ISSN: 1412-033X (printed edition) ISSN: 2085-4722...

ISSN: 1412-033X (printed edition) ISSN: 2085-4722 (electronic)

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BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X (printed edition)

Volume 11, Number 4, October 2010 ISSN: 2085-4722 (electronic)

Pages: 167-175 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d110401

Anatomy and morphology character of five Indonesian banana

cultivars (Musa spp.) of different ploidy level

ISSIREP SUMARDI♥, MERA WULANDARI Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University (UGM), Jl. Teknika Selatan, Sekip Utara, Sleman, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia. Tel. & Fax: +62-0274-

580839, email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 6 July 2010. Revision accepted: 18 October 2010.

ABSTRACT

Sumardi I, Wulandari M (2011) Anatomy and morphology character of five Indonesian banana cultivars (Musa spp.) of different ploidy

level. Biodiversitas 12: 167-175. In Indonesia there are many cultivars of banana, and some of them produce edible fruits. Beside their

morphology, the character which necessary as a tool for classification is anatomical character. The aim of this research were to describe

the anatomical character and morphology of fives Indonesian banana cultivars based on their level of ploidy. The cultivars were

collected from Banana Germplasm Plantation, Yogyakarta District, Indonesia. The samples of roots, rhizome, and leaf were collected

from five banana cultivars i.e.: Musa acuminata cv Penjalin, M. balbisiana cv Kluthuk warangan, M. acuminata cv Ambon warangan,

M. paradisiaca cv Raja nangka, and M. paradisiaca cv Kluthuk susu. For anatomy observation samples were prepared using paraffin

method, stained with 1% safranin in 70% ethanol. To observe the structure of stomata and epidermis surface, slide were prepared using

modification of whole mount method. Slides were observed using Olympus BHB microscope completed with Olympus camera BM-

10A. Stem and leaf morphology character of diploid level (AA and BB genome) is different with triploid level (AAA, AAB, and ABB

genome). Anatomy and morphology character of root and rhizome of banana in diploid level (AA and BB genome) and triploid level

(AAA, AAB, and ABB genome) is quite similar. Distribution of stomata is found in leaf and pseudostem. Stomata is found in adaxial

and abaxial epidermis layer. The size of guard cells in triploid cultivars was longer than that diploid cultivars. The root composed of

epidermis layer, cortex and cylinder vascular of five cultivar’s root show anomalous structure. Rhizome consist of peripheric and centre

zone. Anatomically, this was no differences in the rhizome structure among five banana cultivars. The row of vascular bundles acts as

demarcation area between peripheric and central zone. In the cultivar with BB genome (diploid) and ABB genome (triploid) the row of

vascular bundle was not found. The differences of leaf anatomy were base on: size and number of stomata distribution, number of

subsidiary cells, number of hypodermal layers, structure and number of parenchyma palisade, size of airspace in petiole and mesophyll

and the vascular bundle structure.

Key words: anatomical character, morphology, banana cultivar, ploidy level.

INTRODUCTION

Bananas are among the largest herbs in the world. They

are perennials with tall aerial shoots that arise from

swollen, fleshy corms. The distribution of species is

influenced by morphology, chromosome number and

geographical location (Wang et al. 2010). Nowadays the

existing banana in many countries was supposed as a line

of Musa acuminata Colla and M. balbisiana Colla

(Simmonds 1959). The line species are diploid (AA

genome), triploid (AAA genome) and tetraploid (AAAA

genome). Banana plants have various ploidy level, as a

result of natural crossing between wild species

continuously and the effect of environment. These process

cause the rise of new species with different ploidy level,

i.e.: diploid, triploid and tetraploid. Crossing between M.

acuminata (AAAA genome) and M. balbisiana (BB

genome), for example, was resulting triploid level with

genome symbol AAB or ABB (Purseglove 1979).

Caryotype and number of chromosome are generally very

importance in studying classification, but the chromosome

number is not absolutely as a case, because some species of

plant that have same chromosome number perform

different character. M. acuminata (AA genome, 2n=22)

produce edible fruit, but M. balbisiana (BB genome,

2n=22) has many seed and not edible fruit (Fitri 2007).

Cheung and Town (2007) reported in order to view the

sequence composition of the M. acuminata in a cost

effective and efficient manner, 6.252 of BAC (Bacterial

Artificial Chromosomes) gene sequences were search again

several data bases, and significant homology was found in

mitochondria, chloroplast, and protein. Wang et al. (2010)

compare 20 sugarcanes BAC with sorghum sequencing to

know the character of complex autopolyploid sugarcane at

the DNA sequencing level. The complexity of the

autopolyploid genome at the interspecific hybridization of

modern cultivar hinders progress in genetic research and

the application of genomic tool in breeding program

(D’Hont 2005). Recent genome and molecular cytogenetic

data provided cytogenetic evidence that some species were

derived from interspecific hybridization between two

different species (D'Hont et al. 2002).

The line species from M. acuminata and M. balbisiana

crossing is M. paradisiacal Linn. Biodiversity of banana

BIODIVERSITAS 11 (4): 167-175, October 2010

168

cultivar are caused by natural crossing or somatic mutation

proceeds for along time (Stover and Simmonds 1987) or

caused by the selection and vegetative propagation

(Purseglove 1979). The diversity of banana could be

differentiated by the taste, shape and color of fruit. The

species and cultivar of banana which to be found in

Indonesia have not all been classified yet. Molecular

approach and chromosome caryotype have been used to

determine the phylogenetic relationship among some

species of bananas (Retnoningsih 2009). Kustanti (2005)

studied the relationship of Belo bamboo with three bamboo

genera based on their stem anatomy. Wardhana et al.

(2009, pers. comm.) worked with some species of yams

tuber to determine their relationship based on tuber

anatomy. Anatomy traits were selected from previous

report of phase-specific in maize (Boungard-Pierce et al.

1996) and in three grasses plants: maize (Zea mays L.), rice

(Oryza sativa L.) and bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.)

(Sylvester et al. 2001). The traits included epidermis cell

shape, the presence and absence of epicuticular wax, hairs,

stomata and bulliform cell.

Anatomy knowledge is essential when vegetative

propagation is used to identify important structural feature

necessary for propagation success (Silva-Lima et al. 2005).

Information on anatomical structure is needed by breeder

working on improvement for drought tolerance (Nassar et

al. 2008). Using 0.2% colchicine they found various ploidy

levels in cassava plant. Tetraploid type in cassava show

more prismatic and druse crystal in the cortical

parenchyma, pericycle fibers had thickening wall,

secondary xylem was wider than diploid one, which having

thinner walls and less starch.

The aims of this research were to examine the morpho-

logical and anatomy characters of five Indonesian banana

cultivars found in Yogyakarta based on their ploidy level.

This character is very important as supporting data for

classification.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Plant materials. Samples were collected from Banana

Plantation in Yogyakarta District, Indonesia. The five

cultivars were: M. acuminata cv Penjalin (AA genom), M.

balbisiana cv Kluthuk warangan (BB genom), M. acuminata

cv Ambon warangan (AAA genom), M. paradisiaca cv

Raja nangka (AAB genom) and M. paradisiaca cv Kluthuk

susu (ABB genom). The morphological character included

root, rhizome, pseudostem, leaf and plant habit. For

anatomical characters: root, rhizome, pseudostem, leaf

blade and midrib, shape, size and distribution of stomata in

epidermis layer and pseudostem were observed.

Morphology. Morphology characters observed were: root,

growth of adventitious root, rhizome color, pseudostem

color, leaf blade, shape and size of midrib and plant habitus.

Anatomy. In order to analyze of vegetative structures,

samples (root, rhizome, leaf blade, petiole, and

pseudostem) were prepared using paraffin method, while

epidermis layer of leaf and pseudostem were processed

using modification of whole mount method (Ruzin 1999).

Paraffin method procedure. Material was fixed in FAA

(90 mL ethanol 70%, 5 mL acetic acid, and 5 mL

formaldehyde 36%) solution; (ii) the materials were

washed repeatedly in 70% ethanol and dehydrated with

ethanol series (80%, 90% and 95%); (iii) sequently

dealcoholization step using absolute ethanol and xylene

mixture i.e.: ethanol/xylene 3: 1; 1: 1; and 1: 3 (iv)

infiltration step: the mixture of ethanol/xylene was replace

with the mixture of liquid paraffin and xylene (9: 1), for 24

hours; (v) embedding step: before embedding step, the

material was immersed in pure liquid paraffin for one hour

and then embedded using the pure paraffin (560/570C); (vi)

The embedded sample were sectioned in thinly slide using

rotary microtome. The sliced sample were stained with 1%

safranin in 70% ethanol; (vii) after staining, the slides were

observed under the Olympus microscope and the

photograph were taken using the Olympus BHB Model

completed with Olympus Camera BM-10A.

Whole mount method. the peeling of leaf epidermis

layer and pseudostem each were immersed in chloral-

hydrate (250 g/100 mL) for short time until the material

became transparent; (ii) the samples were then washed two

to three times in distilled water to remove the trace of

chloralhydrate, and stained the material with 1% safranin in

distilled water for 20 minutes; (iii) the material were

washed repeatedly with distilled water; (iv) the materials

then were put in slideglass and small drops of the glycerine

were added to the slides and covered with coverslip; (v) the

slides were observed under Olympus microscope and

photograph were made using microscope like above

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Morphology

Root of the five cultivars perform quite similar in

morphology character behavior (Table 1). The young roots

showed white color, and became brown in mature roots.

Many root hairs were found on the surface of root.

Stem of the five cultivars were different in stem

diameter and pseudostem color. The true stem was formed

when the plant started to form reproductive organ. The

pseudostem was formed as the modification of the lower

part of the midrib. Pseudostem had red, yellowish green

and reddish green color. On the basal part of the stem big

structure called rhizome was found.

Leaf of banana was belonging complete type group,

because they had midrib, petiole and leaf blade. The

modification of basal part of midrib was called

pseudostem. The petiole had halfcircle-like shape and the

adaxial part grooved. The shape of leaf blade was oblong

with flat tip. The abaxial and the adaxial surface of leaf

were protected by cuticle layer. The cutin layer was also

found in the petiole. The five cultivars studied formed

green leaves with nearly the similar size.

General anatomy

Root of all five cultivars has similar structure, which

consist of three tissue systems, epidermis, ground

parenchyma and vascular cylinder.

SUMARDI & WULANDARI – Anatomy and morphology characteristic of banana

169

Cortex. of mature roots had many layers with thick-

walled cells in outside surface. According to Tomlison

(1969) those tissues were periderm. This tissue was a

protected layer. Young root of cultivar Penjalin and Raja

nangka have one to two epidermis layers. Cortex composed

of parenchyma cells, with many and big airspace. The

shape of parenchyma cells was irregular. The big airspace

became larger in size. Swennen and Oritz (1997) called it

lacunae. The large airspace in several species of

monocotyledon may have schizogenous or lysigenous in

origin. But sometime it may arise by combination of the

two processes (Esau 1978). Airspace of some roots is

regarded as a serving tissue in gas transport, because

airspace as reservoir of oxygen, which is required in the

respiration by the tissue which have no access to the

oxygen of the air (Fahn 1990). From five cultivars, only

Raja nangka cultivar has no airspace.

Endodermis. the boundary layer between cortex and

vascular cylinder, consist of one layer which composed of

thick cell. The cell wall of endodermis has U-like shape

thickening (Esau 1978; Raven et al. 1999). This wall

composed of suberin and cellulose. At first thickness of the

endodermis was like strip, and then developed into a band,

called Casparian band (Esau 1978). The endodermis cells

continuously thickened, and finally the shape of band

changed to the U shape. Suberin and cellulose materials

deposited radially and tangensially in inner side wall. This

condition was found in Penjalin, Kluthuk warangan,

Ambon warangan and Kluthuk susu cultivar, while the

structure of endodermis in Raja nangka cultivar was not

similar with the others.

Pericycle. the outer layer of vascular cylinder was

called pericycle. It was a single layer, and composed of

meristematic cells. In mature root the function of this layer

was to form adventitious roots (Fahn 1990). Some root of

five cultivars showed primordial of adventitious root which

originated from the pericycle. For example, roots of

Penjalin cultivar, Ambon warangan, and Raja nangka.

Vascular cylinder (stele). Generally vascular system in

monocotyledons is radial. In banana the vessels scattered at

the center of root. The phloem cells were formed alternately

with vessel cells in the periphery side of cylinder, and no

pith was found. Generally in monocotyledonous root,

xylem frequently forms a solid core with ridgelike

projections, and strands of phloem alternate with the xylem

ridge (Esau 1978). In banana root, phloem widespread

between the vessels in the center. In root of Kluthuk

warangan, some of vessels were surrounded by tracheid

cells. So the arrangement of phloem irregular in the central

zone, and xylem did not form ridge-like structure as found

generally in monocotyledonous root. This condition

showed the anomalous structure (Figure 1). This result

contributed by Tomlison (1969) supposed, that the

development of banana root showed anomalous structure.

According Swennen and Oritz (1997) the formation of

xylem in banana root will stop when the root stop to

elongate. Root parenchyma composed of thick wall cells.

Laticifer. Laticifer were scattered in the cortex and

vascular cylinder zone of five banana cultivars root.

Laticifers are cells or series of connected cells that contain

latex, a fluid or complex composition substances. Banana

laticifer was clearly colorless, like milk or brown color. In

Musaceae, laticifer the compound type which were derived

from series of cells. The series of cells in compound

laticifer become united by dissolution of intervening walls.

By this junction the laticifer cells compound developed

wall perforation and this structure was called articulate

(Nugroho et al. 2003). The type of laticifer in all banana

cultivars was compound type and non anastomosis. The

differences of five cultivars root can be seen on Table 1.

Anatomy of rhizome and pseudostem

Cross section

Rhizome. The basal part of banana stem is rhizome.

Rhizome grew after reproductive organ were formed as

modification of the peduncle, white in color, with smooth

surface. Rhizome consists of epidermis, periphery zone and

center zone.

Epidermis. It was a single layer, dense cells, without

intercellular space. In mature rhizome, many layers of

periderms were found beneath the epidermis. In rhizome

there was no cortex like those in monocotyledons stem. In

Monocotyledonous stem there are no cortex as well as stele

because no demarcation between both area (Nugroho et al.

2006; Esau 1978). Rhizome of the five banana cultivars

consist of two zones, i.e.: periphery zone and central zone.

Pheriphery zone. It consisted of parenchymatic cells

and small vascular bundles, with no partition between

central zone. The shape of parenchymatic cells in periphery

was irregular and small. The periphery zone was narrower

than central zone. Small vascular bundle were scattered in

the periphery zone. The xylem of vascular bundle consists of

vessel cell and not all of bundle was protected by thick wall

tissues.

Central zone. It consisted of irregular parenchymatic

cells, which was wider compared with the periphery zone.

Vascular bundle were scattered and their number were

quite frequent. The partition between central and peripheric

zone generally marked by the row of vascular bundles

which made them close regularly. The type of vascular

bundle was close-collateral, because no cambium layer

between xylem and phloem were formed. The size of

vascular bundle in central zone was bigger than in the

periphery zone. In the part of the central zone the vascular

bundles were even bigger. The xylem consists of vessel

only, with thick wall. The phloem with thin wall, gathered

in the side of vessel cells. The bundle was not protected by

sheath. The size, structure, and diameter of vascular bundle

were varied among five banana cultivars, and these

variations were depended on the ploidy level. Cytological

work by de Azkue and Martinez (1990) found a group of a

dozen morphologically similar Andean species that share a

base of chromosome number of x=8 which is rare in

Oxalis. Base of chromosome numbers Oxalis vary from

x=5 to x=12, with x=7 most frequent, and polyploidy is

common in the genus (Emshwiller and Doyle 1998).

Laticifer. Laticifer was found in rhizome of five banana

cultivars. Laticifers were rounded by the parenchymatic

cells. The structure of rhizome laticifer was similar with

that of root laticifer. The location of laticifer cells were


170

Table 1. Root and rhizome morphology and anatomy characters of five Indonesian banana cultivars of different ploidy level

Character

Cultivar

Penjalin (AA) Kluthuk warangan

(BB)

Ambon warangan

(AAA)

Kluthuk susu

(ABB)

Raja nangka

(AAB)

Root

Morphology

Root type Fibrous Fibrous Fibrous Fibrous fibrous

Root color Young: white Young: white Young: white Young: white Young: white

Mature: brown Mature: brown Mature: brown Mature: brown Mature: brown

Anatomy

Epidermis

Number 1-2 layers 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1-2 layers

Cortex

Shape of parenchyma 4-8 sides Irregular Irregular Irregular-four sides 4-8 sides

Airspace Radial radial Radial Radial No airspace

Pericycle 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer

Cylinder vascular

Xylem

Protoxylem in

periphery, metaxylem

scattered

protoxylem and meta-

xylem were rounded by

thick wall cell

protoxylem was rounded

by thick wall cell;

metaxylem scattered

Protoxylem in

periphery; metaxylem

scattered

Protoxylem in

periphery;

metaxylem scattered

Phloem Thick wall, scattered Thick wall, scattered Thick wall, scattered Thick wall, scattered Thick wall, scattered

Stele Anomalous Anomalous Anomalous Anomalous Anomalous

Laticifer

Distribution Cortex and stele Cortex and stele Cortex and stele Cortex and stele Cortex and stele

Type Non anastomosis Non anastomosis Non anastomosis Non anastomosis Non anastomosis

Rhizome

Morphology

Color White White White White White

Surface Soft Soft Soft Soft Soft

Anatomy

Epidermis

Number 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer

Shape Four sides Four sides Four sides Four sides Four sides

Periphery zone

Parenchyma shape Irregular Irregular Irregular Irregular Irregular

Central zone

Xylem 1, trachea 1, trachea 1, trachea 1, trachea 1, trachea

Phloem One side of xylem One side of xylem One side of xylem One side of xylem One side of xylem

Vascular bundle type Close collateral Close collateral Close collateral Close collateral Close collateral

Stele Atactostele Atactostele Atactostele Atactostele Atactostele

Pith No pith No pith No pith No pith No pith

Articulate latisifer Near phloem scattered scattered scattered Near phloem

near the phloem tissue, and this was supposed to be

articulate type. According to Fahn (1990) the articulate

laticifer tubes developed in the phloem tissue of stem and

contain of tannin.

The differences of anatomical characteristic of rhizome

of five banana cultivar were presented in Table 1.

