစရငခစာပစငယမသာျဖစျပး ႐ငးလငးျမငသာေစေရးအတြကသာရည႐ြယရငးျဖစသည။

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(c) Interpretations of data and evidence arranged in thematic order.

These three types of structures for organizing the presentation of findings are recommendations ONLY. Other types of structures may also be valid. Whatever structure is eventually chosen, the researchers are recommended to stick to one and only one structure. They should not mix various structures together. If they do, it may be very confusing for future readers. When presenting their findings, the researchers have to use as much supporting evidence as possible. Chapter on ‘Supporting Details’ gives explanations as to the three types of supporting details: examples, quotes, and statistical data. Depending on whether the research uses more quantitative or qualitative research, the report includes more of one of these types of supporting details. This means that if the research used quantitative methods, statistical data are more numerous in the report; if the research used qualitative methods, quotes and examples are more numerous in the report.

9. Conclusion: Summary of major findings. For example, if the analysis follows the (a) structure about Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice for a specific issue, the conclusion emphasizes whether the knowledge people have a certain issue is consistent with or opposed to their practice. In other words, the conclusion has to mention the difference or similarity between what people say of the issue under investigation and what they actually do.

A research project is conducted about youth environ mental awareness in different regions of Myanmar. In the ‘Practice’ sec tion of the report presenting the findings, one question assesses the preferred mode of transportation for covering short distance. This qu estion is believed to provide information about the level of awareness to wards environmental protection: if someone walks, the person does not c ontribute to pollution, if someone uses a car or a motorbike eve n for short distance, the person contributes to environmental pollution. Overall, 40% of the respondents mentioned that even for short distances , they went around by motorbike, followed by nearly 35% mentioning that t hey walk.

Question: How do you go around from your home to a place not far away from your place?

Motorbike (40%)

By foot (34.5%)

Bike (13%)

Car (12.5%)

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(ဂ) အေၾကာငးခငးရာအလကစစဥထားေသာအခကအလကႏငသကေသအေၾကာငး႐ငးလငးခကမား အဆပါ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားအားစစညးတငျပပသးမးသးစားမာအၾကေပးခကသကသကမသာ ျဖစသည။အျခားပစ အမးအစားမားကလညးအသးျပ၍ရႏငသည။မညသညပစကေ႐ြးခယေစကာမသေတသတ႔သည၄ငးတစမးတညးကသာတသမတတညးအသးျပရမည။ပစေပါငးစကေရာေထြးအသးမျပရ။အကယ၍ ေရာေထြးအသးျပလကပါက ေနာကတြင စာဖတသအတြက႐ပေထြးေစလမမည။ သေတသတ႔သည၄ငးတ႔၏ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားကတငျပရာတြင ေထာကကသကေသမားႏငသမမားမားအသးျပေပးရမည။ ‘ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကမား’အေၾကာငးအခနးတြငဥပမာမား၊ ေကာကႏတခကမားႏငစာရငးအငးဟ၍

ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကအမးအစားသးမးအေၾကာငးက ႐ငးလငးတငျပထားသည။ အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြကသေတသနတ႔အနကမညသညကပမအသးျပသနညးဆေသာအခကေပၚမတည၍အစရငခစာတြင ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကအမးအစားတစခခသညလညး ပမပါဝငလာလမမည။ဆလသညမာအကယ၍

သေတသနတြငအေရအတြကသေတသနနညးလမးမားကအသးျပသညဆပါကစာရငးအငးအခကအလကအေျမာက အ

ျမားအစရငခစာတြငပါဝငလမမည။အကယ၍အရညအခငးသေတသနနညးလမးမားအားပမအသးျပပါကအစရငခစာတြင ေကာကႏတကးကားခကမားႏငဥပမာမားအားပမေတြ႕ရလမမည။

၉။ေကာကခက - အဓကေတြ႕႐ခကမားအကဥးခပ ဥပမာစစစေလလာမႈသညတစစတစခေသာကစၥရပအတြကပစ (က) အသပညာ၊သေဘာထားႏငလကေတြ႕အတငးျပ

လပသညဆပါကေကာကခကခသညအပငးတြငလအမားစသညကစၥရပတစခခႏငစပလဥးျပး၄ငးတ႔သ႐ထားသညအ

တငးလကေတြ႕လပေဆာငျခငးမလပေဆာငျခငးကအသာေပးေဖာျပရမည။တနညးဆေသာေကာကခကသညစးစမးေလ

လာသညကစၥရပတြငလတ႔၏အေျပာႏငအလပအၾကားကြာဟခက (သ႔) တညခကကေဖာျပျခငးျဖစသည။

လငယမား၏ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာအသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈ စပလဥးျပး ျမနမာျပညအႏအျပားတြင သေတသနျပလပသည ဆပါစ႔။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားကတငျပသည အစရငခစာ ‘လကေတြ႕’ ပငးတြင ေမးခြနးတစခသည ခရးတတစခအတြက မညသ႔ ကးသနးသြားလာသနညးဟေမးျမနးထားသည။ ေမးခြနးသည သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ထနးသမးကာကြယေရးသျမငႏးၾကားမႈဆငရာအဆင သတမတခကအတြက သတငးအခကအလကမားေပးႏငမညဟယၾကညယဆထားသည။ အကယ၍ လမးေလာကပါကထသသည ပတဝနးကင ညစညမးမႈ မျဖစေစေပ။ အကယ၍ ခရးတသြားရနအတြကပင ကား (သ႔) ဆငကယကအသးျပပါကထသသည ပတဝနးကင ညစညမးမႈ ျဖစေစသည။ ျခငၾကညလကပါက ၄၀% ေသာေျဖဆသတ႔သည ခရးတသြားရန အတြကပင ဆငကယအသးျပၾကသည။ ၄ငးေနာကတြငမ ၃၀% ေသာသတ႔ကလမးေလာကသညဟေျဖဆၾကသည။

အေမး။ ။ အမမ မနးမေဝးတစေနရာသ႔ မညကသ႔ သြားေလ႐သနညး။

Motorbike (40%)

By foot (34.5%)

Bike (13%)

Car (12.5%)

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If the analysis follows the (c) structure (Thematic order), the conclusion has to reflect this thematic order and come up with general statements for each of the themes. It is also important to acknowledge the possible shortcomings of the research, that is, possible aspects of the issue or problem that could not be studied due to various limitations. The researcher acknowledges that, if he/she had been able to address all aspects of the issue, the findings might be slightly different.

