ISME MANGROVE CTION PLAN Rev1(F) e.pdf · management and utilization of mangroves, have brought...

ISME MANGROVE CTION PLAN

for the sustainable managementof mangroves 2004-2009

I^.

Published under ITTO Preye PPD 7

International Societyfor MangroveEcosystems

Re I (F)

International

Tropical TimberOrganization

ITTO/ISME Pre"ProjectAction Plan on Sustainable Mangrove ManagementPP017/01 Rev. I (F)

International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)ITTO was established in 1986 under the International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) following increasing worldwideconcern about the fate of the tropical forests, ITTO battles as much for tropical forest conservation and development* as fortrade of timber, now listed as a commodity by the DNCTAD (United Nations Conft:tence for Trade and Development). Trio isbased at Yokohama, Japan. URL: ht ://WWW. ino. 0r. '

International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME)ISME is an international non-governmental, non-profit organization, It is a follow up of the UNDP/UNESCO RegionalMangrove Projects in Asia and the Pacific. The need to establish an international society arose from the research, ITainingactivities and studies commissioned by the UNDP/UNESCO Projects on the nature and management of mangrove ecosystems.Among other items, the Statutes of ISME say that "the Society shall collect, evaluate and disseminate infonnation on mangroveecosystems" and "Promote international cooperation. " URL: ^^^PI, ^^9!

ISME Mangrove Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Mangroves 2004 - 2009

ISME IvlANGROVE ACTION PLAN

for the sustainable management of mangroves 2004-2009

International Society for Mangi'ove Ecosystemsand

International Tropical Timber Organization

October 2004


Coordinator: F, Biasco

Contributed by: S. A1<sornkoae, I. ATonson, S. Baba, N. Duke, C. GOTdon, S, Johnson, M, Kainuma, N.OShiro, P. Saenger, H. Sarichez, M. Spalding, M. Steyaert, M. Vannucci (names listed in alphabeticalorder of sunname)

Cover photo; mangrove playground for children. Kiribati, Photo by S. BabaBack cover photo: Kinbati. Photo by S. Baba

Published in October 2004 by International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan, as thenutput of Ih, ITTO/ISME P, e-Proje. I PP017/01 Rev. I(F)* entitled "Action Plan on SustainableMangrove Management"

IsBN: 4,06584-10-I

Printed on recycled paper

,


Foreword ..,,......,,,,..""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""' I

Executive Summary .,...........,....,.....,,....,...........,......,.....,.,,....,,,................,...,,,,,...,,,,..........,....,....,.... 3

ISME Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Manoroves 2004-2009 ....,,....,..........,.....,,.. 5

I B k d d I f t -----..---..,------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

2. Origin of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems, .................................,............. 6

3 . Ke Issues Res onses/ Activities . . .,, , ,. . .. , .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . , .. .. , .. . .. . . .. ... ... . . . .. .. . .. , .. .. , , , .. . ., ,. . .. .. . 7

Over-use (fores fisheries) ... ,. . .. , , .. . .. ,. .. .. ... . .,. . . .. . .,. ... .. . .. . .. , ... .. .... ., . . .. . . .,. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8

Aquaculmre ....,....,......,.....,,...,......,,.........,....................,.....,..........................,.....,...........,... 9

Pollution/sedimentation (Including o1Vgas) - - - --,,,,...,,,.........,.....,,,.. "' ' ' ' ' ' ' "' ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' "' ' ' ' ' " ' ' "' ' ' 9

Hydrological modification (Inland and coastal) ,.,,................,...,,....,........,.... ............,..... I O

Coastal land use changes - agriculture, infrastructure and buildinos, reclamation, eic. ... 10

Lack of appropriate legislation and enforcement of regulations. ....,.,......,,.........,...........,. I I

Shortage of capacity, Inarigrove specialists, managers, technicians ,.........,...,,....,,,,..,,..... 11

inadequate communication, education, public awareness and participation ...,...,..,...,,.... 12

Climate changer sea-level rise. ... ... ... . .. . ,, ... ... ... . . .,. .... ... .. .,.. .. .,. .... .. ... . .. . .. .. . ... ... .. . . . ..,. ... .. , .. . .. 12

4 ACt ties at Global to o1 ,.....,..,..,.,...,........,..................,,...,,...,.,,....,.....,,.....,..........,......,.,..,. 13

5 . Conclusi o11 .....................,....,,,,....,,...,.............,............,.,.........,.....,.,.....,,,...,,,,...,,..........,....,, I 4

Reference ..,,........,,,....,...........,...,,.....,,,...,,.................,...............,................,.............,,...,,................. I 5

A d I ITTO D 9 XXIX , ,.. . .. , . . . ., . .. . .. , ... . .,,. ... . .. , .. . .. . .. .,. .. . . .. .. . .. . . . . ... .. , .. .,, ,.. . .. , .. . .. . .. ., 17

A d 2 Ch rtf M ...............,....................................................,.........--------------- I 8

Table of contents


Acronyms

EABRN

ECOSOC

EIA

GLOMIS

TABO

Icon

IUCN

IPCC

ISME

ITTC

ITfO

Ions

JICA

NGO

SeaBRnet

East Asian Biosphere Reserve NetworkUnited Nations Economic and Social Council

Environmental Impact AssessmentGlobal Mangrove Database and Information SystemInternational Association of Biological OceanooraphyInternational Council of Scientific Unions

