Inventory of plants used in traditional medicine in Somalia. IV. Plants of the families...

Journal of Ethnopharmaeology, 38 (1993) 1-29 1 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.

Inventory of plants used in traditional medicine in Somalia. IV. Plants of the families Passifloraceae-Zygophyllaceae

Gunnar Samuelsson a, Mohamed Hussein Farah a, Per Claeson a, Mekonen Hagos a, Mats Thulin b, Olov Hedber§ b, Ahmed Mumin Warfa c, Abdirizak Osman Hassan d,

Abdulkadir Hassan Elmi , Abukar Dalo Abdurahman d, Abdullahi S. Elmi e, Yakoub Aden Abdi e and Mohamed Hassan Alin e

aDepartment of Pharmacognosy, Uppsala University, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 579. S-751 23 Uppsala and ~Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 541, S-751 21, Uppsala (Sweden), CFaculty of Agriculture, Somali National University, P.O. Box 801, Mogadishu, dFaculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Industrial Chemistry, Somali National University,

P.O. Box 400, Mogadishu and eFaculty of Medicine, Somali National University, P.O. Box 3814, Mogadishu (Somalia)

(Received September 9, 1992; accepted September 29, 1992)

Thirty-seven plants are listed, which are used by traditional healers in the central and southern parts of Somalia. For each species a r e listed: the botanical name with synonyms, collection number, vernacular name, medicinal use, preparation of remedy and dosage. Results of a literature survey are also reported including medicinal use, substances isolated and pharmacological effects. Three plants which should have been included in Part I of the series have been added and some corrections to that paper have been made. With these additions the series comprises 180 different plant species, distributed in 59 plant families.

Key words: medicinal plants; Somalia; traditional medicine

Introduction PASSIFLORACEAE

Parts I to III of this series (Samuelsson et al., 1991, 1992a,b) listed altogether 140 plant species of the families Acanthaceae to Papilionaceae which are used by traditional healers in the central and southern parts of Somalia. General information about contact with the healers, collection of information and herbarium specimens, areas covered by the various expeditions and the basis for the literature survey was given in Part I. This paper completes the report of the results of the inventory and comprises plants of the families Passifloraceae to Zygophyllaceae. Two species of the family Caesalpiniaceae and one species of Chenopodiaceae, which were omittted from Part I, have been included in an addendum. Altogether, the series comprises 180 different species, distributed in 59 plant families.

Adenia aculeata (Hook f.) Engl.

Synonym: A. manganiana Chiov. SMP: 23. Ver- nacular name: Boqol-bire. Plant part used: Fresh roots. Medicinal use: Against gastritis. Preparation of remedy: A piece of the root, about four inches long, is cut to small pieces and boiled with one glass of water. The decoction is filtered. Dosage: The whole decoction is drunk three times a day for two days.

Literature No reports have been found concerning

medicinal use, isolated substances or pharmacological effects.

Adenia ellenbeckii Harms

Correspondence to: Gunnar Samuelsson, Department of Phar- macognosy, Uppsala University, Uppsala Biomedical Centre, P.O. Box 579, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.

Synonyms: A. toxicar& Harms, A. vitifolia Hutch. & Bruce. SMP: 231. Vernacular name: Karl. Plant part used: 1. Fresh fruits. 2. Dried fruits. Medicinal use: 1 + 2. For treatment of

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wounds. Preparation of remedy: 1. One fruit is boiled with 1 1 of water for 10 min. The decoction is filtered. 2. One fruit is crushed and powdered. Dosage: 1. Two cups a day for one week. 2. The powder is applied on the wound.



Adenia sp.

SMP: 196. Vernacular name: Qor dudumow. Plant part used: Fresh roots. Medicinal use: Against gonorrhoea. Preparation of remedy: A piece of the root is boiled with 3 glasses of water and a chicken. Sesame oil (0.25 1) is added. Dosage: The soup is eaten three times a day for three days.

Literature No literature survey could be performed as the

species name is not known.

PEDALIACEAE

Pedalium murex L.

SMP: 167. Vernacular name: Kaxar-marood. Plant part used: Fresh or dried roots. Medicinal use: Against allergic afflictions. Preparation of remedy: The roots are powdered and mixed with cold water. Dosage: The patient is bathed in the mixture once a day for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: A decoction of the roots

is drunk three times a day in treatment of gonorrhoea (Kokwaro, 1976).

Leaves: In Tanganyika (= Tanzania) an infusion is used for treatment of bladder troubles and gonorrhoea. Both the leaves and roots have been tested without effect in 164 patients suffering from gonorrhoea (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Herb and seed." In India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) the herb and the seed are used as a mucilaginous medicine in fevers, in urinary troubles, in blenor- rhagia and in cystitis (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Plant part not specified." In India the plant is used as an emmenagogue and ecbolic (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Isolated substances: Leaves: The flavonoids pedalitin, dinatin, diosmetin, pedaliin, dinatin 7-

glucuronide and diosmetin 7-glucuronide have been identified (Subramanian and Nair, 1972). Phenolic acids have been studied in the leaves and the fruits (Das et al., 1966). The chemistry of the leaves has also been studied by Sastry et al. (1984). The leaves contain a mucilage, which can be extracted with water and precipitated with ethanol. The physical properties of this gum have been studied by Mithal and Saggar (1974) who also identified the sugars galactose and arabinose in the hydrolysate by paper chromatography. The chemical and rheological properties of this gum have also been studied by Rao et al. (1984).

Stems: The flavonoids pedalitin and dinatin have been found (Zafar and Gupta, 1989).

Flowers." Dinatin and quercetin have been isolated from the flowers (Kasim et al., 1975).

Fruits: A hexane extract of the fruits yielded pentatriacontane, sitosterol, hexatriacontanoic acid, hentriacontanoic acid, ursolic acid, vanillin and the new compounds heptatriacontan-4-one and tetratriacontanyl octacosanoate (Shukla and Thakur, 1983). Arginine, glycine, histidine, threonine, tyrosine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid have been detected by paper chromatography (Rastogi et al., 1982). Pedalitin and dinatin were isolated by Zafar and Gupta (1989).

Sesamothamnus rivae Engl.

Synonyms: S. erlangeri Engl., S. smithii Bak. ex Stapf. SMP: 67. Vernacular name: Salaamac- saleemac. Plant part used: Fresh or dried whole plant. Medicinal use: Against paralysis. Prepara- tion of remedy: One meter of the root and the same quantity of the stem are boiled with five glasses of water and the decoction filtered. Dosage: The patient is fumigated with the vapours and washed with the decoction.



Sesamum indicum L.

Synonyms: Anthadenia sesamoides Lem., S. brasiliense Veil., S. oleiferum Moench, S. orientale L., Volkameria orientalis (L.) Kuntze, It". sesamoides (Lem.) Kuntze. SMP: 175. Vernacular name: Sisin. Plant part used: Fresh leaves. Medicinal use: Against urinary retention. Prepara- tion of remedy: The leaves are crushed and powdered. Dosage: One cup daily for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: The roots are said to be

poisonous (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Leaves: A decoction of the leaves or leaves with

a small amount of salt is used as a purgative (Kerharo and Adam, 1974). The leaves are a remedy for cough and for sores and are also used against snake bite (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Seeds and oil: The seed and its oil have been used since olden times as an emmenagogue and abortifacient. The seed is used as a purgative (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Isolated substances: As sesame seed and oil are valuable foods there is a vast amount of investigations of these. A review has been published by Lyon (1972).

Pharmacological effects: An extract of the seeds has no pharmacological activity (Dhar et al., 1968).

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala sadebeckiana

Synonym: P. kassasii Chrtek. SMP: 88. Ver- nacular name: Meeceey kaamuun. Plant part used: Fresh roots. Medicinal use: Against nasal conges- tion. Preparation of remedy: Five to six roots are crushed and about 10 ml of water added. The mixture is filtered. Dosage: Two drops are taken in each nostril.



PORTULACACEAE

Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Schweinf.

Synonyms: Orygia portulactfolia Forssk., Por- tulaca cuneifolia Val., T. cuneifolium (Vahl) Willd., T. roseum Spreng. ex N.E. Br. SMP: 11. Ver- nacular name: Maamuney. Plant part used: Leaves. Medicinal use: Against gastritis. Preparation of remedy: Two handful of leaves are boiled with two glasses of water to a kind of porridge. Dosage: Three spoonfuls are eaten three times a day for three days.


medicinal use, isolated substances or pharmacological effects.

Portulaca oleracea L.

SMP: 49, 169. Vernacular name: Jijimoole, Canyo. Plant part used: 1. Fresh leaves. 2 + 3. Fresh roots. 4. Seeds. 5. Fresh or dried whole plant. Medicinal use: 1. Against abdominal complaints. 2. Against dysmenorrhoea and intestinal wounds. 3. Against sinusitis. 4. Against spastic paralysis. 5. Against leprosy. Preparation of remedy: 1. Two handfuls of leaves are mixed with 1 1 of water and the mixture filtered. 2. A handful of roots are boiled with 1 I of water and the decoction filtered. 3. Three root pieces (15 cm long) are crushed and one cup of water added. The mixture is filtered. 4. A handful of the seeds are boiled with 0.5 1 of sesame oil. 5. The plant is crushed and powdered. Dosage: 1. The whole preparation is eaten with bread once a day for one week. 2. Two cups two times a day for three days. 3. Three drops are placed in each nostril. 4. The liquid is applied topically. 5. The powder is applied on the skin.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: Fresh roots are chewed or

pounded and soaked in water and the preparation is used for treatment of snake bites (Kokwaro, 1976).

Leaves: Juice of the leaves is dropped in inflam- ed eyes (Haerdi, 1964). The leaves are applied topically to ease pain of menstruation (Hodge and Taylor, 1956). A decoction is used as a diuretic and for liver diseases (Ikram, 1981).

Aerial parts: The aerial parts of the plant are eaten as a vegetable (Roca-Garcia, 1970), and a decoction is used for worms (Oakes and Morris, 1958) and to provoke menses (Murray, 1881).

Entire plant." A decoction of the plant is soaked into compresses which are applied on a bad abscess. The decoction is also used to wash the breasts to produce lactation (Haerdi, 1964). The plant has been used as a diuretic, a sudorific, an antiscorbutic, and to treat skin conditions, haemoptysis, pulmonary diseases and snakebite. It is also used as a tonic. The plant is used as a cooked vegetable or eaten as salad (Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962). Wilted plants are said to cause the death of cattle but 48 g/kg bodyweight of fresh leaves did not have any toxic effects on cows (Canella, 1966). A decoction is used as a vermifuge (Asprey and Thornton, 1955), to wash breasts to produce lactation (Haerdi, 1964) and as a sedative and heart tonic (Adesina, 1982).

Seeds: The seeds are said to be emmenagogic (Murray, 1881; Roig y Mesa, 1945; Rageau, 1973), are used to provoke menses (Quisumbing, 1951) and as a vermifuge (Kapoor and Kapoor, 1980; Ikram, 1981).

Isolated substances: Flower buds: These contain betalamic acid (Chang et al., 1974).