10. Recommendations: Recommendations are formulated based on the research findings, especially if the research is conducted with the position of supporting the advocacy activities of an organization (see Chapter 21 for further details on this).

11. References: Any articles, surveys, reports, and books that isused in the analysis by the researcher is given full references in this section. Full referencing includes the following: author’s name, title of the source, publisher or printing press, year of publishing, and page number.

12. Appendices: Any significant item that researchers used for the research (questionnaire sample, interview discussion guide, etc.) and interview schedules. Only sample documents alone may be included in the appendices. The appendices do not have documents reporting any of the respondent’s answers (these documents have to remain strictly confidential). To recap all elements that a report typically includes, here is the outline of a report

1. Research title 2. Executive Summary 3. Introduction 4. Background of the research or Overview of the Probl em 5. Literature review 6. Research methods used 7. Limitations to the research 8. Presentation of the findings and Analysis 9. Conclusion 10. Recommendations 11. References 12. Appendices

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အကယ၍စစစေလလာမႈသညပစ (ဂ) (အေၾကာငးခငးရာအလကစစဥမႈ) အတငး ျပလပသညဆပါက

ေကာကခကသညအေၾကာငးခငးရာအစစဥကထပဟပေဖာျပေပးရမညျဖစျပးအေၾကာငးအရာတစခခငးစ၏

ေယဘယအဆျပခကကတငျပရမည။ သေတသန၏အကအေပါကမားကသျမငရနလညးအေရးၾကးသည။၄ငးမာ ေျမာကျမားစြာေသာအကန႔အသတမား ေၾကာင ေလလာရနမျဖစႏငေသာကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာရပ၏႐ေထာငျဖစႏငသည။ကစၥရပ၏႐ေထာငေပါငးစက

ျမငႏငစြမးမ႐ပါကေတြ႕႐ခကမားသညစဥးငယမကြျပားမႈျဖစႏငသညဆေသာအခကကသေတသမားအေနျဖငသေဘာေပါကလကခထားသည။ ၁၀။ေထာကခအၾကျပခကမား - ေ ထ ာ ကခအၾကျပခကမားသညသေတသနေတြ႕႐ခကမားေပၚတြငအေျခခ

ျပလပထားျခငးျဖစသည။အထးသျဖငအဖြ႕အစညးတစရပအတြငးလသမားကယျပန႔ေအာငလပေဆာငသညလပငနးေဆာငတာမားကအေထာကအကျဖစေစရနရည႐ြယျပလပသညသေတသနမားတြငထနညးအတငးပင ျဖစသည။

၁၁။ကမးကး - စစစေလလာေရးအတြကသေတသအသးျပသည ေဆာငးပါး၊စစတမး၊အစရငခစာ၊စာအပမညသညက

မဆအကနလးဤေနရာတြငကးကားစာရငးအျပညအစေဖာျပေပးရမည။ ျပညစေသာကးကားခကဟသည

စာေရးဆရာအမည၊စာအပစာတမးအမည၊ထတေဝသ (သ႔) ပႏပတက၊ပႏပထတေဝသညႏစ၊စာမကႏာ။

၁၂။ေနာကဆကတြေဖာျပခက - သေတသန ျပလပရနအသးျပခေသာအေရးပါသညမညသညအရာမဆ

(ေမးခြနးလႊာ၊နမနာ၊လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးေဆြးေႏြးမႈလမးညႊနစသညတ႔) ႏငလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသညအခနဇယားမား။ နမနာစာ႐ြကစာတမးမားသာေနာကဆကတြအေနႏငထညသြငးရနလသည။ ေနာကဆကတြေဖာျပခကမားတြင ေမးခြနးေျဖဆသတ႔၏အေျဖတစတရာမ ေဖာျပျခငးမျပရ (အဆပါစာ႐ြကစာတမးမား အားသပသညးစြာ

လ႕ဝကသမးဆညးထားရမည)။

အစရငခစာတြငပမနပါဝငေလ႐ေသာအစတအပငးမားအား ျပနခပလကပါကအစရငခစာတစေစာင၏အစအစဥကေအာကပါအတငး ျမငေတြ႕ႏငသည။

၁။ သေတသနေခါငးစဥ ၂။ မတတမးအကဥးခပ ၃။ နဒါနး ၄။ သေတသနေနာကခရာဇဝင ႏင ျပနာရပ၏ ေယဘယအျမင ၅။ သကဆငရာစာအပစာတမးေလလာခက ၆။ အသးျပခေသာသေတသနနညးလမး ၇။ သေတသနအတြက အခကအခမား ၈။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားႏင စစစေလလာခကအားတငျပျခငး ၉။ ေကာကခက ၁၀။ ေထာကခအၾကျပခကမား ၁၁။ ကမးကး ၁၂။ ေနာကဆကတြေဖာျပခက

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

• A good report is a report that is clear in its wording, structured in its contents, and informative in its use of supporting details;

• When writing a report, researchers are encouraged to acknowledge the possible shortcomings of the research, when certain aspects of the problem could not be fully addressed due to limitations and constraints.

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အခပအားျဖငဆေသာဤအခနးတြငမတသားရမညအဓကအခကမားမာ

• အစရငခစာေကာငးတစေစာငဟသညစကားအသးအႏနး႐ငးလငးရမည။အေၾကာငးအရာပငးတြငစနစတကစစစညးစညး႐ရမည။ ေထာကကအေသးစတအခကအလကမားအသးျပရာတြငခကကလကက႐ရမည။

• အစရငခစာတစေစာငေရးသားရာတြငသေတသအေနျဖငအတားအဆးအကန႔အသတမားေၾကာင ျပနာ၏႐ေထာငတခ႕လစဟာသြားႏငေၾကာငးကလကခသေဘာေပါကရမည။

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INTERMEDIATE 21. POLICY AND ADVOCACY BRIEF WRITING

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The use of a brief based on research findings for future action; • The difference between a Policy Brief and Advocacy Brief; • The typical structure followed for writing Policy and Advocacy Briefs;

