Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts Education?52
Is the Casting of Utilitarianas Discordant with Arts Education
Philosophy Justified?1
Jeremy KopkasRiverwood International Charter School
Journal of Thought, Spring 2013
Introduction Theterm“utilitarian”hasanegativeconnotationinartseducation,especiallyamongthosewhojustifythearts’inclusioninthegeneralcur-riculumasaestheticeducation.Thosewhosupportthenotionthattheartsarevaluableinthegeneralcurriculumsayitissobecauseofthearts’connectiontoaesthetics.Supportersofaestheticeducationassertthattheartspromoteuniquelyartisticidealsinsteadofmereutilitariangoals.Thatis,theartsarenotahandmaidenforthepromotionofextra-artisticends.Thisparticularviewofthetermutilitarianhasledtoargumentsinthefieldresultinginpersistentpartisandivisions.Onegroupseestheartsassomethingdistinctive,separate,andworthyofstudyforitsownsake,whileanotherbelievestheartsoughttobeintegratedthroughoutthecurriculumortaughtasawaytofacilitatehigherorderthinkinginanotherdiscipline.Isthereanyhopeforreconciliation?Theremightbe.Ifreconciliationispossible,alteringthewayinwhichartseduca-torsgenerally,andaestheticeducatorsspecifically,understandandusethetermutilitarianisnecessary.TobegintheprocessofreconciliationIfirstofferabriefconceptualanalysisofhowthetermhasbeenusedinartseducationdiscourse.Thisanalysissimultaneouslyrevealshowthecastingofthetermbymanyartseducatorshaslimitedthescopeofdiscussionaboutitinthearts. Inthelate1950sartseducatorslookedtoaestheticstofurtherjustifyinclusioninthegeneralpublicschoolcurriculum.Theattempttojustify
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theartsbyemphasizingaestheticsinartseducationmeantunderminingwhatscholarsconsideredtobetheprevioustheoreticalunderpinning.Utilitarianwasthedescriptivelabelofpriorartseducationjustificationgivenbyartseducatorsespousingaestheticeducationwhosoughttojustifytheartsaspartofthegeneralschoolcurriculumonanewfooting.Thevocabularyusedhashadaparticularlyimportantroleinframingthedebatearoundaestheticeducation.ScholarssuchasElliotEisner,Maxine Greene, Charles Leonhard, Robert House, Bennett Reimer,andMichaelMark2assertthatartseducationfromthemid-twentiethcenturyoughttohaveanemphasisondevelopingaestheticexperiences,aestheticattitudes,andaestheticresponsiveness.Theyusedvocabularythatcastthepreviousjustificationasinconsistentwithwhattheysawastheprinciplesandvaluesofthearts.Intheirdiscourseonartseduca-tion,aestheticdoctrineswerebifurcatedwithutilitarianones. Althoughitmaybeafalsedichotomy,whatismoreproblematictomeishowbothtermshavebeenusedinthescholarship.Inparticular,andmoreimportantforthisarticle,utilitarianisatermthathasbeendisparagedtosuchanextentthatonedarenotsayitincertaincircles,especiallyamongproponentsofartseducation.Becauseoftheattempttosupplantso-calledutilitarianjustificationwithaestheticeducation,theformertermwaslookeduponwithscorn,andinthefieldofartseducationutilitarianisatermthathascontinuedtobespurned.Thepurposeofthispaperisnottogiveadefinitionofaestheticeducationoridentifythewaysinwhichitisunderstoodinartseducation. Instead,inthefirstpartofthispaperIelaborateonthewaysinwhich views and explanations of “utilitarian” cloud the discourse ofeducators.Thecruxoftheproblemliesinthewaysinwhichthetermsutilitarian,utility,andutilitarianismaredescribed,used,andunder-stoodtocharacterizehowartseducationhastraditionallybeenjustifiedinpubliceducationintheUnitedStates.Idonotpurporttohavethedefinitiveandfinalwordonthetopicofutilitarianviewsinrelationtoartseducation,nordoIadvanceanironcladdefinitionofwhat“utilitar-ian”oughttomean.Mytaskismuchsimpler.Thefirstaimofthispaperistoshowhowscholarshaveappliedthetermutilitarianinsuchawaythatrendersitproblematicforreadersandthefieldofartseducation,andtointimatewhyitmighthavebeenappliedthisway.Concurrentwithandfollowingtheoverviewoftheliteratureisananalysisoftheterm’suse.Finally,Isuggest,verybriefly,thattheremaybehopeforrecastingtheterm“utilitarian”inartseducationinanewandperhapsunexpectedlight.
Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts Education?54
How Is Utilitarian Used in the Literature? Asappliedtoeducationgenerally,theterm“utilitarian”hasbeenexplainedashavingtodowithpracticalmattersandsocialusefulness.Thereisanemphasisonusefulendsdeterminedprimarilybyanindus-trializedmarket-basedeconomy.Forexample,HerbertKliebard,writingabouteducationduringtheprogressiveera,assertsthat
. . .modernforeignlanguagesweremoreusefulthanclassicalones,andsubjectslikesurveyingandnavigationneededaplacealongsidemasterpiecesofliteratureandformalgrammar.Modestsuccesseswereachievedhereandthereinchangingthecurriculumalongutilitarianlines.Inthenineteenthcentury,theacademy,apopular…formofsec-ondaryeducationthatincludedpracticalsubjects,becamethedominantformofsecondaryeducationinthecountry.3
NottoofarremovedfromthesameperiodoftimementionedinKliebard’swork,notedmusiceducatorWillEarhartlamentedthat
...shallwecontinuetobelievethatutilitarianthoughtandlabor,ifonlyspurredmorefeverishlysoastoproducemoretonnage,willbringaboutthemillenniumitsolonghaspromised?Dowenotknowthatself-interestbreedsself-interest,thatutilitarianismbreedsutilitarian-ism,evenaswarbreedswar?4
Alsofocusingonthesameperiodoftime,themusiceducationphiloso-pherReimerarguesthatduringtheprogressiveeducationmovement“socialandrecreationalactivitiesbecameanimportantpartofschool-ing, asdidvocationalandutilitarian training.”5Furthermore,musiceducationhistorianMarkarguesin“TheEvolutionofMusicEducationPhilosophyfromUtilitariantoAesthetic”that“Basic Conceptswasthephilosophicalculmination,intheUnitedStatesatleast,ofthousandsofyearsofutilitarianphilosophy.Severalauthorsdiscussedmusiceduca-tionphilosophyinutilitarianterms.”6Atleastsincetheprogressiveerathetermutilitarian(inbothgeneraleducationandmusiceducation)isconnectedwithsociallyandeconomicallypracticalinterests.Itisduringthiseraandlaterintothecenturythatsomeinartseducationconnotethetermasanathematothegoalsandvaluesofthearts. Eisnerisoneprominentexampleofanartseducatorwhoappliesan unfavorable emotive meaning to “utilitarian.” In espousing theaesthetic dimension in arts education, he criticizes the utilitarianperspectiveassomethingthatcausesstudentstomissoutonornotfullyunderstandtheaestheticexperience.Forhimanaestheticatti-tude“freesthemfromtheunrelentingdemandsofpracticality.”7GailBurnaford,ArnoldAprill,andCynthiaWeissalsodisparageso-called