Entire plant." The plant contains alanine (Ken- nedy and Laetsch, 1974), aspartic acid (Karadge and Joshi, 1980), ferulic acid (Imperato, 1975), malic acid (Karadge and Joshi, 1980) and olecacin I and II (Piatelli and Minale, 1964; Imperato, 1975).

Pharmacological effects: Leaves: The leaf juice had a weak activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Fitzpatrick, 1954). A decoction had a strong uterine stimulant effect on mice and rats (Sharaf, 1969).

Entire plant." A decoction had no antifertility effect in mice (Matsui et al., 1967). An ethanol extract had antinematodal activity on Meloidogyne incognita (Abivardi, 1971). A defatted ethanol extract had weak CNS-depressant activity in mice at an i.p. dose of 1 g/kg of body weight (Fong et al., 1972). A 70% ethanol extract of the fresh plant had no anticonvulsant activity in mice when given i.p. in varied doses (Adesina, 1982). A water extract of fresh shoots had an equivocal effect in vitro on Helmintosporium turicum (Nene, 1968). An aqueous extract of the plant induced skeletal muscle relaxation in electrically stimulated rat phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm and frog sciatic nerve- sartorius muscle preparations. Also contractions induced by nicotinic agonists on the rat rectus abdominus muscle preparation were inhibited. The effects on these responses of various agonists and antagonists were studied (Okwuasaba et al., 1986). Intraperitoneal or oral administration of an aqueous extract produced skeletal muscle relaxation in rats. The dose range for i.p. administration was 200-1000 mg/kg. The highest dose was lethal in 80% of the animals. The LDs0 in mice was 1040 mg/kg i.p. (Parry et al., 1987a). The effects of an aqueous extract, a methanol extract and the dialysable part of the aqueous extract were compared with those of dantrolene sodium and methoxyverapamil in tests of inhibition of the twitch tension on the rat phrenic nerve- hemidiaphragm and contraction induced by nicotinic agonists on the frog rectus abdominis preparations. The extracts mimicked the effects of the standard compounds and it was concluded that the muscle relaxant properties of the extracts may be due in part to inhibition of trans-membrane Ca

influx, interference with the Ca-induced Ca release process and/or inhibition of the release of in- tracellular Ca from stores in the sarcoplastic reticulum (Okwuasaba et al., 1987a,b,c). The clinical effects of topical application of the aqueous extract on muscle relaxation have been studied (Parry et al., 1987b). The effects of the aqueous extract on rat blood pressure and the rabbit heart has also been studied. The extract caused a dose-dependent negative inotropic and chronotropic effect (Parry et al., 1988). The muscle relaxant properties reported by Okwusaba et ai. (1986) have been shown to be due to the presence of high amounts of potassium ions in the extract (Harvey et al., 1992).

Seeds: An ethanol extract had uterine stimulant effect and antispermatogenic effect in mice at a s.c. dose of 50 mg/animal (Verma et al., 1982).

Portulaca quadrifida L.

Synonyms: P. anceps A. Rich., P. irnbricata Forssk., P. linifolia Forssk. SMP: 53. Vernacular name: Canyo. Plant part used: The fresh entire plant. Medicinal use: Against mastitis. Preparation of remedy: A handful of the plant is crushed and mixed with one cup of cold water. The mixture is filtered and a handful of charcoal is added. Dosage: The preparation is applied externally.

Literature Uses reported: Leaves: Leaves and young stems

are pounded and mixed with water. The mixture is filtered and the filtrate mixed with an extract of Plectranthus cylindraceus to treat gastric ulcers. Pounded leaves are applied to scalded or swollen parts of the body. Leaves are chewed and the juice swallowed in the treatment of toothache (Kokwaro, 1976). The crushed leaf is used as a local application for the relief of headache (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Entire plant: The fresh plant is lightly heated and applied on the breasts as a lactagogue (Haerdi, 1964). An infusion of the plant is used as an emetic. A decoction of the plant, mixed with Monadenium lugardae and another, undetermined, plant is used as an anthelmintic and for treatment of stomach complaints and gonorrhoea. A cold- water extract is used against threatening abortion. The plant is used as a remedy for kidney-, bladder- , lung- and skin diseases as well as an ascorbutic (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Isolated substances: The seed contains fatty

acids, carbohydrates, /3-amyrin and /~-sitosterol (Verma and Kumar, 1981).

Pharmacological effects: A 50% ethanol extract inhibited contractions of the guinea pig ileum caused by acetylcholine or histamine and had diuretic activity in rats. The LD50 in mice was 600 mg/kg i.p. (Bhakuni et al., 1969).

RESEDACEAE

Reseda ellenbeckii Perkins

SMP: 213. Vernacular name: Diima. Plant part used: I. Fresh or dried roots. 2. Fresh or dried flowers. Medicinal use: 1 + 2. Against cold. Preparation of remedy: 1. A piece of root, 10-15 cm long, is crushed and boiled with one glass of milk for 10 min. 2. Two flowers are boiled for 10 min with one glass of milk. Dosage: 1 + 2. One glass once for one day.



RHAMNACEAE

Ziziphus hamur Engl.

SMP: 200. Vernacular name: Xamur gob. Plant part used: Fresh or dried rootbark. Medicinal use: Against jaundice. Also against mental disease. Preparation of remedy: The bark from a piece of root, 20 cm long, is powdered and boiled with 2 1 of water until the volume has decreased to 1 1. The decoction is filtered. Dosage: Three cups a day for 7-40 days (depending on how severe the illness is).



Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.

Synonyms: Rhamnus spina-christi L., R. nabeca Forsk., Z. africana P. Mill., Z. nabeca (Forsk.) Lam., Z. sphaerocarpa Tul., Z. iroensis A. Chev. SMP: 47. Vernacular name: Geb. Plant part used: 1. Roots. 2. Roots. 3. Fresh leaves. 4. Dry leaves. 5. Dry leaves. 6. Dry leaves. 7. Dry leaves. 8. Fresh twigs with leaves. 9. Fresh twigs with leaves. 10.

Fresh twigs with leaves. II. Twigs with leaves and fruits. 12. Fruits. 13. Ripe seeds. Medicinal use: 1. Against dysmenorrhoea. 2. Against chest pains (bronchitis). 3. To treat skin rash. 4. For wound treatment. 5. Against diarrhoea. 6. To treat fragile hair. 7. To wash hair and dead bodies. 8. Against worms. 9. Against gas in the stomach. 10. Against amenorrhoea. 11. Against rachitis. 12. Against excessive thirst. 13. To treat fractured bones. Preparation of remedy: 1. A 15-cm long piece of the root is cut to pieces and boiled with one cup of water. 2. A 15-cm long piece of the root is crushed and mixed with one cup of water. After filtration the yolks of three eggs are added together with one spoon of sugar. 3. A handful of fresh leaves are crushed and mixed with one cup of water whereupon the mixture is filtered. 4. The leaves are crushed. 5. A handful of leaves are crushed and boiled with one glass of water. The decoction is filtered. 6. A handful of leaves are crushed and mixed with one cup of oil. 7. A handful of leaves are crushed and mixed with one cup of water. The preparation is filtered. 8. A handful of twigs with leaves are crushed and boiled with 1 1 of water. 9. Same preparation as for 8. 10. Same preparation as for 8. 11. A handful of the plant material is crushed and boiled with one cup of water until the liquid becomes thick. 12. Two handfuls of fruits are squeezed and the liquid boiled with 1 I of water and 500 g of sugar to form a syrup. 13. A handful of seeds are crushed and boiled with 1 1 of water. Dosage: 1. One cup three times a day for three days. 2. One spoon three times a day for three days. 3. The whole body of the patient is washed with the extract. 4. Crushed leaves are applied to the wound. 5. One glass three times a day for one day. 6. Used topically. 7. The liquid is used for washing. 8. The whole preparation is drunk. Used only once. 9. The whole decoction is drunk once a day for three days. 10. Same dosage as in 9. 11. The preparation is applied topically. 12. A half cup is drunk. 13. The decoction is allowed to settle and the supernatant is applied topically.

Literature Uses reported: No reports have been found. Isolated substances: Nonacosane, octacosane-1-

ol, behenic acid octacosyl ester and the steroids daucosterol and /~-sitosterol have been found in the leaves (Aynechi and Mahoodian, 1973). From the entire plant the triterpenes betulinic acid and ceanothic acid have been isolated (Ikram and Tomlinson, 1976). The seed oil contains linoleic acid, oleic acid and stearic acid (Grindley, 1948).

Pharmacological effects: No reports have been found.

RUBIACEAE

Carphalea glaucescens (Hiern) Verdc.

Synonyms: Diricletia asperula K. Schum., D. ellenbeekii K. Schum., D. glaucescens Hiern. SMP: 215. Vernacular name: Bur-bur. Plant part used: 1. Fresh leaves and twigs. 2. Dried flowers. Medicinal use: 1 + 2. Swellings of the body (any part). Preparation of remedy: 1. Boiling water is poured over a handful of crushed leaves and twigs. 2. A handful of flowers are thrown into the fire. Dosage: 1. One cup every hour during the day for seven days. 2. The patient is fumigated with the smoke for seven nights.



Gardenia fiorii Chiov.

Synonym: Randia fiorii (Chiov.) Chiov. SMP: 209. Vernacular name: Madax madaale. Plant part used: The fresh, ripe fruit. Medicinal use: Against tuberculosis. Preparation of remedy: One fruit is crushed and mixed with 1 1 of cold water. The mixture is filtered and one glass of camel milk added. Dosage: Three cups a day for one day.



Oldenlandia fastigiata Bremek. vat. somala (Bremek.) Verdc.

Synonym: O. somala Bremek. SMP: 214. Ver- nacular name: Barbaaris. Plant part used: The whole plant. Fresh or dried plant can be used but the fresh one is considered to be better. Medicinal use: Against toothache and tonsillitis. Preparation of remedy: One plant is crushed and boiled for 10 min with two glasses of goat milk. The decoction is filtered. Dosage: Two cups a day for three days.

Literature Uses reported: The plant is burnt and the ash

rubbed into scarifications on the forehead to treat

headache or on the chest to treat pneumonia (Haerdi, 1964).

Isolated substances: No reports have been found. Pharmacological effects: No reports have been

found.

RUTACEAE

Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl.

Synonyms: Fagara bukobensis Engl., F. chalybea (Engl.) Engl., F. fisheri Engl., F. merkeri Engl., F. mpapwensis Engl., F. olitoria (Engl.) Engl., Z. olitorium Engl. SMP: 100. Vernacular name: Fil-fil awliyaad. Plant part used: Fresh or dried leaves. Medicinal use: Against stomach pain and urinary retention. Preparation of remedy: Three to four leaves are crushed and mixed with cold or boiling water. Dosage: The mixture is drunk daily for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots." A decoction of the roots

with the roots of Suregada zanzibariensis Baill. is drunk against asthma. The root is ground with a little water and the mixture applied to painful areas in the treatment of rheumatism. A decoction of the root is used for treatment of an 'internal stomach boil yielding pus'. A cold-water extract of the fresh roots is drunk against bilharzia. Powdered roots, leaves or stem bark are mixed with warm water and the mixture drunk against hernia and stomach pains (Hedberg et al., 1983b). A decoction is drunk against hookworm and pneumonia (Haerdi, 1964). The bark of the root is rubbed on swellings in the treatment of kwashiorkor. A decoction is drunk in treatment of 'litarangu' (Hehe), a chest pain and creeping disease which goes all over the body. A decoction is given to sick goats, especially for diarrhoea (Kokwaro, 1976). The pounded root, mixed with ox fat is used as an ointment for application to swellings. A decoction of the root bark is used as a gargle against weakness and to produce vomiting in fever (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction is used to treat coughs (Sawhney et al., 1978), malaria (Sawhney et al., 1978; Khan et al., 1980) and diarrhoea (Sawhney et al., 1978).