______________________________________________________________________

A Policy or Advocacy brief is, as the term ‘brief’ suggests, a very short document. It sums up the recommendations formulated by experts or activists that have a deep knowledge of a specific issue or have conducted research on this issue. The formulation of these recommendations is usually based on research findings. When a policy or advocacy brief is written, the research findings can form the basis upon which action can be taken. Actions taken on the basis of these research findings can be political, legal, or social. This depends on who takes the action and through which channels the action is taken. A Policy Brief is aimed at government policy-makers and other persons who are interested in formulating or influencing policy matters based on the recommendations made in the Policy Brief. An Advocacy Brief is aimed at civil society actors and/or politicians who can mobilize efforts in order to solve a problem based on the recommendationsmade in the Advocacy Brief. A typical format is a single A4 sheet (210 x 297 mm), containing perhaps 700 words. OBJECTIVES OF THE POLICY OR ADVOCACY BRIEF The objectives of the brief should be expressed in a very simple and clear manner. The simplicity and clarity of the brief makes it even more compelling for those who read it and are meant to take action based on their reading of the brief. What should a policy or advocacy brief do? A policy or advocacy brief should:

• Give enough background for the reader to understand the problem; • Convince the reader that the problem must be addressed urgently;

• Give evidence to support a plan designed to solve the problem; • Stimulate the reader to make a decision.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၂၁ - မဝါဒနငလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပေရးသားျခငး ဤအခနးတြင

• သေတသနေတြ႕ရခကမားအေပၚအေျချပသညအနစခပတစရပအားအနာဂတလပငနးမားအတြကအသးျပျခငး • မဝါဒဆငရာအနစခပတစရပနငလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာအနစခပတစရပတ႕အၾကားကြာျခားခက • မဝါဒနငလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာအနစခပမားေရးသားရနအတြကေလလာစရာနမနာပစ

_____________________________________________________________________________________ ”အနစခပ”ဆသညအသးအနနးတငးပငမဝါဒဆငရာအနစခပတစရပသ႕မဟတလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာအနစခပဆသညမာအလြနတေတာငးေသာစာတမးတစေစာငျဖစပါသည။ကစၥရပတစခနငပကသက၍သေတသနျပလပထားေသာသ႕မဟတအဆပါကစၥရပနငပကသက၍နကနကနနနားလညေသာကြမးကငသမား၊တကၾကြလပရားသမား၏အၾကေပးတငျပမမားကအနစခပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။အဆပါအၾကေပးတငျပမမားထတနတတငျပျခငးမာလညးမားေသာအားျဖငသေတသနေလလာေတြ႕ရမမားအေပၚအေျချပပါသည။

မဝါဒ (သ႕) လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမအနစခပတစရပေရးသားျခငးအားျဖငသေတသနေလလာ ေတြ႕ရ ခကမားအားဆကလကလပေဆာငရမညလပငနးမား၏အေျခအပျမစအျဖစအသးျပပါသည။အဆပါသေတသန ေတြ႕ရခကမားအေပၚအေျခခသညလပငနးအေန ျဖငနငငေရးဆငရာ၊ဥပေဒဆငရာ၊လမေရးဆငရာတ႔ျဖစ နငပါသည။ဤသညတ႕မာမညသကလပငနးလပေဆာငသညမညသညနညးလမးအားျဖငလပေဆာငသညဆသညအခကမားအပၚမတညပါသည။

မဝါဒဆငရာအနစခပတစရပသညအစးရပငးဆငရာမဝါဒခမတသမားနငအနစခပတြငပါဝငသညအၾကေပးတငျပမမားအပၚအေျခခ၍မဝါဒခမတေဖာေဆာငရနစတဝငစားေသာ (သ႕) မဝါဒအေပၚၾသဇာသကလႊမးမးနငေသာပဂၢလမားအတြကရညရြယပါသည။

လထအဆျပေထာကချခငးအနစခပတစရပသညအနစခပတြငပါဝငသညအၾကေပးတငျပမမားအပၚအေျခခ၍ ျပနာတစရပအား ေျဖရငးရနအားထတမမားစစညးေဆာငရြကနငသညနငငေရးသမားမား၊လမအဖြ႕အစညးအကး ေဆာငရြကသမားအတြကရညရြယပါသည။ နမနာပစမာခန႕မနးစာလးေရ “၇၀၀”ခန႕ပါဝငေသာ (၂၁၀x၂၉၇မလမတာ) ရသည A4 စာရြကတစရြကခန႕ျဖစပါသည။ မဝါဒဆငရာ (သ႕) လထအကးျပအဆျပေထာကချခငးဆငရာအနစခပ၏ဥးတညခကမား အနစခပတစရပ၏ဥးတညခကမားကအလြနပငရးရငးေသာပစျဖငတငျပသငပါသည။အနစခပ၏ဤရးရငးမသညပငအနစခပအားဖတျပးအေရးတယေဆာငရြကမညပဂၢလမားအားဆြေဆာငမရျခငးျဖစသည။ မဝါဒဆငရာအနစခပ (သ႕) လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာအနစခပတစရပသညမညသညအရာမားလပသငသနညး။ မဝါဒဆငရာ (သ႕) လထအကးျပအဆျပေထာကချခငးဆငရာအနစခပတစရပအေနျဖင-

• စာဖတသအား ျပနာရပနငပကသက၍နားလညေစရနလေလာကေသာေနာကခအခငးအကငးအေျခအေနကတငျပရမည။

• ျပနာရပသညအေစာတလငကငတြယေျဖရငးရနလအပေၾကာငးစာဖတသကယၾကညလာေစရနလပေဆာငရမည။

• ျပနာရပေျဖရငးေရးအစအမတစရပေရးဆြနငရနသကေသအေထာကအထားမားပပးေပးရမည။ • စာဖတသကဆးျဖတခကတစရပခမတလာေစရနလေဆာနငရမည။

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STRUCTURE OF A BRIEF

Because readers of brief (politicians, policy-makers, civil society actors, etc.) do not have much time for this, the structure of the brief usually follows an outline than can be easily and quickly understood. A policy brief / advocacy brief is typically structured in the following way:

• 1. Title

• 2. Introduction

• 3. Body of the Brief

• 4. Recommendations or Policy Implications

This outline gives the general picture of a brief. Each of these four parts, however, has its own features that are detailed below.

• 1. Title

The title of the brief should be:

– Short: less than 12 words;

– Catchy: a title formulated as a question can be a good option;

– To the point: title relevant to the topic.