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utilitarian approaches to arts education.Pushing the sentiments ofEisnerfurther,theyarguethat
...usingartsactivities,suchasgraphicorganizersormovementactivi-ties,nomatterhowcharmingoruseful,isnotthesamethingasseriouslyengagingintheprocessofart.Whenautilitarianapproachistaken,theotheracademicareasareoftengivenshortshriftaswell.Yes,musicuseshalfnotesandquarternotes,butpointingouttheexistenceoffractionsinmusicdoesn’tmakealessonmeaningfulmathinstruction.8
Thecastingofaestheticsinapositivelightwhileapplyinganunfa-vorableemotivemeaningto“utilitarian”isseen,again,inMark’swork.He speaks of the movement toward aesthetic education, specificallymusiceducationasaestheticeducation,assomethingthatisliberatingartseducationfromtherigidviewsofsocialefficiencyexpertsandad-ministrativeprogressives.Indoingso,Markclaimsaestheticeducationinvited“muchdeeperintrospection”thandidtheprecedingutilitarianjustification.9Inreferencetoutilitariannotionsofeducationhegoesontoassertthat“policymakerslostsightofthefactthatsuchskillsaresimplytoolsthatopenthegatetoeducation,theyarenotaneducationinthemselves.”10
LeannLogsdonalsoechoesthesesentimentsbyassertingthatutilitar-iangoalsaremoreextremethaninstrumentalonesbecausethediscourseamongartsadvocates“isshiftinginanexplicitlyutilitariandirection,withartseducationincreasinglyplacedintheserviceofrealizingmate-rialeconomicgoals.”11Iusetheterminmuchthesameway.12 Thesearejustafewexamplesthatshow,invaryingdegrees,thetermutilitarianashavinganegativeconnotation.Fortheseartseducatorsandscholarstheutilitarianisaviewthatplacestheartsinasubservi-entpositionfortheassistancetheymayprovidetoextra-artisticandpracticalhumanendeavors.Theseendeavorsrangefrompurportingtohelpstudentsimproveinmathematicstodevelopingproductivecitizens.13Simplyput,theutilitarianisincompatiblewithwhatartsadvocatessaytheartsaresupposedtoteach;atbestitassumestheartsonlyhaveinstrumentalvalue.Philosophicallyspeaking,thesescholarsappeartohaveimposedtheirreactiontothetermforthepurposeofelicitinganemotionalappeal,whichhasresultedinaviewofutilitarianthatdevi-atesfromameredescription.
Why Has Utilitarian Been Used This Way? Theemotivemeaningappliedbyartseducatorstothetermisim-portantbecausethisunfavorableconnotationofitsmeaning,asarguedbyWittgensteininhislaterworkPhilosophical Investigations,hascome
Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts Education?56
about through itsuse, its ostensivedefinition.14Arts educatorshavemadeattemptstodemonstratethemeaningofutilitybycouplingitwithextra-artisticandpracticalendeavors.Theseostensivedescriptionsareproblematicintwoways.First,utilitarianisanabstractterm,sotryingtoshowwhatitmeansisdifficult.Second,ashasbeenshown,itsuseintheliteraturelimitsitapplication,aprobleminherentwithostensivedefinitions.Theseproblemshaveresultedinanunderstandingamongartseducatorsthatistroublesome.Itisbecauseoftheterm’sostensivedefinitionintheliteraturethatunderstandingisrestricted.Connotationandostensivedefinitionarekeydeterminantsinthenarrowconceptionofutilitarianamongartseducators. Artseducatorsuseutilitarianinsuchawaythatcorrelatesittoaviewthatsupportersofaestheticeducationseeastakingplacein,through,andtoartseducation.Thatis,opponentswhoargueagainstautilitarianframeworkintheartsareconcernedthatoutsideentitiesarethrustinguponartseducationnotionsofartanditsplaceinschoolsthat,totheformergroup,areproblematic.Theviewofgroupsoutsideofartseduca-tiondeterminingtheroleandstatusoftheartsintheschoolsiscriticizedbecause,accordingtothoseespousingaestheticeducation,itisimposedbythosewhodonotfullyunderstandthenatureofthearts.Tome,itisreallyaquestionofpower.Regardless,theresponsebyartseducatorstotheexternalinfluenceisboundupintheuseofthetermutilitarian. OneexampleofanostensivedefinitionisgivenbyBurnaford,Aprill,andWeiss.Forthemthemeaningofutilitarianisshownbysuggestingthat“musicuseshalfnotesandquarternotes,butpointingouttheexistenceoffractionsinmusicdoesn’tmakealessonmeaningfulmathinstruction.”15Theterm’sconnotationisseenintheworkofLogsdonwhoassertsthefieldismoving“inanexplicitlyutilitariandirection,withartseducationincreasinglyplacedintheserviceofrealizingmaterialeconomicgoals.”16Theseartseducatorsareobsessedwiththepracticalandtheextra-artisticaspectsoftheterm.Thisnegativeconnotationofutilitarianhascontributedtoaviewthattheautonomyoftheartsislimitedandtheagencyofartseducatorsisundermined.17Aconsequenceofthisisthatartseducatorsunderstandthetermonlyasitisusedintheartseducationliterature,andotherwaysofunderstandingthetermareobscured.Assuch,itsuseisreinforcedbyconfirmationbiases,perpetuatingthesameunfavorableemotivereaction.Theconscious,andrecurringsubconscious,usesofthewordareviewedasanaffronttothearts. Thetonewithwhichproponentsofartseducationdisparageutilitarianclaimsanddistancethemselvesfromtheideathattheartsmusthavepracticalandimmediatesocialfunctionsisunfortunate.Itisunfortu-natebecauseitunnecessarilylimitsthepossibilitiesofhowtheword
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utilitariancanbementioned,used,andunderstoodinartseducationdiscourse.Inotherwords,byframingthetermthewayartseducatorshave,thesescholarshaveboxeditinsothatitcanbeunderstoodonlycondescendingly. The way in which the aforementioned scholars’ vocabulary andtoneareusedtodescribeutilitarianleaveslittlewonderastowhyartseducationadvocatescontinuetocastitasdiscordantwithartseduca-tion.Buthowdidthisnegativeviewemerge?Isitpossibletorecastit?Howmightartseducatorsbemorepreciseinthelanguagetheyuse?Whyisutilitarianassociatedonlywiththepracticalandusefulinartseducationdiscourse? InthespiritofthelaterWittgenstein,theroleofthisconceptualandphilosophicalanalysis is todispelconfusion.18 Inordertodispelconfusion regarding the application of the terms utility, utilitarian,andutilitarianismbysomescholarsinartseducation,attheveryleastIproposeartseducatorsusemorepreciselanguageorthoroughlyandexplicitlyexplainwhatismeantwhenusingproblematicterms.There-fore,insteadofusingutilitarian,themoreappropriateterms,useful,extra-artistic,practicalorinstrumentalshouldbeusedfordescribingwhatartseducatorslament.19Veeringawayfromthemoreproblematictermofutilityrequiressomeawarenessoftheetymologyoftheword.