Stem bark." A decoction is drunk for malaria, colds, coughs and dizziness. The bark is chewed for toothache. The juice of the bark is added to milk to give children a better appetite (Kokwaro, 1976).

Thin twigs." These are used as tooth brushes (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Leaves: A decoction is drunk for treatment of oedema in kwashiorkor (Kokwaro, 1976).

Isolated substances: Roots: The root contains the isoquinoline alkaloids arnottianamide, dihydrochelerythrine, N-methyl-flindersine (Chou et al., 1977), skimmianine (Fish and Waterman, 1972a), chelerythrine and nitidine (Chou et al., 1977; Fish and Waterman, 1972a). Candicine, temberatine, magnoflorine, N-methyl-corydine and berberine have also been found (Fish and Waterman, 1972b). The lignan sesamin is reported by Fish et al. (1973).

Stem: The stembark contains the alkaloids dihydrochelerythrine and N-methyl-flindersine, as well as the sesquiterpene germacrone (Hostett- mann et al., 1977; Pettei and Nakanishi, 1978). The presence of the lignan sesamin is also reported (Fish et al., 1973).

Plant part not specified." N-methyl-flindersine has been isolated from an unspecified part of the plant (Phillips and Castle, 1981).

Pharmacological effects: Rootbark: A 60% ethanol extract had antibacterial activity against Diplococcus pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris and Staphylococcus aureus, antifungal activity against Trichophytum mentagrophytes, Candida albicans and Rhizopus delemay and antifeeding activity against the insect Spodoptera exempta (Chou et al., 1977). Antifungal activity of a methanol extract against Trichophytum mentagrophytes and Candida albicans is reported by Sawhney et al. (1978) and antibacterial activity by Khan et al. (1980).

Stembark: A 70% ethanol extract was inactive in a test for antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, but activity was reported for Bacillus subtilis. Antifungal activity of the same extract was reported for Penicillium crustosum and Sac- charomyces cerevisiae (Taniguchi et al., 1978).

Isolated alkaloids: Chelerythrine: At a dose of 3-5 mg/kg i.v. the alkaloid causes a temporary increase of the blood pressure, but when given at 15- min intervals, hypotension is produced in 40-60 min. Chelerythrine also has an analgesic effect and potentiates the effect of morphine and prolongs the sleep induced by thiopental or chloral hydrate (Chelombito and Muraveva, 1971). Antimicrobial activity of chelerythrine has also been reported (Vichkanova et al., 1978; Tolkachev and Vichkanova, 1978).

Nitidine." In dogs the intravenous infusion of nitidine chloride (10, 15 and 20 mg/kg over 60 min) caused no alterations of physiological significance.

Statistically significant increases in heart rate, respiratory rate, cardiac output and in two indexes of left ventricular contractility were observed, but no changes in pressure or vascular resistance from either lung or systemic circuits (Hamlin et al., 1976).

Skimmianine: The alkaloid has spasmolytic activity and increases oxytocin-induced contractions of the rat uterus. The LDs0 is 150-250 mg/kg (Nieschulz and Schneider, 1965). Skimmianine has hypothermic, antidiuretic, sedative and anticonvulsive effects. The alkaloid also potentiates the activity of barbamyl and chloral hydrate and has a marked analgesic effect (Polievtsev et al., 1967; Evdokimova et al., 1971). The alkaloid has a moderate adrenaline-like effect (Berezhinskaya, 1972). In rats at oral doses of 50-200 mg/kg, skimmianine potentiates the hypnotic action of chloral hydrate, barbamyl, hexobarbital, urethane and ethanol. An anticonvulsive effect is also reported. The oral LDs0 is 1.31 g/kg (Evdokimova et al., 1972). The effect on rabbit EEG has been studied (Evdokimova and Kurmkov, 1972). Administered orally to rabbits at 200 mg/kg per day or to rats at 50-100 mg/kg per day for 10-22 days, skimmianine had no effect on peripheral blood indexes or urine composition. Significant histopatho- logical changes were not found in the brain, lungs, liver, kidneys or myocardium (Evdokimova and Malikov, 1972).

Candicine: The alkaloid had a negative effect on avoidance learning in mice (Barlow et al., 1970). Injection of 20-30 #g of candicine into rat cerebral ventricles caused the appearance of an epilep- tiform wave pattern of electrocortical activation (Avoli et al., 1975). Candicine iodide (0.2 M) affected the firing pattern of most of the nerve cells of the periesophageal ganglionic ring of Heobania vermiculata tested on perfusion and ionophoretic application. The action was similar to that of acetylcholine in hyperpolarized and depolarized cells. The conversion of the quaternary nitrogen into tertiary nitrogen eliminated the cholino- mimetic activity (Avoli et al., 1978).

Magnoflorine iodide: This alkaloid has curare- like activity and causes hypotension. Acetylation of the two hydroxyl groups increases the toxicity 6.6-fold (Fakhrutdinov, 1971).

SALVADORACEAE

Salvadora persica L.

SMP: 72, 135, 177. Vernacular name: Cadey.

Plant part used: 1. Fresh root. 2. Fresh rootbark. 3. Fresh or dried roots. Medicinal use: 1. Against hepatomegaly caused by malaria. 2. Against furuncles. 3. Against dysmenorrhoea. Preparation of remedy: 1. The bark is removed from the root and the wood crushed. A handful is mixed with half a glass of cold water. 2. Powdered roots (50 g) are mixed with half a cup of water. 3. The roots are powdered and mixed with fresh or fermented cow milk. Dosage: 1. The extract is applied topically once a day for three days. 2. The mixture is applied topically and covered with cloth. 3. Two cups twice a day for nine days.

Literature Uses reported: Root: A decoction of the root is

used to treat gonorrhoea, spleen trouble and general stomach ache. The roots are also used to treat chest disease. Pounded roots are used as a poultice to bring boils to a head (Kokwaro, 1976). The root bark is a remedy for ancylostomiasis. A decoction is used as a remedy for gonorrhoea and vesical catarrh and an extract is taken in soup for relief of discomfort and pain in the splenic region. The root is also reported to be vesicant (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The roots are used to treat rheumatism, liver disease and gonorrhoea (Kerharo and Adam, 1974). A decoction of the root and stem is used as a stimulant in amenorrhoea (Baquar and Tasnif, 1967).

Stem and stembark: The young stem is used as a toothbrush and is believed to cure diseases caused by germs. The latex is used in wound treatment (Kokwaro, 1976). The use of the stem as a toothbrush is also reported by Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk (1962) as well as the use of the stembark for gastritis and as an ascarifuge. The bark has diuretic properties (Kerharo and Adam, 1974) The dried stem is used as a vermifuge (Hussein Ayoub and Baerheim-Svendsen, 1981)

Leaf" The leaf has diuretic properties (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The fresh leaves are used to treat cough and asthma (Shah, 1982).

Fruit: The fruit is used to treat tremors (Baquar and Tasnif, 1967).

Isolated substances: The leaf and bark contain triethylamine (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Kerharo and Adam, 1974). The presence of alkaloids has been reported (Farooqi and Srivastava, 1968)

Pharmacological effects: An extract of the plant has adstringent, detergent and antiinflammatory properties (Ezmirly et al., 1979). An aqueous extract of the branches lowered the exploratory

locomotor activity of mice in doses corresponding to 0.4 g plant material per kg of bodyweight (Sulaiman et al., 1986). The use of the plant as a toothbrush has been evaluated (Mohammad and Turner, 1983) and the antiplaque effect of a toothpaste containing an extract of the plant compared with chlorhexidine gluconate (Gazi et al., 1987).

SAPINDACEAE

Lecaniodiscus frax&ifolius Bak. ssp. scassellatii (Chiov.) Friis.

Synonyms: Haplocoelum scassellatii Chiov., Ch&rin&jubae-fluvii Chiov. SMP: 148. Vernacular name: Humbeewey. Plant part used: Stembark. Medicinal use: Against malnutrition caused by loss of appetite. Preparation of remedy: Powdered bark (100 g) is mixed with 250 ml of honey and left overnight. Dosage: Three teaspoonfuls daily for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Stembark: The bark is soaked in

cold water and worked up to produce froth, which is rubbed into the breasts for three days or more to produce lactation and to assist in purifying the milk in the breasts (Kokwaro, 1976).


found.

SIMAROUBACEAE

Kirkia tenuifolia Engl.

SMP: 229. Vernacular name: Dofaar got. Plant part used: Fresh stembark. Medicinal use: Against cholera. Preparation of remedy: A handful of crushed bark is boiled with 1 1 of water for 10 min. The decoction is filtered. Dosage: One liter a day for four days.



SOLANACEAE

Datura metel L.

Synonyms: D. alba (Bernh.) Rumph. ex Nees, D.

fastuosa L., D. hummatu Bernh. SMP: 31. Ver- nacular name: Bocoroole or Geed-jinni. Plant part used: 1. Dried flowers 2. The fresh, unripe, fruit. Medicinal use: 1. Against asthma. 2. Against headache. Preparation of remedy: 1. The stigma of one flower is removed and the remains are rolled with paper to a cigarette. 2. Three unripe but soft fruits are crushed and a small piece of resin of Commiphora molmol is added together with a little water and oil. Dosage: 1. The cigarette is smoked to quench the asthma attack. 2. The mixture is applied on the head at night and washed off in the morning. The treatment can be repeated for several nights.

Literature Uses reported: Roots." The roots are chewed and

the juice swallowed for treatment of snake bites. Roots and leaves are pounded, dried and smoked as cigarettes or in pipes for treatment of consump- tion and coughs. An infusion of roots and leaves is known to be used as a poison (Kokwaro, 1976). The root has been used as an intoxicant in Tanganyika (Tanzania). The dried root is smoked for tuberculosis and the root bark in the treatment of asthma (Watt and Breyer Brandwijk, 1962). An extract of the dried root is used against leprosy (Wasuwat, 1967).

Leaves: Leaves, boiled to form porridge are eaten as a narcotic (Haerdi, 1964). See also above under Roots. The leaf has been used as a poison and is added to beer to increase its narcotic effect. The leaf is smoked for the relief of asthma. The leaf is used for dyeing cloth green as well as being used as a stimulant and narcotic (watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962). The leaves are smoked to cure coughs (Bedi, 1978). A decoction of the leaves is taken as an antifertility agent (Malhi and Trivedi, 1972) and is used against excessive flow of milk (Suwal, 1970; Shah, 1982). The leaf has also been used for criminal poisoning (Weiss, 1979).