Paradermal section

Pseudostem. Actually the pseudostem of banana was

the result of growth and development of the leaf midrib

surrounding the rhizome. By peeling the pseudostem it was

noted that the structure of epidermis (outer and inner) layer

consisted of epidermis cells and stomata.

Epidermis. The shapes of outer and inner epidermis

cells were rectangular. The arrangements of epidermis cell

were compact without inter-cellular space. According to

Fahn (1990) the epidermis cells of monocotyledonous stem

were stretched lengthwise. The sizes of inner epidermis

cells were longer and wider than those of the outer one.

The longest and widest size of outer epidermis cells

were found in Raja nangka cultivar (AAB genome) with

average of 63.756±9.957 µm and 16.936±2.159 µm. The

shortest size of outer epidermis cells was found in Kluthuk

warangan cultivar (BB genome) which was 40.964±8.684

µm and Penjalin cultivar (AA genome) was 12.936±2.159

µm. The epidermis cells size of triploid cultivar were

bigger than that of diploid cultivar. The traits of epidermis

layer of three grasses plant had been observed by Sylvester

et al. (2001).The trait of leaf epidermis layer in young and

adult maize was distinctly, but similar differences were not

found in rice and bluegrass leaf.

The longest and the widest size of inner epidermis was

found in Kluthuk warangan (BB genome) with average of

71.7764±6.765 µm, and the widest one was Ambon

warangan cultivar (AAA genome) with average of

36.344±5.924 µm. The shortest size of Kluthuk susu (ABB


171

1A 1B 2A 2B

Figure 1. Cross section of root of M. paradisiaca cv. A. Kluthuk warangan (BB), B. Klutuk Susu (ABB). a, epidermis; b, cortex; c,

endodermis; d, pericycle; e, vessel; f, phloem; g, air space; h, laticifer. Bar = 250 um.

Figure 2. Cross section of rhizome: I. M. acuminata cv. Penjalin (AA) II. M. acuminata cv. Ambon warangan (AAA). Note: A,

periphery zone; B, centre zone; 1, epidermis; 2, vessel; 3, phloem; 4, laticifer. Bar = 250 um.

Figure 3. Epidermis layer of pseudostem of five banana cultivars. A. Outer layer; B. Inner layer. 1. M. acuminata cv. Penjalin (AA); 2.

M. acuminata cv. Ambon warangan (AAA); 3. M. balbisiana cv. Kluthuk warangan (BB); 4. M. paradisiaca cv. Kluthuk susu (ABB); 5.

M. paradisiaca cv. Raja nangka (AAB) e. epidermis cell; st. stoma. Bar = 50 um.

A B

Figure 4. Cross section of leaf petiole: A. M. acuminata cv. Penjalin (AA); B. M. acuminata cv Ambon warangan (AAA) a. epidermis;

b. parenchyma cells; c. aerenchyma; d. sclerenchyma sheath; e. xylem; f. phloem; g. laticifer; h. air space; i. sclerenchyma; j. cuticle.

st

st

e

st st

st

st

st

st

st st

e

e

e e

e

e

e

e

e

A

B


172

A B

Figure 5. Leaf cross section: A. M. balbisiana cv. Kluthuk warangan (BB); B. M. paradisiacal cv. Kluthuk susu (ABB). a. adaxial

epidermis; b. cuticle; c. palisade tissues; d. spongy tissue; e. xylem; f. phloem; g. sclerenchyma; h. bundle sheath; i. laticifer; j. abaxial

epidermis; k. stomata; l. air space. Bar = 500 um.

Figure 6. Leaf epidermis of five banana cultivars. A. Adaxial surface; B. Abaxial surface. 1. M. acuminata cv. Penjalin (AA); 2. M.

acuminata cv. Ambon warangan (AAA); 3. M. balbisiana cv. Kluthuk warangan (BB); 4. M. paradisiaca cv. Kluthuk susu (ABB); 5. M.

paradisiaca cv. Raja nangka (AAB). e. epidermis cell; st. stoma. Bar =50 um.

genome) with average of 53.9±5.553 µm, while the

narrowest one was Kluthuk warangan’s (BB genome) with

average of 28.336±2.798 µm. It was showed from the

result that the size of epidermis layer did not depend on the

ploidy level. Statistical analysis showed that ploidy level

had significantly affect on outer epidermis cell size of

pseudostem. Suryo (2007) supposed that the higher level of

ploidy, the bigger epidermis cells.

Stomata. Stomata were located on inner and outer parts

of pseudostem epidermis layer. The guard cells of stomata

were kidney like, rounded by 4-6 subsidiary cells. This

condition was in line with Fahn (1990) statement, that the

Musaceae family had 4-6 subsidiary cells. The structure of

the the subsidiary cell was quite similar to the epidermis

cell around them, so the type of this stomata was called

anomositic.

The stomata of Penjalin and Kluthuk susu cultivar were

surrounded by 4-7 cells and 4-8 cells respectively. The

distribution and the shape of stomata either in outer or

inner epidermis layer were different. Statistical analysis

showed that the ploidy level significantly affected to the

length of the stomata in outer epidermis layer. Penjalin

(AA genome) and Kluthuk warangan (BB genome) cultivar

showed no differences length of stomata in outer epidermis

(i.e. 26.488±1.288 µm and 26.488±2.962 µm). In triploid

level group of banana, the length of stomata also showed

no significantly different. The average of stomata length of

Ambon warangan cultivar was of 33.572±2.284 µm, the

average of Kluthuk susu cultivar’s was 33.418±0.689 µm,

and the average of Raja nangka cultivar’s was

32.956±2.066 µm.

The highest number of stomata (mm-2) in outer

epidermis was found in Penjalin cultivar (AA genome):

14.55±7.476, with stomata index of 1.55%, while the

lowest number was found in Kluthuk warangan (BB

genome). The highest number of stomata in inner

epidermis was found in Kluthuk warangan cultivar, and the

lowest was found in Raja nangka. The density of stomata in

outer epidermis layer was higher than that in inner

epidermis layer. This condition was supposed to be related

to the function of stomata. In outer epidermis layer,

stomata were directly connected with atmosphere to catch

oxygen, to facilitate their function as respiration,

transpiration and photosynthesis processes. The anatomical

characters of pseudostem of five cultivars were presented

in Table 2 and Figure 3.

A

B

st

e

st

e e

e

e

e

e e e

e

st st st

st

st

st

st

st


173

Table 2. The stomata characters of pseudostem and leaf in five banana cultivars (AA, BB, AAA, ABB, AAB) of different ploidy levels.

Character

Cultivar

Penjalin (AA)

Kluthuk warangan (BB)

Ambon warangan (AAA)

Kluthuk susu (ABB)

Raja nangka (AAB)

Characters of pseudostem stomata Outer stomata Subsidiary cell 4 -7 4-6 4-6 4-8 4-6 Length (μm) 26.488±1.288a 26.488±2.962a 33.572±2.284b 33.418±0.689b 32.956±2.066b Width (μm) 26.488±2.755a 34.804±2.066b 31.416±4.016b 42.50±2.335c 41.58±4.747c Number of stomata (per 1 mm²) 14.55±7.476b 7.28±4.07a 10.01±2.035ab 9.1±3.217ab 8.19±3.807ab Number of epidermis (per 1 mm²) 924.56±75.89b 1188.46±16.841d 1090.18±0.133c 987.35±100.636b 839.02±46.133a Stomata index 1.55% 0.61% 0.91% 0.91% 0.97% Inner stomata Subsidiary cell 4-6 4-5 4-6 4-5 4-5 Length (μm) 27.412±2.284ab 31.724±1.377bc 35.42±3.772c 28.644±5.51ab 25.872±2.008a

Width(μm) 24.948±5.803a 44.968±4.671b 37.884±4.016b 38.192±5.04b 25.872±6.748a Number of stomata (per 1 mm²) 7.28±4.07ab 8.19±2.035b 7.28±2.492ab 5.46±2.035ab 3.64±2.035a Number of epidermis cells (per 1 mm²) 483.21±62.17d 308.58±37.877b 403.13±31.947c 322.14±8.139b 223.95±18.482a Stomata index 1.48% 2.59% 1.77% 1.67% 1.61%

Character of leaf stomata

Stomata of adaxial epidermis Number of subsidiary cell 4-6 4 4-5 4 4-5 Length (μm) 27.412±1.687a 26.488±2.530a 33.88±1.089b 32.032±1.756b 35.112±2.008b Width (μm) 28.028±1.756a 27.412±2.755a 30.492±1.687ab 34.804±2.577c 32.956±1.377bc Number of epidermis (per 1 mm²) 1716.26±139.144b 1509.69±293.209b 2063.88±180.933c 1708.98±297.436b 975.52±104.778a Number of stomata (per 1 mm²) 49.14±4.984d 13.65±4.55a 37.31±9.864c 16.38±7.614ab 22.75±3.217b Stomata index 2.78% 0.90% 1.78% 0.95% 2.28% Stomata of abaxial epidermis Number of subsidiary cell 4 4 4 4 4 Length (μm) 23.1±1,54a 24.024±1.756ab 29.568±1.288c 26.796±2.577bc 24.948±3.339ab

Width (μm) 27.104±3.002bc 30.184±1.756c 24.024±1.756b 24.332±2.284b 19.866±3.285a Epidermis number (per 1mm²) 1076.53±108.658c 594.23±72.771ab 1138.41±112.072c 515.06±76.434a 715.26±101.302b Stomata number (per 1 mm²) 141.05±12.461b 192.01±18.870c 125.58±6.900a 190.19±3.807c 125.58±4.07a Stomata Index 11.58% 24.42% 9.94% 26.97% 14.94%

Note: values followed by different rates in the same column are not significantly different in DMRT with α = 5%.

Morphology and anatomy of leaf

Morphology

The leaf of banana belongs to the complete type,

because they have midrib, stalk (petiole) and blade

(lamina). In banana, modification of midrib was called

pseudostem, surrounding the true stem. In cross section the

shape of petiole was look-like half circle and the dorsal

side was shallow grooved or deep grooved. The side part of

Penjalin (AA genome) petiole and Ambon warangan (AAA

genome) cultivar boarded and look-like wing. Two other

cultivars (BB and ABB genome) petiole their side part

were close, while Raja nangka cultivar (AAB genome) as

hybrid from natural crossing between M. acuminata (AA

genome) and M. balbisiana (BB) the side part of petiole

was open upright. According to Jumari (2007) AAB

genome was originated from two set genome of M.

acuminata (AA) and one set genome of M. balbisiana

(BB). The shape of the five cultivars leaves is oblong with

flat tip and entire margin. The ratio of the length and the

wide of M. paradisiaca leaf was (2.5 -5): 1. According to

Nugroho et al. (2003), this condition was oblong type.

Anatomy Petiole composed of three tissue systems i.e.: epidermis

layer, ground tissue system (parenchyma tissue) and

vascular system. Morphological and anatomical

examination of the petioles and leaves of Musa textilis

suggested how these two apparently incompatible abilities

are achieved. The hollow U‐shaped section of the petiole

and the longitudinal strengthening elements in its outer skin

give it adequate rigidity, while its ventral curvature help

support the leaf without the need for thick lateral veins.

These features, however, also allow the petiole to

reconfigure by twisting away from the wind, while the leaf

can fold away. In addition, two sets of internal structures,

longitudinal partitions and transverse stellate parenchyma

plates, help prevent dorsoventral flattening, allowing the

petiole to flex further away from the wind without buckling

(Ennos et al. 2000).

Epidermis layer composed of a single layer, with

compact cell, rectangular shape and was protected by

cuticle. The position of parenchyma cells was irregular. In

the middle part of the petiole, there were big air space and

the parenchyma cells filled with air. The shape of air

parenchyma cells was star-like, and formed network to

each other. Many crystal needle-like and laticifer were

distributed between those cells. In Rustia formosa

(Rubiaceae), both the adaxial and abaxial epidermis are

composed of polygonal cells. The epidermis cells in maize

leaf were uniformly. The juvenile adaxial leaves of maize

were covered with epicuticular wax, lack of hair and

bulliform cell, whereas the adult leaf is pubescent with


174

bulliform cells but lack epicuticular waxes. In contrast, the

adaxial epidermis in rice and bluegrasses leaf was covered

with both epicuticular waxes and hairs (Sylvester et al.

2001).

Vascular bundles in petiole consisted of two groups,

first group small located beneath the epidermis layer row

regularly, while the big one distributed irregularly in the

inner side. The type of vascular bundle was close collateral,

consisted of xylem and phloem elements, and both were

surrounded by thick wall (sclerenchyma). In big vascular

bundle, the xylem consisted of vessel and tracheid, while

the small one consisted of vessel only. The position of

xylem in petiole was in upper side while phloem in lower

side. Anatomy of petiole presented in Figure 4.

Blade (lamina). The blade consisted of epidermis layer,

vascular bundles and parenchyma cells. The shape of

epidermis cells was rectangular. The longest epidermis size

was found in Penjalin cultivar, the widest was found in

Kluthuk susu cultivar, the shortest was found in Raja

nangka cultivar, and the narrowest one was found in

Kluthuk warangan. The size of adaxial epidermis was

bigger than that of abaxial epidermis. In Penjalin and

Kluthuk susu cultivars hypodermis layer was found

beneath the upper epidermis layer, whereas Kluthuk susu

cultivar had two layers of hypodermis. Hypodermis were

not found in the other three banana cultivars. According to

Vieira et al. (2001) research, both the adaxial and abaxial

epidermis of. R. formosa are composed of polygonal cells.

Similar with the Kluthuk susu cultivar, the adaxial

epidermis of this species were composed of two layer of

cells, while the abaxial one was a single layer.

The abaxial epidermis of banana leaf was covered with

cuticle. Trichome (hair) was not found in epidermis layer

of banana. Epidermis, hair layer and cuticle as protective

tissues that first intercept radiation. This tissues protecting

the leaves against ultraviolet-B radiation (Karabourniotis et

al. 1998).

Mesophyll (tissue between adaxial and abaxial

epidermis) consisted of palisade and spongy tissues. These

tissues consist of chloroplast which contains chlorophyll

pigment. There were two palisade layers were found and

has dense arrangement. Some of spongy cells was

breakdown and formed big airspace. Some of spongy cells

filled with few chloroplasts. This condition is the general

structure of banana leaf (Tomlison 1969). The size of

airspace and the thick of mesophyll of five cultivars

showed different one to the other.

Similar with banana, mesophyll of R. formosa also

composed of two palisade and several layer of spongy

parenchyma, but no airspace were found (Vieira et al.

2001).The typical of both leaf based on the mesophyll

composition was dorsiventral. Spongy parenchyma consists

of thin-walled cell, and irregularly placed. The airspace in

spongy layer may be lysigenous or schizogenous origin.

Research of Turner (1999) and Turner et al. (1998) showed

that most cavities and canals in leaf mesophyll thought to

be lysigenous and schizogenous origin. Turner et al. (1998)

presented evidence that lysigenous appearance in Citrus

lemon, and schizogenous origin was found in R. formosa

(Vieira et al. 2001)

Vascular tissues distributed in mesophyll, consisted of

small and big. The big vascular bundle composed of vessel,

tracheid, fiber, parenchyma cells and phloem (Tomlison

1969). The vascular bundle of the five cultivars is

composed of xylem and phloem elements. The bundle

surrounded by the parenchymatic or sclerenchymatic cells,

was called bundle sheath. The small bundles were not

protected by bundle sheath. Laticifer were scattered

between palisade cells or in spongy tissue near the abaxial

epidermis. Raja nangka cultivar produced fewest laticifer.

The anatomy character of leaf blade can be seen Figure 5.

Stomata. Stomata were found on both surface of

epidermis layer. The type of stomata was phanerophor

because the position of guard cell in line with epidermis

layer. This result was supposed by Tomlison’s research

(1969). The shape of guard cell was kidney-like. Each

stoma was surrounded by 4-6 cells. The distribution, the

size and the index of stomata were varied in five banana

cultivars. The size of triploid stomata on the upper and

lower epidermis layer of leaves longer than the diploid one.

The ploidy level affects this character significantly to the

length and the width of stomata in upper epidermis layer.

The length of stomata in diploid cultivars has no

significantly different, as well as in triploid cultivars. In

abaxial epidermis of Kluthuk warangan distribution of

stomata was higher than the others (192.01±18.87) (see

Table 2.).The number of subsidiary cells was four to six

cells. The number of subsidiary cells in R. formosa three to

six with various shape (Vieira et al. 2001). Stomata present

only in the abaxial surface with the calculated average

number of 133 stomata/mm2. The type of stomata was

predominantly paracytic. The size and distribution of

banana stomata were presented in Table 2.

CONCLUSION

Stem and leaf morphology character of diploid level

(AA and BB genome) was different from triploid level

(AAA, AAB, and ABB genome). Anatomy and

morphology character of root and rhizome of banana in

diploid level and triploid level was quite similar.

Distribution of stomata was found in leaf and pseudostem.

Stomata were found in adaxial and abaxial epidermis layer.

The size of guard cells in triploid cultivars is longer than

that diploid cultivars. The root composes of epidermis

layer, cortex and cylinder vascular of five cultivar’s root

show anomalous structure. Rhizome consists of peripheric

and centre zone. Anatomically, there was no difference in

the rhizome structure between five banana cultivars. The

row of vascular bundles acts as demarcation area between

periphery and central zone. In cultivar with BB genome

(diploid) and ABB genome (triploid) the row of vascular

bundle was not found. The differences of leaf anatomy are

base on: size and number of stomata distribution, number

of subsidiary cells, number of hypodermal layer, structure

and number of parenchyma palisade, size of airspace in

petiole and mesophyll and the vascular bundle structure.


175

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank full to Utaminingsih who has helped preparing

this manuscript; and Prof. Dr. Sumardi for editing this

manuscript.

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BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X (printed edition)Volume 11, Number 4, October 2010 ISSN: 2085-4722 (electronic)Pages: 176-181 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d110402

Marine Actinomycetes screening of Banten West Coast and theirantibiotics purification

ROFIQ SUNARYANTO♥, BAMBANG MARWOTOCenter of Biotechnology BPPT, PUSPIPTEK, Serpong, Tangerang Selatan 15340, Banten, Indonesia Tel./Fax.+62 21 7560208, email:

[email protected]

Manuscript received: 18 May 2010. Revision accepted: 2 November 2010.

