Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Chapter 2Chapter 2 Cross-Cultural Variations in Cross-Cultural Variations in

Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Chapter 2Chapter 2 Cross-Cultural Variations in Cross-Cultural Variations in

Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

CultureCultureCultureCulture Culture is the complex whole that includes knowledge,

belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society.

“everything that people have, think, and do as members of their society”

“the totality of the knowledge and practices, both intellectual and material, of society”

“the institutions, values, beliefs, and behaviors of a society; everything we learn, as opposed to that with which we were born”

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Culture: Is comprehensive Is acquired or learned Provides boundaries for members Is typically “invisible”

Enculturation is the process of learning one’s own culture.

Acculturation is the process of learning a new culture.

CultureCultureCultureCulture

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

CultureCultureCultureCulture National culture refers to the culture prevalent in a nation. It

comprises the norms, rituals and values common to everyone in that nation regardless of the subgroup affiliation.

Popular culture is the culture of the masses, with norms, rituals and values that have a mass appeal.

Subculture is the culture of a group within the larger society. The group may be based on any common characteristics identifying that group as distinct from other groups or from the society at large.

A firm’s corporate culture is reflected in a company’s values, rituals and customs, and even in corporate myths and celebrations of its heroes.

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

CultureCulture

Self-Reference Criterion -- an unconscious reference to one’s own cultural values, experiences, and knowledge as a basis for decisions.

Cultural Adaptation: Imperatives Adiaphora Exclusives

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Views of Foreign Expats in the U.S.Views of Foreign Expats in the U.S.Views of Foreign Expats in the U.S.Views of Foreign Expats in the U.S.

“There are no small eggs in America. There are only jumbo, extra large, large, and medium.”

“If you are not aggressive, you’re not noticed.” “For a foreigner to succeed in the United States…he needs

to be more aggressive than in his own culture because Americans expect that.”

Americans say “Come on over sometimes,” but foreigners learn (perhaps awkwardly) that this is not really an invitation.

“Here that [socializing outside the business relationship] is not necessary. You can even do business with someone you do not like.”

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Cultural Factors Affect Consumer Cultural Factors Affect Consumer Behavior and Marketing StrategyBehavior and Marketing StrategyCultural Factors Affect Consumer Cultural Factors Affect Consumer Behavior and Marketing StrategyBehavior and Marketing Strategy

Marketingstrategy

Consumerbehavior

Language

Demographics

Values

Nonverbalcommunications

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

CultureCultureCultureCulture

Cultural Norms are accepted rules for behavior.Cultural Values are widely held beliefs about what

is good or right.Cultural Sanctions are penalties for violations of

cultural norms or disrespect for cultural values.Cultural Rituals are sets of symbolic behaviors

that occur in a fixed sequence and tend to be repeated periodically.

Cultural Myths are stories that express some key values of society.

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Values, Norms, Sanctions, and Values, Norms, Sanctions, and Consumption PatternsConsumption Patterns

Values, Norms, Sanctions, and Values, Norms, Sanctions, and Consumption PatternsConsumption Patterns

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Culturalvalues

Consumptionpatterns

NormsSpecify rangesof appropriatebehavior

SanctionsPenalties forviolating norms

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Value Orientations Influence BehaviorValue Orientations Influence BehaviorValue Orientations Influence BehaviorValue Orientations Influence Behavior

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Environment-

orientedvalues

Other-orientedvalues

Self-orientedvalues

ConsumptionPurchase

Communications

Society’s viewof relationshipsbetween people

Society’s viewof relationships

with environment

Objectives/approaches

to life societyfinds desirable

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Cultural Values of Relevance to Cultural Values of Relevance to Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Cultural Values of Relevance to Cultural Values of Relevance to Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Other-Oriented Values Individual/Collective. Are individual activity and initiative valued more

highly than collective activity and conformity? Extended/Limited Family. To what extent does one have a life-long

obligation to numerous family members? Diversity/Uniformity. Does the culture embrace variation in religious

beliefs, ethnic backgrounds, political views, and so forth? Masculine/Feminine. To what extent does social power automatically go

to males? Competitive/Cooperative. Does one obtain success by excelling over

others or by cooperating with them? Youth/Age. Are wisdom and prestige assigned to the younger or older

members of a culture?

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Cultural Values of Relevance to Cultural Values of Relevance to Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Cultural Values of Relevance to Cultural Values of Relevance to Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Environment-Oriented Values Cleanliness. To what extent is cleanliness pursued beyond the minimum

needed for health?

Performance/Status. Is the culture’s reward system based on performance or on inherited factors such as family or class?

Tradition/Change. Are existing patterns of behavior considered to be inherently superior to new patterns of behavior?

Risk taking/Security. Are those who risk their established positions to overcome obstacles or achieve high goals admired more than those who do not?

Problem-solving/Fatalistic. Are people encouraged to overcome all problems, or do they take a “what will be, will be” attitude?

Nature. Is nature regarded as something to be admired or overcome?

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Cultural Values of Relevance to Cultural Values of Relevance to Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Cultural Values of Relevance to Cultural Values of Relevance to Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior

Self-Oriented Values Active/Passive. Is a physically active approach to life valued more than a

less active orientation? Material/Nonmaterial. How much importance is attached to the

acquisition of material wealth? Hard work/Leisure. Is a person who works harder than economically

necessary admired more than one who does not? Postponed gratification/Immediate gratification. Are people encouraged

to “save for a rainy day” or to “live for today”? Sensual gratification/Abstinence. To what extent is it acceptable to enjoy

sensual pleasures such as food, drink, and sex? Religious/Secular. To what extent are behaviors and attitudes based on

rules specified by religious doctrine?

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Nonverbal CommunicationsNonverbal CommunicationsNonverbal CommunicationsNonverbal Communications

Nonverbal communication systems are the arbitrary meanings a culture assigns actions, events, and things other than words.

In his book Silent Languages of Doing Business Overseas, anthropologist Edward Hall describes and illustrates how a culture’s norms and values are manifested through friendship, agreements, and other similar actions. Hall calls these behaviors “silent languages.”

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Cultural Communication Cultural Communication OrientationsOrientations

Cultural Communication Cultural Communication OrientationsOrientations

Low-Context countries (North American and northern European countries): messages are explicit and clear actual words convey the main point of information words and meanings can be separated from the

context in which they occurHigh-Context countries (Japan, France, Spain, Italy,

Asia and Middle Eastern Arab countries): communication is more indirect expressive manner in which the message is delivered is

critical message cannot be understood without its context

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Factors Influencing Nonverbal Factors Influencing Nonverbal CommunicationsCommunications

Factors Influencing Nonverbal Factors Influencing Nonverbal CommunicationsCommunications

Nonverbalcommunications

Time

Etiquette

Things

Agreements Friendship

Symbols

Space

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Irwin/McGraw-Hill

Orientations Toward TimeOrientations Toward TimeOrientations Toward TimeOrientations Toward Time

Monochronic cultures (Americans, Germans, Swiss) handle information in a direct, linear fashion schedules, punctuality and a sense of time that forms

a purposeful straight line “time is money”

Polychronic cultures (Japanese, Hispanic) work on several fronts simultaneously time is less important than task time and money are separate; timing is more

important than time