Stem: The stem has been used for criminal poisoning (Weiss, 1979).

Flowers: Flowers are smoked against asthma. The ash of flowers and fruits is rubbed into scars as an analgesic (Haerdi, 1964). Flowers are used in the treatment of asthma (Kokwaro, 1976). The flower has been used as a narcotic (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The flowers have been used for criminal poisoning (Weiss, 1979).

Fruits: A decoction of the fruits is put in beer to make it intoxicating (Kokwaro, 1976). Also the unripe fruit has been used to produce intoxication (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The fruits are

used as an antifertility agent (Malhi and Trivedi, 1972).

Seeds: The seeds have been used as an intoxicant in Tanganyika (Tanzania). It has also been used for homicidal purposes. It has been mistaken for capsicum and eaten by mistake, causing poisoning (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The dried seed is used for treatment of cancer (Wasuwat, 1967).

Entire plant: The herb has been used as a pain- relieving poultice, as a fish poison, as an intoxicant and as an insecticide (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). In Senegal the plant and its various parts are used only topically for treatment of various diseases such as paralysis of the limbs, fever and psychoses (Kerharo and Adam, 1974).

Isolated substances: All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids. The total content in the various parts are: roots, 0.1-0.8%; leaves, 0.2-0.6%; flowers, 0.9-1.0%; fruits, 0.08-0.12%; seeds, 0.1-0.5%; aerial parts, 0.3-0.4%. Scopolamine and hyoscyamine are the main alkaloids and are present in almost equal amounts (entire plant: scopolamine, 0.18%; hyoscyamine, 0.16%; leaves: scopolamine, 0.18%; hyoscyamine + atropine, 0.22%; roots: scopolamine, 0.17%; hyoscyamin + atropine, 0.26%, ditigloyl- oxy-tropane, 0.12%; tropine + pseudotropine, 0.04% (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Kerharo and Adam, 1974). The presence of these alkaloids is also reported in newer reports (Shah and Khanna, 1965, Prabhakar et al., 1971; Anwar and Ghani, 1973; Thakkar et al., 1974; Gabr et al., 1975; He, 1982). Scopolamin, hyoscyamine and atropine have been found in callus tissue (Khanna and Nag, 1974; Khanna and Khanna, 1976). The tropane alkaloids cuscohygrine, meteloidine, tigloidine, tropine, pseudotropine, 3-c~-6-/~- ditigloyl-oxy-tropan-7-/~-ol, 3-u-6-~-ditigloyl-oxy- tropane, 3-a-tigloyl-oxy-tropane and 3-a-acetoxy- tropane have been detected in the roots (Shah and Khanna, 1965; Anwar and Ghani, 1973). Tropane alkaloids of unkhown structure have been found in callus tissue (Khanna and Nag, 1974), and in roots and seeds (Khaleque et al., 1955, 1966). Nor- epinephrine is present in roots, branches, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. The same plant parts also contain dopamine, 5-hydroxy-indole-3-acetic acid and 5-hydroxytryptamine (De Pasquale et al., 1981). p-Hydroxy-benzoic acid, caffeic acid, p- coumaric acid, ferulic acid and gentisic acid have been discovered in seeds and callus tissue (Netien and Combet, 1971). The steroids cholesterol, lanosterol, sitosterol and stigmasterol have been

10

isolated from callus tissue (Nag, 1976). Choline has also been found in callus tissue (Khanna and Khanna, 1976). The amino acids 7-butyric acid, cystine, glutamic acid, iso-leucine, leucine, methionine, proline, serine, threonine and tyrosine have been reported from anthers (Sangwan, 1978). Nicotianamine has been detected in leaves (Noma and Noguchi, 1976). A monoterpene of unknown structure (fastusic acid) and the triterpene daturanolone have been isolated from the seeds (Khaleque et al., 1967, 1968).

Pharmacological effects: Intraveneous injection, in humans, of an aqueous extract of the flowers has anaesthetic activity (Anonymous, 1975). An ethanol/water extract (1:1) of the fruits had hypotensive activity in dogs at a dose of 50 mg/kg i.v. The same extract had antispasmodic activity on the guinea pig ileum. No cytotoxic activity was detected. The maximum tolerated dose of the extract was 1 g/kg in mice. The ethanol/water extract (1:1) of the entire plant had hypotensive activity at a dose of 50 mg/kg i.v. in dogs. The maximum tolerated dose (i.p.) in mice was 100 mg/kg. Cyto- toxic activity of the extract was demonstrated on the CA-9KB cell culture (EDs0:20 mg/ml.). The extract had antispasmodic effect on the guinea pig ileum (Dhar et al., 1968). An aqueous extract of the leaf had strong antinematodal activity against Meloidogyne incognita (Vijayalakshimi et al., 1979). Antiviral activity against tobacco mosaic virus was demonstrated for an extract of the dried plant (Roychoudhury, 1980).

Lycium shawii Roem. & Schult.

SNIP: 197. Vernacular name: Surug. Plant part used: 1. Dried roots. 2. Fresh leaves. Medicinal use: 1. Against severe cold. 2. To prevent birds from disturbing a newborn baby sleeping outdoors.

Preparation of remedy: 1. Three finger-lengths of roots are powdered and boiled with 0.5 1 of water and meat. 2. The crushed leaves are mixed with molmol. Dosage: 1. One cup three times a day for two days (more is dangerous). 2. The mixture is applied on the skull of the baby (the fontanelle) for a minimum time of 3 h. This acts as a repellant for birds flying above the child and causing unrest when the baby is sleeping outdoors.

Literature Uses reported: No reports have been found. Isolated substances: Diosgenin,/~-sitosterol have

been found in the stems. Rutin is present in the leaves (Baghdadi et al., 1988).


Solanum arundo Mattei

Synonym: S. diplacanthum Dammer. SMP: 20, 71. Vernacular name: Arundi. Plant part used: 1. Fruit. 2. Fresh seeds. Medicinal use: 1. Against pruritis and scabies. 2. Against toothache. Preparation of remedy: 1. Twenty fruits are crushed, mixed with one glass of water and the mixture left overnight and filtered. 2. A pinch of seeds is mixed with 10 ml of hot oil. Dosage: 1. The extract is applied topically to the skin. 2. The cold extract is applied to the aching tooth.

Literature Uses reported: The plant (part not specified) has

been used in Tanzania as a remedy for miscarriage (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Isolated substances: No reports have been found. Pharmacological effects: An ethanol extract of

the plant had no antimicrobial effects (Elmi et al., 1986).

Solanum incanum L.

Synonyms: S. coagulans Forssk., S. sanctum L. SMP: 34, 110. Vernacular name: Makarumbey. Plant part used: 1. Fresh fruit. 2. Fresh or dried roots. Medicinal use: 1. Against worms in the ear. 2. Against dysentery, diarrhoea and vomiting. Preparation of remedy: 1. Four fruits are crushed and a half to one cup of water or alcohol is added. 2. The roots are crushed and boiled with water. Dosage: 1. Two drops are put in the ear twice a day for three days. 2. One to two cups per day.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: A decoction is used

against gonorrhoea and vomiting (Haerdi, 1964; Hedberg et al., 1983b). The decoction is also used for abdominal pains, dyspepsia, fever, stomach ache and indigestion. Roots can be used for toothache by scrubbing the affected tooth with a piece of the root (Kokwaro, 1976). The root is regarded as poisonous and is used together with the root of Amorphophallus dracontioides for preparation of arrow poison. The root is also used to treat abdominal pains, liver trouble, carbuncles, cough, colic, sore throat, gonorrhoea and syphilis. It is also used in the treatment of snake bite (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction is used to treat hepatitis (Lin and Lin, 1975).

11

Leaves: The young leaf is rubbed hard into the bite in treatment of snake bite. An infusion of the leaf is dropped into the ear as a remedy for earache (Kokwaro, 1976). The use of the leaf for treatment of snake bite is also mentioned by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) who also state that the leaf is used for cough, colic, sore throat, gonorrhoea and syphilis. The juice of the leaves is used as an expectorant and in the treatment of laryngitis. A decoction is used against gonorrhoea (Bouquet, 1969). Eye diseases are treated with a cold-water extract of the leaves, which is also used in the treatment of headache, toothache and caries. The leaves are also used in the treatment of diarrhoea (Kerharo and Adam, 1974).

Fruits: The fruits are used externally in the treatment of sores around the nails, containing pus (Haerdi, 1964). The fruit is broken and applied to fresh cuts or wounds. The fruit juice, applied over a finger with whitlow, is said to draw it out. Fruits are also used for treatment of other skin diseases. Fruit juice is squezed into sheep’s nostrils to cure sheep cough. The fruits are given to children as an emetic, but care should be exercised as they are toxic (Kokwaro, 1976). The fruit juice is used as a remedy for dandruff. It is also a snake bite remedy and a remedy for earache. The juice of the fruit is used as a stomachic. It is also used in the preparation of cheese as it coagulates the milk. A poultice or an infusion of the fruit is said to be effective in removal of external benign tumours (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The fruits and seeds are used externally in the treatment of inflammations, earache and headache. Flowers and fruits are used in the treatment of constipation and diarrhoea (Kerharo and Adam, 1974). An aqueous extract of the dried fruit is used topically for skin diseases (Sawhney et al., 1978). Crushed fruits are used in the treatment of epilepsy (Bouquet, 1969).

Entire plant: A decoction of the plant is used to treat gonorrhoea and syphilis. The plant is also used for ringworm (Sawhney et al., 1978).

Undefined plant parts: The plant is used widely for chest pains, ringworm and syphilis (Kokwaro, 1976). A decoction of the plant mixed with Fagara capensis is used for chest troubles and parts of the roasted plant are used for pleurisy and pneumonia. The plant is a remedy for toothache and for sore throat. The juice of the plant is used as a ringworm remedy (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Isolated substances: Roots: /3-Sitosterol and the 3-O-P-D-glucoside of this compound have been isolated from the roots (Lin and Lin, 1975).

Leaves: The leaves contain chlorogenic acid (Politis, 1948).

Fruits: Unripe fruits contain 1.2% of a mixture of equal parts of diosgenin and yamogenin (Segal et al., 1977). Ripe fruits and leaves do not contain these alkaloids (Zaitschek and Segal, 1972). The alkaloidal glycoside solamargine has been isolated from fresh berries (Hsu and Tien, 1974) as well as solasodine (Zaitschek and Segal, 1972; Segal et al., 1978). Nitrosodiethylamine (Roach, 1971) and dimethylnitrosamine (Du Plessis et al., 1969) have been found in the fruit. A substance with a phosphorylated structure similar to the purine adenine has been isolated from the berries. Crystals of this compound are effective inhibitors of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts, dermatophytes and some agricultural pathogens. High concentrations of this substance cause hemolysis (Beaman-Mbaya and Muhamm- ed, 1976). A new glycoside of solasodine was isolated by Lin et al. (1990).