ABSTRACT

Sunaryanto R, Marwoto B (2010) Marine Actinomycetes screening of Banten West Coast and their antibiotics purification. Biodiversitas11: 176-181. Isolation and purification of active compounds produced by marine Actinomycetes has been carried out. Marine sedimentsamples were obtained from six different places at Anyer, Banten West Coast in October 20, 2007. Isolation was carried out using twomethods pretreatments, acid treatment and heat shock treatment. A total of 29 Actinomycetes isolates were obtained from the varioussediment samples collected, then tested for antimicrobial test against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureusATCC25923, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC27853, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 66923, Candida albicans BIOMCC00122 and Aspergillusniger BIOMCC00134. Identification of potential isolate was carried out using 16S rRNA. Purification of active compound was carriedout using silica gel column chromatography and preparative HPLC. Result of this research showed that isolate A11 produced the mostactive compound against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Morphology and identification test using 16S rRNA gen showedthat isolate A11 is Streptomyces sp. Production of active compound from isolate A11 used yeast peptone medium. The single peak ofactive compound was detected by HPLC and showed retention time on 8.35 min and maximum absorbance UV visible of antibiotic was210 nm and 274.5 nm. Active purified compound showed inhibition activity to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Minimuminhibitory concentration (MIC) to E. coli ATCC 25922 was 27 µg/mL, P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853 68.7 µg/mL, S. aureus ATCC 2592380.2 µg/mL, and B. subtilis ATCC 66923 73.7 µg/mL.

Key words: marine Actinomycetes, isolation, screening, antimicrobial activity, minimum inhibitory concentration.

INTRODUCTION

Actinomycetes are the most widely distributed group ofmicroorganisms in nature which primarily inhabit the soil(Goodfellow et al. 1983; Locci et al. 1983). Almost 70% ofthe world antibiotics are known to come fromActinomycetes, mostly from the genera Streptomyces andMicromonospora (Berdy 2005; Goodfellow et al. 1988).Previously, researchers are more focused on explore atterrestrial Actinomycetes. Now days, new antibiotics hasbeen found from marine Actinomycetes (Fiedler et al.2005; Ghanem et al. 2000; Lam 2006).

Although the exploitation of marine Actinomycetes as asource for discovery of novel secondary metabolites is atearly stage, numerous novel metabolites have been isolatedin past few years. As example, abyssomicin C is novelpolycyclic polyketide antibiotic produced by a marineVerrucosispora strain (Riegdlinger et al. 2004).Abyssomicin C possesses potent activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including clinical isolates of multiple-resistant. Diazepinomicin is a unique farnesylateddibenzodiazepinone produced by a Micromonospora strain(Charan et al. 2004). It possesses antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antitumor activity. Salinosporamide A isa novel -lactone--lactam isolated from fermentation

broth of new obligate marine Actinomycetes, Salinisporatropica (Feling et al. 2003).

Indonesia is archipelago country that has wide sea areathat is more than 3.1 million km2. The high characteristic ofsea showed a high of biodiversity such as microorganism,plant, and animal. Nevertheless this potency has been notexploited. Currently exploration of Actinomycetes inIndonesia still limited to terrestrial Actinomycetes. Theobjective of this research are isolation and purificationactive compound which produced by marineActinomycetes (isolate A11).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sample collection and processingSediments were obtained from six locations of marine

site in Anyer, Banten West Coast in October 20, 2007.From each location, six sediment samples of 5 g each werecollected from 10 to 15 cm below the surface. Each of thesediment samples for each site was placed in small pre-labeled plastic bags which were tightly sealed. Serialdilutions up to 10- 6 were then prepared for each of the sixsamples. Hereinafter each sample is given code inaccordance sampling location.

SUNARYANTO & MARWOTO – Antibiotics of marine Actinomycetes 177

Isolation of ActinomycetesAll sediment samples were processed in laboratory as

soon as possible after collection. The samples weresuspended in sterilized water and were made serial dilution.Pretreatment were conducted using acid and heat-shocktreatments. Acid treatment was conducted by the acidifyingthe samples to pH 2 were obtained for 3 hours. Heat-shocktreatment was conducted by the heating the samples at 60

C for 4 hours (Pisano et al. 1986). Treated samples werethen inoculated onto starch agar medium (1% w/v starch,0.4% w/v yeast extract, 0.2% w/v peptone, natural seawaterand 2% w/v agar) and incubated for 4-8 weeks at roomtemperature. One hundred gram per milliliter of nalidixicacid and 5 g/mL of rifampicin were added to reduce thenumber of unicellular bacteria (Pisano et al. 1989). Theantifungal agent cycloheximide (100 g/mL) and 25 g/mLnystatin were added to all isolation media. Actinomycetescolonies were recognized by the presence of branching,vegetative filaments and the formation of tough, leatherycolonies that adhered to the agar surface. Morphologicallydiverse Actinomycetes were repeatedly transferred to thesame media until pure cultures were obtained. All purestrains were grown in yeast extract-malt extract (YEME)broth and cryopreserved at -80° C in 10% v/v glycerolsolution.

Actinomycetes identification based on 16S rRNAanalysis.

DNA isolation. The DNA was isolated using FastPrepkit for DNA isolation. The pellet was lysised using lysingmatrix, added with 1000 µL and homogenized usingFastPrep instrument for 40 second at 4500 rpm.

DNA amplification and purification. PCR was done forDNA amplification using 8F and 1492R primers. The PCRmixture containing 8F and 1492R primers was added to theDNA solution. The PCR product was then purified usingGel/DNA extraction kit.

16S rRNA gene sequencing. The 16S rRNA geneobtained was submitted to the DNA sequencing facility,Genetic laboratory, Biotech Centre. A big Dye® terminatorV 3.1 cycle sequencing kit was used to sequence the DNA.The DNA was then run in an automated DNA sequencerusing capillary electrophoresis system, ABI 300 geneticanalyzer. The sequence was compared to a databaseavailable at NCBI using BLAST search.

Liquid culture of active substanceA well grown agar slant of isolate was inoculated into a

250 mL flask containing 100 mL of the vegetative medium(YEME medium) consisting of: bacto peptone 5 g/L, yeastextract 3 g/L, malt extract 3 g/L, glucose 3 g/L, demineralwater 250 mL, and sea water 750 mL. pH value of themedium was adjusted at 7.6 before sterilization. The flaskwas incubated at 30º C for 2 days in incubator shaker. Fiftymilliliter of this culture was transferred to 1000 milliliter ofthe fermentative medium (Nedialkova et al. 2005).Fermentative medium consisting of bacto peptone 15 g/L,yeast extract 3 g/L, Fe (III) citrate hydrate 0.3 g/L,demineral water 250 mL, and sea water 750 mL. pH valueof the medium was adjusted at 7.6 before sterilization. The

fermentation was carried out at 30ºC for 5 days inincubator shaker (Kanoh et al. 2005).

Extraction and purificationThe culture broth was centrifuged at 14000 x g for 15

min. The dark filtrate was divided and extracted using ethylacetate solvent. Filtrate and organic solvent was mixedthoroughly by shaking them in 1000 mL capacityseparating funnel and allowed to stand for 30 min. Twolayers were separated; the aqueous layer and the organiclayer, which contained the solvent and the antimicrobialagent. The organic layer was concentrated by evaporationunder vacuum to the least volume, after the dehydrationwith anhydrous Na2SO4. The aqueous layer re-extractedand the organic layer added to the above organic layer. Theorganic layer was concentrated by evaporation undervacuum again.

Dry extract of supernatant and biomass were purifiedusing column chromatography. Dry extract was injected oncolumn chromatography then eluted stepwise withchloroform-methanol solvent system as follows: First thecolumn was eluted with 100% chloroform (Fraction 1).This repeated by reducing the chloroform by 10% in eachfraction and the methanol was increased by 10% in eachfraction until percentage of methanol 100%. Thirty fractionwere collected (each of 20 mL) and tested for theirantimicrobial activities. Then the active fractions obtainedfrom column chromatography were further purified bypreparative HPLC.

Preparative HPLCPurification by preparative HPLC was conducted using

a Waters 2695 HPLC, photodiode array detector (PDA),and Column puresil 5 C18 4.6x150 mm. The volumeinjected was 100 µL per injection under conditions ofaverage pressure of 1.267 psi, and the flow rate was 1mL/min where the mobile phase was 0-45% methanol-water and time period was 25 min (Kazakevich andLobrutto 2007).

Antimicrobial activity assayAntimicrobial activity was monitored by the agar

diffusion paper-disc (6 mm), which are dripped by extractsolution, dried and then placed over the agar surface platesfreshly inoculated with the Escherichia coli ATCC 25922,Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923, Bacillus subtilisATCC 66923, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC27853,Candida albicans BIOMCC00122 and Aspergillus nigerBIOMCC00134 as test organism. Suspensions of testorganisms were adjusted to 106 cfu/mL. The most potentisolates were noted for each test microorganism, based onthe mean diameter of inhibition zones.

Analysis HPLCHPLC analysis was performed using an analytical

column Sunfire (4.6 x 250 mm, Shiseido Co. Ltd., Tokyo,Japan), elution using methanol-water (0-100% lineargradient for 25 min and then isocratic elution with 100%methanol until 10 min), at a flow rate of 1 mL/min anddetection at 210 nm.


Determination of the minimum inhibitoryconcentration (MIC)

MIC determinations were performed using the agar-dilution methods according to modified methods of Bonevet al. (2008) and Andrews (2001). Active purifiedcompound was dissolved in methanol (6500 g/mLconcentration) were taken as standard stock. A series oftwo fold dilutions of each extract in the final concentrationof 25 g/mL were dripped on paper disc 6mm, dried andthen placed over the agar surface plates freshly inoculatedwith either E. coli ATCC 25922, S. aureus ATCC25923, B.subtilis ATCC 66923, and P. aeruginosa ATCC27853 astest organisms. The value of logarithm of MIC (Log MIC)was determined as the zero intercept of a linear regressionof logarithm of concentration LogC as Y axis versus thesquared size of clear zones diameter (X2) as X axis. MIC isantilogarithm the intercept.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Isolation and screening of Actinomycetes from marineThe five sediment samples of the sampling area yielded

29 Actinomycetes isolates. Eight of the 29 Actinomycetesisolates showed antimicrobial activity, 2 isolates activeagainst E. coli ATCC 25922, 4 isolates active against S.aureus ATCC25923, 2 isolates active against B. subtilisATCC 66923, 3 isolates active against P. aeruginosaATCC27853, 3 isolates active against C. albicans, and 2isolates active against A. niger (Table 1).

Some of sediment samples obtained many isolate ofActinomycetes, but some of them did not containActinomycetes. It indicates that Actinomycetes aredistributed unevenly in Banten, western Java Coast. Whencompared with brackish Actinomycetes, the population ofmarine Actinomycetes was less. Actinomycetes are lesscommon in marine sediments relative to brackishenvironments (Goodfellow and Williams 1983; Parungao etal. 2007). Another study (Goodfellow and Haynes 1984)suggested that Actinomycetes represent only a smallcomponent of the total bacterial population in marinesediments. They observed that most of the isolates were ofterrestrial and brackish origin. Terrestrial soils have beenthe main reservoir of Actinomycetes. They comprise alarge part of the microbial population of the soil (Parungaoet al. 2007). Table 1 shows that many Actinomycetes hadantibacterial activity rather than anti fungal activity, sameas reported by Berdy (2005). In the group of antibiotics,66% are antibacterial (Gram-positive and Gram-negative),and 34% are anti fungi including yeast.

From eight isolates which active against bacteria test,only one was chosen to next study. A11 isolate showedhigh activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negativebacteria. A11 isolate was selected for next study. Fromidentification using 16S rRNA was obtained theinformation that isolate A11 was Streptomyces sp.,homology 100% to Streptomyces sp. J22, classActinobacteria, order Actinomycetales, familyStreptomycetaceae, and genus Streptomyces. Morphologyof A11 is the same like genus of Streptomyces (Chater

2006; Antonova-Nikolova et al. 2007). Surface lookedglossy and circular with folding hyphae that length andformed some antenna (aerial hyphae) arising out in verticalwas characteristic of Streptomyces morphology (Flardh andButtner 2009). Streptomyces are the one a genus ofActinomycetes that morphologically resemble fungi andphysiologically resemble bacteria. Subsequent growth ofStreptomyces colonies as they spread over the agar surfaceis thought to follow similar kinetics to filamentous fungi(Bushell 1988). The colony growth of the Streptomyces isinitiated when a spore germinates, giving rise to one ormore long multinucleoid filaments. These filamentselongate and branch repeatedly, originating a vegetativemycelium (substrate mycelium) that develops over, andinto the culture medium (Miguelez et al. 1999).

Table 1. Eight isolates of Actinomycetes (Banten, western Javacoast) producing antimicrobial active compound.

Antimicrobial (clear zone diameter in mm)

Name ofisolate

Sample pre-treatment

E. c

oli

S. a

ereu

s

B. s

ubtil

is

P. a

erug

inos

a

C. a

lbic

an

A. n

iger

A61 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A62 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A63 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A64 HS 0 0 0 0 0 15A65 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A66 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A67 A 0 0 0 0 0 0A68 A 0 0 0 0 0 0A69 A 0 0 0 0 0 0

A610 A 0 12 0 0 0 0A611 A 0 0 0 0 0 0A11 HS 18 15 14 14 0 0A12 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A21 HS 0 0 0 7 0 9A23 A 0 0 0 0 0 0A24 A 0 0 0 0 0 0A31 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A32 HS 0 12 0 0 7 0A33 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A41 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A42 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A43 A 10.16 0 8.67 9.51 0 0A44 A 0 0 0 0 10.61 0A45 A 0 0 0 0 0 0A51 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A52 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A53 HS 0 0 0 0 0 0A54 HS 0 8.56 0 0 8.67 0A56 A 0 0 0 0 0 0

Note: HS: Heatshock treatment, A: Acid treatmeant, Diameter ofpaper disc: 6 mm.

The phylogenic tree (Figure 1) indicated that A11 hasclose contiguity with S. tanashiensis subsp.cephalomyceticus. An isolate of S. tanashiensis subsp.cephalomyceticus was recognized which could synthesizeTAK-637 (tachykinin-receptor-antagonist) (Tarui 2001).


Figure 1. Polygenetic tree of isolate A11 shown as Streptomyces sp.

Fermentation andpurification

Fermentation of isolateA11 was carried out for 7 dayswith yeast-peptone medium.At the last day offermentation, the mediumcolor became dark and moreviscous than first day. It waslooked many white granular inthe bottom of flask. From 5liters volume of fermentationwas obtained 4.72 g of drybiomass after extracted bymethanol, and methanolextract of biomass wasobtained 2.72 g, extract ofsupernatant was obtained 0.33g. Antimicrobial bioassay

A11

Streptomyces parastreptomyces abscessus

Streptomyces streptoallomorpha polyantibiotica

Streptomyces microflavus strain HBUM174133

Streptomyces africanus

Streptomyces microflavus

Streptomyces paresii

Streptomyces afghaniensis

Streptomyces roseoviolaceus

Streptomyces kitasatospora

Streptomyces streptacidiphilus

Streptomyces sp LS247

Nocardioides thermolilacinus

Streptomyces malaysiensis

Nocardia abscessus

Streptomyces sp. QM-B814

Candidatus streptomyces philanthi biovar

Streptomyces indonesiensis

Streptomyces brasiliensis

17

57

31

7

5

100

45

100

99

4

2

51

39

18

8

19

24

2

Streptomyces tanashiensis subsp. cephalomyceticus

Actinomadura

Table 2. Biological activity of biomass and supernatant extract from isolate A11

Diameter of inhibition/clear zone (mm)SampleS. aureus B. subtilis P. aeruginosa E. coli C. albicans A. niger

Biomass extract - - - - - -

Supernatant extract 10.39 24.43 9.64 9.55 - -

Positive control(rifampicin 500 ppm)

21.27 44.57 10.08 10.12 - -

Note: Diameter of paper disc: 6 mm.

Table 3. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of active purified compound.

Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) µg/mLSample E. coli

ATCC 25922S. aureus

ATCC 25923B. subtilis

ATCC 66923P. aeruginosaATCC 27853

Active purified compound 27 80.2 73.7 68.7

Tetracycline (positive control) 64.0 256 128 12.5


showed that extract of supernatant active to bacterial test,but extract of biomass have no activity to bacterial test. Thedata of biological activity extract fermentation from isolateA11 is presented in Table 2. Table 2 showed that therewere strong antibacterial activities on supernatant extract,but no in the biomass extract. This indicates that isolateA11 produced antibacterial substance by extracellularsecretion.

Further purification of the antibiotic has been carriedout using column chromatography and preparative HPLC.Antibacterial test to all fraction of preparative HPLCshowed that peak retention 10.1 min was active fraction.Active fraction was collected and test to analysis HPLC.Analysis HPLC chromatogram of active fraction and UVvisible spectrum was presented at Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2 showed that active fraction of antibiotic hasretention time 8.6 min at gradient elution methanol-water0-100% using column sunfire. Purification usingpreparative HPLC obtained single peak with maximumabsorbance UV visible was 210 nm and 274.5 (Figure 3).This compound indicated that was colorless or whitepowder.

AU

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

Minutes0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00

8.62

3

Figure 2. Analysis HPLC chromatogram of active fraction

AU

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

nm250.00 300.00 350.00

274.5

Figure 3. UV visible spectrum of active fraction.

Isolate A11 was chosen to be subjected for minimuminhibitory concentration (MIC) assay since it exhibited thelarger zone of inhibition. Table 3 showed that activecompounds produced by isolate A11 was highly activeagainst E. coli ATCC 25922, S. aureus ATCC25923, P.aeruginosa ATCC27853, B. subtilis ATCC 66923, withrespective MIC value 27, 80.2, 68.7, and 73.7 µg/mL. Thisindicates that this active compounds highly active againstGram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It was

compared tetracycline, this active compound was strongeractive against E. coli ATCC, S. aureus ATCC25923, and B.subtilis ATCC 66923, but rather weaken against P.aeruginosa ATCC27853.

CONCLUSION

Actinomycetes (isolate A11) was isolated fromsediment in Anyer, Banten produced antibiotic activeagainst to Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcusaureus ATCC25923, Pseudomonas aeruginosaATCC27853, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 66923. Identificationusing 16S rRNA showed that isolate A11 is Streptomycessp. Purification of antibiotic using column chromatographyand preparative HPLC produce single peak ofchromatogram at retention time 8.623 min and max UVabsorbance was 210 nm and 274.5 nm. Minimuminhibitory concentration (MIC) to E. coli ATCC 25922 was27 µg/mL, P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853 68.7 µg/mL, S.aureus ATCC 25923 80.2 µg/mL, and B. subtilis ATCC66923 73.7 µg/mL.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank to Anis Mahsunah (Head of DownstreamProcessing Laboratory) and Hardaning Pranamuda (Headof Industrial Biotechnology Division, Biotech Center BPPT,South Tangerang) for their valuable and critical commentson this research. We also thank IDB (Islamic DevelopmentBank) for supporting scholarship of our study.