How Has Utilitarian Been Used outside of Arts Education? Negativeviewsamongartseducatorsregardingthetermutilitarianareinpartlinkedwithitsetymologyandcontext.TheLatintermutilitasroughlytranslatesto“usefulness.”AlthoughIamnotclearhowbroadlythetermwasapplied intheancientworldbeyondthe famousphrase“Utilitas, Venustas, Firmitas”oftheRomanarchitectVitruvius,itisclearthatfromveryearlyonitwaslinkedwithuse.20Thespecifickindofuseis not apparent. In the eighteenth century utility becomes associatedwithethicsthroughthewritingsofJeremyBenthamandJohnStuartMill.Mill,however,wasalsoaclassicaleconomist,anditisclearthathisethicaltheorywasassociatedwithhiseconomicthinking.AccordingtoJohnCassidy,evenforafree-marketthinkersuchasMilltherewasalsoamoralcomponenttoeconomics,andgovernmentsneededtointervenefromtimetotimeforthebenefitofthepublic.21Focusingjustoneconom-ics,utilityisseenasthesatisfactionorbenefitconsumersgetfromagoodorservice,whichisjudgedbythepreferencesofconsumers.Here,again,weseeutility’sattachmenttouse,butnowthereisalsoanassociationwithtastes.ItisthesetastesandpreferencesthatareimportantinthedevelopmentofMill’sethicaltheoryofutilitarianism.
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ItisthroughMill’sdevelopmentofBentham’snotionsofutilitarianethicaltheoryinthenineteenthcenturythatutilitarianisrevisedandpopularized.Bentham’soriginalwork,andMill’srevisionofit,becomesthebasisofanimportantdevelopmentinethicaltheory.Millcallsit“theUtilitarianorHappinesstheory.”22Milladdresseshiscriticsinchaptertwobynotingthatinhistimethetermhasbeen“misapplied…indis-paragement,butoccasionallyincompliment.”23BenthamandMillweresimilartootherBritishreformersofthetimeinthattheirintentwastoimprovesociety.Forthem,improvementwastobegeneratedbyprovidingaguideforcraftinglegalandsocialreformswiththegoalofmaximizinghumanhappinessandpleasure.Bentham’sandMill’sargument(clas-sicalutilitarianism)isthatlawsandactionsthatpromotehappinessandpleasurearegoodwhereasthosethatcausepainarenot.CriticsofBentham’sworkwereuncomfortablewiththehedonismitappearedtopromote,evenlabelingit“swinemorality.”MilladdressestheseconcernsandrevisessomeofBentham’sviewsbyarguingsomepleasuresareofahigherorder.Forexample,intellectualpleasureswereconsideredbetterthansensualpleasures.Thepointofallthisistosaythatthereisanotherviewoftheterm,anditistopromotehappiness. Forme,theshiftintheuseofthetermiswhatisbothpromisingandproblematicforartseducation.Fewartseducators,ifany,explicitlyrecognizetheconnectionbetweenutilityandethics.Onepossibleexcep-tionisagain,Logsdon.SheusesanelementoftheethicaltheoryinheranalysisoftheworkofMaryAnnStankiewicz,PatriciaAmburgy,andPaulBolinonmid-nineteenthcenturyarteducationwhileusing theterminterchangeablywithwhatispractical.Logsdonasserts,“drawinginstructionwasviewedasameanstoaneconomicend,[so]thepolicyphilosophicallysharesmorewiththe‘greatergood’thesisespousedbyutilitariansthanwithpragmatism’snotionofanindividual’sconsid-eredinquiryintoanarrayofpotentiallifeconsequences.”24Whilesheacknowledgestheutilitarianideaof“thegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber,”itisnotclearwhethersheunderstandstheconnectionbetweentheethicaltheoryinitsfullness.Thatis,hasshetakenareductionistviewand, thereby, conflatedutilitarianethical theorywitheconomicusefulness?Ifthisisthecase,sheissurelynotalone,and,etymologicallyandcontextuallyspeaking,itisplaintoseehowartseducatorsconflatethetwo.Thisiswherethetermisproblematic. In themiddleof thenineteenthcenturywhenutilitarianethicaltheorywasbeingactivelypromotedbyMill,thetermsimultaneouslyretaineditsconnectiontopracticalityandusefulness.AccordingtotheOxford English Dictionary,W. S. Coleman in Our Woodlands (1859)writes “turning from the picturesque or romantic, to the utilitarian
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viewofthistree.”25AnearlieruseandoneclosertotheconnectiontoeconomicendscomesfromaSeptember3,1839,copyoftheMorning Herald:“Thecold‘philosophy’ofamoney-gettingutilitarianage.”26Lastlyisanexamplefrom1862thatsupposedlylinksMill’sphilosophywithpracticalends.B.BrodieinPsychological Inquirywritesof“themereutilitarian philosopher, having his views limited to some immediatepracticalresult.”27BenthamandMillwere,afterall,Britishreformerswhowantedtobringaboutimprovementtosociety,andnodoubtpartofhowtheythoughtthatmighthappenwasrootedinthepracticalanduseful.Buttoonlyassociateutilitarianwiththepracticalanduseful,especially ineconomic terms,whilealso stating that the“utilitarianphilosopher”limitshimselfto“immediatepracticalresult”missesthemarkofclassicalutilitarianism.28Fornow,theimmediatequestioniswhydidthisviewofutilitarianphilosophyemerge? Theanswer to thequestionof theutilitarian linkwithpracticaleconomicendscomesintwoparts.Thefirsthastodowiththenatureof theperiod inwhichthesenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturyscholarsarewriting.Intheindustrializingmarket-basedNorthAtlanticworldtherewasandstillisacloseassociationamongsocialprogress,economicprosperity,andpleasure.Historicallytheconnectionwitheconomicprosperityhasitsrootsperhapsmoreinmyththanreal-ity,butbecauseofitspervasivenessincontemporarypoliticaldiscourseitiscompellingnonetheless.HoratioAlger,Jr.’sfirstragstorichesbook,Ragged Dick,waspublishedin1867,merelyfouryearsafterMill’sworktitledUtilitarianism.Oneveryrecentexampleisthe2006movieThe Pursuit of Happiness,whichwasinspiredbyatruestory.TheactorWillSmithportraysChrisGardner,astrugglingSanFranciscosalesman.BytheendofthemovietheherosaveshimselfandhissonfrompovertyanddespairbypersistingandworkinghardtobuildalucrativecareeronWallStreet.Beyondtheobviousmythabouthardwork,theunderlyingmessageinbothoftheseexamplesisthatmoneybringsaboutthegoodlifeandhappiness. ThesecondpartoftheanswertothequestionofwhydidtheeconomicusefulnessviewofutilitarianphilosophyemergecomesfromMillhimself.Hewas,afterall,afigurewhoembracedclassicaleconomictheory.Morefittinglyandinregardtoutilitarianethicaltheory,sometimescalledconsequentialism,Millpositsthat“whatevercanbeprovedtobegood,mustbeshowntobeameanstosomethingadmittedtobegoodwithoutproof.”29Theendgoodispleasure.Millarguesthat:
Utility,ortheGreatestHappinessPrinciple,holdsthatactionsarerightinproportionastheytendtopromotehappiness,wrongastheytendtoproducethereverseofhappiness.Byhappinessisintendedpleasure,
Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts Education?60
andtheabsenceofpain;byunhappiness,pain,andtheprivationofpleasure.30
Hecontinues,
...accordingtotheGreatestHappinessPrinciple…theultimateend,withreferencetoandforthesakeofwhichallotherthingsaredesirable(whetherweareconsideringourowngoodorthatofotherpeople),isanexistenceexemptasfaraspossiblefrompain,andasrichaspossibleinenjoyments,bothinpointofquantityandquality.31
Milldriveshispointhomeagainbyarguingthat“theutilitariandoc-trineis,thathappinessisdesirable,andtheonlythingdesirable,asanend;allotherthingsbeingonlydesirableasmeanstothatend.”32Buthowdowedeterminewhetherparticularmeansleadtohappiness?Theanswertothisquestion iswherethetroublesets in fortheclassicalutilitarianviewandwherealinkhasbeenimpliedbetweeneconomicusefulnessandthisethicaltheory.Theso-calledutilitariancalculusisthemethodfordeterminingtheconsequencesofouractions.Theunitsofmeasurementarehedons(positiveunits)anddolors(negativeunits).Hedonsanddolorsaremeasuredinrelationtotheirduration,fruitful-ness, intensity, and likelihood.33The utilitarian calculus is clearly achallengetowrestlewithespeciallywhenonetakesintoconsiderationallthevariablesinvolved—amajordrawbackforutilitarianism.WhatIwanttodrawattentionto,however,ishowtheutilitariancalculusislikelytohaveinfluencedhowtheutilitarianisusedincommonparlance.Duetotheethicaltheory’srootsinimprovingsocietyandprovidingamethodfordoingsoitisnaturallylatchedontoforitsconcreteness.Inotherwords,theutilitariancalculus,forbetterorworse,isaneffectivetoolforconcreteevaluation.Theprocessofevaluatingaconsequenceinethicaltheoryisakintothecost-benefitanalysisofcomputingprofitinbusiness.Therefore,itisarelativelysimpletasktoapplyutilitarianethicalprinciplestomeasuringallsortsofpossibleends.Furthermore,moneyprovidesaconcreteyardstickformeasurement,andutilitariancalculusalsoaddsfueltotheargumentthatutilitarianismisconcernedwithpracticalends. Itisimportanttonote,however,thatithasnotcometomyattentionwhereMillintendsfortheconnectionbetweenmoneyandhappinesstobenecessitous.IreadMillassayingthatmoneycouldbringabouthap-piness,butitisonlyoneofanynumberofmeans.Itseemstomethatinoursocietyithasbecomethemostimportantmeanandconsequence.IalsoreadMillassomeonewhowasreallyconcernedwiththewellbeingofsocietyasawhole.AlthoughMilldoesnotlistspecificmeansthatarejustifiedinpursuingtheendofhappiness,hedoeswriteaboutwhatwe
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generallyoughttotakeintoconsiderationinthepursuitofhappiness.Hearguesthattheutilitarianstandard“isnottheagent’sowngreatesthappiness,butthegreatestamountofhappinessaltogether…Utilitari-anism,therefore,couldonlyattainitsendbythegeneralcultivationofnoblenessofcharacter.”34Hecontinuesbyassertingthatthe“spiritoftheethicsofutility[is]todoasyouwouldbedoneby,andtoloveyourneighbor as yourself.”35 For him, this idea is “the ideal perfection ofutilitarianmorality.”36TheprinciplesbehindMill’sutilitarianismaremuchmorenobleaimsthanthosewhoseeksolelymaterialgain.ThelabelofcoldpracticalutilitariancalculationisincongruentwithwhatMillassertsisthespiritofutilitarianism.Wheredoesthisleaveusinrelationtotheartsandarteducation? Whetherornottherewas/isaconsciousdivorcingofutilitarianfromitsconnectiontoethics,thecurrentuseofthetermhascorruptedourunderstandingofutilitarianism.Whatartseducatorslamentisseenintheirdiscourse.Theirdescriptionsandinterpretationsoftheutilitarianincommonparlanceultimatelyshowsartseducator’sdispleasurewiththecommodificationofthearts.WhatIsuggest,however,isthatartseduca-torsalterthejustificationdiscussion,andaddadimensiontoitscurrentbifurcatedstructure.Showthecommodificationoftheartsforwhatitis.Inotherwords,insteadoftryingtodrumupsupportfortheartsbyplay-ingthegamesetupandcontrolledbyneoliberallogic,alterittoshowthehiddenvalueswithinthislogic.InsteadofassertingeitherthatexposuretoMozartleadstohigherIQscores37orthatartsfundingshouldcontinuebasedontherationalethattheartsopensupwaysofuniquelyseeingtheworldnotaccessibleinothersubjects(theviewoftheaestheteandsomepostmodernthinkers38),artseducatorsshouldquestionthisdichotomy.Againstthecurrentmentalityofneoliberalismandarteducation’spreoc-cupationwithaesthetics,artseducatorscantakethisopportunitytoshiftthediscussionofjustificationfromoneaboutpracticalityandaestheticuniquenesstoonewhereaxiologyplaysaleadrole.