Pharmacological effects: Methanol extracts of the dried fruit and the dried entire plant had antifungal activity against Candida albicans and Trichophytum mentagrophytes at a concentration of 0.03% (Sawhney et al., 1978). A methanol extract of the entire plant was active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa at a concentration of 5 mg/ml but was inactive against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella sp. and Candida albicans at the same concentration (Al-Yahya et al., 1983). Solamar- gine, solasodine, ursolic acid and derivatives thereof exhibited significant cytotoxic effects against human PLC/PRF/S cells in vitro (Lin et al., 1990).

Solanum nigrum L. s. lat.

SMP: 80. Vernacular name: Munafoqow. Plant part used: The fresh whole plant. Medicinal use: Against cardiac complaints. Preparation of remedy: Two handfuls of the plant are boiled with one cup of water. Dosage: Three spoonfuls three times a day for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Root and rootbark: The burnt and

powdered root is rubbed into scaritications on the back to treat lumbago (Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962)The rootbark is used as an abortifacient (Saha et al., 1961).

Leaves: Leaves are pounded and soaked in

12

water to ferment. The extract is then used for treatment of boils, ulcers and swollen glands. An infusion of the leaves and seeds is rubbed onto the gums of children in cases of development of crooked teeth (Kokwaro, 1976). A cooked porridge of leaves is used against bilharzia and for treatment of stomach spasms (Haerdi, 1964). The leaf is a remedy for dysentery and a cholagogue. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat an itching vulva and itching haemorrhoids (Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction is used to remove the effects of opium (Bedi, 1978) and as an an- tipyretic, anticonvulsant, sedative, antimalarial, antispasmodic, antirheumatic and diaphoretic (Adesina, 1982). Mashed leaves are drunk to treat ulcers (Stimson, 1971).

Fruit: The crude fruit is chewed and swallowed for treatment of stomach ulcers or for general stomach upsets, leading to continuous stomach ache (Kokwaro, 1976). A paste of the unripe fruit is used to treat ringworm (Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction of the fruit is used as a tonic and a diuretic (Asprey and Thornton, 1955), to induce abortions (Lee et al., 1977), against inflammations, as an aphrodisiac, a laxative and a diuretic (Suwal, 1970). Reports of the toxicity of the fruit are contradicting (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Cooked fresh fruit is said to be edible (Adesina, 1982).

Entire plant: The plant is used as a remedy for convulsions, for malaria, black-water fever, dysenteries, for local application to anthrax pustule and for disinfecting anthrax-infected meat. A poultice of the plant is applied for the relief of abdominal pain and inflammation of the urinary bladder. The plant is also used in treatment of headaches, ulcers and wounds, as a diuretic and emetic, an antispasmodic, diaphoretic, emollient and sedative (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction of the entire plant is used to treat gonorrhoea, for piles, for inflammatory swellings and as a diuretic (Ikram, 1981). A decoction of the shoots is used for menstrual disorders (Quisumb- ing, 1951) and (in combination with other herbs) to treat cancer (Saijo et al., 1982).

Isolated substances: Root and stem." The steroidal sapogenins uttronin A and B, uttroside A and uttroside B have been isolated from the root and stem (Sharma et al., 1982, 1983).

Leaves: Chlorogenic acid has been found in the leaf (Politis, 1948).

Fruits: The fruit contains the steroidal alkaloids solamargine and solasonine as well as the sapogenins degalactotigogenin and furosta-3-13-26-diol-

5-a-26- O-(~3-D-glucopyranosyl)-22-methoxy-3- O-/~- lycotetraoside (Saijo et al., 1982). Tigogenin has also been found (Varshney and Sharma, 1965). The fruit also contains o~-carotene (Dan et al., 1982).

Aerialparts: The steroidal alkaloids solamargin, /~-solamargin and solasonine have been found (Aslanov and Norurzlov, 1978) as well as solasodine (Mathe, 1974).

Entire plant: Solasodine (Mena et al., 1974) and tigogenin (Pkheiodze, 1976) have been found.

Seed oil." The seed oil contains cholesterol (Gastaldo et al., 1977).

Callus culture." An acyclic amino acid has been found (Khanna et al., 1981) as well as diosgenin (Rathore and Khanna, 1978) and solasodine (Khanna et al., 1976).

Pharmacological effects: Leaves: An aqueous extract had insecticidal activity against Periplaneta americana and Bletella germanica (Heal et al., 1950) but a 70% ethanol extract had no antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Penicillium crustosum (Taniguchi, 1978). The 70% ethanol extract had anticonvulsant activity in mice against convulsions induced by metrazole or strychnine. On i.v. administration to rats hypotensive activity was demonstrated (Adesina, 1982).

Aerial parts: The aerial parts are toxic to livestock causing stupefaction, staggering, dilation of pupils, convulsions, paralysis of body muscles and respiratory muscles and loss of feeling, but fatal cases are rare (Gress, 1935; Harvey et al., 1945). The same symptoms are also observed in humans (Gress, 1935). Toxic effects to livestock are also reported by Woodcock (1943). Antitumor activity of an aqueous extract of a multicomponent plant mixture containing the plant has been reported (Wang et al., 1982). An 80% ethanol extract was active against Candida albicans at a concentration of 1 mg/ml (Al-Shamma and Mitscher, 1979). The aerial parts and a methanolic extract of these had antiulcerogenic activity in rats (Akhtar and Munir, 1989).

Entire plant." An ethanol/water extract (1:1) had hypothermic activity in mice at a dose of 500 mg/kg. In dogs the extract had hypotensive effect at 50 mg/kg. The extract inhibited contractions of the guinea pig ileum, caused by histamine or acetylcholine but had no stimulant effect on the isolated rat uterus. The maximum tolerated dose of the extract in mice was 1 g/kg. The extract had no cytotoxic activity when tested in the CA-9KB cell culture (Dhar et al., 1968). In pigs the plant causes stupefaction, anorexia, constipation, mus-

13

cle tremors, incoordination; convulsions, dilation of pupils, rapid pulse and respiration and coma. Vomiting is caused in some animals. The body temperature is usually normal (Link, 1975). An ethanol extract has antimicrobial activity (Dorn- berger and Lich, 1982). The ethanol extract has no antispermatogenic effect (Dey et al., 1965). A decoction has no antifertility effect (Matsui, 1967). An aqueous extract of the fresh shoots had no antifungal activity (Nene et al., 1968).

Fruits: Toxic effects of the fruits on livestock are reported by Woodcock (1943). They are generally the same as those of the aerial parts (see above). Toxic effects to humans are equivocal. Sometimes the berries are eaten with no ill effects (Gress, 1935). An extract of the fruit mixed with other components inhibits GOT and GPT in rats (Sub- barao and Gupta, 1978). The fruit is an ingredient of a multicomponent mixture which has antiinflammatory and antihepatotoxic activity in humans (Patney and Kumar, 1978; Dabral and Sharma, 1983; Sethi and Sharma, 1978).

Seeds: An ethanol/water extract (1:1) had no abortifacient or embryotoxic effects in rats at a dose of 150 mg/kg (Prakash and Mathur 1976).

Plant part not specified." An extract had no antiimplantation effect when given subcutaneously to mice (Matsui et al., 1971). An extract of the plant was active against tobacco mosaic virus (Roychoudhury, 1980). A mixture of Solanum nigrum and six other plants had antihepatotoxic activity in mice (Joglekar et al., 1963). A preparation of the plant mixed with six other plants was clinically active against viral hepatitis (Sama et al., 1976). An ethanol extract had no antimicrobial activity (Elmi et al., 1986).

Solanum somalense Franch.

Synonyms: S. anisantherum Dammer, S. withaniifolium Dammer. SMP: 221. Vernacular name: Dacuur. Plant part used: Fruits. Medicinal use: For treatment of wounds. Preparation of remedy: The fruits are burnt. Dosage: The ash is applied on the wound once a day for three to four days.



Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Synonyms: Physalis somnifera L., Physaloides

somnifera (L.) Moench. SMP: 30. Vernacular name: Ab-ab. Plant part used: 1. Fresh root. 2. Fresh or dried root. 3. Fresh leaves. Medicinal use: 1. Against intestinal pain. 2. Against gonorrhoea. 3. To treat pain in muscles. Preparation of remedy: 1. The roots are crushed and mixed with one glass of water. The preparation is filtered. 2. A piece (about 6 inches) of the root is boiled with one and a half glass of water and the decoction filtered. 3. A handful of leaves are crushed and mixed with 5 g of resin of Commiphora myrrha. Dosage: 1. One glass a day for two to three days. 2. One glass twice a day for one week. 3. The mixture is applied topically on the afflicted place.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: The sap obtained on

beating the roots is used for treating stomach ache, especially stomach ulcer. A decoction is used for colds in children, skin rashes, excess bile, labour pains, gonorrrhoea and for general ill health. A teaspoonful of the dried and powdered roots can be taken in a cup of tea or honey for the same purposes (Kokwaro, 1976). Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk (1962) also mention the use of the decoction for colds and chills. It is also used to treat repeated miscarriages in women and to remove retained conception products. An enema of decorticated roots is given to feverish infants. The root has been used to produce criminal abortion. A decoction is used for treatment of infections and eruptive diseases such as smallpox and also to treat asthma. The decoction is also used for black gall-sickness (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The root is used as a sexual stimulant and for diarrhoea and proctitis (Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962; Suwal, 1970; Puri, 1970; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977). A decoction of the dried root is used to treat arthritis (Iwu and Anyanwu, 1982). The use of the root as an abortifacient is also mentioned by Suwal (1970) and Saha et al. (1961). An extract of the tubers has also been used as an emmenagogue (Saha et al., 1961). A decoction of the root has been used as a narcotic (Suwal, 1970).

Leaves: Heated leaves are applied to various parts of the body as pain killers (Kokwaro, 1976). An ointment of the leaf is used to treat bed-sores and other sores. The fresh juice of the plant is applied to an anthrax pustule and the plant is used for disinfecting anthrax-infected meat. The juice is also used for pink-eye and conjunctivitis. A decoction is used to treat infections and eruptive diseases such as smallpox and, both externally and

14

internally, in the treatment of haemorrhoids. A paste of the leaf is applied to syphilitic sores and to erysipelas. The leaf is also used for nausea and rheumatism (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction of the dried leaf is used to treat arthritis (Iwu and Anyanwu, 1982).

Stem and stembark: An infusion of the bark is taken for asthma (Watt and Breyer Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction of the stem is used to treat rheumatism (Kloos et al., 1978). A water extract of the dried wood is used as a purgative, a diuretic and a diaphoretic (Kloos, 1977).

Berries." The green berry is crushed and rubbed into ringworm in both human beings and animals. From Somaliland it is reported that the berry is often eaten by children, in whom it produces severe gastrointestinal upset (Watt and Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962).

Seeds: Ingestion of dried seeds is claimed to be fatal (Nayar, 1954).

Entire plant: The plant is used as an emmenagogue (Saha et al., 1961).