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Fiedler HP, Christina B, Alan TB, Alan CW, Michael G, Olivier P,Carsten P, Gerhard H (2005) Marine Actinomycetes as a source ofnovel secondary metabolites. Antonie Leeuwenhock 87: 37-42.

Flardh K, Buttner MJ (2009) Streptomyces morphogenetics: dissectingdifferentiation in a filamentous bacterium. J Nat Rev Microbiol 7: 36-50.

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Goodfellow M, William ST, Mordarski M (1988) Actinomycetes inbiotechnology. Academic Press, New York.

Kanoh K, Matsuo Y, Adachi K, Imagawa K, Nishizawa M, Shizuri Y(2005) Mechercharmycins A and B, cytotoxic substances frommarine-derived Thermoactinomyces sp. YM3-251. J Antibiot 58 (4):289-292.

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Miguelez EM, Hardisson C, Manzanal MB (1999) Hyphal death duringcolony development in Streptomyces antibioticus: Morphological

evidence for the existence of a process of cell deletion in amulticellular prokaryote. J Cell Biol 145: 515-525.

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Parungao MM, Maceda EBG, and Villano MAV (2007) Screening ofantibiotic-producing Actinomycetes from marine, brackish andterrestrial sediments of Samal Island, Philippines. J Res in Sci CompEng 4: 329-338.

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Plant diversity in natural forest of Guilan Rural Heritage Museum in Iran

ROYA ABEDI1, HASSAN POURBABAEI2,♥

Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, Somehsara, University of Guilan, Islamic Republic of Iran. P.O. Box 1144, Tel.: +98-182-3220895, Fax.: +98-182-3223600, email: [email protected], 2,[email protected]

Manuscript received: 31 August 2010. Revision accepted: 29 October 2010.

ABSTRACT

Abedi R, Pourbabaei H (2010) Plant diversity in natural forest of Guilan Rural Heritage Museum in Iran. Biodiversitas 11: 182-186.The aim of this study was to determine plant species diversity in Guilan Rural Heritage Museum in Iran. Eighty nine sampling plotswere sampled based on systematic random method. Data analysis was carried out using diversity indices of richness, diversity(Shannon-Wiener, Simpson, Mc Arthur’s (N1) and Hill’s (N2) and Smith and Wilson’s evenness index (Evar). Results indicated thatRosaceae and Labiatae families have the highest number of species. Quercus castaneifolia and Ruscus hyrcanus were the most dominantwoody plants for class of tree and shrub, respectively. Carex divolsa and Viola odorata were dominant herbaceous species. Herbaceouslayer had the highest richness, evenness and diversity. Mc Arthur’s N1 index had the highest value among diversity indices.

Key words: diversity, richness, evenness, Rural Heritage Museum, Guilan.

INTRODUCTION

Deforestation is one of the primary causes ofbiodiversity loss. Forests represent about 30% of terrestrialhabitats, and support an exceptional number of species.Forests also provide economically important products andservices. Small, isolated forest fragments are typically lessable to provide these goods and services, or support a fullcomplement of native species (Mayer and Tikka 2006).Natural forests decline in both extent and qualityworldwide; there is an increasing recognition of thebiodiversity conservation value of production landscapes(Le Brocque et al. 2009). Maintenance of biodiversity hasbeen recognized as an important component of sustainabledevelopment and protection of native forests is a majormeans of biodiversity conservation (Muller et al. 2006).Efficiency of management and maintain of endangeredspecies of a region could be evaluated when we have entireconsciousness about biodiversity (Asri 2008).

Plant biodiversity consists of diversity into plantpopulation structure, distribution, composition andabundance patterns. It is used as an index for comparisonof forest ecosystems conditions (Pourbabaei 2001).Biological diversity has an indispensable value to society inthat it (i) serves as a reservoir of genetic material thatenhance productivity and stress tolerance of domesticatedspecies and a source of new medicine, energy andindustrial feed stock, (ii) provides ecological services suchas amelioration of climate, water purification, soilstabilization and flood control and (iii) provides animalsand natural landscape which have an overall benefit onhuman health and well-being through various forms ofoutdoor recreation (Brockway 1998).

Biological diversity is the richness and evenness ofspecies amongst and within living organisms andecological complexes (Polyakov et al. 2008). Biodiversityis mostly studied in species level. There are differentindices to measure biodiversity. The most commonlyconsidered facet of biodiversity is species richness.Evenness is another important factor of biodiversity.(Kharkwal et al. 2004). Evenness has been considered as afundamental fact in habitats with more than one species(Hashemi 2010). Nowadays, numerous efforts toincorporate biodiversity into forests management andplanning are encouraging (Brockway 1998).

Many studies have been carried out on plantbiodiversity indices in Iran and around the world. Gholamiet al. (2007) compared plant diversity, richness andevenness indices around protected area of the BazanganLake in Khorasan province, northeast of Iran. Theyindicated the highest value in Shannon-Wiener index.Ravanbakhsh et al. (2007) studied under-storey and over-storey plant biodiversity in Gisoom reserved forest inGuilan province, north of Iran and they showed that under-storey vegetation was disturbed and affected by humanimpacts. Abasi et al. (2009) investigated the effects ofconservation on woody species diversity in protectedregions of Oshtorankooh in Lorestan province, west ofIran. They expressed that trees and shrubs living in theprotected regions species have significantly higherdiversity, richness, evenness and better living conditionthan they living in non-protected region. Comparison ofspecies richness and Hill’s diversity indices showed thattotal species richness was higher in natural stands. Also,more fertile sites have significantly higher values of Hill’sdiversity index in mature stands of spruce plantation andnatural stands in Southeaster New Brunswick, Canada

ABEDI & POURBABAEI – Plant diversity of Guilan Rural Heritage Museum 183

(Roberts 2002). Measurement of Shannon-Wiener andevenness indices on Pinus massoniana communities inConservation project of plant biodiversity in Yangtze ThreeGorges reservoir area, China showed that biodiversity ofshrubs layer was the highest, followed by grass layer andthe middle, while tree layer was the lowest (Tian et al.2007).

Main objective of this study was to quantitativelyanalyze the biodiversity of vegetation cover in tree, shrub,herbaceous and regeneration layers in Guilan RuralHeritage Museum, Iran.


Study areaThe study was carried out at the Guilan Rural Heritage

Museum with approximately 260 ha in extent that islocated in Saravan Forest Park in the north of Iran (37˚6΄ to37˚8΄ N latitude and 49˚37΄ to 49˚39΄ E longitude). Thealtitude ranges from 60 to 120 m asl. The climate is humidand very humid with cool winter according to Embergerclimate classification. Mean annual temperature is 16.33˚Cand annual precipitation is 1366.64 mm. Maximum andminimum temperature is 27.8˚C in August and 4.1˚C inFebruary, respectively (data obtained from 1985 to 2005,http://www.weather.ir) (Figure 1). This area is located atabout 15 km far away from Rasht, the capital city of Guilanprovince, Iran.

Field samplingSampling procedure was the systematic random

method. In this method, the sampling network size was100×200 m. The distances between sampling strips were200 m and the distances between circular plots on stripswere 100 m. Then, start point was randomly selected andthe sampling network was systematically located on themap (Poorbabaei et al. 2008; Pourmajidian et al. 2009;Poorbabaei and Poorrostam 2009; Shafiei et al. 2010).Totally, 89 sampling plots were taken. Data was collectedto the class of tree (≥10 cm dbh) and shrub layers (number

of individual) in 1000 m2 circular plots (Zobeiry 2005;Pourmajidian et al. 2009; Shafiei et al. 2010). In the centerof these plots, the cover percentage of herbaceous species,including herbs, ferns and mosses, was estimated usingDomin criterion by minimal area method with 32 m2 areas.Number of regeneration in two classes include, sapling(≥1.30 m height and ≤10 cm dbh) and seedling (<1.30 mheight) were sampled in 100 m2 circular plots. Plantspecimens were collected and stored in the Herbarium ofDepartment of Forestry in Faculty of Natural Resources atUniversity of Guilan.

Data analysisData analysis was carried out using diversity indices of

Shannon-Wiener, Simpson, Mc Arthur’s N1, Hill’s N2, andSmith and Wilson’s evenness (Evar). The diversity indiceswere calculated separately to different life forms: trees,shrubs, saplings, seedlings and herbs. Indices were used asfollowing (Pitkanen 1998; Krebs 2001; Nagendra 2002;Nangendo et al. 2002; Small and McCarthy 2005; Lamb etal. 2009; Hashemi 2010):

Shannon-Wiener’ H':

Simpson’ 1-D:

Mc Arthur’s N1:

Hill’s N2:

S: the total number of species in the sample.Pi: the proportion of individuals in the ith species (Pi=

ni/N, ni is the number of individuals in the ith species and Nis the total number of individuals)

Smith and Wilson’s evenness (Evar) (Krebs 2001;Gosselin 2006):

Figure 1. Location of the study area: Guilan Rural Heritage Museum, Guilan Province, Islamic Republic of Iran.

Guilan Rural Heritage MuseumIslamic Republic of Iran Guilan Province

A AstaraH HashtparBA Bandar AnzaliS SomiehsaraF FoomanR RashtAA Astaneh AshrafiehLh LahijanLr LangeroodRs RoodsarRb RoodbarSh Shaft


Arctan: measured as an angle in radiansni: basal area for over-storey species and is coverage for

the under-storey of the ith species in the sampling plotnj: basal area for over-storey species and is coverage for

the under-storey of the jth species in the sampling plotS: total number of species in the entire sample

Numbers of species per plot was taken as a measure ofspecies richness (S) (Timilsina et al. 2007). Data werecalculated in Ecological Methodology software (Krebs2001).

Species importance value (SIV) was calculated for allspecies by summing relative frequency, relative density andrelative dominance values for woody species and summedrelative frequency and relative dominance for herbaceousspecies. SIV was used to identify dominance species in thestudy area. The following formulas were used for eachcalculation (Maingi and Marsh 2006; Adam et al. 2007):

Relative frequency = Number of plots that contain a species x 100Number of all plots

Relative density = Number of a species in all plots x 100Total Number of species in all plots

Relative dominance = Total basal area of a species in all plots x 100Total basal area of all species in all plots


ResultsTotally, 75 plant species including 73 native species

belong to 43 families and 72 genera were recordedthroughout the study area (Table 1). Rosaceae and Labiataefamilies had the highest number of species (Figure 2).Quercus castaneifolia (227.24%) and Ruscus hyrcanus(126.60%) had the highest value of SIV and were the mostdominant woody species to tree and shrub layers,respectively. Carex divulsa (76.47%) and Viola odorata(75.80%) were the most dominant herbaceous species.Mean richness of species (S) was higher in herbaceouslayer and followed by regeneration, tree and shrub layers(Figure 3). Herbaceous layer had the highest amount ofSmith and Wilson’s evenness index (Evar) and followed byshrubs, regeneration and tree layers (Figure 4). Diversityindices of Simpson (1-D), Hill’s N2, Shannon-Wiener (H΄)and Mc Arthur’s N1 in tree, shrub, herbaceous andregeneration layers were showed in Figures 5. Mc Arthur’sN1 was higher diversity index and followed by Hill’s N2,Shannon-Wiener and Simpson in all layers of vegetationcover in the study area.

Table 1. List of plant species in Guilan Rural Heritage Museum.

FamilyScientific NameEuphorbiaceaeAcalypha australis L.AceraceaeAcer insigne Boiss.MimosaceaeAlbizia julibrissin Durazz.AlismataceaeAlisma plantago-aquatica L.BetulaceaeAlnus subcordata C. A. Mey.AsteraceaeArtemisia annua L.AspleniaceaeAsplenium adiantum-nigrum L.AthyriaceaeAthyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth.SalviniaceaeAzolla filiculoides Lam.BrachytheciaceaeBrachythecium plumosum (Hedw.) Schimp.CyperaceaeCarex divulsa Stokes.BetulaceaeCarpinus betulus L.PapaveraceaeChelidonium majus L.ConvolvulaceaeConvolvulus betonicifolius Mill.AsteraceaeCirsium arvense (L.) Scop.RosaceaeCrataegus ambigua M. B.PoaceaeCynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.CyperaceaeCyperus rotundus L.LiliaceaeDanae racemosa (L.) Moench.EbenaceaeDiospyros lotus L.OrchidaceaeEpipactis latifolia All.AsteraceaeErigeron canadensis L.EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbia amygdaloides L.MoraceaeFicus carica L.RosaceaeFragaria vesca L.RosaceaeGeum heterocarpum Boiss.CaesalpiniaceaeGleditsia caspica Dest.AraliaceaeHedera helix L.AraliaceaeHedera pastuchovii Woron. Ex Grossh.HypericaceaeHypericum androsaemum L.HypericaceaeHypericum perforatum L.AquifoliaceaeIlex aquifolium L.JuncaceaeJuncus bufonius L.JuncaceaeJuncus glaucus Ehrh.LabiataeLamium album L.LabiataeLycopus europaeus L.LabiataeMentha pulegium L.RosaceaeMespilus germanica L.MoraceaeMorus alba L.LabiataeNepeta involucrate (Bunge) Bornm.PoaceaeOplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) P.OxalidaceaeOxalis corniculata L.BrachytheciaceaePalamocladium sp.HamamelidaceaeParrotia persica C. A. Mey.AsclepiadaceaePeriploca graeca L.VerbenaceaePhyla nodiflora (L.) Greene.AspleniaceaePhyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Scop.MniaceaePlagiomnium cuspidatumPolygonaceaePolygonum aviculare L.PolypodiaceaePolypodium vulgare L.SalicaceaePopulus caspica Bornm.RosaceaePotentilla reptans L.PrimulaceaePrimula heterochroma Starf.LabiataePrunella vulgaris L.RosaceaePrunus domestica L.HypolepidaceaePteridium aquilinum L. Kuhn in Decken.PteridaceaePteris cretica L.JuglandaceaePterocarya fraxinifolia (Lam.) Spach.RosaceaePyrus communis L.FagaceaeQuercus castaneifolia C. A. Mey.RosaceaeRubus persicus Boiss.LiliaceaeRuscus hyrcanus Woron.SalicaceaeSalix alba L.SalicaceaeSalix aegyptiaca L.CaprifoliaceaeSambucus ebulus L.LabiataeScutellaria albida L.PoaceaeSetaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv.LiliaceaeSmilax excelsa L.SolanaceaeSolanum dulcamara L.AsteraceaeSolidago virga-aurea L.UlmaceaeUlmus carpinifolia G. Suckow.UrticaceaeUrtica dioica L.CaprifoliaceaeViburnum lantana L.ViolaceaeViola odorata L.UlmaceaeZelkova carpinifolia (Pall.) Dipp.

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ABEDI & POURBABAEI – Plant diversity of Guilan Rural Heritage Museum 185

Figure 2. Number of species in each family of plants in Guilan Rural Heritage Museum, Iran.

2.8542.191

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Tree Shrub Regeneration Herb

Vegetation layers

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cie

valu

es

Figure 5. Mean diversity indices, richness, evenness and theirstandard errors in tree layer

DiscussionThe assessment of biodiversity in forest has become an

important issue for studying ecosystems and theirconservation (Aubert et al. 2003). Biodiversitymeasurement is recognized as guidance for conservationplans in local scale. Species biodiversity is used greatly invegetation studies, and environmental evaluation is one ofthe main criteria to determine ecosystems condition. Sothat, many research considered that high species diversityis equal to stability in ecological systems (Mirdavoodi andZahedi Pour 2005).

The presence of 75 plant species in 260 ha areaindicates considerable plant diversity in the study area. Ourresults showed that herb layer had the highest diversityindices (richness, diversity and evenness). The lightpenetration was high due to forest disturbance anddecreasing canopy coverage, it led to increasing herbaceousspecies. Also, response of under-storey species tophysiographical condition will be used as index ofdisturbances and changes in environmental and edaphicalcondition in sites (Mirzaei et al. 2008).

Many studies have emphasized the effects of slopes,aspect and elevation on plant diversity. It seems that highplant diversity in our study area is due to topographic andphysiographic condition. This study area is flat in mostparts (average of slope in most parts is 0-30 % and in someparts is 30-60%). High plant diversity is also due to fertilityand humidity of sites. Steep slopes cause negative effectson site qualities by drainage of available water, soil erosionand decrease of soil nutrients (Sohrabi et al. 2007). In theother hand, low degree of slope and humidity were themost important factors of increasing diversity ofherbaceous species (Gholami et al. 2007).

Studies showed that the highest values of richness andevenness occurred in the middle altitudes because offavorable temperature (Mirzaei et al. 2008). Thus, altituderanging from 60 to 120 m asl. in our study area can be anappropriate condition for plant diversity. Northern slopeshave more diversity due to must humidity (Kooch et al.2009). Our study area was flat in many parts but havenorthern slopes in some parts. This can be evaluated as areason of acceptable plant diversity.


Study on the effective environmental condition such asslope, aspects, altitudes and specially edaphic, climatic andanthropogenic factors on plant species diversity should beconsidered. Mc Arthur's N1 is sensitive to the number ofspecies (Pourbabaei and Ahani 2004). It was the highestvalue in herbaceous layer due to high number ofherbaceous species in the study area. Simpson index issensitive to the frequency of species (Pourbabaei and Ahani2004). The highest Simpson index is herb layer, followedby shrub, regeneration and tree layers (shrubs have thelowest number of species but dispersed distributed in thestudy area). Roberts (2002) showed that fertile sites havethe highest value of Hill’s N2 index and this index issignificantly higher in natural stands. In our study, value ofthis index for herb layer was the highest and followed byshrubs, trees and regeneration layers. Comparison of thisstudy area to Gisoom reserved forest in the west of Guilanprovince (both of them are coastal plain forests in north ofIran) showed that species richness was the same butbiodiversity in Gisoom has better condition than in ourstudy area. It seems that conservation strategies areimportant factor in plant diversity conservation in Gisoom(Ravanbakhsh et al. 2007).

CONCLUSION

Attempts to establish a diverse ecosystem with aestheticvalues and help for plant conservation are necessary inGuilan Rural heritage Museum. Diversity is one of themain factors of sustainable forest management. Identifyingplants species of a region and their biodiversity is veryeffective way to identify disturbance factors and developrecovery plans. It is also essential to maintain a high proportionof native woody species, create protection programs andpreserve the area against human and livestock disturbances.

