Investigating Culture Influences to Information Privacy - · PDF fileKnowledge Management...

Knowledge Management International Conference (KMICe) 2014, 12 – 15 August 2014, Malaysia

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Investigating Culture Influences to Information Privacy

Wan Abdul Rahim Wan Mohd Isa, Anitawati Mohd Lokman, or Laila Md oor

and Emely Shazwan Abdul Wahid Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia,

[email protected]

ABSTRACT There is strong inclination on the importance of

knowledge management (KM) concept and role towards

ensuring components such as ethics and culture are

relevant to the applications development, implementation

and maintenance. However, less is understood on the

relationship between culture and information privacy.

The aim of this study is to investigate the cultural

influences to privacy by using Malaysia’s computer

professionals’ self-regulatory efficacy concerning

information privacy practices and Islamic culture, as the

case study. This study adapts the theoretical frameworks

of ‘Islamic Cultural Dimensions’ and ‘Information

Privacy Self-regulatory Efficacy Dimensions’. The

survey forms were sent to Muslims working in computer

or Information Technology (IT) fields in Malaysia, with

at least one year working experience. A total of 435 data

were being analysed by using Ordinal Regression

Analysis. The findings include: (i) a conceptual

framework of ‘information privacy self-regulatory

efficacy dimensions’ and ‘cultural dimensions’, and (ii)

empirical findings on the mixture of a positive and

negative empirical relationship on the culture influence

to the self-regulatory efficacy towards safeguarding

information privacy. Future work may involve

incorporating the knowledge management concepts into

information privacy and culture model to aid the

application’s development, implementation, maintenance

and usage.

Keywords: Culture, Information Privacy, Ethics

I I TRODUCTIO Computer professionals have the understanding on their consumers’ data handling and manipulation (Oz, 1992). It is important for them to understand the issues surrounding information privacy in order to protect the user’s rights (Henderson, & Snyder (1999).

In general, information privacy encompasses:-

‘The rights and responsibilities of both individuals and organizations related to the collection, use, disclosure and retention of personally identifiable information’ (Culnan, 2011).

Research issues on information privacy are mainly focused on how the data are gathered, stored, analysed and reported while ignoring the data handling process itself. However, there exists

information privacy issues related to the person responsible for managing the data (Reynolds, 2011).

There is strong inclination on the importance of knowledge management (KM) role in ensuring components such as ethics and culture are relevant to the applications development and maintenance (Samsuri, Ismail, & Ahmad, 2013). In addition, there is a need for more research to investigate on how different cultural practices of morality and computer use may shape the different development patterns of privacy self-efficacy (Kuo, Lin, & Hsu, 2007). Less is understood on the relationship between culture and information privacy.

The aim of this study is to investigate the cultural influences to privacy by using Malaysia’s computer professionals’ self-regulatory efficacy concerning information privacy practices, as the case study. The following sections discuss; (i) literature review, (ii) conceptual framework of cultural influences to information privacy self regulatory efficacy, (iii) research methods, (iv) results and analysis and (v) conclusion.

II LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Privacy, Culture and Knowledge

Management

Culture value and privacy concern had become important aspects when designing and implementing culturally-sensitive IT applications (Zakaria, Stanton, & Sarkar-Barney, 2003). IT designers can use different approaches to ensure the effective use of IT based on prevailing culture values (Zakaria, Stanton, & Sarkar-Barney, 2003).

There is strong inclination on the importance of knowledge management (KM) role in ensuring components that are relevant to the applications development and maintenance (Samsuri, Ismail, & Ahmad, 2013). Such components are (i) legislation, (ii) ethics (iii) technology and (iv) culture; which are considered important towards securing the privacy of the application (Samsuri, Ismail, & Ahmad, 2013).

Application should not depended entirely on the technology-centered development as it must also incorporate the explicit and tacit knowledge concept into ethics and culture model (Samsuri, Ismail, &



Ahmad, 2013) during the application's development, implementation, maintenance and usage.

B. Dimensions of Information Privacy Self-

regulatory Efficacy

The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) study implies

on the morality domain in self-regulation. Bandura

(1991) in his research stated that personal factors

such as moral thought, affective self-reactions,

moral conduct, and environmental factors will

interact and influence each other in both directions

(as cited from Kuo et al., 2007). There are different

elements affecting the self-regulatory efficacy and

come out with the dimensions of information

privacy self-regulatory efficacy (Kuo et al. (2007).