What Are the Problems and Possibilitiesof Rethinking Utilitarian?
Theideaofexaminingtherelationshipbetweentheartsandethicsisnotnew.Combiningutilitarianethicswithartseducationis,however,anareawheremoreworkcanbeundertaken.Thelackofresearchregardingutilitarianethicsandartseducationisdueinparttowhatwasarguedaboveinearliersectionsofthispaper.Utilitarian isatermthathasbeenunnecessarilylimitedinartseducationscholarship.Movingawayfromthecurrentlimitedviewofutilitariancanopenupnewdimensions
Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts Education?62
forresearch.Manyquestionsemergeatthispoint.Forexample,isittrulypossibletolinktheartsandethics?Whatavenuesofphilosophicalanalysisemergetoshedlightonthepossibilityofintertwiningthetwo?Whataretheobjectionsandobstaclestoestablishingaphilosophybasedonutilitarianisminartseducation?Isutilitarianismaworthyethicalphilosophyforartseducation?Whatmightartseducationincorporatingelementsofutilitarianismlooklike? ArtsandethicshavebeenrelatedatleastasfarbackastheGreeks,andthisassociationextendstothepresentinworksbysuchwritersasMaxineGreeneandNoëlCarroll.39BothPlatoandAristotlecommentedonthevalueoftheartsinrelationtomorality.CuriouslyenoughMarkdrawsfromthisancientconnectionandlabelsit“utilitarian”alongthelinesofmereusefulness.40Thatis,heconflatesutilitarianwiththepracti-cal,somusicisameansfordevelopingcitizensofmorenoblecharacter.Hedoesnothowever,thoroughlyprobethecomponentofethicaltheorythatwasthebasisoftheseancients’analysis.Aristotle’svirtueethics,forexample,isatopicleftunexploredinartseducationscholarship.TheassociationmadebyMarkandotherscholarsregardingtheartsandmoralsismainlyalludedtoinaverybroadsense.Ideasarementioned,butlabelsarerarelyapplied.Perhapsthisisanaccidentaloversight.Itdoes,however,leaveopentoquestiontheextenttowhichartseducationscholarsmeantoexamineethicalconnectionsinanyotherwaythanasawaytocritiquethebigideasagainstabackdropoftheirperceptionofendeavorsthatareviewedasextra-artistic. InmoderntimesKantandSchillerconnectaestheticeducationwithethics.ForKantandSchiller“aestheticsandethicsareintertwined.”41Itiswiththesemodernthinkersthatboundariesbetweenethicsandaestheticsbegintobethoroughlyprobed.Theirworkintheareaofaxi-ologyisagoodstartingpointforestablishinghowonemightgoaboutmakinglikeconnectionsusingamorerobustutilitarianism.Whiletheirargumentsonethicsaredeontological,notconsequentialist,itistheirinsightintotheproblemsofseeingaconnectionbetweenartandethicsthatcouldbehelpfulinfurtherresearch.Forthepurposeofthelatersectionsofthispaperapossiblepathforreconciliationbringsusbacktotheprogressiveera,whichiswherecriticismsofutilitarianbyartseducatorscometothefore. Dewey’sideasofferhopeatreconcilingsomeofthedifferencesbe-tweenartandethics.ForDewey,experienceiscentral.Anditisinthisexperiencethattheartistandpercipientarelinkedinanintegratedwholewhichincludesnumerousdimensions,ofwhichtwoaretheethi-calandtheaesthetic.Dewey’sexperienceisanactiveunifiedprocessof “doing and undergoing,” which combines “outgoing and incoming
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energy” where there is “perception organically, sensory satisfaction,externalembodiment,anddynamicorganization.”42AccordingtoDewey,the“moralfunctionofartitselfistoremoveprejudice,doawaywiththescalesthatkeeptheeyefromseeing,tearawaytheveilsduetowontandcustom,perfectthepowertoperceive.”43Itisthisconnectionbetweenartandmoralitythatisboundupintheperceptualexperience.Inthistypeofexperiencetheartsareawayofseeingthatisakintotop-downperception.44It isthroughthiskindoftop-downrecognitionthattheparticipantintheartscanbegintoactivelybringtotheforepossibleconnectionsbetweenseeinghowwelookatandunderstandmoralsandhowweseeartinparticularcontexts.Themorevariedassociationsonecanmake,thegreaterthepotentialtogobeyondwhatweexpecttoseetoseeingsomethingelsethatmighthavebeenpreviouslyoverlooked.Aparticipantintheartsmaybeabletoseesomethingthatcouldbemissedbyanon-participant.ConsiderthepaintingThe Forest Has EyesbyBevDoolittle,forexample.Iamnotsuggestingthatseeingthehiddenfacesinthispaintingbringsaboutaheighteneddegreeofmoralityinthepercipient.WhatIamsuggestingisthatitisthroughtheartsthatanadditionalkindofperceptualexperienceopensupnewanddifferentexperiencestothepercipientthatsomeonenotinvolvedintheartsmaynotbeabletoincorporateintheirtop-downprocessing.Thisaddition-allyperceptualdimensionmayinturnleadtoamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofmoralityandart.Alongthislineofthought,Deweypointstotheimportanceofreconcilingartandethicsinhisdescriptionofanactiveandcultivatedsenseofappreciation.45Developmentofthisactiveandcultivatedsenseis“thechiefmatterwherevervaluesenterin,whetherintellectual,estheticormoral.”46Hegoesontoassertthat“whatisestheticallyadmirable,intellectuallyacceptableandmorallyapprovableisthesupremetasksettohumanbeingsbytheincidentsofexperience.”47ForDewey,“inlifethatistrulylife,everythingoverlapsandmerges.”48Artisnotintheserviceofmorality,norismoralityin-debtedtoart.So,whileDeweygivesartamoralfunction,hedoesnotlimitarttothis.Instead,IreadDeweyassomeonewhoseesaestheticsandethicscontributingtoanintegratedwhole.Itisanexperienceaspartofanintegratedwholethatholdsmuchpromiseforreconcilingartseducationandutilitarianism. Deweyassertsthat“consequencesissuefromeveryexperience,andtheyarethesourceofourinterestinwhatispresent.”49Inasimilarvein,Deweystatesthat“mindiscapacitytoreferpresentconditionstofutureresults,andfutureconsequencestopresentconditions.”50ADeweyanexperiencethattakesintoaccountconsequencesisalsocapableofbring-ingtogetherindividualpreferences.Whatweshouldbeaskingishow