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeInternational Society for Mangrove EcosystemsInternational Tropical Timber CouncilInternational Tropical Timber OrganizationInternational Union of Biological SciencesJapanlntemational Cooperation AgencyNon-govenmiental organizationSoutheast Asia Biosphere Reserve Network


In the ten years of existence of the International Society of Mangrove ECosysteins (ISME), withsupport from International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), many international andnational organizations, NGOs, and members of ISME, sufficient knowledge and understandingof mangrove ecosystems has been acquired to enable the development of a comprehensive,global Action Plan for the sustainable management of mangroves

The overall aim of the Society is to contribute to global efforts towards the conservation,rehabilitation and rational utilisation of mangrove ecosystems, All these activities are carriedout taking into account the specific needs of the people who live within Inarigroves. Theactivities involve interdisciplinary works on interactions between mangrove flora and fauna andenvironmental conditions, They also involve a conceptual and practical understanding ofessential links between natural and social systems, especially those leading to socially sensitiveand equitable development in mangrove environments witli special regard to women andchildren.

Foreword

ISME's activities include international prograinmes for information difftision, especiallythrough the Global Mangrove Database and Infonnation System (GLOMIS) FD14/97 Rev, I(F),integrated multidiscipli"ary surveys (the World Mangrove Atlas, P06/93 Re^. 2(F)), Inarigrovetraining course funded by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and research andothers. ISME operates in cooperation with a wide range of institutions including Universities,Researcl, laboratories and International organizations, primarily ITTO, which recently publishedthe "ITTO Manorove Workplan 2002-2006. "

The current widespread institutional interest in mangrove ecosystems and the recent surge inmangrove literattire, clearly indicate that these ecosystems have increasingly received muchattention during the last decades. This essentially implies that the economic roles of mangrovesin tropical coastal environments, their efficiency in coastal protection, their biological andcultural diversity and their links with coastal fisheries, are currently better recognised andunderstood.

Nevertheless, the incessant degradation, transfonnatioii and conversion to other uses of thesevital ecosystems due to ignorance, mismanagement and poor law enforcement are a great sourceof worry globalIy. Envisioned in a workshop organized by ISMEin Toulouse, France* from 14April 2003, the present "ISME Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Mangroves2004-2009" was conceived lioni the perspective of salvaging the mangroves and putting themto rational use.

This document therefore presents a concise overview of the key issues related to the sustainablemanagement of Inarigrove ecosysteins. The associated guidelines presented have been identifiedas imperative at the global level for the protection and sustainable management of mangroves.

Prof. Aprilani SoegiartoPresident of ISME

I

Executive Summary

Since the publication of the first Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems (Saenger at a1. , 1983),about twenty years ago, the causes and consequences of mangroves destruction have beenclearly identified and most recommendations made at that time to international, regional andnational organizations and Ministries still remain valid today. What has been progressive Iychanging is:


I) the ability of the scientific community to explain and to demonstrate througli formalmodels, the exceptionally high productivity of these ecosystems and

2) the awareness of the fact that millions of people use Inarigrove products and mangroveenvironments and that mangroves underpin social and econoinical welfare in nuinerouscoastal areas,

For these reasons, InOSt international organizations have paid a special attention to mangrovecoininunities.

In particular, the efforts and perseverance of ITTO and ISME, in promoting the sustainablemanagement and utilization of mangroves, have brought very positive effects in many parts ofthe coastal tropical world. We are now entering a new era, that of practical knowledge,experience and action.

This ISME Manorove Action Plan focuses on key issues impeding the sustainable managementof mangroves. It is presented in such a way that it should encourage the development of newprojects by an array of institutions working either at a local or at a national level, avoiding theclassical polarization opposing conservation and rational use of the resource. This approach isconsistent with ITTO policy as given in ITTO Decision 9 (XXIX) Mangrove ConservationProgramme (Appendix I ),

The present ISME Mangrove Action Plan is conceived for practitioners, policy makers and allthose responsible for the livelihood of mangrove dwellers and for the protection and rational useof mangrove ecosystems,

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ISME Mangrove Action Plan forthe Sustainable Management of"angroves 2004 - 2009

ISME Mangrove Action Planfor the Sustainable Management of Mangroves

2004-2009

I. Background and justification

Mangroves have always been considered as exceptional ecosystems for at least three Inainreasons. First, the global mangrove area presently does not exceed 180,000 sq. kiri* which is arelatively Inodest area extent for a natural ecosystem. Second, their discontiiiuous distribution,at the land and sea interface of tropical and subtropical coastlines, is primarily characterised bytidal regimes, creatino unique forest habitats. Third the Generally wide fluctuations ofenvironmental factors (dissolved oxygen, salinity, organic and inorganic suspended matter)have induced in Inarigrove flora, a coinplex range of adaptations, lacking in other woodyspecies, unable to compete or to survive in these biglily variable and adverse environmentalconditions (low oxygen content in soils, sulphate toxicity, Ingli NaCl in water and soils,exposure to hurricanes and surges, unconsolidated soils, etc. ). Despite these conditions, theseecosystems are highly prodtictive with an average primary productivity often 11igher than that ofneighbouring terrestrial forest ecosystems. Althougli the mangroves of the world are known toconsist of approximately 70 exclusive species of trees and SITrubs belonging to nearly 20families of Angiospemis, the floristIC structure of mangroves vary from more than 30 speciesalong the richest coasts of Southeast Asia and Allstr'an a, to only one species recorded today inmost of the avid coastal world of the Middle East, West Africa and North Western America.