Plant parts not defined." The plant is used as a remedy against intestinal parasites introduced by witchcraft. The plant is used as a remedy for syphilis and typhoid fever. The plant is also stated to be abortifacient (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Isolated substances: Older literature (up to 1959) is reviewed by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) and discloses isolation of a number of the alkaloids nicotine, pseudowithanine, somniferine, somniferinine, somnin, withanamin, withana- ninine and withanine. Later on, the coumarin scopoletin, tannin, a sugar, a small amount of volatile oil, the alcohols somnirol and withanic acid (C29H4506COOH). The most extensive work concerns isolation and structural elucidation of a number of ergostane steroids (withanolides A-U, withenolides, withadienolides, withatrienolides, withaferins, withanones) which have been found mainly in the leaf but some of them also in the root, the seed, the entire plant and in callus tissue (Yarden and Lavie, 1962; Abraham et al., 1968, 1975; Palyi et al., 1969; Gonzalez et al., 1972; Lavie et al., 1972; Kirson et al., 1975, 1977; Lockley et al., 1976; Kundu et al., 1976; Nicholas and Rosazza, 1976; Glotter et al., 1966, 1977; Tur- sonova et al., 1977; Hunter et al., 1979; Eastwood et al., 1980; Kirson and Gottlieb, 1980; Nittala et al., 1981a,b; Velde and Lavie, 1981; Takano et al., 1982). Other steroids (cholesten-, cholestdien- and cholestadien derivatives) have been isolated from the entire plant (Lockley et al., 1974).

Campesterol, cholesterol derivatives, sitosterol and stigrnasterol have been isolated from callus tissue (Yu et al., 1974).

Pharmacological effects: Callus tissue: An ethanol extract had no antitumor or cytotoxic activity (Yu et al., 1974).

Roots: Water extracts, methanol/water (1:1) extracts and methanol extracts had no CNS depressant activity on the mouse at doses in the range 100-1000 mg/kg (oral) (Fontaine and Erdos, 1976). Ethanol extracts were active against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans (Ray and Majumdar, 1976). Ethanol extracts and ethanol/water (1:1) extracts showed non-specific resistance stimulation (adaptogenic effect) in rats and mice (Gupta et al., 1977). The root had antiinflammatory activity in rats at a dose of 1 g/kg (Anbalagan and Sadique, 1982).

Leaves: The hexane extract at a concentration of 4 mg/ml was weakly active against Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae and Salmonella typhosa, but was inactive against Bacillus subtilis. At the same concentration the chloroform extract was weakly active against Escherichia coli but was inactive against the other three bacteria. The ethanol extract was weakly active against Bacillus subtilis, Shigella dysenteriae and Salmonella typhosa, but was inactive against Escherichia coli (dose 4 mg/ml) (Ikram and Haq, 1980).

Entire plant: The alkaloid fraction had CNS- depressant activity in rats at a dose of 5 mg/kg (Sandberg, 1961). The ethanol/water extract (1:1), at a concentration of 0.5 mg/ml, was active against Ranikhet virus and Vaccinia virus. It had an- tiamoebic acitivty at a concentration of 1.25 mg/ml. At 0.2 mg/ml the extract had no cytotoxic activity. When tested for hypotensive activity in dogs at 50 mg/kg and for hypoglycemic activity in rats at 250 mg/kg negative results were obtained with this extract. No antispasmodic activity was observed on the guinea pig ileum. The maximum tolerated dose, intraperitoneally in mice, was 1 g/kg of the extract (Dhar et al., 1968). The antiviral activity of the ethanol/water (1:1) extract has also been reported by Babbar et al. (1982). When tested for antifungal and antiyeast activity against Trichophytum mentagrophytes and Candida albicans, respectively, the methanol extract was inactive at a concentration of 0.03% (Sawhney et al., 1978). Activity against Candida albicans and Mycobacterium smegmatis at a concentration of 1 mg/ml has been reported for the ethanol (80%) extract (AI-Shamma and Mitscher, 1979).

Plant parts not specified." Negative results were

obtained in antiimplantation tests of an extract (not specified) orally in rats (Dhar et al., 1978). The ethanol extract at a dose of 20 mg/kg, intraperitoneally in mice, had CNS-depressant activity and strong barbiturate potentiation activity. No anticonvulsant activity was observed at the same dose (Dey and Chatterjee, 1968). No activity against tobacco mosaic virus was observed (Roychoudhury, 1980).

Withaferins and withanolides: Antimicrobial effects: Withaferin A, 4-/~-hydroxy-withanolide E and withaphysacarpin were active against Gram- positive organisms (Sethi et al., 1974). When six withanolides were tested against 9 microorganisms, 20-deoxywithanolide D was the most active and dihydrowithaferin A the least active. Withaferins A and D had good antimicrobial activity. All compounds were active against Gram- positive bacteria, but not against Gram-negative bacteria or non-filamentous fungi (Chatterjee and Chakraborti, 1980). Antifungal activity: Witha- ferin A had antifungal activity against filamentous fungi (Das Gupta et al., 1970). Antitumor and antimitotic activity: Withaferin A produced significant growth retardation of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma, Sarcoma 180, Sarcoma black and mammary adenocarcinoma in mice (Shohat et al., 1967). Only withaferin A and withaferinil out of 10 steroids isolated from Withania somnifera caused mitotic arrest in HeLa cultures (Palyi et al., 1969). Withaferin A was a mitotic poison, arresting the division of cultured human larynx carcinoma cells at metaphase. It had a similar but less marked effect on HeLa and embryonal chicken fibroblast cells (Shohat, 1972, 1973). LDs0 , i.p. in mice, for withaferin A was 54 mg/kg and the compound produced significant growth retardation of experimental mouse tumors and mitotic arrest (Shohat et al., 1972). Withaferin A and withanolide D inhibited RNA formation by Sarcoma 180 tumor cells. Withaferin A also inhibited protein formation while withanolide D slightly stimulated it (Chowdhury and Neogy, 1975). For the antitumor activity of withanolides, the unsaturated lactone in the side chain is important and 1-keto-2-ene and epoxide functions are essential (Yoshida et al., 1979). The steric configuration of the epoxide and OH- (or AcO-) functions in the 1-keto-2-ene AB ring skeleton are of significance for the tumor inhibiting activities of withaferin and withanolides (Moriguchi and Komatsu, 1981). Withaferin A and 5-hydroxy-6-chloro-withaferin A had marked cytostatic activity against HeLa 229 cells in culture.The lactone ring seemed to be a requisite

15

for cytostatic activity. A 2-3 double bond in ring A and the presence of a carbonyl and an OH at C- 1 and C-4, respectively, are important features. An epoxide ring at position 5-6 and a halogen atom in ring B are of lesser importance (Gonzalez et al., 1982). 12- and 15~-hydroxywithaferin A, formed by microbial oxidation, inhibited the growth and biochemical functions of grown P388 lymphocytic leukemic cells (Fuska et al., 1982). The cytotoxic activity of withaferin A and 9 derivatives thereof against P388 leukemia cells is dependant on the double bond at C-2-C-3 (Fuska et al., 1984). Immunosuppressive activity: Withaferin A and withanolide E had specific immunosuppressive effects on human B and T lymphocytes as well as on mice thymocytes (Shohat et al., 1978). Im- munosuppressive activity is also reported for 5,20- ot(R)-dihydroxy-6c~,7c~-epoxy- 1-oxo(5-ot)-witha- 2,24-dienolide (Baehr and Haensel, 1982). Anti- feeding activity: Withanolide E had antifeeding activity against L4 larvae of Epilachna varivestis (Ascher et al., 1981). Anti-inflammatory activity: Withaferin A suppressed adjuvant-induced arthritis (secondary lesions) in rats (Fuegner, 1973). 3- /3-Hydroxy-2,3-dihydrowithanolide F was approx- imately 5 times more active than phenylbutazone and equal to hydrocortisone against subacute inflammation in rats. The substance was not active against acute inflammation and did not exhibit any adverse effects on the central nervous system (Budhiraja et al., 1984). Cardiovascular effect: 3-13- Hydroxy-2,3-dihydrowithanolide F (isolated from Withania coagulans Dunal) produced mild positive inotropic and chronotropic effects in perfused frog heart, but in rabbit Langendorff preparations and ECG studies it produced myocardial depressant effects. At doses of 5 mg/kg it produced a moderate fall of blood pressure in dogs (Budhiraja et al., 1983).

STERCULIACEAE

Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori

Synonyms: Culhamia hadiensis Gmel., S. ipomoeaefolia Garcke, S. triphaca R.Br., Triphaca africana Lour. SMP: 117. Vernacular name: Dharab. Plant part used: Fresh roots. Medicinal use: Against worms. Preparation of remedy: The roots are crushed and boiled with water. Dosage: One cup daily for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: Roots bark and leaves are

16

boiled and the vapor inhaled against fever and in- fluenza (Kokwaro, 1976).


found.

TIL1ACEAE

Corchorus trilocularis L.

Synonyms: C. somaficus Gandoger. SMP: 7. Vernacular name: Dhareeriye or Gnolold. Plant part used: Fresh leaves. Medicinal use: To treat patients suffering from stomach pain when drinking sour milk or sour drinks. Probably stomach ulcer. Preparation of remedy: A handful of leaves are boiled with one cup of water. Dosage: One cup in the morning and one at bedtime for one month.

Literature Uses reported: No reports have been found. Isolated substances: The cardenolides cor-

choroside B, 3,5-dianhydroperiplogenin and tri- locularin have been isolated from the seed (Venkata Rao and Venkata Rao, 1975).


Grewia villosa Willd.

Synonyms: Balmeda corylifolia Scannagatta, G. echinulata Del., G. corylifolia A. Rich. G. chaunothamnos K. Schum. SMP: 66. Vernacular name: Kabash. Plant part used: Fresh or dried roots. Medicinal use: To treat pain in abdomen and polydypsia. Preparation of remedy: A piece of the root (about 4 × 30 cm) is boiled with 1 1 of water and the decoction filtered. Dosage: One cup three times a day for one week.

Literature Uses reported: Roots." A decoction of the roots is

used for stomach ache and for pain in the lower abdomen (Kokwaro, 1976), to treat uterine pains (Merker, 1910), as an adstringent (El Hamidi, 1970) and to treat skin tuberculosis (Bashir et al., 1982a). The root is also reported to be used as a strengthening medicine by the Masai (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The use of an extract of the root to treat skin diseases is also reported by EI-Kheir et al. (1980).

Isolated substances: The root contains the triterpenes a-amyrin, quinovic acid, ursolic acid and 19-hydroxy-uvaol as well as the steroid

derivatives campestrol, f3-sitosterol and stigmasterol (Bashir et al., 1982a,b). Stearic acid has been found in the seed oil (Grindley, 1948).

Pharmacological effects: A 95% ethanol extract of the root and the leaf had no cytotoxic activity against CA-9KB at 20 /zg/ml, whereas the corresponding extract of the stem was active (Hussein Ayoub and Kingston, 1981). In an other investigation the extract of the leaf was found to have cytotoxic activity in the same test (Hussein-Ayoub and Kingston, 1982). A 95% ethanol extract of the bark stimulated contractions of the non-pregnant mouse uterus (Theallet, 1966). An aqueous extract of the root had no antibacterial effects (Elmi et al., 1986).

VERBENACEAE

Lippia dauensis (Chiov.) Chiov.