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wecanengenderthesetypesofexperiences,intheirpluralisticrichness,inschools.WhatIamassertinghereisthatDeweydoesnotaskustoignoreMill.Thatis,theexperientialistviewandtheconsequentialistperspectivepossesadegreeofcomplimentarityinanintegratedwhole.Therearepointsofcompatibilityinthetwoviews.Critics,however,maydisagreewiththeclaimthatDeweyannotionsofanexperiencecanbeusedtosupportconsequentialistethicalthought.Howcanitbethatartseducationhasasitsconsequencehappinesswhilesimultaneouslybeingconcernedwiththemeanstoanynumberofpossibleends,theymaysay.Muchmoreneedstobesystematicallyworkedoutonthisidea,butbeforetheinevitablecriticismarrives,itmightbehelpfultoruminateonthisproposalthatisapromptforconsiderationasawayoutofthecurrentimpasse.Thatis,Dewey’sideasontheeducativeexperiencecan,insomecases,becompatiblewithconsequentialism.Itisclearthat,forDewey,themeansmatter,buthemovesbeyondthistakebysuggestingtheendsmat-tertoo.Hewrites“sincewedonotanticipateresultsasmereintellectualonlookers,butaspersonsconcernedintheoutcome,wearepartakersintheprocesswhichproducestheresult.Weintervenetobringaboutthisresultorthat.”51Meansandendsareimportantinartseducation,andmeansneednotnecessarilybelimitedtotheimmediatelypractical. Frommyperspective, thehopeforadvancingartseducationdis-courseincorporatingelementsofutilitarianismistosynthesizeaspectsof Deweyan experientialism with it. Pure utilitarianism as a loneframeworkforartseducation,however,isproblematic.Accountingforeachandeveryhedonanddolorassociatedwith theproductionofaschoolplay,letalonedoingthisonanationalscale,wouldbeunwieldy.Utilitarianismalsohastheproblemoftryingtoovercomethefactthatsomeunsavorymeanscanbejustifiedaslongastheendisachieved.Yetitishardtoimagineschoolswithoutformalinstructionintheartsnothavinganeffectonthehappinessandwellbeingofmany.Onecouldmaketheargumentthatremovingartsfromtheschoolsmightresultingreaterhappinessforsocietyasawhole,butprovingitwouldbeasdifficultasitsopposite.Undoubtedlytheformerargumentshouldrelyonsomematerialeconomicconcerns,butrelianceonsuchstatementswouldnotgenuinelybeinthespiritofMill.Neitherwoulditbeinthespiritofhumanity,whichhasbeenparticipatinginexperienceswithartsinceprehistory. Whatartseducatorshavechafedatiswhattheyinterpretastheoverlyrationalelementsofutilitarianismwhich,tothem,drownouttheemotionalaspectsoflife,keycomponentsofartisticcreationandperception.Whatismissed,however,isthattheutilitarianviewisnotcoldlyrational.Itisverymuchinspiredbyoneofapproximatelyfiveor
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sixbasicemotionsofhumans,happiness.WhatIamsuggesting,then,isthatbroadexperiencesthatincludetheartsandethics,wherehap-pinessisaresult,arecentraltolearninginthearts.Thisisnottosaythathappinessistheonlyworthyemotionintheartsbut,thinkingmorebroadly,ifstudentshavetheopportunitytoexploretheartsandtocomeintocontactwitharangeofhumanemotions,theconsequenceoftheseexperiencesisan“activeandcultivated”pleasure.Furthermore,artisticexperiences,bothintheperceivingandthecreating,canalsoinduceastateof“flow”asproposedbyMihalyCsikszentmihalyi.Forhim,hap-pinessisachievedwhensomeoneiscompletelyabsorbedinaparticularactivitythatisbothchallengingandrequiresadegreeofskill.52Inthiswayhappiness isbothcentraland important in theshort termasacomponentpartinanartsexperiencewhilesimultaneouslyexistingasanextra-artisticendforademocraticsocietyaswellasaworthypartoftheartisticexperienceinthelongrun.Unionofaneducativeexperienceandthearts,wherehappinessisbothmeansandanendoflearningandisalsoethicallydesirable,ispossible. Utilitarianismintheartsclassisnothavingstudentspaintpicturesofthecountry’sflaginordertoinstillasenseofprideinthenation-state.First,thisisanideafoistedonthestudentfromtheteacher,and,second,itisaleaptothinkthatnationalismnecessarilypromoteshap-piness.Finally,thisnarrowconceptionofutilitarianisonethatadvancestheviewtheartsareintheserviceofasociallypracticalgoalsuchaspatriotism. Furthermore, the tastes and preferences of the studentsareextremelyrestricted,anditisdifficulttofindhowquestionsaboutmoralitycanbeworkedthroughwithaprojectsuchasthis.Abetterexampleofincorporatingutilitarianethicalideasintheartscurriculum,andspecifictosecondaryeducation,mightbebeginningtheyearwithallowingstudentsinthedramaclass,betteryettheschool,tocreateaproductionoftheirownmaking,perhapsonethatwrestleswithnotionsofhappinessandmorality.Thestudentswouldhavetheresponsibilitiesofwritingthescreenplay(anddoingtheresearchthatcomesalongwithdevelopingthetopic,creatingcharacters,andadvancingastoryline,etc.),casting,setdesignandconstruction,directing,managing,andpromot-ing.Whilethereisnotaguaranteethathappiness,thecommongood,ordeterminingrightfromwrongforallparticipantsinvolvedinthisexperienceistheconsequence,itmightbepossibletoreflectonwhatconstituteshappinessoverthecourseoftheprojectandatitstermina-tion.Happinessandflowsurveysthatcurrentlyexistcouldbemodifiedforthestudentsparticipatingintheprojectaswellasforthosewhoattendtheperformance.Tastesandpreferencescouldbequalitativelydiscussed,aswellasattemptsmadetoemployutilitariancalculusto
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measuretheintensity,duration,andgenerativequalitiesofthehap-piness.Regardless,weoughttokeep inmindthathappinesshasaninfluenceoneachofus.DavidMeyerscitesresearchtothiseffectthatestablishestheimportanceofhappinesstoourexistence.Hereferences“TheInfluenceofPositiveAffectonDecision-MakingStrategies”byAliceIsenandBarbaraMeans,whoarguethat“peoplewhoarehappy…makedecisionsmoreeasily,”andin“Mood,Misattribution,andJudgmentsofWell-Being:InformativeandDirectiveFunctionsofAffectiveStates,”Norbert Schwarz and Gerald Clore show that those who are happy“reportgreatersatisfactionwiththeirwholelives.”53WhileitmaybedifficulttogosofarasMillbyassertinghappinessistheonlyintrinsicgood,workingtowardhappinessandwellbeingisaworthygoal.