In any case, mangrove forests create a wide diversity of niches, which serve as suitable habitatsfor feeding, breeding, spawning and hatching of sedentaiy and migratory species. In particular,they are an important nursery habitat, for fish and crustaceans of commercial value. Themangrove trees provide firewood, charcoal, timber and ra\\, materials for paper and chipboard.The forest also provides other socially and economical Iy important materials such as fodder forlivestock, niedicines, and dyes. Mangroves are also important for tlieir role as biological filtersand a sink for several pollutants. With the advent and current acceleration of climate change,mangroves are being increasingly seen as carbon sinks and carbon stores, Additionally, due totheir strategic location, mangroves protect coastlines from wave energy, and offshoreecosystems froin terrestrial sediments flowing downstream. Dense mangrove stands protectshorelines from storm and surges damage and increase coastal stability. In cyclone prone areas,they play a dominant role for the protection of human beings and property.

The mangrove ecosystein therefore yields goods and services of high economic value and earnstremendous foreign eXchange for the producing country without coinpromising its ecologicaland environmental integrity when properly managed, The complex, multi-faceted and oftenlong-term nature of these benefits mean that they have sonTetimes been overlooked in simpleeconomic models.

For all these reasons, the need to establish a comprehensive Action Plan for the protectionof mangroves and their sustainable management has to be urgently developed andimplemented. The main objectives derive from the identification of key issues andactivities listed below. In addition to these objectives, ISME will:

. proceed to publislT a detailed Background Paper for wide distribution;

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. consider future potential projects, notably those which focus on demonstration sites,taking into account the mitigation of shrimp fanning within Inarigrove ecosystems,agriculture and forestry;

. compile success and failure stories within mangrove ecosystems on utilization andmanagement of mangrove ecosystem;

. disseminate infonnation on examples of biosphere reserves within the mangroveecosystems in difttarent regions;

. promote infonnation eXchange, and dissentnate knowledge for public awareness andeducation towai'ds the general public, local people and decision makers (e. g. making useofGLOMIS (P014/97 Rev. I(F)), and Revised World Mangrove Atlas (P0276/04Rev. I (F));

. continue to investigate how to involve local people, taking into account their owninterests in the framework of utilization, conservation, and rehabilitation of mangroveecosystems.

2. Origin of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems

ISME is an international non-profit and non-governmental scientific society, established inAngust 1990. ISME Headquarters is in Okinawa, Japan (Box I). ISME took over variousinitiatives and followed the lead given by earlier UNDP/UNESCO Regional Mangrove projects.Among other items, the Statutes of ISME indicates that "the Society shall collect, evaluate anddisseminate information on mangrove ecosystems" and "promote international cooperation. "

Since its inauguration in 1990, ISME has been carrying out its activities at global level in thefollowing three pathways, these are, in brief:

a) application of knowledge to particular situations;by training and education; andc) eXchange of necessary Information.

ISME's activities have been supported with collaboratioil and links by a number of otherorganizations, universities, research institutes and local communities. As of December 2003,ISME's membership stood at 890 individual members and 38 institutional meInbets from over80 countries and regions.

ISME aims to create a wen-organized network of scientists, managers, planners and decisionmakers and all persons interested in all aspects of mangrove studies and management. ISME hasbeen working at a quick pace because destruction of mangrove ecosystems is a worldwidephenomenon that 11as now reached alarrning proportions. ISME concentrates on three lines ofaction:

To promote research and surveys with scientists and organisations for the conservation,rational management, and sustainable utilisation of mangrove and their ecosystems;To serve as an international data-bank on mangrove ecosystems;To enhance public awareness on the inlportance of mangrove ecosysteins.

The Executive Committee of ISME at its first meeting decided to draft a Charter for Mangrovesthat complements a World Charter for Nature of the United Nations, ISME's Charter forMangroves was first drafted in 1991, and finalized in 1992. The importance of the Charter forMangroves lies in setting forth principles for the utilisation of mangrove ecosystems, to bereflected in the laws and practices, at local, national and international levels (Appendix 2).

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Box I : ISME Mission Statement

The ISME Statutes, Art. 111, amended in 1993, state that:

"the Society ska\ collect ev"Iru"te am of digsemi""te fly"orm"tio" on mangroveeco^psie, ,, s" and '71, fomote inter""tio""ICOqper"from'*

ISME is affiliated to the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and is part ofthe International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) through the InternationalAssociation of Biological Oceanography (IABO), As an NGO, it is also associated with theUnited Nations Department of Public Infonnation with a Roster status and is included inthe list of NGOs in consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social

Council (ECOSOC).

ISME has been working in close collaboration with the International Tropical TimberOrganization (ITTO) in the implementation of the Organization's objectives relatingmangrove ecosystems conservation, sustainable management and rehabilitation. Trio isone of the main organizations concerned with the sustainable management of mangroveforests and their conservation. InO further recognizes the importance of manoroves asexplicitly stated in the overall ITTO Wor}colan for 2002-2006, which calls on theOrganisation to, "promote the conservation* rehabilitation and sustainable utilization ofmangyoves in collaboration with relevant organisations".

In synergy with these objectives, ISIvlE aims at creating a world wide operational networkof people interested in all aspects of mangrove ecosystems, by promoting research andsurveys for their conservation, rational Inariagement and sustainable utilization, It's currentmajor activities are: building of a Global database (GLOWS - GLObal Mangrovedatabase and Information System), restoration and rehabilitation of degraded mangrovesworldwide, organizing international workshops, symposiums and training courses for the'Sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems'.