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Morphological variation of Hoya multiflora Blume at different habitattype of Bodogol Research Station of Gunung Gede Pangrango National

Park, Indonesia

SRI RAHAYU1,2, ♥, MUHAMMAD JUSUF3,4, SUHARSONO3,4, CECEP KUSMANA5, ROCHADI ABDULHADI6

1Department of Biology, School of Graduates, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB). IPB Campus at Darmaga, Bogor 16980, West Java, Indonesia.2Bogor Botanical Gardens, Indonesian Institute of Sciences. Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 13 Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia. Tel. +62-251-8322187 Fax. +62-

251-8322187. email: [email protected] of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Darmaga, Bogor 16980, West Java,

Indonesia4Research Center for Bioresources and Biotechnology, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Darmaga, Bogor 16980, West Java, Indonesia

5Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Darmaga, Bogor 16980, West Java, Indonesia.6Ecological Laboratory, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong-Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia

Manuscript received: 22 June 2010. Revision accepted: 25 October 2010.

ABSTRACT

Rahayu S, Jusuf M, Suharsono, Kusmana C, Abdulhadi R. (2010) Morphological variation of Hoya multiflora Blume at different habitattype of Bodogol Research Station of Gunung Gede Pangrango Natonal Park, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 11: 187-193. Hoya multifloraBlume (Asclepiadaceae) is an Asiatic tropical epiphytic shrub which has been utilized as ornamental plant and reported to possessmedicinal properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the morphological variation of Hoya multiflora populations at the differenthabitat types of Bodogol Research Station of Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park in Indonesia. We collected 48 samples from threesub populations with six different habitat types. Morphological variation was found in stem, leave, and inflorescence. According to thediscriminant and cluster analysis, the 48 samples were separated into three groups at 12% dissimilarity. The groups were determined by canopycover degree.

Key words: morphological diversity, Hoya multiflora, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park.

INTRODUCTION

Hoya multiflora Blume (Asclepiadaceae) is widelydistributed throughout India to New Guinea (Hooker 1885;Schlechter 1914; Thaitong 1994), at the elevation of 200-1200 m above sea level (Backer and van der Brink Jr.1965; Rintz 1980). This species is characterized by its short(non vein) stem, leathery (non succulent) oblong leaves andthe flowers have white coronas and yellow/white reflexedcorollas (Wanntorp et al. 2006). There can be up to 40 ofthis rocket like flowers in an umbel and they produce lotsof nectar, and produces white latex from all of its part.

Hoya multiflora is one of the economically importantornamental plants in the world. In addition, this species hasbeen classified as medicinal plant (Zachos 1998) and itsmedicinal properties have been used traditionally to treatarthritis-rheumatism (Burkill 2002), and stomach/intestinalailments (Ambasta 1986) as well. Though the activecompound of this plant has not been identified yet,presumably it contains Indomethacin-like compound. It is acommon non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID),which has been used for more than 30 years to treatsymptomatic pain of arthritis-rheumatism. Recently, thiscompound has been tested for a new drug as anti HIV

(Bourinbaiar and Lee-Huang 1994), and it seems to bespecific since no toxicity has been observed at the IC50 dose.

Despite their high economic importance, little is knownabout their morphological diversity. The variations ofmorphological characters provide a range of selection forhorticultural purposes, and can also describe the geneticdiversity among the populations. Morphological charactersare expression of the genetic diversity as interact with theirenvironment. Specific adaptation information will bebeneficial for agronomic and horticultural plants which hadbeen and continue to be developed by extensive testing(Vogel et al. 2005). There are some variations on H.multiflora characters according to the geographical range(Goyder 2008). Thus, it is imperative to study themorphological diversity of H. multiflora, especially thosewhich are presence at Gunung Gede Pangrango NationalPark, Bogor, Indonesia. The H. multiflora populations inthis area grow on various habitats and host plants.

The objective of this study is to evaluate themorphological diversity at different habitat types atBodogol Research Station, Gunung Gede PangrangoNational Park, Indonesia.



Study siteThere were three subpopulations (Figure 1, red circle)

of H. multiflora at Bodogol Research Station, GunungGede Pangrango National Park, West Java, Indonesia usedas sample sources. The six different habitat types wereidentified at the study area. The habitat type wasdifferentiated by its dominant tree, sapling species andcanopy cover. The subpopulation-1 has two types of habitatand therefore divided into two sites; the subpopulation-2has three types of habitat and divided into three sites, andsubpopulation-3 only has one habitat type (Figure 1, bluecircle). The habitat types of the sampling sites were listedin Table 1.

Plant materialFour eight plant samples were collected from the six

different habitat sites at Bodogol Research Station as listedin Table 1. The samples were collected as cuttings forliving collection and housed in a shade house at BogorAgricultural University (IPB), Darmaga, Bogor.

Morphological observationA descriptor list was needed to make a simple

observation. The development of the descriptor was basedon the observation of both quantitative and qualitativecharacters of the vegetative and generative structures. The

description of characters terminology are following the“Plant Form” of (Bell and Bryan 2008) and “BotanicalLatin” of Stearn (2004). All measurement was in metricand color observation was taken with the RoyalHorticulture Society (RHS) color chart (2007).

Data analysisData analysis consisted of discriminant and cluster analysis

by using SPSS software (Kirkpatrick and Feeney 2005).

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Morphological variationsA descriptor list has been developed as a result of the

preliminary observation as listed in Table 2. Twenty fourcharacters displayed morphological variation among Hoyamultiflora populations at Bodogol. Plant growth habitranged from upright (Figure 2A) and prostrate types(Figure 2B). Node length was ranged from the very short(0.9 cm) to the very long (12.2 cm). These two characterswere correlated with the plant performance. The uprightplant with short node will give the best performance as potplant. Leaf blade shape was varied between obovate andoblong, and the intensity of green color varied from 146 A(yellowish green) to 147 A (green) of RHS color chartstandard.

Figure 1. The Hoya multiflora population at Bodogol Research Station, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park as sample source

Table 1. The habitat types of Hoya multiflora populations at Bodogol Research Station, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park

Sub population Site Habitat type Canopy cover Sample number

1 1 Maesopsis eminii-Cyathea contaminans forest 60.23% 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,91 2 Primary mixed forest 61.53% 10,11,12,13,14,15,16, 17,18,192 3 Maesopsis eminii-Calliandra calothyrsus Forest 75.34% 20,21,22,23,24,252 4 Schima wallichii forest 64.15% 26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,342 5 Ridge open-building mixed 54.62% 35,36,37,38,39,40,413 6 Altingia excelsa Forest 80.23% 42,43,44,45,46,47,48

6SubPop 3

2

1SubPop 1

SubPop 2

5

43

RAHAYU et al. – Morphological variation of Hoya multiflora Blume 189

There were variations on corolla coloration, both onbud and opened flower stage. Variation between absenceand presence on the flower bud anthocyanin coloration wasfound among the population as presented in Figure 2C andFigure 2D. There were two types of flower colorationamong the populations. The pale color (Figure 2E) stated ashaving two corolla colors and full color (Fig.2F) stated ashaving one corolla color. Variation was also found at thepedicel length and corolla reflexion (Figure 2G). Pedicellength was varied from 3 cm to 6 cm. Corona type wasvaried as closed type (Figure 2H) and open type (Figure 2I).

Variation among the observed morphological characterswas performed as expression of the genetic variationamong populations in interaction with their environment asadaptation process. Genetic change is what occurs in apopulation when natural selection acts on the geneticvariability of the population. By this means, the populationadapts genetically to its circumstances (Orr 2005).Populations differ in their phenotypic plasticity, which isthe ability of an organism with a given genotype to changeits phenotype in response to changes in its habitat, or to itsmove to a different habitat (Price et al. 2003; Prince 2006).Phenotypic plasticity may occur and first appear at thevegetative characters such as leaf morphology. Themorphological variation in leaf shape of Ranunculus repenswas concordance by physiological variation in theiradaptation to survive at amphibious habitat (Lynn andWaldren 2001, 2002, 2003).

SimilarityAccording to the

discriminant analysis, therewere five functions whichdiscriminated the samples(Table 3 and Table 4). Thefirst function with the largestvariability explained 45.5% ofthe among site variation basedlargely on six charactersnamely pedicel anthocyanin,peduncle length, intensity ofgreen color of leaves, corollacolor, leaf blade shape andflower number per umbel. Thesecond function explained23% of the variation with twomain characters namely calyxanthocyanin and pedicel color.The third function explained14% variation related to sixcharacters i.e. corollareflextion, corolla number ofcolor, petiole length, coronatype, corolla curvature andstem anthocyanin. The first tothird functions hascumulatively explained 82.4%of the variation. The fourthfunction related to four

characters i.e. petiole anthocyanin, corolla length, leavesratio and number of umbel. Then the fifth function relatedto corolla bud anthocyanin, plant habit, corona length,peduncle anthocyanin, node length and pedicel length.

Table 3. Functions at Group Centroids.

Function1 2 3 4 5

Eigenvalue 45.5 23.0 14.0 9.5 8.0Cumulative% 45.5 68.5 82.4 92.0 100.0Site 1 -1.075 0.470 0.911 -1.193 -0.469Site 2 -0.699 0.395 -1.735 -0.136 -0.154Site 3 1.576 -2.815 0.005 0.007 -0.561Site 4 -0.194 -0.366 0.262 -0.059 1.444Site 5 -2.040 0.174 0.675 1.451 -0.402Site 6 3.319 1.540 0.290 0.347 -0.152Note: Unstandardized canonical discriminant functions evaluatedat group means.

The distribution of samples on a canonical plane waspresented in Figure 3. It was spanned by the first andsecond canonical axis which in total covered 68.5% of thevariation (eigenvalues). Along the first (horizontal) axis,with eigenvalue equal 45.5%, the samples were separatedmostly according to the six characters (pedicelanthocyanin, peduncle length, intensity of leaves greencolor, corolla color, and leaf shape and flower number perumbel).

Table 2. Characters of descriptor list for Hoya multiflora used in this study

Qualitative character statesCharacters Type ofcharacters 0 1

1 Plant: habit qualitative upward horizontal2 Stem: anthocyanin coloration qualitative absent present3 Node: length quantitative4 Petiole: length quantitative5 Petiole: anthocyanin coloration qualitative absent present6 Leaves: shape qualitative obovate oblong7 Leaves: ratio width/length quantitative8 Leaves: intensity of green color of upper part qualitative light * dark *9 Inflorescence: number of umbel / branch qualitative one more than one10 Inflorescence: number flower / umbel quantitative11 Peduncle: length quantitative12 Peduncle: anthocyanin coloration qualitative absent present13 Pedicel: length at the full opened flower quantitative14 Pedicel: color at the first open flower qualitative yellow green * green*15 Pedicel: anthocyanin coloration qualitative absent present16 Calyx: anthocyanin coloration at the first open flower qualitative absent present17 Corolla: anthocyanin coloration at the 1st bud qualitative absent present18 Corolla: number of color qualitative one (flush) two (+white)19 Corolla: color of lamina tip qualitative yellow * orange*20 Corolla: length of corolla lobe quantitative21 Corolla: intensity of reflection qualitative weak medium22 Corolla: curvature of corolla lobe qualitative weak medium23 Corona: type qualitative unopened opened24 Corona: length of corona lobe quantitativeNote: * Taken with the Royal Horticulture Society (RHS) Color Chart


Figure 2. Diversity in inflorescence of Hoya multiflora: a. upright plant b. horizontal plant habit c. absent/very weak in anthocyanincoloration in flower bud d. strong anthocynin in flower bud, e. pale corolla color, f. strong corolla color, g. variation in pedicel lengthand corolla reflexion. h. closed corona type, i. opened corona type. (Scale: a-b = 5 cm; c-i = 1 cm)

CC=54-65 %CC=80.23 %

SITE

CC=75.34 %

Figure 3. Distribution of samples on canonical plane

The right direction was occupied by site 3 and site 6,which have pedicel anthocyanin coloration, long peduncle,deepest color on leaves and flower, oblong leaves andnumerous flowers. The left direction was placed by sites 5,1 and 2 which possess the opposite characteristic with thesites 3 and 6 i.e. lack of pedicel anthocyanin coloration,short peduncle, lighter color on leaves and flower, ovateleaves and fewer flowers. Sites 3 and 6 were in habitatswith dense canopy and site 5 had the most open canopy(Table 1). The canopy density may influence the intensityof green color in leaves. In the condition of dense canopy,the sunlight is weak, which in turn is able to triggerchlorophyll production to catch the more sunlight. Shadeplants contain more chlorophyll b or have smallerchlorophyll a:b ratios. At given nitrogen availabilitychlorophyll a: b ratios increase with increasing irradiance(Kitajima and Hogan 2003). It is very often observed in the

F

IHG

D E

CBA


Table 4. Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients and Correlation between Observed Characters and CanonicalVariables of Hoya multiflora

1`11 2 3 4 5

Observed characters Canonicaldiscriminant

functioncoefficients

Corre-lation

Canonicaldiscriminant


Corre-lation



Corre-lation



Corre-lation



Corre-lation

Pedicel anthocyanin 0.980 0.331(*) 0.590 -0.170 -0.718 -0.307 0.168 -0.023 -0.134 -0.045Peduncle length 10.673 0.250(*) 10.019 -0.067 0.175 -0.063 0.093 0.132 -0.386 -0.244Leaves green color 0.054 0.150(*) 0.217 0.128 -0.156 0.043 -0.090 0.039 0.304 -0.142Corolla color 0.560 -0.136(*) -0.319 0.063 0.111 0.106 0.169 0.075 0.751 0.082Leaves shape -0.173 0.097(*) 10.510 0.040 0.249 0.074 0.013 0.053 -0.296 -0.068Flower number 10.104 -0.053(*) 0.164 0.002 0.560 0.029 -0.397 0.039 0.014 0.012Calyx anthocyanin 0.718 -0.262 10.037 0.299(*) -0.180 0.105 0.712 0.230 0.431 0.020Pedicel color 0.480 0.089 -0.562 -0.222(*) -0.170 -0.172 0.110 0.050 0.813 -0.002Corolla reflextion 0.294 -0.035 10.031 0.039 -0.365 -0.282(*) -0.255 -0.032 0.547 -0.043Corolla number of color 0.296 0.104 0.558 -0.058 0.967 0.275(*) 0.221 -0.170 0.430 0.121Petiole length -0.621 0.048 10.222 0.063 -0.821 -0.247(*) -0.051 0.083 0.068 0.071Corona type -0.284 -0.027 0.870 0.181 0.141 -0.223(*) 0.624 0.154 -0.685 -0.076Corolla curvature -0.927 0.032 -0.307 -0.172 0.058 -0.203(*) 0.139 -0.022 -0.133 -0.146Stem anthocyanin -0.112 -0.046 -0.949 -0.045 -0.877 -0.154(*) 0.239 -0.049 -0.057 -0.087Petiole anthocyanin -0.088 -0.236 0.041 -0.054 0.084 0.111 0.635 0.466(*) -0.051 0.101Corolla length 0.802 0.117 -0.664 -0.060 -0.174 -0.119 0.422 0.210(*) 0.251 0.056Leaves ratio -0.630 0.078 -0.709 -0.148 0.521 0.015 0.630 0.172(*) 0.071 -0.081Umbel number -0.127 0.008 -0.191 0.027 -0.385 -0.135 0.437 0.144(*) -0.012 0.104Corolla bud anthocyanin -0.605 -0.169 0.217 0.069 0.375 0.131 -0.373 -0.057 -0.698 -0.429(*)Plant habit 0.603 0.151 -0.124 -0.048 0.015 0.130 0.484 0.282 -0.071 -0.334(*)Corona length 0.226 -0.053 -0.518 0.059 -0.009 0.008 -0.435 -0.131 0.896 0.251(*)Peduncle antho -0.357 0.042 -0.340 -0.030 0.532 -0.038 -0.370 -0.006 -0.047 -0.193(*)Node length 0.505 0.103 -0.997 0.042 0.650 -0.151 -0.229 0.085 0.620 0.179(*)Pedicel length -0.508 -0.121 -0.301 -0.034 -0.568 -0.095 -0.279 -0.102 -0.437 -0.171(*)Note: * indicate the largest correlation among the five canonical functions for each character

tropics, that individual plants of a given species growing indeep shade inside a forest and exposed to full sun-light inan open habitat respectively, form morphologically verydifferent phenotypes, which are also strongly distinguishedby pigmentation especially as a response to photosyntheticapparatus (Lüttge 2008).

The plants living in a shade and humid area have beenpredicted to have more nutrients to be absorbs so will affecton the growth (peduncle length, leaves size and number offlower). This condition is identical with the experimentresult of Issarakraisila and Settapakdee (2008) on theseedling of Garcinia mangostana as a shade tolerant plant.An increase of light intensity increased the thickness oflamina resulting in an increase of palisade and spongytissues and the stomata frequency also increased. Bothchlorophyll a and b declined gradually as the light intensityincreased and the average ratio was 0.808. The growth ofseedlings described as leaf size, leaf number per plant, totalleaf area, height, fresh weight and dry weight weredramatically reduced when exposed to 100% light intensitycondition. Maximum growth was found when exposed to40% light intensity condition. Clones of population nativeto shade and to exposed environments show differences inthe photosynthetic response to light intensity during growth(Björkman and Holmgren 2006).

So far, the samples were grouped based on theirmorphological similarities. As shown in Figure 3, therewere three clusters of 48 samples from the six sites. Thefirst cluster was consist of all samples from site 6 at the

above right of the plane, the second was consist of samplesof site 3 at the below of the plane, and the third was consistof samples from sites 5, 2, 1 and 4 at the above left of theplane. This result was identical to the result of a clusteranalysis by using mean coordinates on the five canonicalaxis (Table 3). A dendogram displayed on Figure 4 showedthe separation of six sites into three groups at 12%dissimilarity level. The first group was site 6, the secondwas site 3 and the third was consisting of sites 5, 2, 4 and 1.Sites 5, 2, 4, and 1 possess dissimilarity at below 5%.

C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25

Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

1,00 1

5,00 5

2,00 2

4,00 4

3,00 3

6,00 6

Figure 4. Dendogram of 6 groups of Hoya multiflora population,generated from canonical coordinate of means.