• 2. Introduction

The introduction is the statement of the issue under consideration:

The introduction does three things:

– It develops the issue mentioned in the title;

– It says why the issue is important to consider;

– It explains why something should be done about the issue.

Below is an example of an advocacy brief based on a survey conducted on youth environmental awareness. The advocacy brief was produced as part of an exercise building the research and advocacy skills of Myanmar NGO-CSOs. The content of the brief is therefore re-transcribed here for clarificaton purposes only.

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အနစခပအကဥး၏ဖြ႕စညးပ အနစခပတစရပကဖတသမား (နငငေရးသမားမား၊မဝါဒခမတသမား၊လမအဖြ႕အစညးအကးေဆာငရြကသမား) အေနျဖငအနစခပအားဖတရနအခနသပမေပးနငၾကသျဖငအနစခပ၏ဖြ႔စညးပသညအလြယတကနငလငျမနစြာနားလညနငမညအစအစဥပစျဖစသငပါသည။ မဝါဒဆငရာအနစခပ(သ႕) လထအကးေထာကခေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာအနစခပတစရပအားေအာကပါအတငးဖြ႕စညးသငပါသည။

• ၁။ေခါငးစဥ

• ၂။မတဆက

• ၃။အနစခပစာကယ

• ၄။အၾကေပးတငျပမ (သ႔) မဝါဒဆငရာအဆမား

ဤအစအစဥပစ ျဖငဆလငအနစခပတစရပ၏အေထြေထြပရပက ေပၚလြငေစသည။ဤအစတအပငးေလးခတြငတစပငးခငးစသညကယပငဟနမားရျပးေအာကတြငအေသးစတေဖာျပထားပါသည။

• ၁။ေခါငးစဥ

အနစခပ၏ေခါငးစဥသည - တတ--------(အဂၤလပစာျဖင) စာလးေရ၁၂လးထကမေကာသငပါ။ - ထမ--------ေမးခြနးေမးသညပစေခါငးစဥသညဆြေဆာငမရပါသည။ - လရငးေရာက------ေခါငးစဥသညတငျပမညအေၾကာငးအရာကထငဟပရပါမည။

• ၂။မတဆကျခငး

မတဆကျခငးသညတငျပမညအေၾကာငးအရာနငပကသကေသာအဆျပေဖာျပခကျဖစသည။

မတဆကျခငးအေနျဖငလပေဆာငစရာ “သး”ရပရပါသည။

- ေခါငးစဥတြငေဖာျပသညအေၾကာငးအရာကပပးေပးရပါမည။

- ကစၥရပကအဘယေၾကာငအေရးတၾကးစဥးစားသငေၾကာငးကေျပာရပါမည။

- အဆပါကစၥရပနငပကသက၍အဘယေၾကာငတစစတစရာေဆာငရြကရနလအပေၾကာငးကရငးျပရပါမည။

ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားသညမာလငယမားပတဝနးကငဆငရာသရနားလညမနငပတသက၍ေကာကယထားေသာစစတမးအေပၚအေျချပ၍ေရးသားထားေသာလထအကးအဆျပေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာအနစခပနမနာတစရပျဖစပါသည။ဤလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးအနစခပသညျမနမာအငနဂအ-စအကစအမား၏သေတသနနငလထအကးတကတြနး ေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာစြမးရညမားတညေဆာကေလကငခနး၏တစစတတစေဒသအျဖစထတနတေရးသားထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။သ႔အတြကဤအနစခပတြငပါဝငေသာအေၾကာငးအရာမာရငးလငးတငျပရနရညရြယခကျဖငသာျပနလညေရးသားထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။

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• 3. Body of the Brief

The body of the brief can have different formats depending on the issue addressed, the research findings, and the urgency of the problem. Below are four possible options for the body of the Policy or Advocacy Brief. Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4 • Issue • Problem • Theme 1 • Problem • Background • Effects • Theme 2 • Intervention • Rationale • Causes • Theme 3 • Result

The example shown below is again about youth environment awareness. In this example, it is the Option 1 (Issue, Background, and Rationale) that is chosen by the researchers.

Advocacy Brief Title Is it Urgent to Raise Youth Awareness on Environmen tal Protection in Myanmar? Advocacy Brief Introduction Environmental awareness consists in awareness about the following themes: air pollution and climate change mitigation ; biological diversity (fauna and flora); climate change impacts , vulnerability to climate change, and adaptation to climate change; i nland, coastal, and marine waters; sustainable consumption and producti on. As Myanmar is a resource-rich country and its openi ng up generates an unprecedented wave of national and international in vestments and the rise of a strong civil society, the following years will be crucial for the country’s path towards achieving (or not) a bal ance between economic development and environmental protection. In short, the challenge is to promote sustainable development, of which promoting environmental awareness is a foundation. Note: This example is a much shortened version of a report produced as an exercise developed during a training on social r esearch methods; it is given here for clarification purposes only.

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နမနာ လထအကးအဆျပေျပာဆျခငးအနစခပေခါငးစဥ

ျမနမာျပညတြငပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးဆငရာလငယမား၏အသပညာအားျမငတငရနအေရးတၾကးလအပ ျပလား?။

လထအကးအဆျပေျပာဆျခငးအနစခပမတဆက ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာဗဟသတတြငေအာကပါအေၾကာငးအရာမားနငသကဆငေသာဗဟသတတ႔ပါ၀ငပါသည။ေလထညစညမးမႏင႔ရာသဥတေဖာကျပနမအားသကသာေလာပါးေစျခငး။ဇ၀မးကြစလငမ (ပနးမနနငသားရငး)။ရာသဥတေျပာငးလမ၏သကေရာကမမား၊ရာသဥတေျပာငးလမမထခကနစနာနငေခမား၊ရာသဥတေျပာငးလမအားအလကသငျပျပငေျပာငးလျခငး၊ကနးတြငးကမးရးတနးနငေရျပငမား၊ေရရညတညတေစမညထတလပျခငးနငသးစြျခငး။