3. Key Issues, Responses/Activities

The key issues identified below are those considered the major impediments to SustainableManagement of Inarigroves and their associated resources. Each of the key issues arisesprimarily from increasing human population density in the coastal zone, and the associatedphenomena of poverty, rapid "development" and the lack of good governance. In many areasthere is a lack of awareness of the importance of mangrove and a failure to connect the variousgoods and services that they provide (such as supporting offshore fisheries or coastlinestabilization) with the resource itself. This is compounded by the lack of ecological data formany regions, and the absence of sound monitoring programs* which in turn, constrainappropriate management on a reliable ecological basis.

While the key issues have been discussed individually below, it is clear that many of them act insynergy. For example, the problem of mangrove overuse is likely to be more intense in theabsence of appropriate legislation in Inarigrove areas where public awareness and lawenforcement are minimal. Similarly, changes in coastal land-use are Generally the consequenceof increase in local population.

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All of the key issues result in losses of mangroves or in an impainnent of mangrove functioningand productivity. Most importantly, 111e benefits derived from such induced mangrove lossesrarely go to the local communities, causing localized hardships and often contribute toincreasing poverty, Sustainable mangrove ecosystem management is essential to break thiscycle.


The magnitude of impacts varies from one region to another. However, the commondenominator to most policy decisions relating to economic development in tropical coastalenvironments is that they are made without a sound knowledge of the value of tlie mangroveresources and placing higher value to the alternative land use, Based on this present situation,the following key issues are considered of prime importance. They are not arranged in order ofpriority or urgency since these vary from place to place,

Over-use forestr fisher, es

This is the most widespread problem although varied in intensity (particularly intense in LatinAmerica, Africa and Asia). It includes timber. and non-timber forest products extraction,fisheries and wildlife utilisation. Human population pressure and eagerness for development arethe major driver. The most drastic human effect is the degradation of the ecosystem and thechange of mangrove forest and their environmental conditions to the extent that subsequentnatural re-establishInent is prevented or becomes very difficult and costly.

Responsesfociiviiies. '

. Recognizing that mangroves can be utilised in a sustainable manner, we need to evaluatethe effectiveness and support the application of controlling use through zoriing with arange of reserved areas, alongside sustainable use areas e. g. commercial mangrove forestoperations such as those already established in hadonesia, India* Bangladesh, Malaysia,Colombia, Kenya and others'

. Support a network of strict no-use zones (e. g. Southeast Asia Biosphere Reserve Network(SeaBRiiet), East Asian Biosphere Reserve Network (EABRN), atc. ), including ecologicaland cultural sites such as sacred forests, and encouraging conmiunity involvement withthe view to enhancing local benefits such as fisheries, coastal protection and biologicalfiltering.

. Encourage the planning and use of localised management plans. We need to control useby supporting community stewardship and management. In some countries, (e. g. Fiji andSamoa) there is strong evidence that traditional resource stewardship has led toconsiderable levels of protection. Such a fortn of traditional stewardship may greatly helptoward protection (e. g. Philippines and Viettiam) where central governments are limited internis of appropriate management.

. Encourage, where appropriate, development schemes that support replacement ofmangrove fuel wood with alternate fuel sources.

. Enforce the principle of "no-use without replacement, *' to have the situation where everytime a tree is harvested other are planted.

. Encourage monitoring, on a regular basis, of the state and health of mangrove ecosystems,

. Encourage laws or policies that prevent the total clearance of new areas of mangroves andmatch local SOCio economic requireinents with environmental realities of the localInarigrOVGS.

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^!^

The conversion of fbnner mangrove areas to aquaculture is a widespread activity, particularly inSoutheast Asia, East Africa and Latin America. Mangrove soils are not suitable for most typesof aquaculture. When sited on mangrove soils, most aquaculture ponds tend to becomeuneconomic and are abandoned within a few years because the soil be coines logged with acidsulphates. The application of inappropriate technologies exacerbates these environmentalproblems and contributes to pollution, eutrophication and sedimentation. Quite apart from theseproblems, of being unsustainable, there are much wider effects on the local communities. Suchdevelopments often displace local coriumunities or disrupt patterns of local usage of mangroveresources. There are well known and quailtified examples of extensive mangrove conversion toaquacultore ponds, whicli have led to drastic reductions of adjacent fisheries yields.


Responses/"c!ivi/Ies. '

. Encourage the promulgation and enforcement of laws or policies that prohibit theclearance of new mangroves areas for aquaculture ponds.

. Support adherence to EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) policy.

. Support restoration of abandoned ponds, Inaking this a legal requirement in all new orongoing developments and establishing a financial framework to ensure coinpliance,

. Encourage changeover to mixed sitviculture/aquaculture practices

. Investigate value of (and verify regularly) certification schemes,

. In existing areas of shrimp ponds, install sedimentation ponds to remove suspendedsediment from effluents and nutrient removal via constructed wetlands.

. Promote alternatives to the use of antibiotics and growth horniones in aquaculture

Pollution/sedimentation includim oil/ as

Substances including solid waste* toxic chemicals, hydrocarbons, persistent organic pollutants*nutrients, particulate matter affect mangrove communities. They may be derived from single ormultiple sources including industry, sewage, dredging, pond effluent, agricultural and urbanrunoff. Their effects range from complete destruction to disruption of ecosystem functioningleading to chronic poisoning of mangroves and associated fauna and to the loss of biodiversityand productivity. In some cases, tidal flushing and biological processes of mangrovecomponents Inay have the capability to assimilate and to transfonn pollutants (wastestreati, .Tent), providing a natural biological filter. However, there are clear limits beyond whichlevels of pollution rapidly become hannfiil, Similarly, mangroves are highly adapted to survivein areas of relatively high levels of sedimentation. When levels of sedimentation impededrainage, the newly created ariaerobic conditions in the soil lead to the death of Inature trees

Responses/Izerivtiies. .