The similarity between six sites was performed bymorphological characters, which were discriminated by itsdifferent habitat. According to the analysis the sites 5, 2, 4,and 1 were similar at 95%, while sites 6 and 3 wereseparated at 12% dissimilarity level. Their similarity degreewas match with the canopy cover (Table 1). Sites 6 and 3occupied dense canopy cover (80.23% and 75.34%), whilethe other sites at medium canopy cover (from 54-64%).These six sites were different in dominant tree species,however the four sites (5, 2, 1, and 4) have relativelysimilar habitat, particularly on the degree of canopy cover(from 54.62% to 64.51%). It was means that morphologicalvariations among the samples were influenced by theenvironment, especially the degree of canopy cover. Lightintensity is the most factors related to the canopy cover.According to Lüttge (2008), light is one of theenvironmental important factors in the tropical forest thatbecome a stress factor which support such phenotypicvariability in relation to plasticity. Phenotypes are thereceivers and modulators of environmental input andproducers of output performance at the community level.

Plants may be genetically determined for growth at lowor high light intensity. However, there are also ontogeneticand developmental modifications, where light exerts asignalling function rather than being only the energy sourceof photosynthesis, and plants may acclimate or adaptecophysiologically to low and high irradiance, respectively(Lüttge 2008). The potential for light acclimation is speciesspecific and may involve major structural and functionalchanges in the photosynthetic apparatus (Bailey et al.2001). In sun plants increased chlorophyll a/b ratios and acomparatively small size of chlorophyll a and b bindingantennae contribute to protection from too high irradiance(Krause et al. 2001). Plants permanently exposed to fullsunlight have effective protective mechanisms (Krause etal. 2006). The understorey shrub C. glabellus shows thedistinct differences between sun and shade plants. Shadeplants have lower leaf conductance to water vapor, gH2O,than sun plants which leads to lower gas exchange andgrowth (Bonal et al. 2000; Sack et al. 2005).

Phenotypic plasticity must be considered in relation toco-occurrence of different genotypes within a populationwhich are each adapted to a slightly different environment.Genetic variation is reflected in phenotypic plasticity(Booy et al. 2000). Plasticity itself can be considered as atrait, which is subject to selection (West-Eberhard 1989).However, plasticity per se is not adaptive. Adaptiveplasticity in plants is commonly interpreted for fitnessestimates like size and fecundity. The specializationhypothesis, however, predicts that plasticity in suchcharacters is not a product of selection but, rather, aproduct of specialized (i.e. ecotypic) adaptation toparticular environmental condition (Lortie and Aarssen1996). This much depends on the physiological costs ofplasticity (van Kleunen and Fischer 2005). In any case,phenotypic plasticity offers material for selection, sinceselection is acting on the phenotypes. Thus, the promotionof phenotypic plasticity by variable and medium stress maybe one of the reasons for the extraordinarily highbiodiversity of tropical forests (Lüttge 2008).

CONCLUSION

Variation on morphological characters was found inHoya multiflora populations at Bodogol Research Stationof Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, Indonesia. Thevariation was found in stem, leaves, and inflorescence ofthe samples among six different habitat types. According tothe discriminant and cluster analysis, the six sites wereseparated into three groups at 15% dissimilarity. Thesimilarity of habitat was performed by its canopy coverdegree rather than dominant tree species. The first grouphad the highest canopy cover (80.23%) having dominantcharacters i.e. pedicel anthocyanin coloration, longpeduncle, deepest color on leaves and flower, oblongleaves and numerous flowers. The second group with thecanopy cover of 75.34% was characterized by intermediatemorphological characters, and the third group, whichincluded four sites (sites 5, 2, 1 and 4) with low canopycover (54.62% to 64.15%) had intermediate and lowestmorphological characters.

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The effects of forest burning and logging toward regeneration ability ofSowang (Xanthostemon novaguineense Valet.) in Cycloop Mountain,

Jayapura, Papua

SRI WILUJENG♥

Biology Program, Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education Science, CenderawasihUniversity. Jl. Raya Sentani-Abepura, Jayapura 99351, Papua, Indonesia. Tel./Fax. +62-0967- 582806, +62-0967-587713. email:

[email protected]

Manuscript received: 17 June 2010. Revision accepted: 4 August 2010.

ABSTRACT

Wilujeng S (2010) The effects of forest burning and logging toward regeneration ability of Sowang (Xanthostemon novaguineenseValet.) in Cycloop Mountain, Jayapura, Papua. Biodiversitas 11: 194-199. Sowang (Xanthostemon novaguineense Valet.) is anendemic plant of New Guinea Island, which is threatened by human activities through land conversion, forest burning and logging. Thisresearch aims to know the Sowang developmental phase and stem branching, seedling dominance level, and effect of environmentalfactor alteration towards the amount of Sowang seedlings at burning and logging areas, and natural forest as control parameters. Sowangstem, derived from shoot of burning area, grows branchy from the lower part of stem. Sowang stem derived from seed growsmonopodially. Sowang seedling, derived from stem shoot of burning area, have already started flowering phase that occurs all seasons.Individual of Sowang, derived from seed of logging area and natural forest, flowers on the tree level once a year. Sowang seedlingbecame dominant species at burning area. Environmental factors affect Sowang seedling population density were crown covering andlight intensity.

Key words: population, Sowang, Xanthostemon novaguineense, branching, flowering, domination.

INTRODUCTION

Papua is one of Indonesia’s islands that have a highbiological diversity and endemic level. Papua is estimatedcontains almost half of the Indonesia’s biological diversityassets. Papua’s endemic species, which is mostly used bythe local people, is vascular plant species, e.g. Sowang(Xanthostemon novaguineense Valet.) (Figure 1). Sowangis a fire-resistant plant, and its wood quality belongs to thecategory of sea wooden gimlet resistant. Until now,scientific information about Sowang is still rare. This issupported by statement of Wilson and Pitisopa (2007) thatX. novaguineense is an endemic plant of western PapuaNew Guinea Island with limited available site data.

Sowang’s habitat area in Jayapura exists at CycloopMountain. Sowang grows at the west, south, east, and is anendemic plant of New Guinea Island. Cycloop Mountainlies alongside at the north of Jayapura. Sowang’s habitat islowland at 15-450 meters above sea level. That is whySowang are found abundant at the foothill of CycloopMountain or at another area except natural preserve area.The wide of those Sowang’s habitats then decrease becauseof land conversion and forest yield exploitation, and therest of it are still being a traditional forest that is authorizedby traditional citizens.

Traditional people lives at the west of Cycloop

Mountain. Their activities in the forest include repeatedlyburn and log trees. Meanwhile, south to east area ofCycloop Mountain is a forest product exploitation and landconversion area. It is causing the south to east side ofCycloop Mountain undergoes land damage and conversionthat make it become no longer conducive for Sowangpopulation. Yepasedanya (2004) wrote that traditionalcitizens and society has divided Cycloop area become thezones of residential, farming, forest yield collecting area,and traditional restriction (natural forest).

Sowang’s resistant toward fire is a form of self-defenseto survive in ecosystem. This self-defense effort affectsSowang branching and developmental phase. In this case,Sowang branching and developmental phase is tightlyrelated with the regeneration ability. Besides qualitativemethods above, there is a need of quantitative indicator toshow Sowang population ability of self-defense to survivefrom extinction. The threat to extinction particularly comesfrom the disruption activities by local people through forestburning and logging. The indicator explained above was adominance level, which was analyzed using ImportanceValue Index (IVI) of seedling and an affect ofenvironmental factor toward individual amount of Sowangseedling. Environmental factor, which were observed, arecrown covering, light intensity, air temperature, soiltemperature, humidity, soil moisture, and soil pH.

WILUJENG – Regeneration ability of Xanthostemon novaguineense 126

A

B C D

Figure 1. Xanthostemon novaguineense Valet. A. Regenerant in the burning area (three years old), B. Flower, C. Fruits, D. Leaf. Bar = 5 cm.


Time and area studyThis research was performed in Doyo Baru, Sub

District of Waibu and Maribu, and Sub District of SentaniBarat, District of Jayapura, Papua. The research location iskind of unfolded area of tropical forest ecosystem. Theforest in Doyo Baru is a secondary forest that isdeliberately burned repeatedly. The last burning wasperformed ± 3 years before this research. After the lastburning, BKSDA (Nature Conservation Agency) of Papuaplanted Podocarpus neriifolia and Anacardium occidentalespecies as reforestation plants.

Because of its same unfolded area, species existedbefore the burning and logging were assumed alike withspecies at the natural forest. By the traditional society,

forest at Maribu is divided into forest for logging activityand natural forest. Logging area is a natural forest whichthe pillars and the trees are cut selectively, so the crowncovering still dense. Tree species that are cut are X.novaguineense, Calophyllum sp., Pometia sp., Homaliumfoetidum and Intsia bijuga. If the pillar and tree level ofthose species are totally cut in one area, logging activitywill be moved to another area at the same forest. At thesampling location, the last logging was done ± 3 years ago.

Study designThe research was designed with quasi-experiment.

Natural forest was assumed as control. Sample acquisitionwas performed in Kampung Doyo Baru to representburning area, and at Kampung Maribu to represent loggingarea and natural forest. The sampling area has 85-142


meters above sea level, the height level was measured withaltimeter while clinometer was used to measure the slope.The last time of burning and logging activities is ± 3 years.

ProceduresThe methods of data collection for testing are

categorized into three steps, (i) branching and developmentphase of Sowang, (ii) Importance Value Index (IVI), (iii)The effect of environmental factors towards Sowangseedling. In first step, branching and developmental phaseof Sowang, observations branching and flowering period ofSowang were done. The observations that performedcomprised were: (i) sowang branching from seed and stemshoot in the burning area, logging area, and natural forest;(ii) flowering phase and flowering frequency of Sowangindividual from seed and stem shoot in the burning area,logging area, and natural forest.

The second step was to find the Importance ValueIndex (IVI). Sampling unit was a transect line withsampling plot sited crossly at the left and right parts of line,with 10 meters length between plot. Transect placing wasdone systematically with regarded of the border affect. Plotplacing in the burning and logging areas were determinedby the estimate of same land height and last time in loggingand burning activity. Meanwhile, plot determination innatural forest was conducted based on the height levelapproximation of the same places.

Each sampling area was assumed homogeneousbecause there are a limitation in the last time of burning,logging, and the limitation of land height. Sampling sizefor each sampling area proportionally appropriated with thewide of each sampling area. It is estimated that the wide ofburning area is 20 ha, logging area is 30 ha, and naturalforest is 50 ha. There were two tracks of transect at theburning area, which each had a 110 meters and 100 meterslength between tracks, 20 sample plots are obtained.Transect direction was upright of contour. At the loggingarea, there were three tracks of transect, which had a 110meters length for each and entirely 30 sample plots. At thenatural forest, there were five tracks with the length was110 meters for each, 50 sample plots are obtained entirely.In the logging area and natural forest, transect directionwas upright towards river stream direction. Treecommunity analysis of vegetation was done to gain theimportance value for Sowang seedling population.Sampling technique was set by determine 2 meters x 2meters, and bordered using measure tape. Data collectiontechnique included individual and type census for everyplot. Vegetations that been found were collected asherbarium, for identification requirement. Stand criteria fortree plants, which were, belong to the seedling class was ≤1.5 meter height.

The last step was collecting data to determine the effectof environmental factor towards Sowang seedling. Datacollecting was done in the sampling plots sized 10 meters x10 meters at transect with no regarded to the border affect.Transect was placed at the burning area, logging area, andnatural forest systematically in two tracks. The data, whichwere taken, were: (i) crown covering (%), which wasmeasured by comparing the wide of crown opening area

with the plot area. The crown covering percentage per plotis a unit data of experiment; (ii) light intensity (Wm-2), themeasurements were performed on land surface at 12.00-13.00 o’clock. The measurements used lux-meter in everycorner and center of plots. The average of light intensitythat was obtained per plot is a unit data of experiment; (iii)air temperature (ºC), with determinations of dailytemperatures were done 2 times a day, 08.00 and 16.00o’clock in every plot. The air temperature measurementswere performed with thermometer placed under the crown(± 0.5 above land surface) in every corner and center ofplots. The average of air temperatures per plot is a unit dataof experiment; (iv) soil temperature (ºC), the measurementsof soil temperature were performed in ± 30 cm depth with3 times repetition in every plot. The average of soiltemperatures per plot is a unit data of experiment; (v)humidity (%), the humidity measurements were performed2 times a day, which were 08.00 and 16.00 o’clock in everyplot. The measurements were done using hygrometerplaced under the crown ( 0.5 m above land surface) inevery corner and center of plots. The average of humidityper plot is a unit data of experiment; (vi) soil moisture (%),the measurements were performed by soil sampling in 30cm depth compositely with 3 times repetition in every plot.The water content calculation was performed bygravimetric, using oven and weights. The percentage of soilmoisture per plot is a unit data of experiment; (vii) soil pH,the measurements were performed directly by soil pHmeter in 30 cm depth. Repetitions were done 3 times inevery plot. The average of soil pH per plot is a unit data ofexperiment; (viii) population density (individual amount)of breeds, the calculations of individual amount of Sowangbreed were performed in every plot. The amount of breedindividual in every plot is a unit data of experiment.

Data analysisTo interpret the obtained data, the following tests were

done: (i) branching and developmental phase of Sowang,.qualitative data of branching and developmental phase ofSowang from seed and stem shoot at the burning area,logging area, and natural forest was tested by descriptiveanalysis; (ii) Importance Value Index (IVI), IVI arecounted with the formula IVI = Rd + Rf, with thecomponents are Relative density (Rd) and Relativefrequency (Rf). Rd is a proportion between the individualtotal of certain species with individual total of all species insampling units. Rf is a proportion between certain speciesfrequency with total frequency of all species in samplingunits. The calculation of Rd and Rf values was performedtoward each of tree plant species in sampling units. IVIvalues of all species were calculated in every burning area,logging area, and natural forest; (iii) the effect ofenvironmental factor towards seedling population density,the difference of environmental factor in the burning area,logging area, and natural forest were showed by Analysisof Variance (ANOVA) and LSD 0.05 through the model:

Yij = µ + ρi + Єij; and

LSD .,05 = t 0.05 (2 s²/r)1/2


Multiple regression analysis was used to show theeffect of environmental factor towards seedling populationdensity. The equation model of doubled regression analysisis formulated as:

Yi = b0 + b1xi1+ b2x i2+ b3x i3 + b4x i4 + b5x i5 + b6x i6 + b7x i7

Multicollinearity test was used by correlation analysisof inter free variable. If multicollinearity occurred, one ofthe variables will be rejected.


Branching and developmental phase of SowangSowang includes in Myrtaceae family. Sowang is a type

of plant, which shoot will be able to grow after its above-ground-stem is cut or burned. More than one shoots orbranches will be growth from the trunk. This branching isnot a monopodial type as the Sowang individual growthfrom seed because the primary stem stops the growth.According to research result of Wilson (2000), lateral budor branch growth on the direct sun lighted plant arestimulated by activity of cytokinin hormone concurrentlywith sunlight stressing on the activity of auxin hormone totrigger the development of primary stem.

Myrtaceae has an amount of fire-resistant plant genus.Study results by Burrows (2002) show that genus ofAngophora, Eucalyptus, and Lophostemon has anepicormic bud which able to produce stem and branch afterburned. An epicormic shoot is a bud under the bark of astem or branch of a plant, or a shoot (water sprout) growingfrom such a bud. Epicormic buds lie dormant beneath thebark, their growth suppressed by hormones from activeshoots higher up the plant. Under certain conditions, theydevelop into active shoots such conditions may includedamage to higher parts of the plant, or increased lightlevels following removal of nearby plants.

Dormant axillary buds allow plants to repair minordamage to their canopies. In woody plants, these budssubsequently develop into epicormic structures that mayallow vegetative recovery after major disturbances. Allinvestigated Myrtaceae species had an excellent meristemreserve for recovery of photosynthetic capacity after minorcanopy damage and for developing epicormic structures forsprouting after more severe damage (Burrows et al. 2008).

In this territory, all burning residual stem able to growshoot. Sowang derived from this stem shoot are able toflowering despite still on the seedling size. Resultantflower can produce fertile seed. Flowering phase isoccurred all seasons. Small and light seed ejected from fruitsplit on the tree reinforces the assumption that seeds arespread by wind. Due to the statement of Sera and Sery(2004) that the plants that produce much seeds withrelatively small size generally spread the seeds by wind.

Sowang is much more found in gardening zone.Gardening zone is an area which undergoes repeatedburning. It cause Sowang never grow to be adult phase ingardening zone. This is congruent with result of theresearch of Hoffmann et al. (2003) which shows that

individual productivity of tropical forest is about 2 timescompared with savanna individual, but need longer time toreach production maturity in successive forest burning ifthe interval of burning time is short.

Maribu is a sampling area for logging area and naturalforest. Here, logging activity is selectively performed totake woods based on needs. Sowang wood is taken only forspecial concern such as for house pillars of tribal chief.Logging activity is impossible to be performed if the woodwants to be taken in the tree dimension, so the tree shouldfirst be downed by burning its root. Therefore, there is notrunk remained from Sowang tree for shoot to grow. In thenatural forest, none of the individual of Sowang is foundderive from shoot, all of them are derived from seed.

In the logging area and natural forest, pillar sizedSowang and Sowang tree derived from seed are not inflowering. Flowering frequency is occurred once a year.This is due to the observation of Australian NationalBotanic Gardens (2003) that X. verticillatus naturalflowering time is spring, but in the glasshouses at theAustralian National Botanic Gardens it flowers all yearround with masses of flowers all summer. Flowering isenhanced with warmth and high light intensity.

Branching of Sowang, which is derived from side-widen stem shoot at low-level land, is placing Sowangseeds on growth media (soil) which appropriate withgermination requisite of Sowang seed. At that condition,plus with the frequency different of flowering, Sowangfrom stem shoot produces more seedlings than Sowangfrom seed. Seed from Sowang derived from seed has lowprobability to stick on appropriate and ‘desired’ growthmedia in the case of its mild weight and dependence onwind direction.

Importance Value Index (IVI)Analysis resulted eight tree species, which had highest

seedling IVI at each sampling area. Analysis results thencompared by tabulation with dominance level of Sowangseedling in Table 1. Table 1 indicates that Sowang seedlingpopulation at burning area was dominance population in itscommunity. In the burning area and natural forest, Sowangseedling was not included into dominance population,moreover, not found in the logging area.