Table 1 shows the dimensions of information

privacy self-regulatory efficacy.

Table 1. Dimensions of Information Privacy Self-Regulatory

Efficacy (Kuo et al., 2007).

Dimension (Challenge Level)

Protection on-distribution on-Acquisition

Improper use Improper transfer Improper acquisition

Improper use Internal/external

unauthorized secondary use

Improper collection

Improper

monitoring Privacy

invasion

Improper storage

Improper transfer Improper access

Improper collection Improper analysis

Protection: One’s perception of efficacy in protecting others’ privacy

information.

on-distribution: One’s perception of efficacy in sanctioning against distributing the privacy information to others.

on-acquisition: One’s perception of efficacy in sanctioning against

acquiring the privacy information to others.

Based on the relevant literature review, Kuo et al.

(2007) has divided the information privacy self-

regulatory efficacy into three dimensions; namely,

(i) Protection, (ii) 7on-distribution and (iii) 7on-

acquisition (see Table 1). The general description

is as follow (Kuo et al., 2007):-

(i) Protection refers ‘to whether an individual can

take the necessary courses of action for

guarding accidental disclosures of information

in a public environment or setting’.

(ii) Non-distribution refers ‘to whether a person

can exert his or her control not to distribute the

privacy information of others’.

(ii) Non-acquisition refers ‘to whether a person has

the self-confidence to refuse to acquire and use

privacy information before obtaining necessary

authorization’.

C. Culture and Kansei

The studies involving Kansei span across industrial

product design, service and hospitality design,

interface design, interaction design and many more.

Kansei is unique to cultural studies. Cross-cultural

investigation were performed to understand

similarities and differences of Kansei or affective

values (Yashmi, Rizi, & Sabet, 2013; Lokman,

Ishak, Razak, & Aziz, 2012; Adelabu, Yamanaka,

& Moalosi, 2012; Peranginangin, Chen, & Shieh,

2011). Other example include cross-cultural

dynamic of demand in African design culture

(Adelabu et al., 2012) adoption of Kansei approach

for improving design process of cross-culturally

sensitive products.

III CO CEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF

CULTURAL I FLUE CES TO

I FORMATIO PRIVACY SELF

REGULATORY EFFICACY

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of Cultural Influences to

Information Privacy Self-Regulatory Efficacy.

Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of

cultural influences to information privacy self-

regulatory efficacy. The framework were adapted

from cultural dimensions (Hofstede, & Hofstede,

2005; Trompenaars, 1994; Halls, 1996), information

privacy self-regulatory efficacy dimensions (Kuo et

al., 2007) and Islamic culture (Wan Abdul Rahim,

Nor Laila, & Shafie, 2008a; Wan Abdul Rahim, Nor

Laila, & Sharifah Sakinah, 2008b).

A. High Uncertainty Avoidance (HUA)

Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) stated that ‘HUA is a

belief that often relies on the ultimate truth, and

always refers to the society that avoid taking risks

as well as uncomfortable with uncertainty’.

Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) also gives indirect

impression that the existence of Islamic religion is

based on the absolute Truth that human can possess.

Since Islam is based on the Truth belief, we can



relate the idea of Islam as HUA cultures (Wan

Abdul Rahim et al., 2008a).

B. Short Term Orientation (STO)

STO is generally ‘nurturing of virtues that are

related to the past as well as the present; respecting

the tradition and satisfying the social obligation’

(Hofstede, & Hofstede, 2005). The two similarities

of Islam and STO are; (i) Islam are concern with the

Truth and (ii) it has universal guideline on the

definition of good and evil (Wan Abdul Rahim et

al., 2008). Islam virtues came from the absolute

Truth and the focus is on the good judgement of the

past, in which the decisions are based on the Holy

Book and this can be considered related to STO

(Hofstede, & Hofstede, 2005).

C. Individualism (I D) and Collectivism (COL)

Collectivism refers to the ‘culture where people

integrated as one cohesive group’, whereas

individualism refers to ‘cultures that have loose ties

among the people’ (Hofstede, & Hofstede, 2005).