. Support programmes that reduce waste and mmoff.

. Promote the creation of artificial wetlands for the treatment of wastes containingnutrients and other organic wastes. Support prograinmes that reduce waste and runoff

. Encourage the enforcement of existing legislation and apply recognised methods forensuring purification.

. Encourage the "polluter pays" approaches to deter pollution and to financerestoration.

. Identify relevant trigger values for a range of pollutants and ecosystem parametersand describe management responses to these.

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H drolo ical modification inland and coastal


Upstream activities in the catchment area of mangrove ecosystems can change the quantity, thequality and timing of fresh water flow arriving at the inarigro\, e ecosystems, especially inseasonalIy and environments. The prime causes of hydrological modifications are damming,water extraction (including groundwater), land~use changes and deforestation in the mangroveand upstream. They lead 10 changes such as salinity build-up in water and soils, changes insedimentation patterns which affect coastal configuration, and the structure of navigationalchannels. They may alter physiological processes, and can lead to Inarigrove loss or thesubstimtion of mangrove species by other communities. When most part of the dry seasonfreshwater supply is diverted, the impact on mangrove species is dramatic, This can have severeconsequences on local and national economies. Coastal modification such as the construction ofsea walls, ports and dredging, will alter tidal circulation patterns, which in turn will lead tostructural and functional changes.

Responsesbetivities:

. Encourage the maintenance of environinental flows upstream of mangrove areas,riotably through the control of water diversion, impoundment and release.

o Evaluate the effectiveness of mangroves for coastal protection in preference to seawalls,

. Enforce the application of EIAs (Environmental Impact Assessments) and make itmandatory for all activities, which would affect fresh water discharge to mangroveareas, and for activities that could alter the tidal amplitude and regime or patterns ofcoastal circulation.

Coastal land use chan es - a ric"Iture infrastructure and buildin sreclamation etc.

This includes the direct Irreversible physical loss of mangrove donimated areas as a result of thedevelopinent of infrastructure residential areas and conversion for agriculture (especially ricepaddies and sugar cane), cattle breeding and the building of salt-pans.

These activities lead not only to direct losses, but also to the rapid and often uncontrolleddegradation and elimination in adjacent mangrove systems. The opposition between developersor private econontic interests and the protection of the public domain in tropical coastalecosystenis, is almost permanent in many countries, due to and the need to install industrialplants, airports nuclear reactors for power generation, e!c, near large population centres.

Responses/;qctivities

. Support the use of integrated coastal planning with all the involvement of allstakeholders, particularly local communities.

. Support good engineering designs (e. g. culverts and trestle bridges) which would haveminimal impact on the tidal hydrology of coastal ecosystems,

. Rehabilitate areas degraded by poorly planned coastal developments through re-engineering andor mangrove restoration projects.

. Encourage the application of EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) mandatory forall activities which would affect coastal land use change

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Lack of a


Where a National Government has not developed any legislation for niangrove sustainableutilisation or conservation, it is particularly vulnerable to trans-national pressures and theallocation of the resources are not in the interest of local coininunities. This is particularly wellillustrated in the case of oil extraction and industrial shrimp pond construction in mangroves.

For many countries there are few or no legislation or policies Telated to Inarigrove management.Where they exist, they are widely dispersed between institutions (such as those dealing withfisheries, forestry, planning, agriculture and environment), There is also little or 110 co-ordination between countries in respect of niangrove Inariagement approaches, In addition,existing legislation is either rarely enforced or often inappropriate, with little or noconsideration for social and economic needs of the population.

Responses/aciiviiies. .

. Support the integration and co- ordination of legal and managerial regimes betweeninstitutions and agencies.

. Raise awareness on the existing and desirable legal systems, particularly of successstories and encourage eXchange of experience.

. Support the appropriate mechanisms to strengthen enforcement.

. Encourage the establishment of new legal and administrative systems where they donot exist, or the periodical revision of existing systems where these an'e consideredinadequate or obsolete. It should be recognised that legislation ntay need to beadapted and updated to the specific requirements of individual sites or countries.

. Consider and incorporate the use of traditional tenure or stewardship practices withinwider management frameworks.

o Consider the application of bilateral or multilateral approaches to the management oftrans-boundary systems,

. Enforce the application of EIA for all activities that would affect manorove areas.

ro nate Ie is Iation and enforcement of re ulatioms

Shorta e of ca aci

There is a shortage of professionals to work in the field, in scientific and managementinstitutions, law enforcement agencies and local cornmunities. There is also a lack of eXchangeof knowledge and experience between professionals and between tliese and coastal dwellers.

Responsesmeltvities. .

. Encourage training programmes and transfer/eXchange of expertise betweencommunities and countries. These should be adapted to particular or local needs.

. Encourage targeted training programmes for specific groups including fishers, won}enand children, teachers, enforcement officers, women clubs/associations, eco-tourismoperators, others,

. Consider retraining of local people to provide alternative livelihoods wheremangrove areas are over-utilised.

. Support the provision of a full range of training materials.