ျမနမာျပညသညသဘာ၀သယဇာတအရငးအျမစၾကြယ၀သညတငးျပညျဖစသညအေလာကတခါးဖြငဝါဒကငသးသညအခနမစ၍ေရ႔ကမရဘးသညျပညတြငးနငနငငတကာရငးနးျမပနမလငးမား၊အားေကာငးသညအရပဘကအဖြ႔အစညးမားစသညတ႔ျဖစေပၚလာျပး ေနာကဆကတြနစမားအေနျဖငတငးျပညအတြကစးပြားေရးဖြ႔ျဖးမနင ပက၀နးကငထနးသမးမတ႔အားဟနခကညေအာငထနးသမးနငျခငးရမရဆသညအခကအားအဆးအျဖတေပးမညအေရးပါေသာနစမားျဖစပါသည။အတခပဆရလငပတ၀နးကငဆငရာအသပညာအား ျမငတငျခငးဆသညအေျခခအပျမစေပၚအေျခခ၍ ေရရညတညတေသာဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမအား ေဖာေဆာငျခငးဆသညမာစနေခၚမတစရပပငျဖစပါသည။

မတခက။။ဤဥပမာသညလမသေတသနနညးလမးမားနငပကသက၍ျပလပေသာသငတနးတစရပတြငျပစထားေသာေလကငခနးအျဖစအသးျပသညအစရငခစာတစေစာငအားအေတာအတနခပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။ဤေနရာတြငရငးလငးတငျပရနရညရြယခကျဖစသာအသးျပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။

• ၃။အနစခပစာကယ

တငျပမညကစၥရပ၊သေတသနေတြ႔ရခကမား၊ျပနာရပအားအေရးၾကးကငတြယေျဖရငးရနလအပမတ႔အေပၚမတည၍အနစခပစာကယ၌ (format) ပစအမးမးအသးျပနငပါသည။ ေအာကပါတ႔မာမဝါဒဆငရာ (သ႔) လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာအနစခပစာကယအတြကအသးျပနငေသာပစေလးမးျဖစပါသည။ ေရြးခယစရာ၁ ေရြးခယစရာ၂ ေရြးခယစရာ၃ ေရြးခယစရာ၄

• ကစၥရပ • ျပနာရပ • အေၾကာငးအရာ၁ • ျပရပ • ေနာကခအခငးအကငး • သကေရာကမႈမား • အေၾကာငးအရာ၂ • အေျပာငးအလေဖာေဆာငမ • ေၾကာငးကးဆကစပမ • အေၾကာငးအရငးမား • အေၾကာငးအရာ၃ • အကးရလာဒ

ေအာကေဖာျပပါဥပမာသညလငယမား၏ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာအသပညာအေၾကာငးပငျဖစသည။ဤဥပမာတြငသေတသမားအေနျဖငေရြးခယစရာပစ(၁) [ကစၥရပ၊ေနာကခအခငးအကငး၊ေၾကာငးကးဆကစပမ] အားအသးျပထားပါသည။

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Issue Young Myanmar adults aged 18-35 are key actors in t he transition period the country is currently experien cing. They are founding families and transmitting their values and ideas to their offspring. In a transitional period which offers greater opportunities to achieve economic prosperit y, what values and ideas will young Myanmar adults promote? Can Myanmar’s civil society and Myanmar media contribut e to the raising of awareness regarding the need to balance economic development and protection of the natural environme nt? The general lack of awareness about environment protect ion is a challenging issue that needs to be urgently address ed. Background Major infrastructure projects planned in Myanmar su ch as the dams along the Ayeyawaddi and Thanlwin rivers or th e Dawei deep-sea port have received extensive media coverag e over the past two years, notably for their potentially negat ive environmental impact. Yet, surveys conducted on thi s topic showed that most respondents could not cite any of these infrastructure projects in provincial towns. Moreov er, the answers given by the survey respondents show a gap between their concerns for environmental protection and the ir daily and occasional practices, some of these practices b eing clearly harmful for environmental protection. There is therefore among the survey respondents little holis tic view of how environment and human development are intertwin ed. Rationale Protection of the natural environment is a relative ly new issue within Myanmar’s public sphere. Projects deal ing with the protection of the natural environment clearly e xisted before the introduction of the political and econom ic reforms in 2011. They generally entailed small- and medium- scale projects of tree planting in areas previously defor ested. The surge of local and international investments seekin g to secure land and property in all parts of the country, howe ver, demands the scaling up of projects aimed at protect ing the natural environment. Alongside this scaling up, new ways of reaching out more communities, policy-makers, and t he civil society have to be devised.