Ex-burning area is a suitable environment for Sowanggermination and seedling live, proved by Sowangseedling’s high IVI. Only certain plant can live afterburning event. This phenomenon shows that environmentalfactors in this area fulfill the needs for Sowanggermination, also for its seedling growth and branch out. Acertain species can be dominant if it able to use theenvironmental factor so that affect community. Accordingto Richards et al. (2003), Xanthostemon belongs the genusthat has the low photosynthesis activity, high transpirationrate, and needs high concentrate Mn. X. formosus speciesneeds water in great amount, for that reason this specieseasily found in the riverside. Meanwhile, X. chrysanthuscan grow under various environments, although it isnaturally found in riparian rain forest. On the other hand,Woinarski et al. (2000) report X. paradoxus in Australiahas its best habitat in open forest.


Table 1. Highest seedling IVI of tree species and Sowangseedling IVI in the burning area, logging area, and natural forest.

Sampling area Species Rd(%)

Rf(%)

IVI(%)

Burning area Podocarpus neriifoliaXanthostemon novaguineenseStenocarpus beccariDecaspermum fruticosumGordonia papuanaAnacardium occidentaleRhodomyrtus sp.Casuarina rumphiana

333027

41111

3737

733333

706734

74444

Pometia pinnataMallotus sp.Calophyllum sp.Intsia bijugaRhodomyrtus sp.Alstonia scholarisEugenia sp.Syzygium sp.

67566546

65655554

121211111110

910

Logging area

Xanthostemon novaguineense 0 0 0Natural forest Calophyllum sp.

Litsea sp.Rhodomyrtus sp.Xanthostemon novaguineenseCanarium sp.Diospyros sp.Pometia pinnataElaeocarpus sp.

1523

444322

151533444

3024

977766

Although Sowang breed is able to compete withintroduced Anacardium occidentale, it is not yet able toequal the domination. Podocarpus neriifolia is alsointroduced as a greening plant. The worry that Podocarpusneriifolia become the threat for Sowang domination can beoccurred, as it is happened in X. verdigonianum and X.philippinensis in Philippines. Baguinon et al. (2003)explained that X. verdigonianum and X. philippinensis areendemic species in Philippines. These species growunhealthy on ultrabasic land. Ultrabasic land is notoptimum environment for those species. It is worried thatthose endemic species cannot compete with an introducedexotic species. The introduced species is a reforestationplant that has a wide tolerant interval toward environmentalfactor.

In addition, there was a different of seedling species,which dominated burning area, logging area, and naturalforest. If assumed that natural forest is a control area,environmental change resulted of human behavior andactivity was occurred in the burning and logging area. Thisis congruent with the research by Bischoff et al. (2005)concerning secondary succession caused by forest loggingin Dipterocarpaceae Kalimantan forest. The researchresults show that logging can cause the secondarysuccession. Secondary succession in the lowland ofDipterocarpaceae Kalimantan rainforest is affected byconversion sequence of primary forest after reforestation.The succession process that is happened depends on thecomposition of remain plant species and the invasion ofplant species from outside. These situations show theuncertainty of which type of forest will be growth.

Table 1 also shows that difference of dominant breedspecies is much more found in burning area if it iscompared with control area, which was natural forest. Thisphenomenon is supported by the statement of Stolle andLambin (2003) that the influence of flamed forest is greaterthan logging activity, which fire negatively affects speciesdiversity. However, in long-term condition, the remains ofunfired forest can be used as one of the source for treespecies spreading which locally extinct by burning event.This is supported by statement of Platt and Connel (2003),that the consequence of fire disruption has a similar effectto natural disturbances. This disruption will causesignificant changes that will form the natural variability inspecies composition.

The effect of environmental factor towards the amountof Sowang seedling

ANOVA and LSD 0.05 results for the effect ofenvironmental factor towards the amount of Sowangseedling are showed in Table 2.

Percentage decreasing of crown covering in the burningarea is followed by increasing of light intensity, airtemperature, and soil temperature, and decreasing ofhumidity. Soil moisture in these three sampling area are notshow significant different, environmental factor ofunderground plant generally has changed with relative slowfluctuation. The change of soil pH which burning andlogging area’s pH is lower than at natural forest was causedby decreasing of humus partly washed by burning event,included alkali cations. An observation by Handayani andPrawito (2002) on post deforestation land in Bengkulu,Sumatra, showed there are significant differences betweenthe post combustion logging soil and the forest soil pH.Post combustion logging soil pH is 5.48, lower than forestsoil pH, 6.4. This is appropriately fit to the research resultof Markewitz et al. (2004) which said need a long time toincrease soil pH to the initial state in Amazonia secondaryforest after burning.

In multicollinearity analysis between freedom variables,there are correlation coefficient score 0.923, 0.590, and0.501 between crown covering with light intensity, airtemperature with humidity, and air temperature with soiltemperature. In the case of its effect is assumed equal,further analysis will use light intensity and air temperaturevariables. Analysis results are showed in Table 3.

Table 3. Multiple regression coefficient of the effect of environmentalfactor towards the individual amount of Sowang seedling.

Variables B Sig.

Constant valueLight intensityAir temperatureSoil pH

17.6830.015−1.3943.342

0.6100.0000.2440.283

Regression equation obtained is: Y = 17.683 + 0.015x2

- 1.394x3 + 3.342x7, R² = 0.404. In the degree of confident99%, light intensity and crown covering affect the


individual amount of Sowang seedling. The individualamount of Sowang seedling will rise if an escalation oflight intensity is occurred. On the other hand, the increaseof crown covering causes the decrease of Sowang seedlingamount. Franklin et al. (2005) noted that light intensity isamongst the most important environmental cues regulatingplant development. In addition to light quantity, plantsmeasure the quality, direction and periodicity of incidentlight and use the information to optimize growth anddevelopment to the prevailing environmental conditions.The research results of Pearson, et al. (2002) also showedthat the percent germination of seeds of pioneer plants inPanama is influenced by light intensity and seed's mass butnot influenced by fluctuations in the surroundingtemperature.

Environmental and genetic factors give a largeinfluence in population growth of certain species. Theprinciple of Berryman (2003) said that every populationgrows with the constant rate logarithmically, except if it isinfluenced by other power or energy in its environment.Dynamic prediction of population is defined as a deviationof function value from biotic factor, abiotic factor, andgenetic trait. This fact is occurred in Acacia rigens, A.wilhelmiana, Triodia scariosa, and Eucalyptus sp., mainlyby the environmental influence. The research results byCohn and Bradstock (2000) show that the frequencyincrease of low precipitation with weeds consumptioninteraction by herbivore decreases the germination abilityof species seeds. This event causes rareness of the formerspecies in latest 8 years. In the remains of burning area atthe foothill of Cycloop Mountain, that event is not occurredin Sowang species. It shows that the environment with thepost-burning environmental factor is an optimumenvironment for the germination of Sowang seeds.

CONCLUSIONS

Sowang branching derived from shoot in the burningarea shows halted growth of primary stem. Sowang stemderived from seed grows monopodially. Sowang seedlingand stake derived from stem shoot in the burning area hasentered the flowering phase, which are occurred allseasons. Sowang derived from seed in the logging area andnatural forest is flowering in the tree level for once a year.

Sowang seedling’s IVI in the burning area ishigher than in logging area and naturalforest. Environmental factors, which affectthe amount of Sowang seedling were lightintensity and crown covering. The amount ofSowang seedling will rise if the increase oflight intensity is occurred. On the otherhand, the increase of crown covering causesthe decrease of Sowang seedling amount.

REFERENCES

Australian National Botanic Gardens (2003)Xanthostemon verticillatus. www.anbg.gov.auBaguinon NT, Quimado MO, Fracisco GJ (2003)

Country report on forest invasive species in the Philiphines. In:McKenzie P, Brown C, JianghuaS, Jian W (eds) Proceedings of theAsia-Pasific Forest Invasive Species Conference, Kunming, YunnanProvince, 17-23 August 2003. [China]

Berryman, AA (2003) On principles, laws and theory in populationecology. Oikos 103: 695-701

Bischoff W, Newbery DM, Lingenfelder M, Schnaeckel R, Petol GH,Madani L, Ridsdale CE (2005) Secondary succession and dipterocarprecruitment in bornean rain forest after logging. Forest Ecol Manag218: 174-192

Burrows GE (2002) Epicormic strand structure in Angophora, Eucalyptusand Loposthemon (Myrtacea): implications for fire resistance andrecovery. New Phytol 153 (1): 111-131.

Burrows GE, Hornby SK, Waters DA, Bellairs SM, Prior LD, BowmanDMJS (2008) Leaf axil anatomy and bud reserves in 21 Myrtaceaespecies from Northerm Australia. Int J Plant Sci 169 (9): 1174-1186

Cohn JS, Bradstock RA (2000) Factors affecting post-fire seedlingestablisment of selected mallee understorey species. Aust J Bot 48(1): 59-70.

Franklin KA, Larner VS, Whitelam GC (2005) The signal transducingphotoreceptor of plants. Int J Dev Biol 49: 653-664.

Handayani IP, Prawito P (2002) Post deforestation land in Bengkulu,Sumatera. Jurnal ilmu-ilmu Pertanian Indonesia 4 (1): 1-9.

Hoffmann WA, Orthen B, Nascimento PKVd (2003) Comparative fireecology of tropical savanna and forest trees. Funct Ecol 17 (6): 720-726

Markewitz D, Davidson E, Moutinho P, Nepstad D (2004) Nutrient lossand redistributionafter forest clearing on a highly weathered soil inAmazonia. Ecol Appl 14(4) supplement: 177-199.

Pearson TRH, Burslem DFRP, Mullins CE, Dalling JW (2002)Germination ecology of neotropical pioneers: interacting effects ofenvironmental conditions and seed size. Ecology 83(10): 2798-2807.

Platt WJ, Connel JH (2003) Natural disturbances and directionalreplacement of species. Ecol Monograph 73 (4): 507-522.

Richards AE, Shapcott A, Playford J, Morrison B, Crithley C, Schmidt S(2003) Physiological profiles of restricted endemic plants and theirwidespread congenors in the North Queensland wet tropics, Australia.Biol Conserv 111(1): 41-52.

Sera B, Sery M (2004) Number and weight of seed and reproductivestrategies of herbaceous plants. Folia Geobotanica 39(1): 27-40.

Stolle F, Lambin EF (2003) Interprovincial and interannual differences inthe causes of land-use fire in Sumatra, Indonesia. Environ Conserv30: 375-387.

Wilson BF (2000) Apical control of branch growth and angle in woodyplants. Am J Bot 87: 601-607.

Wilson PG, Pitisopa F (2007) Xanthostemon melanoxylon (Myrtacea) anew species from the Solomon Islands. Telopea 11(4): 399-403

Woinarski JCZ, Brennan K, Cowie I, Fisher A, Latz PK, Russell-Smith J(2000) Vegetation of the Wessel and English Company Island, North-eastern Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia. Aust J Bot 48(1): 115-141.

Yepasedanya O (2004) Public participation in policy implementation andenforcement of development in conservation areas Cycloopmountains Natural Reserve. [Thesis]. Udayana University, Denpasar.[Indonesia]

Table 2. Crown covering average, light intensity, air temperature, soiltemperature, humidity, soil moisture, and soil pH in the burning area, loggingarea, and natural forest.

Environmental factor Burning area Logging area Natural forest

Crown covering (%) 20.526±6.06 b 72.143±12.48a 68.000±20.46aLight intensity (Wm-2) 1542.105±208.44a 357.143±175.04b 555.556±399.62bAir temperature (ºC) 31.737±0.85a 28.571±0.73b 29.333±0.86bSoil temperature (ºC) 29.105±1.06a 26.143±0.35b 26.000±0.38bHumidity (%) 53.368±2.92b 68.000±6.90a 65.444±4.31aSoil moisture (%) 35.084±2.46a 35.447±9.99a 33.292±9.44aSoil pH 6.000±0.36b 5.786±0.50b 6.678±0.32aNote: that average values followed by same letter at the same row is notsignificant at LSD α 0.05


Recognition of seasonal effect on captive Sumatran Sambar deerreproductive cyclicity and sexual behaviors

HERI DWI PUTRANTO1,2, ♥, EDI SOETRISNO1, NURMEILIASARI1, AHMAD ZUENI2, BERRY GIBSON2

1 Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Bengkulu, Jl. W. R. Supratman, Kandang Limun, Bengkulu 38371A, Indonesia,Tel. +62-736-21170 ext. 219, Fax. +62-736-21290, email: [email protected]

2 Graduate School of Natural Resources and Environmental Management (PPs-PSL), Faculty of Agriculture, University of Bengkulu, Jl. W. R.Supratman, Kandang Limun, Bengkulu 38371A, Indonesia

Manuscript received: 2 August 2010. Revision accepted: 6 September 2010.

ABSTRACT

Putranto HD, Soetrisno E, Nurmeiliasari, Zueni A, Gibson B (2010) Recognition of seasonal effect on captive Sumatran Sambar deerreproductive cyclicity and sexual behaviors. Biodiversitas 11: 200-203. The objective of this study was to identify seasonal effect onreproductive cyclicity of a captive female Sumatran sambar deer by monitoring its visual estrus manifestations and visual sexualbehaviors in buck during female natural estrus in ex situ habitat. A pair of six years of age Sumatran sambar deer was used in this study.Daily observation of visual estrus manifestations of doe and visual sexual behaviors of buck was conducted using focal-animal samplingby two animal keepers during 0800 to 1700 h from June-July 2009 (dry season) to August-September 2009 (rainy season). Doe visualestrus manifestations include apparent reddening and swelling of the external genitalia, loss of appetite and a natural tendency of the doeto approach the buck. There was no significant effect of season on doe visual estrus manifestations and buck sexual behaviors (p > 0.05),except for loss of appetite and fighting behavior, respectively. Estrus was observed monthly and result of the cycle was 25.00 ± 5.22days. It is possible to assess non-invasively estrous cycle of Sumatran sambar deer by the observation of visual estrus manifestations andthere was less of seasonal effect on doe-buck sexual behaviors during female natural estrus in ex situ habitat.

Key words: estrous cycle, sambar deer, seasonal effect, sexual behavior.

INTRODUCTION

Indonesia is a habitat for eight sub-species of Cervustimorensis, two sub-species of Cervus unicolor, and Axis-axis (Semiadi and Nugraha 2004; Garsetiasih andTakandjandji 2006). C. unicolor which is known as sambardeer, inhabits some areas in Asia and Australia. Moreover,a sub-species of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor Equinus) isan endemic deer populated in Bengkulu province,particularly in Kerinci Seblat National Park (TNKS),Sumatra island of Indonesia. Sumatran sambar deer inhabitTNKS, that a total of 22.73 % of TNKS territorial area arelocated in Bengkulu province (Putranto et al. 2008, 2010;Soetrisno et al. 2009).

In Oceania, Asia and Europe Union countries, deer hasbeen domesticated (Gordon 2004), and venison becomes analternative of natural protein resources for the society.Unfortunately, the demand of venison in Indonesianowadays is fully supplied by poacher hunt, even thoughdeer is classified into Lower Risk/Least Concern by 2007IUCN The Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2007),then Vulnerable by 2010 (IUCN 2010). As a result, deer insitu population in Indonesia decreased gradually due topoaching and over hunting (Takandjandji and Garsetiasih2002; Garsetiasih and Takandjandji 2006; Soetrisno et al.2009; Putranto et al. 2010).

Recently, the population of sambar deer in their habitatis not recorded. Furthermore, captivity program or

intensive domestication of sambar deer in Indonesia is notas popular as in other countries such as Australia, Malaysiaand Thailand (Semiadi et al. 2005), while the venisonconsumption among native Indonesian society is common(Mukhtar and Suita 2002; Semiadi 2002). In fact, there isonly one captive sambar deer preservation recorded, that islocated in East Kalimantan province (Muchsinin et al.2002).

In order to improve the Sumatran sambar deerpopulation in situ and ex situ, it requires the breedingperformance and reproductive physiology information ofsambar deers. There are limited scientific references on thereproductive physiology and endocrinology of sambar deer(Soetrisno et al. 2009; Putranto et al. 2010). In the last fivedecades, there have been seven reports on generalmanagement and biology of sambar deer (Van Mourik andSchurig 1985; Semiadi et al. 1993; Semiadi et al. 1994;Ahmed and Sarker 2002; Muchsinin et al. 2002; Semiadi etal. 2005; Putranto et al. 2010). However, there is only areport on its breeding record (Awal et al. 1992).

Sambar deers reach sexual maturity at 8 months of ageand its life span which is up to 11 years in the wild (Jacoeband Wiryosuhanto 1994). In general, deer breeding occursfrom October to January with peak activity in November.Does are in heat for 24 hours every 28 days for 2 to 3consecutive cycles. Single fawn is born every 2 to 3 yearsafter a gestation of 7 months, and the peak of fawn drop inMay or June (Craven and Hygnstrom 1994).

PUTRANTO et al. – Reproduction and behavior in Sambar deer 201

Characteristically, Sumatran sambar deer (C. unicolor)is categorized as a ruminant species with specific behaviorand different to other ruminants. Sambar deer has a verysensitive hearing capability as well as a sensitive sense ofsmelling and high speed movement (running and jumping)(Putranto et al. 2010). However, does an intensivemanagement system at ex-situ habitat can diminish sambardeer natural behavior especially their breeding behaviors?It would be a chance for scientist and conservationist for afurther exploration.

Season has a great impact on animal reproduction. In atemperate zone, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)is a breeding season deer (Li et al. 2001). However, in atropical zone breeding may take place any time of the year.Indonesia which is dry and rainy season periods in tropicalzone it may affect the endemic mammals productionperformances and reproduction status such as Sumatransambar deer. Therefore, there is an urgent need to discoverthe Indonesian tropic seasonal effect on sambar deerreproduction status and sexual behavior to support theconservation program.

The purpose of the present study was to identify theseasonal effect (dry and rainy season) on reproductivecyclicity of individual female Sumatran sambar deer bymonitoring the visual estrus manifestations and visualsexual behaviors in buck during female natural estrus intheir ex situ habitat.


MaterialA pair of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor Equinus) were

monitored, a doe named Mimi (No. 1, approximately sixyears of age at the beginning of this study) and a bucknamed Ujang (No. 2, six years of age) housed atCommercial Zone and Animal Laboratory, Department ofAnimal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University ofBengkulu, Indonesia. The deers live together and have freeaccess to the natural photoperiod in an outdoor paddock (5x 6 m) during the daytime, and they are isolated inindividual indoor chambers at night (2 x 3 m). They aresexually mature based on their individual ages during thisstudy was conducted. Doe No.1 was parous before thepresent study began. They were fed a cut and carry dietconsisting of grass, legumes and concentrate daily withproportion of 12 : 2 : 3, respectively. Drinking water wasavailable ad libitum.