Synonym: Lantana dauensis Chiov. SMP: 26. Vernacular name: Urure or Nunge-nunge. Plant part used: Dried twigs and leaves. Medicinal use: To treat a patient who is affected by demons and cannot speak or move. Preparation of remedy: The plant parts are cut to pieces and burnt. Dosage: The smoke is inhaled with closed eyes. The treatment is performed each afternoon for one week.



Premna resinosa Schauer

SMP: 98. Vernacular name: Jojocle. Plant part used: Fresh or dried roots. Medicinal use: Against urinary retention and intestinal pain. Preparation of remedy: Two pieces of root (about 15 cm long) are washed, cut to small pieces and boiled with one glass of water. The decoction is filtered. Dosage: One glass three times a day for three days.



Clerodendron acerbianum (Vis.) Benth. & Hook.f.

Synonyms: Cornacchinia fragiformis Savi, Volkamer& acerbiana Vis. SMP: 125. Vernacular name: Geed-kaar. Plant part used: Fresh or dried

roots. Medicinal use: Against abortion. Prepara- tion of remedy: One half kilogram of roots are boiled with two glasses of water. Dosage: The whole preparation is taken three times a day for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: Roots are used for

unspecified stomach diseases (Kokwaro, 1976). An aqueous extract is used against colic and intestinal parasites (Kerharo and Adam, 1974).

Leaves: An aqueous extract of the leaves is used as an antidote in poisoning because of emetic properties (Kerharo and Adam, 1974).


found.

VITACEAE

Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A. Rich.) Wild & Drumm.

Synonyms: Cissus adenocaulis Steud. ex A. Rich., Cissus serjanioides Planch., Vitis adenantha Baker, V. adenocaulis (Steud. ex A. Rich.) Miq. SMP: 3, 146, 153. Vernacular name: Carmo co'ley, Carmo Lo'loy. Plant part used: 1. Fresh roots. 2. Fresh roots without bark. 3. Fresh or dried roots. Medicinal use: 1. Against dysmenorrhoea. 2 and 3. To treat sterility in women. Preparation of remedy: 1. A piece of the root, three fingers wide, is boiled with two glasses of water. 2. One kilogram of the powdered root is boiled with two glasses of water. 3. The roots are crushed or powdered and mixed with cold water. Dosage: 1. Two glasses a day for one to three days. 2. One cup daily for seven days. 3. Two cups of the mixture are drunk daily for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots." A decoction of the roots

mixed with three other plants is used for treatment of stomach pain and to reduce extensive menstrual bleeding (Hedberg et al., 1983b). A decoction of the tubers is drunk warm for treatment of syphilis, abdominal pain during pregnancy and 'tambazi' (Swahili), a joint disease usually affecting the knee or the shoulder and characterized by internal pain and external swelling. A paste from the tubers is used as a poultice to draw out abscesses and to reduce swellings (Kokwaro, 1976). A paste of the root is applied to the swollen limbs in dulasi and to abscesses and boils. It is also used as a syphilis

17

remedy. The root is a remedy for the prevention of abortion (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Leaves." Boiled leaves are applied externally on the head for treatment of migraine and mental diseases. It is also used for wound treatment (Hedberg et al., 1983b). The leaves are heated over a fire and applied as a poultice to swellings. They are also put on the chest as a poultice in the treatment of pneumonia. An infusion of the boiled leaves is used as a purgative and for swollen abdomen (Kokwaro, 1976). Entire plant: The boiled plant is applied to wounds for healing (Haerdi, 1964).


found.

Cyphostemma betiforme (Chiov.) Vollesen

Synonym: Cissus betaeformis Chiov. SMP: 207. Vernacular name: Dhunkal. Plant part used: The gum. Medicinal use: As a poison to kill hyenas. Preparation of remedy: The gum is used without preparation. Dosage: No information was given.



Cyphostemma digitatum (Forssk.) Descoings

Synonyms: Cissus digitata (Forssk.) Lam., Saelanthus digitatus Forssk., Vitis digitata (Forssk.) Deft. SMP: 191,205. Vernacular name: Carmo, Geedfuul. Plant part used: 1. Fresh leaves. 2. Dried thick root. 3. Fresh thick root. Medicinal use: 1. Against malaria. Also used to prevent the disease. 2. Against intestinal worms. 3. Against snake bite. Preparation of remedy: 1. Two handfuls of crushed leaves are mixed with one glass of cold water. The mixture is filtered. 2. Two table spoons of the powdered root is mixed with 1 1 of cold water and the mixture shaken for 3 -4 min and filtered. 3. The patient should chew the root. If he is unconscious an aqueous extract is prepared. Dosage: 1. For treatment: one glass every third day. To prevent the disease: One glass once a week. 2. One cup a day every second day. The treatment is repeated three times. 3. The treatment is performed only once.


18


ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris L.

Synonyms: T. lanuginosus L., T. hispidus Presl. SMP: 55, 190. Vernacular name: Kaxar, Kaxandhi. Plant part used: 1. Fresh root. 2. Fresh whole plant. Medicinal use: 1. Used against gonorrhoea. 2. Against scorpion bite. Preparation of remedy: 1. Five root pieces are boiled with 1 1 of water and the decoction filtered. 2. One plant is chewed. Dosage: 1. One third of the decoction is taken in the morning, one third at noon and the last in the evening. The treatment is continued for seven days. 2. The chewed plant is applied on the bite.

Literature Uses reported: Root: The root is used as a male

aphrodisiac (Alami et al., 1976) and as an emmenagogue (Saha et al., 1961) A decoction is used as a diuretic (Wasuwat, 1967).

Leaf" The leaf is used as a tonic, against diarrhoea, as a galactagogue, as a diuretic, in diseases of the throat and eye and to treat gonorrhoea (Dragendorff, 1898; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Fruit: The fruit is used as an abortive in China (Petelot, 1954) and to treat male impotence in ayurvedic medicine (Kapoor and Kapoor, 1980). A decoction is used as a tonic, a diuretic and a male aphrodisiac (Chopra and Ghosh, 1929; Suwal, 1970). The use of the fruit as an aphrodisiac for men is also reported by Ahmad (1957) and Lewis and Elvin-Lewis (1977). An aqueous extract of dried fruits is used externally to treat hyperpigmentation of the skin as a beauty remedy for ladies but a 50% ethanol extract did not inhibit tyrosinase at a concentration of 100 mg/ml (Masamoto et al., 1980). The dried fruit is used as a cooling tonic, to treat gonorrhoea, as an aphrodisiac (male) and as a diuretic in gout (|kram, 1981). A decoction of the dried fruit is used to treat impotence, seminal debility and spermatorrhea (Pardanani et al., 1976).

Seed." A decoction is used for unspecified type of liver disease (Yun and Chang, 1977).

Aerial parts: A decoction is used as a tonic in spermatorrhea at a dose of 7-10 g (Keys, 1976). The use of the plant to increase libido and sper- motogenesis is also reported by Gjulemetowa et al.

(1982). The plant is thought to cause a disease in sheep called 'geeldikkop' in South Africa. The symptom complex of geeldikkop comprises a generalized icterus associated with marked photosensitization. The latter causes an inflammation of any exposed highly vascularized area of the skin. The symptoms are especially pronounced in the head where lips, cheeks and ears swell markedly. The mortality of geeldikop is very high. Post mortem there is marked icterus and ophthalmic kerz, titis. The liver cells contain a yellow or brownish pigment and there are necrotic cells irregularly distributed in the lobules. There is bile pigment in the kidney tissues but otherwise no change in the organs. Tribulus terrestris causes the disease only under special climatic conditions. The plant must be green and succulent and at the stage of seed production. It must be fed on hot days. The disease only occurs in certain areas of South Africa. It is not known in Kenya or Tanzania (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). An outbreak of a syndrome resembling geeldikkop was reported from Australia (Glastonbury et al., 1984). Hepatopathy in sheep grazing the plant was also reported by Bourke (1983). Sheep grazing large areas of the plant in New South Wales (Australia) suffered an unusual locomotory disturbance characterized by a slowly developing irreversible, asymmetrical, weakness of the hindlimbs (Bourke, 1984)

Entire plant: A decoction of the entire plant is used as a male aphrodisiac (Chopra et al., 1949).

Isolated substances: Leaf: Rutin has been isolated (Shaft and Ikram, 1982).

Flowers: The flowers contain the secosteroid campesterol, the sapogenins diosgenin, gitogenin, neogitogenin, the flavonoids kaempferol and quercetin as well as/3-sitosterol and stigmasterol (Sharma and Narula, 1977).

Fruit: The fruit contains aspartic acid, glutamic acid and a simple protein (Vasi and Kalintha, 1982), the flavonoid rutin (Shaft and Ikram, 1982) and traces of calcium, potassium and sodium (Seth and Jagadeesh, 1976).

Seed." Linolenic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid have been found (Chopra and Ghosh, 1929).

Aerial parts." Steroidal saponins and sapogenin have been found such as protodioscin (Tomowa and Gjulemetowa, 1978; Gjulemetowa et al., 1982) diosgenin (Sauvaire and Baccou, 1978), neohecogenin-3- O-/3-o-glucopyranoside, tribulosin (Mahato et al., 1981) and dioscin (Perepelitsa and Kintya, 1974; Mahato et al., 1981). The steroid

19

daucosterol has also been isolated (Mahato et al., 1981).

Entire plant: Isolation of hecogenin, protodioscin and terrestroside is reported (Tomova et al., 1981).

Plant part not specified." The isolation of steroidal saponins and sapogenins are reported in by Mahato et al. (1982) and Perepelitsa and Kin- tya (1975).

Pharmacological effects: Root: A multicomponent mixture containing the roots or root and fruits is reported to have antiinflammatory activity (Dabral and Sharma, 1983) or effect against rheumatoid arthritis (Kanth, 1981).

Leaf." The chloroform extract has no antibacterial activity (Ikram and Haq, 1980).

Fruit: An aqueous extract is reported to have hypotensive and cardiotonic activity in animal experiments (Seth and Jagadeesh, 1976). The dried fruit is an ingredient of a multicomponent mixture reported to have spermatogenic effect in humans (Pardanani et al., 1976).

Entire plant: An ethanol extract has CNS- stimulant and convulsant activity in rats at 50 mg/kg (oral) and a weak respiratory stimulant effect in dogs at 20 mg/kg (oral). A weak hypotensive activity was found in cats at an i.v. dose of 20 mg/kg. Vasoconstrictor activity was observed in dogs. The LDs0 in rats (i.p.) was 56.4 mg/kg. The extract caused cholinesterase inhibition on the frog rectus abdominus muscle at 0.5 mg/ml, and had hypocholesterolemic, hyperglycemic and cor- ticosteroid type activity in rats at 20 mg/kg (oral). Cardiotonic activity was observed on perfusion of frog heart. Smooth muscle relaxant activity was found on the rabbit duodenum at 0.1 mg/ml. The extract inhibited acetylcholine-histamine and BaCl2-induced contractions of the guinea pig ileum at a concentration of 0.1 mg/ml. No skeletal muscle relaxant activity or antiinflammatory activity was observed (Chakraborty and Neogi, 1978). A 50% ethanol extract had hypotensive activity in the dog at an i.v. dose of 50 mg/kg and inhibited contractions of the guinea pig ileum caused by acetylcholine or histamin (Dhar et al., 1968). The saponin fraction had aphrodisiac activity given by gastric inhibitions to male rats. The fractions also had oestrogenic and fertility promoting effect on female rats. In humans this fraction increased libido and had spermatogenic effect (Tomova et al., 1981).