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ဥပမာ ကစၥရပ အသက၁၈နစမ၃၅နစၾကားအရြယေရာကျပးျမနမာလငယမားသညေလာေလာဆယတငးျပညမေတြ႔ၾကေနရသညအေျပာငးအလကာလတြငအဓကစြမးေဆာငသမားျဖစၾကပါသည။၎တ႔သညအမယာထေထာငမျပျပး၎တ႔၏တနဘးထားမမားအေတြးအေခၚမားကသားသမးမားအားလကဆငကမးေပးလကရပါသည။စးပြားေရးတးတကမမားျဖစေပၚရနအတြကအခြငအလမးမားစြာျဖစထြနးလကရေသာယခကသ႔ေသာအေျပာငးအလကာလတြငအရြယေရာကျပးျမနမာလငယလ ရြယမားအေနျဖငမညသညတနဘးမား၊အေတြးအေခၚမားအားအေလးေပးျမငတငမညနညး။ျမနမာအရပဘကလ႔အဖြ႔ အစညးနငျမနမာမဒယာမားအေနျဖငလညးစးပြားေရးဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမနငသဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငကာကြယထနးသမးေရးတ႔အၾကားဟနခကညေစရနထနးသမးဖ႔လအပခကအားလထအၾကားစတ၀ငစားမျမငတငရနစြမးေဆာငနငမညလား။ ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးကာကြယေစာငေရာကေရးနငပကသကျပးအသပညာနငစတ၀ငစားမကငးမလကရေသာအေျခအေနသညအေစာတလငကငတြယေျဖရငးရမညစနေခၚေနေသာကစၥရပတစရပျဖစသည။ ေနာကခအခငးအကငး ဧရာ၀တနငသလြငျမစေၾကာငးတစေလာကရဆညမား (သ႔) ထား၀ယေရနကဆပကမးကသ႔ေသာျမနမာနငငအတြငး စမကနးခလပေဆာငလကရေသာအဓကအေျခခအေဆာကအဥးဆငရာစမကနးမားအေနျဖင၎တ႔၏ပတ၀နးကင အေပၚဆးကးသကေရာကနငေခနငပကသကျပးလြနခေသာ၂နစအတြငးမဒယာမား၏အာရစးစကမကခခရပါသည။ သေသာဤအေၾကာငးအရာနငပကသက၍စစတမးမားေကာကယခကအရေျဖဆသအမားစအေနျဖငေဒသႏရျမ ႔ရြာမားရအဆပါအေျခခအေဆာကအဥးဆငရာစမကနးမားနငပကသက၍ေကာငးစြာသေဘာေပါကျပးအကးအကားျပဆနငျခငးမရပါ။ထ႔ျပငစစတမးေျဖဆသမား၏အေျဖအရပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးနငပကသကေသာ၎တ႔၏အေျခအေနနင၎တ႔၏ေန႔စဥကငၾကေနမမားအၾကားကြာဟမရေနျပးအခ ႔ေသာအမအကငမားဆလငပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးအတြကပငအႏရာယရေသာအေလအထမားျဖစေနၾကပါသည။သ႔အတြကေၾကာငစစတမးေျဖဆသမားအၾကားတြငလသားမား ဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမနငပတ၀နးကငအၾကားပကသကဆကႏြယမနငဆငေသာအျမငမာကဥးေျမာငးေနေသးသည။ ေၾကာငးကးဆကစပမ သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငအားကာကြယေစာငေရာကရမညဟေသာအသမာျမနမာလထအၾကားတြငစမးေနေသးသည။၂၀၁၁ခနစနငငေရးနငစးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလမမားမျဖစေပၚမကပငသဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငကာကြယေစာငေရာကေရးဆငရာ စမကနးမားရခပါသည။ယခငကသစေတာျပနးတးခေသာေနရာမားတြငသစပငစကပးသညအေသးစားနငအလတစား စမကနးမားျဖစၾကပါသည။သ႔ေသာတငးျပညအန႔အလးအရငးနငေျမယာပငဆငမမားရရရနၾကးပမးလာၾကသညျပည တြငးနငနငငတကာရငးနးျမပနမမားေၾကာငသဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငကာကြယထနးသမးေရးစမကနးမား၏ပမာဏကျမင တငရနလအပပါသည။ဤကသ႔စမကနးမားပမာဏျမငတငလပကငျခငးနငတကြရပရြာလထ၊မ၀ါဒခမတသမားနငအရပဘကအဖြ႔အစညးမားအၾကားပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးအသတရားမားပမပ႔န႔ေစရနလညးၾကဆလပေဆာငရနလအပပါသည။ မတခက။။ဤဥပမာသညလမသေတသနနညးလမးမားနငပကသက၍ျပလပေသာသငတနးတစရပအတြကျပစထားေသာေလကငခနးအျဖစအသးျပသညအစရငခစာတစေစာငအားအတခးထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။ဤေနရာတြငရငးလငးတငျပရနရညရြယခကျဖငသာအသးျပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။

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• 4. Recommendations or Policy Implications

Just like the body of the brief (see previous section, 3. Body of the Brief), the section of the brief which details recommendations or policy implications can follow different formats. Below are three options that the format can follow for writing these recommendations. The selection of one option over the two other possible depends on how urgent the problem is, how big the scale of the problem is, and what obstacles can be anticipated in the implementation of these recommendations.

Option 1

Option 2

Option 3

• Suggest revisions to the existing policy;

• Recommendations at micro-level;

• List several interventions than can contribute to resolve the problem under consideration;

• List the changes/effects expected from these revisions;

• Recommendations at macro-level;

• Assess the benefits and disadvantages of each intervention.

• Explain the costs implications and the possible side-effects of thesuggested revisions.

• Recommendations at institutional level.

The example shown below is again about youth environmental awareness, but this time in the context of the Mon State. The selection of Option 2 for the recommendations is based on the scale of recommendations that can be applied at different levels.

Recommendations Micro-level recommendations • Mawlamyaing University and its Marine Sciences Depa rtment (the

only one in Myanmar) are well-positioned to develop materials for raising awareness about the protection of coast al and marine waters , especially in the context of the development of the Dawei deep-sea port.

• These materials aimed at raising awareness about th e protection of coastal and marine waters could possibly be incl uded within the curricula of basic and middle government school s. This recommendation is made upon the assumption that the newly-decentralized states of the Union of Myanmar are ac tually able to develop their own textbooks as part of their sch ool curricula.

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• ၄။အၾကေပးတငျပမ (သ႔) မ၀ါဒဆငရာအဆျပမမား

အနစခပ၏စာကယကသပင (ယခငအပငး“၃”အနစခပစာကယကၾကညပါ။) အနစခပ၏ဤအပငးျဖစသည အၾကေပးတငျပမမား (သ႔) မဝါဒဆငရာအဆျပမမားအပငးသညလညးအမးမးေသာပစ(format) မားကေရြးခယ နငပါသည။ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားသညမာအဆပါအၾကေပးတငျပမမားအားေရးသားရာတြငလကနာနငေသာေရြးခယစရာပစ “၃”မးျဖစပါသည။ အျခား၂ခအစားနစသကရာတစခကေရြးခယရျခငးမာ - ျပနာရပအားအေစာတလငေျဖရငးရနလအပမ၊ျပနာ၏ အတမအနကအရြယအစားပမာဏနငအၾကေပးမမားအားအေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြငၾကေတြ႔နငေသာအတားအဆးမားတ႔အေပၚမတည၍ေရြးခယရျခငးျဖစပါသည။

ေရြးခယစရာ၁

ေရြးခယစရာ၂

ေရြးခယစရာ၃

• လကရေပၚလစအတြကျပနလညသး သပရနမားကအၾကျပတငျပပါ။

• ေအာကေျခအဆင (မကခရ အဆင) အၾကေပးတငျပမမား

• ျပနာရပကေျဖရငးနငမညအေျပာငးအလေဖာေဆာငမမားကစာရငးတငျပပါ။

• ဤျပနလညသးသပမမားမေပၚထြကလာ မညေျပာငးအလမား၊အကးသကေရာကမမားကစာရငးျဖငျပပါ။

• လႊမးျခသးသပသညအေပၚအဆင (မကခရအဆင) အၾကေပးတငျပမမား

• အေျပာငးအလေဖာေဆာငမတစခခငးစအလကအကးေကးဇးမားနငအားနညးခကဆးကးမားကသးသပပါ။

• အၾကေပးတငျပလကသညျပနလညသး သပမမား၏ျဖစနငေခရေသာေဘးထြကဆးကးမားနငပါ၀ငတငျပလကသညအဆျပမမားနငစရတစကမားကရငးလငးတငျပပါ။