Since Islamic culture is based on the concept that

humans are as one equal and united community,

thus, we can relate the role of Muslims lies between

‘Individualism’ and ‘Collectivism’ (Wan Abdul

Rahim et al., 2008).

D. High Power Distance (HPD)

High Power Distance (HPD) concerns on the

‘inequality of power distribution in a society’

(Hofstede, & Hofstede, 2005). Islamic culture is

basically high in power distance, as the Islamic

society is expected to follow the rules and

regulations as stated by the God’s revelation and

authoritative resources. The Muslim resources are

solely dependent on their Holy Book, Prophets and

authoritative sources and this can be considered

related to ‘High Power Distance’ (Wan Abdul

Rahim et al., 2008).

E. Polychronics (POL)

Polychronic cultures are ‘able to adapt any changes

on the initial plan and prone to multitasking’ (Halls,

1966). Islamic culture is considered as Polychronics

culture due to the multiple roles and responsibilities

as an individual as well as a member of the society

(Wan Abdul Rahim et al., 2008).

F. High Context (HC)

High Context dimension requires ‘only high level

details of information exchange’ (Halls, 1966).

Islamic culture falls in High Context dimension

because of the nature of information dissemination

and communication. A good example of this can be

seen on the constant practice of common phrases

among Muslims, for instance, “Bismillah’, at the

beginning of any tasks, which reflects the attributes

and characteristics of ‘High Context’ community

(Shafie, Wan Abdul Rahim, Nor Laila, & Mohd

Shukri, 2010).

The second segment of the conceptual framework is

the Information Privacy Self-regulatory Efficacy

Dimensions, which are enclosed within the Islamic

Cultural Dimensions, consisting of three major

components: Protection, 7on-distribution and 7on-

acquisition, which are the main areas of this

research. Each of these components has their own

elements as shown in Figure 1. Furthermore, Kuo et

al. (2007) uses the Self-efficacy Theory introduced

by Bandura (1977) as the theoretical background.

Table 2. Dimensions of Information Privacy Self-Regulatory

Efficacy (Adapted from Kuo et al., 2007).

Information Privacy Self-

regulatory Efficacy Dimensions

Dimension of Culture

Influence

1) Protection

Copy Information (CI) HC – Unethical copying of

information

Protect Information (PI) STO - Improper monitoring

STO - Privacy invasion HC - Improper storage

2) on-Distribution

Not to Share Customer

Information (SCI)

HC - Improper transfer

Not to Purchase Customer

Information (PCI)

HUA - Internal/external

unauthorized secondary use

3) on-Acquisition

Not Analysed Customer Information Beyond Original

Purpose (ACI)

STO - Improper analysis HC - Improper acquisition

Not Collaborate To analyse

Customer Information Beyond Original Purpose (CACI)

HPD - Improper access

IC - Improper collection

Not Keeping Customer

Information (KCI)

HC - Improper storage

Not Gathering Customer

Information (GCI)

HC - Improper collection

Not Accessing Customer Private

Information (API)

HUA - Improper access

Not Accessing Customer

Multiple Private Information Via

Internet (AMI)

POL - Improper multiple

access

Protection: ‘One’s perception of efficacy in protecting others’ privacy information’.

on-distribution: ‘One’s perception of efficacy in sanctioning against

distributing the privacy information to others’.

on-acquisition: ‘One’s perception of efficacy in sanctioning against

acquiring the privacy information to others’.



By using the six ‘Islamic Cultural Dimensions’ and

‘Information Privacy Self-regulatory Efficacy

Dimensions’, further analysis are done to determine

on the influence of Islamic culture on the computer


the information privacy. The relationships between

the elements of ‘Information Privacy Self-

regulatory Efficacy Dimensions’ and ‘Islamic

Cultural Dimensions’ are shown in Table 2.

IV RESEARCH METHOD

There are two research objectives, (i) to propose a

conceptual framework of ‘Cultural Influences to

Information Privacy Self-regulatory Efficacy’, and

(ii) to investigate Islamic cultural influences to

privacy by using case study of Malaysia’s computer

professionals’ self-regulatory efficacy with

information privacy practice. Thus, in order to fulfil

these two main objectives, the following research

questions (RQ) are formulated and proposed:

RQ1: Does Islamic culture influence the self-efficacy of

Malaysia’s computer professionals in safeguarding the

information privacy?