Seed." The ethanol extract had weak activity against earthworm (Kaleysa Raj, 1975). The extract had diuretic activity in humans (Chopra and

Ghosh, 1929). The aqueous extract had no uterine stimulant activity on the rat uterus (Dhawan and Saxena, 1958). The effect of a multicomponent mixture containing the seeds on sexual functions has been studied (Jayatilak et al., 1976a). The effects were mostly equivocal but aphrodisiac activity was claimed.

Plant part not specified." A mixture containing the plant and 6 other plants showed anabolic activity and androgenic effect in mice (castrated male offspring) at 7.7 mg/animal (Jayatilak et al., 1976b).

Saponinfraction: A clinical study showed 82.3% remission of angina pectoris in 406 cases. The saponin was more effective than the control drug Yufen Ningxin Pian (67.2% remisssion in 67 cases). The saponin dilatates the coronary artery and improves coronary circulation. In long term studies it has no adverse effects on the blood system and hepatic and renal functions. No side effects were observed (Wang et al., 1990).

Corrigenda and Addenda

The following corrections and additions should be made in Part I of this series (Samuelsson et al., 1991):

Page 25: The summary states that 38 plants are listed. The correct figure is 46.

Page 29: Second column, line 21 from the bottom: 189 different species distributed in 61 plant families. This sentence should be removed.

Page 29: Second column: the following SMP numbers should be added to the SMP numbers missing from the list: 75 and 181 (no herbarium species collected), 114 and 196 (identified only as to genus). Lines 5 and 6 from the bottom: 219 should be removed as it has now been named.

Page 36: In the monograph of Aristolochia bracteolata the following additions should be made: SMP: 179. Plant part used: 9. Fresh or dried whole plant. Medicinal use: 9. Pneumonia. Preparation of remedy: 9. The entire plant is crushed and mixed with water. The extract is filtered. Dosage: 9. Two cups daily for two days.

Page 46: Cordia sinensis: SMP: 39 should be changed to SMP: 39, 127.

Page 47: Heliotropium cinerascens: SMP: 29 should be changed to SMP: 29, 162.

The following three species should be added:

CAESALPINIACEAE

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. subsp, beareana (Holmes) Brenan

20

Synonym: C. beareana Holmes. Vernacular name: Mukulisi&ga. SMP: 116. Plant part used: Fresh or dried roots. Medicinal use: As anthelmintic and against snake bite. Preparation of remedy: One teaspoonful of crushed or powdered roots is mixed with one cup of cold or boiling water. Dosage: One cup daily for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: A cold-water extract is

used for treatment of bilharzia (Hedberg et al., 1982). A decoction is used as a malaria remedy, a vermifuge and a carminative (Haerdi, 1964). The decoction is used against gonorrhoea, pneumonia, chest complaints, uterine complaints, stomach troubles and fever of malaria. The roots are also eaten for suspected syphilis (Kokwaro, 1976). A warmed-up cold infusion of the root is held in the mouth for relief of toothache. A decoction is used for treatment of malaria, blackwater fever, diarrhoea and schistosomiasis. A commercial fluid extract has been marketed for treatment of blackwater fever (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction is used against gonorrhoea (Wild and Gelfand, 1959) and against malaria (Khan et al., 1980).

Stem bark." A decoction is a malaria remedy (Haerdi, 1964). The bark is extracted by boiling with cattle urine and water and the extract used as a purgative (Kokwaro, 1976). A decoction is used against diarrhoea and the powdered bark for dressing of ulcers (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Fruits: Crushed fruits are used as a fish poison (Haerdi, 1964).

Isolated substances: No reports have been found. Pharmacological effects: The fluid extract of the

root is said to be cardiotonic, diuretic and diaphoretic (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A methanol extract had antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus but was inactive against Escherichia coli (Khan et al., 1980).

Tamarindus indica L.

Synonyms: T. erythraea Mattei, T. somalensis Mattei. Vernacular name: Raqay. SMP: 132. Plant part used: Fresh or dried leaves. Medicinal use: Against tuberculosis. Preparation of remedy: The crushed leaves are mixed with an equal quantity of crushed leaves of lemon. To three teaspoonfuls of this mixture is added one egg and one teaspoonful of ghee. Dosage: The whole preparation is eaten daily for 9 days.

Literature Uses reported: Roots: A decoction of the roots is

used to stop vomiting (Hedberg et al., 1982). The decoction is used to cure pains of the heart. A decoction prepared together with roots of Mimosa pigra L. is drunk against hookworm. A decoction prepared together with the root or stem bark of Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. is used against leprosy (Haerdi, 1964). The decoction is used against cough and fevers (Kokwaro, 1976). The root is also a component of a leprosy remedy (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction is used for amenorrhoea together with other plants (Gimlette, 1939).

Stembark: A decoction is used as a gargle for sore throat (Kokwaro, 1976). A powder of the bark together with the bark of Piliostigma reticulatum and the fruits of Acacia nilotica is used as a hemostat and to heal wounds (Kerharo and Adam, 1974). A decoction is used as an an- tiasthmatic, against amenorrhoea and as a lotion for wounds and abscesses (Watt and Breyer Brandwijk, 1962. A decoction of the bark and the bark of Afzelia africana is used against troubles during pregnancy. A decoction of the bark is taken after childbirth (Vasileva, 1969). A decoction of the bark and other plants is a leprosy remedy (Nwude and Ebong, 1980). The use of a decoction against amenorrhea is also reported by Roig y Mesa (1945).

Leaves: The juice is an antidiarrhoic and also drunk against heart pains. The leaves are also used to treat hookworm (Haerdi, 1964). A decoction of the leaves together with the twigs of Sterculia africana is used against diarrhoea (Kokwaro, 1976). Chewed leaves are applied externally to snake bite. The leaf is a purgative diaphoretic, emollient and an anthelmintic. The decoction is used against fever and as an antirheumatic. Crush- ed leaves are applied to wounds and abscesses (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A decoction is used as a cathartic (Wasuwat, 1967).

Fruits: The fruit is a laxative and is used to treat fever, leprosy and syphilis (Kerharo and Adam, 1974). The fruit pulp is purgative, diaphoretic, emollient and is also used to treat haemorrhoids. The fruit is used externally as a wound healer (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) and internally as an abortifacient (Steenis-Kruseman, 1953; Garcia-Barriga, 1974). The fruit pulp is a laxative and a decoction is used as an expectorant (Wasuwat, 1967).

Seeds: A decoction is used as an anthelmintic (Wasuwat, 1967).

Flowers: The flowers are used as a remedy for jaundice and externally, in eye diseases and on ulcers. Also for treatment of intestinal complainsts (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Plant part not specified." A decoction is used for amenorrhea (Saha, 1961) and the plant as an abortifacient (Couvee, 1952).

Isolated substances: Bark: The alkaloid hordenine has been isolated from the bark (Kerharo and Adam, 1974).

Leaves: The ketoacids o~-oxo-glutaric acid, glyoxylic acid, oxaloacetic acid and oxalosuccinic acid have been isolated (Mukherjee and Laloraya, 1974).

Seeds: The oil contains arachidic acid, behenic acid, lauric acid, lignoceric acid, linoleic acid, myristic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid (Badami and Daulatabad, 1969). The presence of linoleic acid, linolenic acid and oleic acid is reported by Haq et al. (1973).

Fruit: The fruit contains glutaric acid, glyoxylic acid, oxaloacetic acid and oxalosuccinic acid (Mukherjee and Laloraya, 1974).

Flowers: Glutaric acid, glyoxylic acid, oxaloacetic acid and oxalosuccinic acid have been found (Mukherjee and Laloraya, 1974).

Pharmacological effects: Roots: Both the aqueous extract and the ethanol extract of the rootbark had no antibacterial activity (George and Pandalai, 1949).

Stem: An acetone extract of the stem had juvenile hormone effect (Prabhu and John, 1975). An aqueous extract of the stembark had antiviral activity against potato X virus (Singh, 1971). The same extract had no inhibiting activity on protopectinase but inhibited polygalacturonase (Prasad and Gupta, 1967).

Leaves: A decoction inhibited protopectinase and polygalacturonase (Prasad and Gupta, 1967). The ethanol extract and the aqueous extract had antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus but was inactive against Escherichia coli (George and Pandalai, 1949). The chloroform extract had weak plant germination inhibition effect (Rizvi et al., 1980). The ethanol extract inhibited the growth of Allium roots (Rathore and Mishra, 1971).

Flowers: The 50% ethanol extract had antiviral activity against Ranikhet virus, but had no cytotoxic activity in CA-9KB cell culture. The maximum tolerated dose, orally, in mice was 1.0 g/kg (Dhar et al., 1968).

Fruits." The ethanol extract had antibacterial activity against five bacteria and antifungal activity

21

against Trichophytum mentagrophytes and T. rubrum (Ray and Majumdar, 1976). The ethanol extract had no antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus but was active against Escherichia coli. The aqueous extract was active against both bacteria (George and Pandalai, 1949). The 50% ethanol extract had no embryotoxic effect at a dose in the rat of 100 mg/kg, given by gastric intubation (Prakash et al., 1978). A 70% ethanol extract had antibacterial activity against eight different bacteria and antifungal activity against several fungi (Ross et al., 1980).

Seeds: A chloroform extract inhibited plant germination (Rizvi et al., 1980). The molluscicidal activity of a methanol extract was equivocal (Sofowora and Adewunni, 1980).

Plant part not specified." An 80% ethanol extract had no antiviral activity against several viruses (Van der Berghe et al., 1978).

CHENOPODIACEAE

Salsola somalensis N.E. Br.

Synonym: Halothamnus somalensis (N.E. Br.) Botsch. SMP: 228. Vernacular name: Mirrow. Plant part used: The fresh whole plant. Medicinal use: a. As a purgative, b. Against gonorrhoea, c. Against problems with the testicles, d. Against all types of worms, e. Against female sterility, f. Against fever. Preparation of remedy: The plant is crushed and a handful is boiled with 4 I of water and some meat until 2 1 remains. Dosage: One liter a day for three days.

Literature Uses reported: Root parts are employed as tooth

sticks, the fibrous roots slowly disintegrating in the mouth and the juice is swallowed. This is claimed to result in the expulsion of tapeworms (Woldu and Abegaz, 1990).

Isolated substances: The roots contain 5,3 '-dihydroxy-7,8,2'-trimethoxy isoflavone, 5,3 '-dihydroxy-2 '-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxy isoflavone and 5,3 '-dihydroxy-6,7,8,2'-tetramethoxy isoflavone (Woldu and Abegaz, 1990).


Acknowledgements

This work is part of a joint Somali-Swedish research project on plants used in traditional medicine in Somalia. The project is supported by

22

grants from SAREC (Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Coun- tries) and SOMAC (Somali Academy of Sciences and Arts).

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