. Expand and maintain the activity of GLOMTS for compilation and dissemination ofinformation.

inari rove s ecialists mama ers technicians

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Inade uate communication education ublic awareness and artici atjoin


In most countries there is considerable scope to improve public understanding and appreciationof the value of mangrove resources and of the benefits to be obtained from their sustainablemanagement.

The explanation of sustainable management systems needs to be undertaken within the fonnaleducational systems, but must also be offered to the general public and to particular sectorswithin the population sucli as decision makers and local people. There is a need to improve thecommunication and flow of knowledge between scientists* managers, holders of traditionalknowledge and the wider public,

Responsesherivi/!^s. .

. Support and strengthen GLOMIS and the distribution of print-outs and other ISMEpublications to distant places where there are no communication facilities or access tolibraries.

. Include mangrove ecology as a subject in schools and university curricula.

. Provide materials (books, posters, pamphlets, interpretative materials) in locallanguages and circulate to coinmunities, and other relevant places (public spaces,mass media).

. Raise public awareness througli establishment of demonstration sites, pilotmanagement areas* boardwalks, and others

. Encouroge active local community involvement in eco-tourism, restoring andmanagement programmes.

. Encourage education o11 laws and regulations, and approaches for recommendedpractices.

. Consider the development of "Codes of Conduct" for sustaining mangroveecosystems (e. g. "Code of conduct for management and sustainable use of mangroveecosystems").

. Improve living conditions for people living in areas adjacent to mangroves(sanitation, health, education, entertainment, etc. )

. Training materials should be made available to all mangrove users'

. The revision of the World Mangrove Atlas constitutes a step forward to amplifycommunications and the flow of knowledge.

Climate chain elsea-level rise

All models predict considerable future rises in temperature and sea-level (i. e. 9cm to 88cm overthe next I 00 years UPCC, 2000), as well as changes in precipitation and fresh water supply. Themigration landwards of mangrove systems in adapting to these changes is likely to beinterrupted by human land-use. Their diminution or loss will be felt more seriously in low-lyingcountries and small islands, states/countries.

In addition to sea"level rise, predicted by all available models, several short-tenn climateabnonmalities such as the EI Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) related drought, have beendescribed. They lead to recurrent severe perturbations and consequently to increased soil andwater sannity whicli havt^ already affected coastal ecosystems* especially in Maldives andMicronesian islands, in the Caribbean islands, atc.

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Not all changes affect the biology of nTangrove species in the same manner and the impact atglobal level is unclear, The magnitude of these impacts is strongly site dependent. Tilere arelikely to be varied responses from one species to another, in different places. It is clear thatmangroves wnl be particularly impacted by sea~level rise as they lie on the interface betweenland and ocean,


Responses/denyiiJ^s:

. Encourage Inarigrove ecosystem rehabilitation. Because Inarioroves generally receivemassive inputs of terrestrial organic Inatter and nutrients, they are ainongst the mostgeochemically and biologically active parts of the biosphere and constitute veryinIPOrtant carbon sinks and Inay help to Initigate the global impacts of climate change(high primary production, carbon accumulation and eXchange with adjacentecosystems).

. Minimize fragmentation, which weakens tlie whole ecosystem especially in cycloneprone areas, wliere mangroves play a dominant role in the protection of life andproperty. Dense mangrove stands protect shorelines from storms and surges damageand increase coastal stability, Fragmentation also impedes tlie genetic exchangesbetween populations of a given species.

. Establish landward buffer areas to anow retreat of mangrove ecosysteins.

. Establish monitoring programmes of searlevel rise especially in mangrove forestsWITere some changes are already occurring

4. Activities at Global Level

ISME would be capable of supporting Regional Action Plans (R. A. P. ) as well as NationalAction Plan (N. A. P) in an advisory capacity and could also undertake such projects withfinancial support from Donor Agencies. ISME's fields of activities are in the Inentioned below;In each area, the "key issues" should be considered, problems must be defined and solutionsshould be fomiulated.

I)- A1'e0 31ndei' mongi'ove cover, closed o1' open c@reopy. Support survey and nTonitoringbased on remote sensing, field work as well as national reports.

2)- Role ond pec/'o17?, once of ingi?grove ecosysie"?s. Monitoring of indicators to assessheath, evolution changes, both progressive and regressive, atc.

3)- yame of indrigi, oves both as ecosystems and from a socio-economical point of view.

4)- Scientific reseqi. c/?. Collaboration with universities, research institutions, forestsrs,fisl, eries, technicians and above all GLOMIS.

5)- Training and publications at Intelnational and National levels. EXchange of expertiseamong professionals, technicians and specialists.

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5. Conclusion

The expertise acquired by ISME over the years, since its establishment in 1990, the pool ofexpertise whicli exists in its vast membership. the collaboration with Inariy interestedindividuals and organisations as well as the conceptual support by Governments backed by theconscious intention of coastal dwellers to advance along a "hands on" phase of activities worldwide, is the hope that sustains the uphill task of salvaging mangroves and enter into an age ofrational developinent and mangrove ecosysterrus normring, all over the world.

ISME will remain coininitted to its core purpose i. e. , the Society sh@11 coneci, ev"I", Ite ""doff$8e, ,, i""te intofinalion o12 112""grove ecosystems" ",, d '17ro, "ote infer""tio"@! cooper"fro, , ''and to the implementation of the Charter for Mangroves as well as the ITTO MangroveWorkplan 2002-2006,

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References


Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2000. Third Assessment Report. Climate Change2001: Synthesis Report, Sunnnary for Policy Makers. Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange. 34 pp. (http://WWW. grida. no/climate/ipcc/spinpdf/sri-e, pdf)

International Tropical Timber Organization. 2002. ITTO Mangrove Workplan 2002-2006.Yokohama. 6 pp.