RQ2: How does Islamic culture in Malaysia influencing

the self-regulatory efficacy of the computer professionals

concerning the information privacy?

Pertaining to the research objectives, questions and

model, a set of hypotheses are formulated. The list of the

hypotheses is presented as follow: H10: There is no relationship between ‘Copy Information’ (CI) and

‘High Context’ (HC).

H11: There is a relationship between Copy Information’ (CI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H20: There is no relationship between ‘Protect Information’ (PI) and ‘Short Term Orientation’ (STO).

H21: There is a relationship between ‘Protect Information’ (PI) and

‘Short Term Orientation’ (STO).

H30: There is no relationship between ‘Protect Information’ (PI) and

‘High Context’ (HC). H31: There is a relationship between ‘Protect Information’ (PI) and

‘High Context’ (HC).

H40: There is no relationship between ‘Not to Share Customer

Information’ (SCI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H41: There is a relationship between ‘Not to Share Customer Information’ (SCI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H50: There is no relationship between ‘Not to Purchase Customer Information’ (PCI) and ‘High Uncertainty Avoidance’ (HUA).

H51: There is a relationship between ‘Not to Purchase Customer

Information’ (PCI) and ‘High Uncertainty Avoidance’ (HUA).

H60: There is no relationship between ‘Not to analyse Customer

Information’ (ACI) and ‘Short Term Orientation’ (STO). H61: There is a relationship between ‘Not to analyse Customer

Information’ (ACI) and ‘Short Term Orientation’ (STO).

H70: There is no relationship between ‘Not to analyse Customer

Information’ (ACI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H71: There is a relationship between ‘Not to analyse Customer Information’ (ACI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H80: There is no relationship between ‘Not to Collaborate to analyse Customer Information’ (CACI) and ‘High Power Distance’

(HPD). H81: There is a relationship between ‘Not to Collaborate to analyse

Customer Information’ (CACI) and ‘High Power Distance’

(HPD).

H90: There is no relationship between ‘Not to Collaborate to analyse

Customer Information’ (CACI) and ‘Individualism & Collectivism’ (IC).

H91: There is a relationship between ‘Not to Collaborate to analyse

Customer Information’ (CACI) and ‘Individualism & Collectivism’ (IC).

H100: There is no relationship between ‘Not Keeping Customer Information’ (KCI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H101: There is a relationship between ‘Not Keeping Customer

Information’ (KCI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H110: There is no relationship between ‘Not Gathering Customer

Information’ (GCI) and ‘High Context’ (HC). H111: There is a relationship between ‘Not Gathering Customer

Information’ (GCI) and ‘High Context’ (HC).

H120: There is no relationship between ‘Not Accessing Customer

Private Information’ (API) and ‘High Uncertainty Avoidance’

(HUA). H121: There is a relationship between ‘Not Accessing Customer Private

Information’ (API) and ‘High Uncertainty Avoidance’ (HUA).

H130: There is no relationship between ‘Not Accessing Customer

Multiple Private Information via Internet’ (AMI) and

‘Polychronics’ (POL). H131: There is a relationship between ‘Not Accessing Customer

Multiple Private Information via Internet’ (AMI) and

‘Polychronics’ (POL).

The survey forms were sent to Muslims working in

the computer or Information Technology (IT) fields

in Malaysia, with at least one year working

experience. A total of 435 data were being analysed

by using ordinal regression analysis in order to

analyse the influence of cultural factors on the self-

regulatory efficacy of Malaysia’s computer

professionals. SPSS Ordinal Regression procedure

or ‘PLUM’ (Polytomous Universal Model) in SPSS

was used to perform the statistical analysis.



V RESULTS A D A ALYSIS

A. Descriptive Statistics

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics (Respondent Profile)

Measure Items Frequencies Percentage

Gender Male Female

261 174

60.0 40.0

Age Below 26

26 – 35 36 – 45

Above 45

68

188 115

64

15.6

43.2 26.4

14.7

Highest

Academic

Qualification

SPM Diploma

Degree

Masters PhD

Others

17 154

247

6 0

11

3.9 35.4

56.8

1.4 0.0

2.5

Current

Occupation

Programmer

System Analyst System Engineer

IT Manager

IT Executive Others

81

54 74

39

67 120

18.6

12.4 17.0

9.0

15.4 27.6

Working

Experience

1 to 2 Years Working

3 to 4 Years Working 5 to 6 Years Working

7 to 8 Years Working

9 to 10 Years Working 11 Years and Above

3

56 110

114

87 65

0.7

12.9 25.3

26.2

20.0 14.9

Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of the

respondents.