Conclusion Ifanethicaltheorysuchasutilitarianism/consequentialismistohaveanypromiseinartseducation,manyproblemsandquestionsmustbeovercomeandansweredusingsoundreasoningandsystematicanalysis.Whilethisisnotataskforartsadvocatestotakeonlightly,ithasthepotentialtogeneratemeaningfuldialogue.Inadditiontousingclassicalutilitarianismasabasisforevaluationandanalysis,theconsequentialistworkofG.E.Moore,forexample,mayextendtheconversationevenfurther.Inanycase,itishightimetomovethejustificationconversationintheartsfromitsdichotomousdiscussionbetweenpracticalityandaestheticstoonethatincludesanethicaldimensionusingaspecificmodel.Thereisaneedtobreakfreefromthepostmodernaestheticistthoughtabouttheartswhereartissetapartasauniquedomainuntoitself.Finally,areartseducatorsjustifiedincastingutilitarianasdiscordantwiththearts?Perhaps,butmaybeinonlyoneuseoftheterm.Moretothepoint,artseducatorsareresponsibleforframingtheconversationaboututilityinsuchamannerthatitunnecessarilylimitspotentialconversationssuchastherelationoftheartsandethics.Ihopetheviewspresentedherebegintoalterthecurrentviewofthetermutilitarianandrevealpossiblenewdirectionsinresearchandunderstanding.
Notes 1ThisarticleisaversionofmypaperthatwaspartofapaneldiscussionattheSoutheastPhilosophyofEducationSociety,Birmingham,AL,February10-11,2012. 2SeeCharlesLeonhardandRobertHouse,Foundations and Principles of Music Education(NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1959);BennettReimer,A Philosophy of Music Education(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1970);
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ElliottW.Eisner,The Educational Imagination: On the Design and Evaluationof School Programs(NewYork:Macmillan,1979);MichaelMark,“AHistoricalInterpretationofAestheticEducation,”Journal of Aesthetic Education 33(4),Winter1999,7-15;andMaxineGreene,Variations on a Blue Guitar: The Lincoln Center Institute Lectures on Aesthetic Education(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2001). 3HerbartM.Kliebard,“WhatHappenedtoAmericanSchoolingintheFirstPartoftheTwentiethCentury?”inLearning and Teaching the Ways of Knowing: Part II of the 84th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education(Chicago:theNationalSocietyfortheStudyofEducation,1985),1-22,4. 4WillEarhart,“FundamentalsinMusicValues,”inJournal of Proceedings of the Music Supervisors National Conference,TwentiethYear,ed.PaulJ.Weaver(Privatelyprinted,1927),35-39,37. 5BennettReimer,APhilosophyofMusicEducation(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1970),7. 6MichaelMark,“TheEvolutionofMusicEducationPhilosophyfromUtilitar-iantoAesthetic.”Journal of Research in Music Education, 30(1),Spring1982,15-21,18. 7ElliotEisner,“WhatDoChildrenLearnWhenTheyPaint,”inReimagin-ing Schools: The Selected Work of Elliot Eisner(NewYork:Routledge,2005),60-67,66. 8GailBurnaford,ArnoldAprill,andCynthiaWeiss,eds.“ArtsIntegration:WhatIsItandWhyDoIt?”inRenaissance in the Classroom: Arts Integration and Meaningful Learning(NewYork:Routledge,2001),1-21,16. 9MichaelMark,“HistoricalInterpretation,”9. 10Ibid.,12. 11LeannLogsdon,“Re-imaginingArts-centeredInquiryasPragmaticIn-strumentalism”(Ph.D.diss.,GeorgiaStateUniversity,2011),34.LogsdonarguesthatLoisHetlandconflatesinstrumentalismandutilitarianism.Iagree.Ialsothinkthatmanypeopleusethetwotermssynonymously. 12JeremyKopkas,“Soundings:MusicalAestheticsinMusicEducationDis-coursefrom1907to1958”(Ph.D.diss.,GeorgiaStateUniversity,2011),passim. 13Inhertestimonybeforeacongressionalsubcommittee,JuneM.Hinckley,aformerpresidentoftheMENC,theNationalAssociationforMusicEducation,statedthat“wehaveagrowingbodyofresearchthattellsusthattheseexperi-encesofmakingmusicandplayingmusicstimulatesmorethanjusttheirmusicaltalent,itstimulatestheirintellectaswell.Dr.FrancisRauscherandGordonShawattheUniversityofCaliforniaatIrvine,havedoneavarietyofstudiesthatshowtheimpactofmakingmusicinanorganized,concrete,sequentiallearningmanner,andtheimpactonspatial,temporallearningabilitywhichrelatestomathskills.”Congress,HouseofRepresentatives,CommitteeonEducationandtheWorkforce,Elementary and Secondary Education Act—Educating Diverse Populations: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Youth and Families,106thCong.,1stsess.,15July1999.EdwardBaileyBirge,whoseworkiswidelyquotedinmusiceducationliterature,assertedthatmusiceducationisnecessaryfor,andrelatedto,democracyintheUnitedStates:itspublicsanctionbeinggiveninBostonin1838,and,accordingtohim,musicisabletosustain
Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts Education?68
ademocraticsocietybecause“throughvocalmusicyousetinmotionamightypowerwhichsilently,butsurely,intheend,willharmonize,refine,andelevateawholecommunity.”Theideaofmusicbecomingpartoftheschooldaywasdis-cussedbytheBostonSchoolCommitteein1838.EdwardBaileyBirge,History of Public School Music in the United States(NewYork:OliverDitsonCo.1928;reprintWashintonD.C.:MusicEducatorsNationalConference,1966),47. 14 Kenny,Anthony, ed., The Wittgenstein Reader (Oxford, UK: BlackwellPublishers,1994),55.TheexamplesgivenbyWittgensteinareconcretetermsbecausemoreabstracttermslikeutilityrevealtheproblemsthatostensive,ordemonstrable,definitionshave. 15Burnaford,Aprill,andWeiss,Renaissance in the Classroom,16. 16Logsdon,“Re-imaginingArts-centeredInquiry,”34 17InthecaseofmusiceducationthisargumentisgivenbyMichaelMarkinMichaelMark,“HistoricalInterpretation,”7-15. 18“Philosophymayinnowayinterferewiththeactualuseoflanguage;itcanintheendonlydescribeit.”Kenny,The Wittgenstein Reader,269. 