Saenger, P. , E. I. Hegen, and I. D. Davie (eds). 1983. Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems.Gland. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Nami. al Resources (IUCN).88 PP

Tomlinson, B. P. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. London. 4/9 pp. Cambridge UniversityPress.

World Bank/ISME/CenTER. 2004. Principles for a Code of Conduct for the Management andSustainable Use of Mangrove Ecosystems.(http://\vww. biology. au. dk/conTER/MCB Files/Mangrove_CoC_VOIJuly2004. pdf)

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Appendix I

ISME Mangrove Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Mangroves 2004.2009

The International Tropical Timber Council,

^.^99g!!. I^!!Ig the importance of the role played by mangroves in the conservation of ecosystemsas well as in the economy of developing countries with sea coasts;

MANGROVE CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

ITTO Decision 9 (XXIX)

^!. 911p. g the leading role of ITTO in the conservation of manorove ecosystems* includino itscottaborative activities witli The International Tropical Timber Council,

I^.^ the benefits to be gained from the conservation of mangroves to individualMeinbers, in promoting activities of tile Organization and in assisting the achievement of theobjectives of the ITTA, 1994;

ITTC Twenty-Nintli Session30 October - 4 November 2000, Yokohama, Japan

^!91/11g the continuing need for urgent international efforts on this issue;

,^. 159. ^91!g. g that the ITTO's contribution through its work underway to protect mangroves tosustainable forest management has been highlighted by the recently concluded G8 ForeignMinisters' Meeting (13 1.1y 2000, Miya^aki), e"doned by G8 Leaders;

I^^ continents made by Members during the Twenty-ninth Session of the Council onthe importance of mangrove conservation and rehabilitation;

Decides to:

I, Request the Executive Director to develop a work plan, including the identification offunding requirements, to assist Members in the conservation, rehabilitation and utilizationof mangroves, in particular to:

. Increase awareness annong Members to proinote the conservation of mangroves;

. Encourage cooperation among Members to intensify Trio activities to conserveexisting mangroves and rehabilitate degraded mangroves;

. Promote the sustainable management and utilization of mangroves;

for consideration at its Tliirty-first Session;

2. Encourage Members to prepare pre-project and project proposals related to conservation,rehabilitation and utilization of mangroves for consideration by the Council at futuresessions;

3. Authorize the Executive Director to arrange for financino from Sub-Account B of the BanPartnership Fund of the above workplan, and of approved pre-project and projectproposals; and

4. Invite Members and other donors to contribute the necessary resources to meet thefinancial requirements of this decision.

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Appendix 2


The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) has adopted a Charter forMangroves that complements a World Charter for Nature that the General Assembly of theUnited Nations proclaimed on 28th October 1982 affinming that nature shall be respected*genetic viability on earth shall not be compromised, conservation shall be practiced, sustainablemanagement shall be utilized by man, and nature shall be secured against degradation.

ISM!B being aware that:

a) Mangrove forests are unique intentidal ecosystems that occur primarily in tropical regionsof the world;

b) The total world-wide mangrove area is estimated at not less than 170,000 kin' and that thereare some sixty species of trees and shrubs that are exclusive to tile mangrove habitat;

c) Mangroves support genetically diverse communities of terrestrial and aquatic fauna andflora that are of direct and indirect environmental, econonitc and social value to humansocieties throughout the world;

d) Sustainable development of mangrove ecosysteins implies the Inaintenance and rational useof the narural resource to ensure ecological resilience and econoinic opportunities forpresent and future generations;

e) Ma^groves must be conserved in various parts of the world to prevent the occurrence ofdegraded coastal lands;

Charter for Mangroves

Convinced that:

a) DestrLiction and degradation of mangrove forests are world-wide phenomena, as a result ofactivities related to the non-sustainable use and over-exploitation;

by The value of mangrove lands is consistently underestimated when the areas are convertedfor nori-sustainable purposes;

c) The sustainable use of mangr'ove ecosystems would provide a better use of the resource;co There is an urgent need to restore degraded mangrove ecosystems for economic, social and

conservation reasons;

Persuaded that:

a) Mangroves are a valuable natural resource with distinctive genetic diversity, highintrinsic natural productivity and unique habitat value;

b) Mangroves sustain important economic and ecological values in adjacent terrestrial andmarine systems;

c) Mangroves play an important role in the economic and social resources available tosubsistence coastal dwellers in the tropics;

d) Mangroves play an important role in coastal protection and in the reduction of coastalerosion;

e) Mangroves buffer coastal waters from undesirable land-based influences, such assediment, containinant or nutrient runofT;

Reamrming that people must acquire tlie knowledge to use natural resources in a mannerwhich ensures the protection and enhancement of species and ecosystems for their intrinsicvalues and for the benefit of present and future generations.

Convinced of the need for appropriate measures at individual, collective and national levels tomanage, conserve and promote understanding of the mangrove ecosystem

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Convinced also of the need to foster the sharing of information and understandin, , at anintoTnational level, and co-operation in all aspects of manageinent and study of mangroveecosystems,


Adopts, to these ends, a Charter which proclaims the following principles for the utilisation ofmangrove ecosysteins by which all ITUinan conduct affecting mangrove ecosystems is to bejudged.