B. Inferential Statistics

In general, the ordinal regression analysis was used

in this research to perform two main tasks: (1) to

determine significant culture variable that influence

the information privacy self-regulatory efficacy

ordinal outcome and (2) to depict the direction of

the relationship between the information privacy

self-regulatory efficacy outcome (dependent

variable) and the explanatory culture variable

(independent variable). Based on the result obtained

from the analysis, it shows that there are partial

empirical supports in which culture does influence

self-regulatory efficacy concerning the information

privacy. Table 4 shows the analysis result, where

out of 13 hypotheses tested, only three hypotheses

were supported, H2, H5 and H6. Other hypotheses,

namely, H1, H3, H4, H7, H8, H9, H10, H11 and

H12 were rejected.

Table 4. Summarized Parameter Extimates (By Location).

Location Estimate Sig Hypothesis Test

1) Protection

CI HUA .050 .767 No relationship

HC .165 .263 H1 not supported

STO -.306 .119 No relationship

IC 0a 0a No relationship

HPD 0a 0a No relationship

POL 0a 0a No relationship

PI HUA .115 .476 No relationship


STO -.310 .047 * H2 supported




2) on-Distribution

SCI HUA -.073 .651 No relationship


STO -.360 .048 Negative relationship




PCI HUA .435 .028 * H5 supported

HC .034 .803 No relationship

STO -.305 .020 * Negative

relationship




3) on-Acquisition

ACI HUA .260 .121 No relationship

HC -.137 .343 H7 not supported

STO -.009 .013 * H6 supported




CACI HUA -.071 .657 No relationship



IC 0a 0a H9 not supported

HPD 0a 0a H8 not supported


KCI HUA .023 .038 * Positive

relationship






GCI HUA .179 .263 No relationship






API HUA .080 .612 H12 not supported






AMI HUA .140 .386 No relationship

HC -0.90 .515 No relationship

STO -0.20 .914 No relationship



POL 0a 0a H13 not supported

ote: * Statistically significant relationship (p<0.05)



Hypothesis H2 was supported (as shown in Table

4), by the regression coefficient to show a

significant negative relationship between ‘Short-

Term Orientation’ (STO) and ‘Protect Information’

(PI) (regression coefficient = -.310, p<0.05).

Hypothesis H5, on the other hand, shows a positive

relationship between ‘High Uncertainty Avoidance’

(HUA) and ‘Not to Purchase Customer

Information’ (PCI) (regression coefficient = .435,

p<0.05). Whereas, hypothesis H6 shows a negative

relationship between ‘Short Term Orientation’

(STO) and ‘Not to analyse Customer Information

beyond Original Purpose’ (ACI) (regression

coefficient = -.009, p<0.05).

VI CO CLUSIO

The aim of this study is to investigate the cultural

influences to privacy by using Malaysia’s computer


information privacy practices and Islamic culture as

the case study. This study adapted the theoretical

frameworks of ‘Islamic Cultural Dimensions’ and

‘Information Privacy Self-regulatory Efficacy

Dimensions’. Survey method was used for the data

collection. The data were analysed by using Ordinal

Regression Analysis.

The findings included: (i) a conceptual framework

of ‘information privacy self-regulatory efficacy

dimensions’ and ‘cultural dimensions’, and (ii)

empirical findings on the mixture of a positive and

negative empirical relationship on the culture

influence to the self-regulatory efficacy towards

safeguarding information privacy. Although only

three out of thirteen hypotheses received significant

supports from the data, the additional exploratory

analysis conducted provided promising results for

future research and exploration. Future work may

involve incorporating the knowledge management

concepts into information privacy and culture

model to aid the application’s development,

implementation, maintenance and usage.

ACK OWLEDGME T

This research is funded by the Dana RMI Principal Investigator Support Initiative (PSI), Research Management Institute (RMI), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia (Project Code: 600-RMI/DANA 5/3/PSI (258/2013)).

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