19Regardingtheterminstrumentalthereisalsoapotentialproblem,whichisidentifiedbyJohnDeweyinArt as Experience.Inartseducationliteratureinstrumentalmaybeappliedinthenarrowsense,whichalignswithhowutilitar-ianisunderstood,andinbroadsense.Deweyexplainsthenarrowsenseas“theprocessofcontributingtosomenarrow,ifnotbase,officeofefficacy.”Inthebroadsensetheinstrumentalcarrieswithittheideathatcontinualcontemplationofaworkofartisaprocessofrenewaland“re-educationofvision.”Attheriskofbecomingmiredinanidenticalproblemitissimplyenoughtounderstandthatiftheterminstrumentalisadoptedbymusiceducators’theiruseofitintheseinstanceswouldbeinthelimitedsenseratherthanthebroadideaproposedbyJohnDewey.JohnDewey,Art as Experience(NewYork:TheBerkleyPublishingGroup,1934/2005),145. 20ThisLatinphraseroughlytranslatesarchitecturallytofunction,beauty,andstructure. 21JohnCassidy,How Markets Fail: The Logic of Economic Calamities(NewYork:Farrar,Straus&Giroux,2009),34. 22JohnStuartMill,Utilitarianism and On Liberty: Including Mill’s ‘Essay on Bentham’ and Selections from the Writings of Jeremy Bentham and John Austin,2ded.ed.MaryWarnock(Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing1861/2003),183. 23Ibid.Inthesecondchapterheaddressesanumberofmisinterpretationsoftheterm.Inonespothemeansthatitwasdisparagedbecauseofthecon-temporaryviewbyreligiousleadersandotherscholarsthatitwasahedonisticphilosophy,butthisisnotalwaysthecase. 24Logsdon,“Re-imaginingArts-centeredInquiry,”2011. 25Oxford English Dictionary,electronicedition,(Oxford,UK:OxfordUni-versityPress,2012). 26Ibid. 27Ibid. 28 IdisagreewithBrodie’sassessmentofutilitarianismbut it isnotthepointheretodelveintowhy.MyviewsastowhyBrodieisoffthemarkemergelaterinthearticle.
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29Mill,Utilitarianism,184. 30Ibid.,186. 31Ibid.,190. 32Ibid.,210. 33ForadecentexplanationofeachoftheseideasseeBarbaraMacKinnon,Eth-ics: Theory and Contemporary Issues,6thed.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,2009). 34Mill,Utilitarianism,189-190. 35Ibid.,194. 36Ibid. 37FrancisRauscher,GordonShaw,andKatherineKy,“MusicandSpatialTaskPerformance,”Nature, 365 (October1993):611.This is the studyJuneHinckleycitedinhertestimonybeforetheSubcommitteeonEarlyChildhood,YouthandFamiliesibid. 38FromtheperspectiveoftheaestheteMonroeBearsdleyassertsthattheartsareaso-called“functionclass.”Thatis,“thereissomethingthataestheticobjectscandothatotherthingscannotdo,ordoascompletelyorfully.”MonroeBeardsley,Aesthetics: Problems in the Philosophy of Criticism(NewYork:Harcourt,Brace&Company,1958),526.Regardingthepostmodernviewpoint,FredricJamesonsum-marizessomeofAntoineCampagnon’sLes Cinq Paradoxes de la Modernité(Paris,1990)bystatingthat“massculture(letussay,popart)amountssimplytothecomingtoconsciousnessandawakeningofaprofoundlyinauthenticarttoitsowndeepcomplicitywiththemarketsystemassuchandtothecommodityform…thepostmodernhasthusforCompagnonandothersatleastoneimaginablypositivefunction:tocleansethemoderntraditionofitsanti-ortrans-aestheticmotives,topurifyitofwhateverwasprototypicalorhistorical,orevencollective,init,toreturnartisticproductiontothedisinterestedaestheticactivitythatacertainbourgeoistradition(butnotthatoftheartiststhemselves)alwaysattributedtoit.”FredricJameson,The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern, 1983-1998(NewYork:Verso,1998),118,120. 39 See Maxine Greene, Variations on a Blue Guitar: The Lincoln Center Institute Lectures on Aesthetic Education(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2001).GreenealsofoundedTheMaxineGreeneCenterforAestheticEducation,thepurposeofwhichis“togenerateinquiry,imagination,andthecreationofartworksbydiversepeople.Ithastodosowithasenseofthedeficienciesinourworldandadesiretorepair,whereverpossible.Justice,equality,freedom–theseareasimportanttousasthearts,andwebelievetheycaninfuseeachother,perhapsmakingsomedifferenceatatroubledtime.”MaxineGreene,http://www.maxinegreene.org/index.html.CarrolladdressessomeofthechallengesoflinkingartandaestheticsinNoëlCarroll,“ArtandEthicalCriticism:AnOverviewofRecentDirectionsofResearch,”Ethics110,no.2(January2000):350-387.SeealsoNoëlCarroll,“AttheCrossroadsofEthicsandAesthetics,”Philosophy and Literature, 34(1),April2010,248-259. 40MichaelMark,“TheEvolutionofMusicEducationPhilosophyfromUtili-tariantoAesthetic,”15-21. 41ZviTauber,“AestheticEducationforMorality:SchillerandKant.”Journal of Aesthetic Education, 40(3),Fall2006,22-47,22.
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42Dewey,Art as Experience,50-53,57. 43Ibid.,338. 44 Psychology’s notion of top-down perception is the cognitive processesinvolvedinsortingoutthephysiologicalstimulus(bottom-up)fromourenviron-mentwhichreliesonmemory,expectation,andthought. 45JoAnnBoydson,ed.,John Dewey The Later Works, 1925-1953,vol.4:1929,The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action,byJohnDewey,withanintroductionbyStephenToulmin(Carbondale,IL:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress1929/1988),209. 46Ibid. 47Ibid. 48Dewey,Art as Experience,17. 49Boydson,John Dewey The Later Works,203. 50JohnDewey,Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education(NewYork:TheFreePress,1916/1997),103. 51Ibid.,102. 52MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience(NewYork:Harper&Row,1990),andFinding Flow: The Psychology of Engage-ment With Everyday Life(NewYork:BasicBooks,1998). 53AliceIsenandBarbaraMeans,“TheInfluenceofPositiveAffectonDeci-sionMakingStrategy,”Social Cognition, 2(1),March1983,18-31;referencedinDavidG.Meyers,Psychology,5thed.(NewYork:WorthPublishers,1998),406,andNorbertSchwarzandGeraldClore“Mood,Misattribution,andJudgmentsofWell-Being:InformativeandDirectiveFunctionsofAffectiveStates,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(3),September1983,513-523;referencedinMeyers,Psychology,406.
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