I GENERAL PRINCIPLES -

I. Mangrove ecosystems shall be respected and their intrinsic characteristics shall be preservedwherever possible.

2. The genetic diversity inherent in mangrove ecosystems shall be safeguarded to this end thenecessaiy habitats must be preserved.

3. Mangrove ecosystems that are utilised by people shall be managed to achieve and maintainsustainable productivity without degrading the integrity of other ecosystems with whichthey coexist.

4. Mangrove ecosystems shall be secured against indiscriminate destruction, natural hazards,pollution and damage resulting from disturbance of surrounding areas.

5. The sustainable utilisation of mangrove ecosystems by traditional users shall be recognizedand provided for to improve the welfare of the indigenous people.

6. The acquisition and dissemination of knowledoe with respect to structure* function andmanagement of pristine and distorbed mangrove ecosystems shall be encouraged by allpossible means, including international research and technical cooperation.

U F11NCTIONS

7. The decisions affecting the management of mangrove ecosystems shall be made only in thelight orbest existing kilowledge and an understanding of the specific location

8, Decisions on how to manage a mangrove ecosystem shall be informed by definition of thefollowing parameters:

(1) the biological components and the physical characteristics of the area underconsideration, by means of inventories, maps and the collection of physical andbiological data;

(ii) the needs of people in relation to sustainable uses of the resource while ensuringadequate reserves for preservation purposes;

(in) the national and international significance of the resource as habitat and as a geneticreservoir;

(iv) the national and international significance of the site for coastal stability andfisheries production;

(v) the local requirements for education, recreation and aesthetic values;(vi) the requirements that Inust be satisfied for nori-sustainable uses of the resource;(vii) the extent to which rehabilitation and compensation Inechanisms can be used to

mitigate the impact of nori-sustainable use.

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9, The infonnation collected in (8) shall be used to define the areas necessary for preservation,to define strategies for the management, restoration and preservation of tlie resource, or 10define areas necessary for sustainable use.

I O. Decisions on the IISe of mangrove ecosystems shall include consideration of the need:

(i) to utilise the mangrove resources so that their natural productivity is preserved;(ii) to avoid degradation of the mangrove ecosystems;(lit) to rehabilitate degraded mangrove areas;(iv) to avoid over exploitation of the natural resources produced by the mangrove

ecosystems;(v) to avoid negative impacts on neighbouring ecosystems;(vi) to recognise the social and econoinic welfare of indigenous mangrove dwellers;(vii) to control and restrict non-sustainable uses so that long terni productivity and

benefits of the mangrove ecosystems are not lost;(vin) to introduce regulatory measures for the wise use of mangrove ecosystems.

I I . Activities which might impact on mangyo\, e ecosystems shall be controlled by appropriatenational, regional and international laws and agreements

12. Activities which are likely to pose a risk to a mangrove ecosystem shall be subjected to anexhaustive examination prior to decisions being made, Only after it has been publiclydemonstrated that the potential advantages outweigh the potential damage should theactivity be allowed to connnence.

13. Mangrove ecosystems degraded by human activities shall be rehabilitated for purposes inaccord with their natural potential and compatible with the well-being of the affectedpeople


1111MPLEMENTATION

14. The principles set forth in the present Charter should where possible be reflected in the lawand practice of each state, as well as at the international level.

15. Knowledge of the structure, function and importance of mangrove ecosystems should beconrrnunicated by all possible means at local, national and international levels.

16. Knowledge of the structure, function and management of pristine and disturbed mangroveecosystems should be enhanced,

17. Educational programmes and regional centres should be provided to train scientists,planners, managers and the general public and to encourage an awareness of the jinportanceof mangrove ecosystems.

18, All planning should include the establishment of biological, physical and socio-economicinventories of the mangrove ecosystems under consideration and assessments of the effectson the systems and their surrounds of the proposed activities. All such considerations shouldbe open to public scrutiny and comment prior to any decision,

19. Resources, prograrnmes and administrative structures necessary to achieve the sustainableuse of mangrove ecosystems should be provided.

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20. The status of mangrove ecosystems should be monitored nationally and inteniationaliy toensure evaluation of current practices and to enable early detection of adverse effects


21. States should establish specific statutory provisions or redulations for. the protection andmanagement of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems.

22, States, other public authorities, international organisations, non-government oroanisations,individuals, groups and corporations, to the extent that they are able, should:

(i) co-operate in the task of managing mangrove ecosystems for sustainable pulposes;(Ii) establish procedures and methodologies for assessing the status of mangrove

ecosystems and for managing them;(iii) ensure that activities within theirjurisdiction do not cause unnecessary damage to

mangrove ecosystems within or beyond theirjurisdiction;(iv) implement national and international legal provisions for the protection and

conservation of mangrove ecosysteins.

23 . Each state should wliere possible give effect to the provisions of the present Charter throughits competent organs and in cooperation with other states,

24. All persons, in accordance with their national legislation should have the OPPoininity toparticipate, individually or collectively, in the fonnation of decisions of direct concern tothe conservation and sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems.

25. Affected people should have means of redress when their mangrove ecosystems havesuffered damage.

26. Each member of ISME has the duty to actin accordance with the provisions of the presentCharter, acting individually, in association with others, or through participation in a politicalprocess. Each member shall strive to ensure that the objectives and requirements of theCharter are met.

International Society for Mangrove EcosystemsNovember 1991, Bangkok

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