• အဖြ႔အစညးဆငရာအဆငအၾကေပးတငျပမမား

ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားသညဥပမာသညလညးလငယမား၏ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာအသပညာအေၾကာငးပငျဖစျပးဤတစ ၾကမတြငမြနျပညနယတြငေနာကခအေျခအေနျဖစပါသည။အဖြ႔အစညးနငက႑အဆငအမးမးအေပၚအၾကျပတငျပသညအၾကျပတငျပမပစေရြးခယစရာ၂ကေရြးခယအသးျပထားပါသည။ ဥပမာ ေအာကေျခအဆင(မကခရအဆင) အၾကေပးတငျပမ - ေမာလျမငတကသလနင၎၏အဏၰ၀ါသပၸဌာန (ျမနမာတစျပညလးရတစခတညးေသာဌာန) သညကမးရးတနးနင ပငလယေရျပငကာကြယထနးသမးေရးအထးသျဖငထား၀ယေရနကဆပကမးတညေဆာကေနသညအေျခအေနမး၌အသပည ျမငတငေရးနငပကသကျပးသငရးညြနးတမးအေထာကအကမား ေကာငးစြာေရးဆြနငသည အေနအထားတြင ရပါသည။ - ကမးရးတနးနငပငလယေရျပငကာကြယထနးသမးေရးအသပညာ ျမငတငေရးဆငရာအဆပါသငရးညြနးတမးမား အေပၚအေျချပ၍အစးရအလယတနးနငမလတနးပညာေရးအထပင ျပျပငခမတထညသြငးျပဌာနးနငပါသည။ ဤသ႔အၾကျပရျခငးသည ေလာေလာလတလတပငဗဟခပကငမေလာခထားေသာ ျပညေထာငစသမၼတျမနမာနငင၏ ျပညနယနငတငးေဒသၾကးမားအေနျဖင၎တ႔၏ ေကာငးသငရးညြနးတမးပါ ျပဌာနးစာအပမားကကယပငေရးဆြနင သညဟေသာယဆခကကအေျချပ၍ ျပလပရျခငးျဖစပါသည။

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Sectoral recommendations • Media sector (1): Training of local journalists spe cializing in

environmental issues should be encouraged, so that coverage of these issues be more accurate and reliable.

• Media sector (2): Popular Myanmar singers/actors sh ould be approached by networks of local CSOs and CBOs specializing in environmental protection and be asked to promote the cause of env ironmental protection.

• Building and Industry sector: Networks of NGOs spec ializing in environmental protection should be encouraged to de liver an annual ranking of economic projects developed in Myanmar . This ranking would include the most beneficial projects for environmen t protection and the most harmful ones. Awards could also be given to th e most beneficial projects.

• Empowering and Capacity Building to individual envi ronmental activists and environmental CSOs. This should take the form t echnical training. With this training, persons and organizations could become the ‘watchdogs’ monitoring initiatives that are seen as causing environmental degradation .

• Collection of information and evidence linked to pr ojects deemed harmful to the environment . This collection of information could be undertaken by NGOs-CSOs specializing in environment al protection. Testimonies, statistics, and research could be comp iled and represent a baseline survey. The final document could be submit ted to all stakeholders for information-sharing purposes.

Institutional recommendations • Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry and newly-

established Environmental Conservation Department r esponsible for improving the legal framework concerned with enviro nmental protection. The validity and relevance of the current Forest La w enacted in 1992 should be assessed in light of the political and ec onomic reforms implemented since 2011 and the surge of national an d international investments and the law possibly amended.

• Strategy of ‘Public Awareness’ to be properly and e ffectively developed by the Ministry . The Ministry lists 6 imperatives for its overall policy, i.e. protection of soil, sustainability of forest resources, meeting people’s basic needs, efficiency in the exp loitation of forest, people participation, and public awareness. This la st imperative is the only one which does not showany development on the ministry’s website.

Note: This example is a shortened version of a poli cy brief produced as an exercise developed during a training on social research meth ods; it is given here for clarification purposes only.

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က႑အလကအၾကေပးတငျပမမား - မဒယာက႑(၁)။။ပတ၀နးကငေရးရာကစၥရပမားအားအေလးေပးအာရစကသည ျပညတြငးဂာနယလစမားအား သငတနးမားပ႔ခေပးျခငးကအားေပးျခငးအားျဖငသဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာကစၥရပမားနငပကသကေသာေရးသားေဖာျပခကမားမာပ၍တကကာခငမာလာမညျဖစသည။

- မဒယာက႑ (၂) ။ ။သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးအားအထးျပလပေဆာငေသာ ျပညတြငးစအကစအႏင႔ စဘအမား၏ကြနယကမားအေနျဖင႔ ျမနမာနာမညၾကးအဆေတာမား၊သရပေဆာငမားအား ခဥးကပ၍ သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငကာကြယေစာင႔ေရာကေရးအေၾကာငး ျမင႔တငရနအကအည ေတာငးခသင႔သည။

-လပငနးနယပယမားအားတညေဆာကျမင႔တငျခငး။ ။ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမး ေရးအားအထးျပလပေဆာင ေသာအငနဂအမား၏ကြနယကမားအေနျဖင႔ ျမနမာ ျပညအတြငးအေကာငအထည ေဖာေဆာငလကရေသာစးပြားေရး စမကနးမား၏ႏစအလကအဆင႔အတနးကထတျပနႏငဖ႔ရနအားေပးသင႔သည။ဤႏစအလကအဆင႔အတနးမာပတ၀နးကငထနးသမး ေရးအတြကအကးေကးဇးအျပဆး ေသာစမကနးမားမသညပတ၀နးကငအားအႏရာယအျဖစဆး ေသာစမကနးမားအထအဆင႔မားစေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးအတြက အကးျပဆးေသာ စမကနးမားအားအသအမတျပဆမားခးျမင႔ႏငသည။

-သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ေရးရာစအကစအမားႏင႔တစဥးခငးတကၾကြလႈပရားသမားအားစြမးေဆာငရည ျမင႔တင ေပးျခငးႏင႔အားေပးအား ေျမာက ျပ ျခငး။ ။ဤေနရာ၌နညးပညာပငးဆငရာသငတနးမား ေပးရနျဖစသည။ ဤက႔သ႕သငတနးမားအားျဖင႔အဆပါလပဂၢလမားႏင႔အဖြ႕အစညးမားသညသဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငေလာ႔ပါးပကစးလာမႈႏင႔ဆငေသာကစၥရပမားက “သတထား”ေစာင႔ၾကည႔ ေလ႔လာသမားျဖစလာေပမည။

သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငအားအႏရာယျဖစေစႏငသညဟယဆရေသာစမကနးမားႏင႔ပတသကေသာအေထာကအထားမား၊သတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယစေဆာငးျခငး။ ။ဤကသ႔သတငးအခကအလကေကာကယျခငးအား သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးကာကြယေရးအေလးေပးလပေဆာငေနၾကေသာအငနဂအ၊စအကစအမားကလပေဆာငႏငသည။သကေသခခကမား၊စာရငးအငးမားႏင႔သေတသနျပမႈတ႕စစညးတညးျဖတ၍အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလ႔လာမႈစစတမး (Baseline Survey) တစရပျပစႏငသည။ရရလာေသာေနာကဆးအဆင႔စာရြက စာတမးမားအာသတငး အခကအလကဖလယေရးရညရြယခကအားျဖင႔ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးတ႕အၾကားျဖန႔ေ၀ႏငသည။ အဖြ႔အစညးပငဆငရာအၾကေပးတငျပမႈမား ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးႏင႔သစေတာ၀နၾကးဌာနႏင႔၊သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငကာကြယထနးသမးေရးႏင႔သကဆငေသာ ဥပေဒေရးရာတ႔အားတးတကျမင႔တငေရးတာ၀နရသည႔အသစဖြ႕စညးလကေသာပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးဥးစးဌာန။ ။၁၉၉၂တြငျပဌာနးခ႔ေသာလကရသစေတာဥပေဒ၏အကးေၾကာငးညညြတဆေလာအသးတ႔မႈအား၂၀၁၁ခမစတင အေကာငအထည ေဖာခ႔ေသာႏငငေရးႏင႔စးပြားေရး ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား (ျပညတြငးႏင႔ႏငငတကာမအလးအရငး ျဖင႔၀ငေရာကလာေသာရငးႏးျမပႏမႈမားစသည႔ ) ရႈေထာင႔တ႕မျပနလညသးသပျပးလအပလငဥပေဒအား ျပငဆငသင႔ပါသည။“လထအသပညာေပးေရး”မဟာဗဟာအား၀နၾကးဌာနအေနျဖင႔ေကာငးမြနထေရာကစြာအေကာင အထညေဖာသင႔

-၀နၾကးဌာနအေနျဖင႔ - ေျမဆၾသဇာထနးသမးေရး၊သစေတာသယဇာတေရရညတညတ႔ေရး၊ျပညသမား၏အေျခခလအပခကမားျပည႔မေရး၊သစေတာမားထတယသးစြမႈ၌အကးရေစေရး၊ျပညသမား၀ငး၀နးပါ၀ငေရး၊ႏင႔လထအသပညာေပးေရးဟေသာျပဌာနးခက၆ရပျဖင႔၄ငး၏အေထြေထြမ၀ါဒေရးရာႏင႔ပတသက၍ျပဌာနးထားပါသည။ဤေနာကဆးေျခာကခေျမာကျပဌာနးခကမာ၀နၾကးဌာန၏၀ကဘဆဒအငတာနကစာမကႏာတြငတးတကေျပာငးလမႈတစစတစရာမေတြ႔ရေသာတစခတညးေသာအခကပငျဖစပါသည။ မတခက။ ။ဤဥပမာသညလမႈသေတသနနညးလမးမားႏင႔ပတသက၍ျပလပေသာသငတနးတစရပအတြက ျပစထား ေသာ ေလ႔ကင႔ခနးအျဖစအသးျပ

သည႔မ၀ါဒဆငရာအႏစခပတစရပအားအတခးထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ဤ ေနရာတြငရငးလငးတငျပရနရညရြယခကျဖင႔သာအသးျပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

• Research findings not only expand knowledge about a particular issue; they also form the basis upon which political, legal, or social action can be taken. Research therefore has also a very practical and effective purpose;

• Policy and advocacy briefs help people in different positions of responsibilities and duties decide about the problems addressed in these briefs. Based on these decisions, action can be taken;

• Policy and advocacy briefs have to be clear and directly to the point, helping

those who read them makeinformed decisions.

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အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

• သေတသန ေလ႔လာ ေတြရခကမားသညကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ပတသက၍အသပညာတးပြားရမသာ မဟတပ

ႏငငေရး၊ဥပေဒေရး၊လမႈေရးဆငရာမားအေရးယ ေဆာငရြကရနအေျခခအေနအထားကလညးဖနတး

ေပးပါသည။ဤသ႔ဆလငသေတသန ေဆာငရြကျခငးမာအလြနလကေတြ႔က၍ထေရာက ေသာ

ရညရြယခကတစရပလညးရပါသည။

• မ၀ါဒဆငရာႏင႔လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာအႏစခပတ႔သညတာ၀န၀တရားအမးမးရၾကေသာ

လအမားအားထအႏစခပတ႔မညႊနးဆလကရေသာျပနာရပမားႏင႔ပတသက၍ဆးျဖတခကမားခမတႏငရ

နအကအညေပးပါသည။ထဆးျဖတခကမားအေပၚအေျခခ၍လပေဆာငစရာရသညမားကဆကလကလပေဆ

ာငသြားႏငပါသည။

• မ၀ါဒဆငရာႏင႔လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာအႏစခပတ႔အေနျဖင႔ရငးရငးလငးလငးႏင႔လရငးက

ေဖာျပ ျခငးအား ျဖင႔၄ငးတ႕ကဖတေသာသမားအေနျဖင႔ထထ၀င၀ငနားလညမႈျဖင႔ဆးျဖတ ခကမား ခမတ

နငပါသည။


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