ProceduresGenerally in Indonesia, from August to March is

classified into rainy season and from April to July isclassified into dry season (BMKG 2009). Furthermore, inthis study the period of June-July 2009 represented dryseason while the period of August-September 2009represented rainy season.

Daily observation of visual estrus manifestations ofindividual doe and visual sexual behaviors in buck duringfemale natural estrus was conducted using focal-animalsampling to determine frequent of bout of every

manifestation and behavior (She-Jin et al. 2007) by twoanimal keepers where no specific observation time during0800 to 1700 h from June to September 2009 (fourmonths). Observations were made outside the paddockfrom a site of path where the sambar deers were notdisturbed.

Doe visual estrus manifestations included apparentreddening and swelling of the external genitalia, loss ofappetite and a natural tendency of the doe to approach thebuck (Villamor 1985). Each estrus manifestation wasscored as one (1) for the presence of the estrus indicatorsand zero (0) for the absence of the estrus indicators. Theywere recorded daily during two months of dry and rainyseasons.

Sexual behaviors of the buck were categorized as eitheractions or states, by using all-occurrence recording method(Webster and Matthews 2006). Sexual behavior includedvocalization, flehmen, penile erection (excludingcopulation), chasing, mounting, copulation and fighting(Putranto et al. 2005, 2007). The sexual behavior in thisstudy has been used for other male mammals (Schmidt etal. 1988, 1993; Brown et al. 2001) except for fightingbehavior.

Data analysisAll data are shown as the mean ± standard error of the

mean (SEM). Paired-sample t-test subsequently conductedfor each behavior to determine whether the sambar deer’sbehavior was influenced by the season (dry and rainyseason or not) (She-Jin et al. 2007). The rainy seasondefined as the month with average rainfall over 100 mmduring ten consecutive days. In contrast, the dry seasondefined as the month with average rainfall below 100 mmduring ten consecutive days. Estrous cycle length wascalculated as the number of days from the first appearanceof apparent reddening and swelling of the external genitaliaof one cycle to the appearance of apparent reddening andswelling of the external genitalia in the following cycle(Putranto et al. 2010). Total daily estrus manifestations andsexual behavior scores were expressed as monthlyfrequency.


In order to preserve sambar deer population inBengkulu province required a well managed domesticationsystem. Ex-situ conservation located at University ofBengkulu with the deer collection and individual roomswould be a good example for a managed domesticationsystem. The domestication program by conducting anintensive management such as cut and carry systemfeeding, a monitored sexual activities, a continously healthexamination and desease prevention including wellprovided drugs and additive supplements (vitamins) willensure a daily basic welfare needed for a healthy live ofsambar deer. For a long term objectives, these efforts willavoid the preserved species from extinction.

Sumatran sambar deer is classified as a native ruminantof Bengkulu province, Sumatra – Indonesia. It is well


known that in female ruminant, the easiest way to detectthe reproductive status is through visual estrusmanifestation such as apparent reddening and swelling ofthe external genitalia (Villamor 1985; Putranto et al. 2010).Individual estrus of a doe was observed monthlythroughout this study period. The total average of estruslength and estrous cycle was 2.00 ± 0.41 days (range = 1 –3 days, n = 8) and 25.00 ± 5.22 days (range = 18 – 37 days,n = 4), respectively (Table 1). Estrus length of doe in thisstudy was last for 24 to 72 hours every 25 days in 4consecutive cycles. It is agree to a previous study thatgenerally doe is in heat for 24 hours every 28 days for 2 to3 consecutive cycles (Craven and Hygnstrom 1994), 24 to48 hours every 20 days in timor deer (Garsetiasih andTakandjandji 2006) and 20 to 25 hours every 17 – 18 daysin calamian deer (Villamor 1985).

There were four visual estrus manifestations in thisstudy such as the apparent reddening, swelling of externalgenitalia, lost of appetite and natural tendency of the doe toapproach the buck (Table 2). The apparent reddening andswelling of external genitalia were appeared monthly in dryand rainy season, and the mean and range of those visualestrus manifestations are shown in Table 2. However,season has no effect on the apparent reddening, swelling ofthe external genitalia and natural tendency of the doe toapproach the buck (p > 0.05). Doe significantly lost ofappetite during dry season (June – July 2009) than rainyseason (August – September 2009) (t = 0.035, p < 0.05). Itcan be assumed that these signs can be used as indicatorsfor doe reproductive status of Sumatran sambar deer in thisstudy.

Table 1. Individual mean (± SEM) length of estrus and estrouscycle in female Sumatran sambar deer.

Montha) Estrus length (days) Estrous cycle (days)June 2 25July 2 37August 2 20September 2 18Average 2 25Note: a) Months in the year of 2009.

Table 2. Individual mean (± SEM) frequency of visual estrusmanifestations appearances in female Sumatran sambar deer.

Estrus manifestation appearancesMontha)Ab) Bc) Cd) De)

June-July (dry) 2.0ns 2.0ns 4.5a 7.5ns

August-September(rainy)

2.0ns 2.0ns 0.0b 0.0ns

Note: a) Month in the year of 2009, b) Apparent reddening(number of days per bi-monthly), c) Swelling of external genitalia(number of days per bi-monthly), d) Loss of appetite (times per bi-monthly during female natural estrus), e) Natural tendency toapproach the buck (times per bi-monthly during female naturalestrus), ns Means in a vertical line differ non-significantly fromeach other when analyzed by t-test (p > 0.05), a,b Means in avertical line differ significantly from each other when analyzed byt-test (p < 0.05).Table 3. Individual mean (± SEM) frequency of visual sexualbehavior appearances in male Sumatran sambar deer.

Sexual behavior appearances(times in bi-monthly)Montha)

Eb) Fc) Gd) He) If) Jg) Kh)June-July (dry) 1.5ns 0.0ns 0.0ns 49.0ns 0.0ns 0.5ns 11.0a

August-September(rainy)

7.0ns 16.5ns 4.0ns 111.5ns 2.0ns 2.0ns 46.0b

Note: a) Month in the year of 2009, b) Buck vocalization, c)Flehmen, d) Penile erection, e) Buck chase the doe, f) Buck mountthe doe, g) Copulation, h) Buck fighting, ns Means in a vertical linediffer non-significantly from each other when analyzed by t-test(p > 0.05), a,b Means in a vertical line differ significantly fromeach other when analyzed by t-test (p < 0.05).

One important character of tropical deer is that they canbreed throughout the year or polyestrous (Craven andHygnstrom 1994; Semiadi et al. 2005). The findings of thisstudy indicated that breeding of Sumatran sambar deer maytake place any time of the year. A seasonal factor has anon-significant effect on doe estrus manifestations exceptfor its loss of appetite. According to previous report(BMKG 2009), the average of daily temperature andhumidity during dry season in Bengkulu were 26.3℃ and87%, respectively. Dry-humid condition during dry seasoninfluences doe feed consumption. Physiologically duringheat-stress, body will reduce feed intake and increase waterintake.

A natural tendency of does in approaching to the buckis an indicator for sexual receptivity that accompaniesestrus (Villamor 1985). In this study, doe approached thebuck in the same day as her visual estrus manifestation(apparent reddening and swelling of the external genitalia)which appeared on date 18-19 June and 26-27 July 2009.The natural tendency to approach the buck which was morefrequent in dry season than in rainy season. In contrast, weobserved that during rainy season, buck was less aggressivein fighting and had fewer libidos (no penile erection andmounting activity) than in dry season.

The mean and range of visual buck sexual behaviors indry and rainy seasons are shown in Table 3. A Seasonalfactor has no effect on vocalization, flehmen, penileerection, chasing, mounting and copulation (p > 0.05).However, the seasonal factor has a significant effect onfighting behavior with the value of t was 0.036 (p < 0.05).Another mammal such as felids (Putranto et al. 2007), theirvocalization and flehmen are probably sexuallyreceptiveness sign. During rainy season, buck vocalizationand flehmen were first noticeable and dominant sexualactivity in this study. The previous report stated thatvocalization and flehmen are visually easy to be seen anddetectable breeding behaviors in mammal species (Putrantoet al. 2007a; 2008).

During breeding season, the buck aggresivenessincrease (Craven and Hygnstorm 1994), and the resultshowed the increasing buck sexual activities can be seenduring rainy season. Those sexual behaviors seemstimulated buck libido as seen by the increasing frequencyof buck chasing and fighting activities. In this phase, doedid not show any natural tendency to approach the buck.Furthermore, the buck was sexually active which is

PUTRANTO et al. – Reproduction and behavior in Sambar deer 203

recorded by his mounting activity, penile erection, andfinally by copulation. The main breeding activities such asmount, penile erection and copulation are typically to beappear in September.

Another Indonesian deer species, known as timor deers(C. timorensis) can deliver one or twin offspring in a year(Garsetiasih and Takandjandji 2006). During 2006 to 2009,a pair of Sumatran sambar deer in this study have not beensuccessful in a breeding season as number of offspringproduced is n = 1 level. In East Kalimantan preservation,sambar deer conception rate was 30.9% and classified aslow (Semiadi et al. 2005). There were 4 copulationsrecorded during this study. However, the pregnancy of doein this study until the study accomplished in September2009, is still unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that it was possible to assess non-invasively estrous cycle of Sumatran sambar deer by theobservation of visual estrus manifestations and there wasless of seasonal effect on doe-buck sexual behaviors duringfemale natural estrus in their ex situ habitat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors gratefully acknowledge Professor Osamu Doiand Dr. Satoshi Kusuda of Gifu University Japan for theirkind discussion. This project was funded by DirectorateGeneral of Higher Education, the Ministry of NationalEducation of the Republic of Indonesia throughFundamental Research Grant (contract number5006/94/J30.2/PG/2009).

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Demersal fishes and their distribution in estuarine waters of MahakamDelta, East Kalimantan

IWAN SUYATNA1, ♥, ACHMAD ARIFFIEN BRATAWINATA2, ACHMAD SYAFEI SIDIK1, AFIF RUCHAEMI2

1Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Mulawarman University (UNMUL). Jl. Gunung Tabur, Kampus Gunung Kelua, Samarinda 75116, KalimantanTimur, Indonesia. Tel./Fax.: 0541-748648; 081347935111; email: [email protected]

2Faculty of Forestry, Mulawarman University (UNMUL), Samarinda 75116, Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 9 April 2010. Revision accepted: 23 August 2010.

ABSTRACT

Suyatna I, Bratawinata AA, Sidik AS, Ruchaemi A (2011) Demersal fishes and their distribution in estuarine waters of Mahakam Delta,East Kalimantan. Biodiversitas 12: 204-210. The study aimed (i) to identify of the demersal fishes, (ii) to analyze the diversity and (iii)to determine their distribution. Surveys were carried out between August 2009 and January 2010 in Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan.Data were analyzed using several indices of Shannon Weaver, Simpson, Margalef species richness, and Bray Curtis distance. Thecanonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was also used to correlate between fish species and their environmental factors and to showthe fish distribution. Sixty samplings were done using bottom-trawl at various water depths from one to forty two meters to collect thedata. Taxonomically, during the study, 10 orders, 61 families, 87 genera and 131 species of fish with 43340 individuals were identified.Among the families, Leiognathidae was the most important group of fish, they distributed throughout the depths. Meanwhile CCAshowed that Leiognathidae and Sciaenidae were observed to be rich in the shallow water. Generally, index of Shannon Weaver,Simpson and Margalef species richness ranged between; 0.52 and 2.48; 0.11 and 0.82; 2.24 and 18.61 respectively. Bray Curtis distanceindicated the significant difference of individual number of demersal fishes between shallow and deep waters.

Key words: Mahakam delta, water depth, trawl, demersal fish, canonical correspondence analysis.

INTRODUCTION

The Mahakam Delta is located on the East ofKalimantan between S 0o21’ and 1o10’, and E 117o15’ and117o40’ (Sandjatmiko 2006). Due to its 1500 km2 ofmangroves and channels, the Mahakam Delta is a place thatis not easy to reach (Dutrieux 2001), then Madeo (2001)stated that starting from 1990’s the development ofaquaculture has changed the environment up to 76% as aglobal human impact. Mangrove area conversion intoshrimp pond tambak is the major factor. The thickness ofthe green belt was only ranging from 30 to 193 m (Suyatnaet al. 2010). Kamal (2006) estimated Mangrove destruction30% of 6273.5 ha caused a decrease of fish catch of about975.0 tons year-1. While ongoing mangrove degradation,the Mahakam Delta has also been significantly pertubed bytrawl fishing in the past 25 years because the PresidentialDecree no 39 year 1980 acts to forbid the operation oftrawls in Indonesia, the trawls are still operated in the deltaup to present. According to Remesan and Ramahandran(2005) mini trawls were usually operated in the sea by theartisanal fishermen and based on the target group, threetypes of trawls are in operation namely fish, shrimp andcrab trawl. Can (2006) identified that the trawls are notvery selective and catches are composed of a highlydiversified mix of fish. While Firdaus (2010) described thecatch between trawls and trap nets is significantly different,the first could fished 16.10 kg/h and others only 1.67 kg/h.Budiman et al. (2006) had reported that an overfishing of

the demersal fish was occurred in Kendal waters of Kendaldistrict. Results of the above study were among the reasonswhy the study related to biological aspects in MahakamDelta is needed to be performed. The study aimed (i) toidentify of the demersal fishes, (ii) to analyze the diversityand (iii) to determine their distribution.


The study was carried out between August 2009 andJanuary 2010 in Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan.Sampling areas were divided into three strata on the basisof depth: Stratum I or shallow: 1 to <10 m; Stratum II orintermediate: <10 to <20 m and Stratum III or deep: 20 to42 m. A total of 60 bottom trawl hauls consisting of 20hauls for each stratum (shallow, intermediate and deep)were performed using a motorized boat sizing 12m x 2m x1.5m and equipped with a net size of 10 m length. Thehauls were considered as sampling sites (observations).Double machines were used at the intermediate and deepsampling areas to increase the power of the boat. Towingtime varied from 15 to 25 minutes. Garmin GPSMap60CSx recorded the geographic position of all sites. Fishidentification referred to the field guide book ofPeristiwady (2006), Allen (2000), and Masuda et al.(1975). The physico-chemical properties of waters weremeasured in situ at the sea surface using water checkerHoriba, except water transparency. All data of fish

SUYATNA et al. – Fish of Mahakam estuary 205

including environmental factors were analyzed usingstatistical software. Index of Shannon-Weaver, Simpson,Margalef species richness (using log) and the canonicalcorrespondence analysis (CCA) except the Bray Curtisdistance were made by statistical program of the Brodgarversion 2.6.5. The Bray Curtis distance was analyzed byusing software of the PAlaeontological STatistics, PASTversion 2.0. Graphs of the CCA was realized by theBrodgar, map of Mahakam Delta by MapINFO 8.5 whileothers were made by hand.


The general conditions of the study area (south, centerand north part) related to the distribution of geographicposition of the sampling sites, the distance of eachsampling site from the coastline, and the bathimetry arepresented in the Figure 1. Taxonomically, our studyidentified the main fish orders as presented in the Table 1.The measurement result of the physico-chemical propertiesand the environmental factors are summarized as shown inthe Table 2. Table 1 shows that only the concentration ofturbidity did not follow general condition. The turbidityshould be less as more away from the coast, but it ispossible to accept this condition as being valid because theturbid water of the big River of Mahakam highly affectedthe sea. Such environmental factors were studied in orderto observe their effects on the demersal fish distribution asMoyle and Cech (2000) stated that the distribution andabundance of fish found out in estuaries are determinedprimarily by physical and chemical factors and onlysecondarily by biological factors.

Fish community structureDuring the study, 10 orders, 61 families, 87 genera and

131 species of fish with 43340 individuals were identifiedand listed in the table below. From those data, the structureof fish community in the Mahakam Delta was revealed aspresented in the Table 3.

Navarro et al. (2010) only could collect 64 demersalfishes from 36 fish families in the eastern coast of themouth of the gulf of California during eight surveys aboarda commercial shrimp trawling boat that operated at thedepth of 10 to 60 m during the 2005/06 and 2006/07shrimp fishing seasons. Budiman et al. (2006) in their studyon the distribution analysis of demersal fishes in Kendalfound out 44 families and the most number of the speciesbelonged to Apogonidae. Related to the fish communitystructure, our study showed that 87% of 60 observationsthe fish diversity index varied between 1 and 2.09belonging to the intermediate level, and the index of lessthan one and more than three belongs to the category Lowand High. Ridho and Suman (2003) studied the relationshipbetween fish community structure and biomass of demersalfishes in various water depths. They found out that the fishdiversity was much more stable in water depth of ≤ 30 mand showing the higher the fish diversity index the greaterthe fish biomass. We found out the similar result with thatfinding. Individual number of fish of our study showed thatthe shallow water was higher than deep waters as well as

the fish diversity (Figure 2 and 3). Budiman et al. (2006)found out less fish population at depth ≥ 10 m, and thesame finding was also observed in the Mahakam Delta.Higher Simpson index (C) was identified in the shallowwater and this means that there was one or more speciesextremely high in population (dominant), where the indexcloses to one means that there was dominant species, thecriterion index is 0 ≤ C < 0.5 low dominance, 0.5 ≤ C <0.75 intermediate dominance and 0.75 ≤ C < 1.0 highdominance. Ponyfish or Pepetek belonging to the familyLeiognathidae (its member presented in Table 5) were themost populated with total number of 15860 individuals(36.59%). While other dominance demersal fish specieswas represented by Croakers or Gulamah (Johniusamblycephalus, Bleeker 1855 and Atrobucca brevis Sasakiand Kailola 1988) belonging to the family Sciaenidae andLongfin Anchovy or Bulu Ayam/Bilis (Setipinna tenuifilis,Valenciennes 1848 and Thryssa mystax Bloch andSchneider 1801) belonging to the family Engraulidae withtheir individual number were 7310.0 (16.86%) and 7520.0(17.35%) respectively. Totally, individual numbers of fishof each stratum from shallow to deep were 24216, 7250and 11874 individuals respectively. The diversity index inour study (Table 3) was higher compared to the indexreported by Genisa (2006) who studied in the MahakamDelta that ranged from 0.53 to 1.55. However Margalefspecies richness was much lower compared to 13.18 to23.70. This might prompt a drop in abundance in theMahakam Delta at present like that occurred in the Gulf ofThailand. In the Gulf the abundance of Leiognathus haddropped from 27.4% to 7.6% in ten years caused of theheavy trawl fishing (Longhurst and Pauly 1987).

Margalef species richness in shallow waters of theMahakam Delta was higher compared to the intermediateand deep waters as well (Figure 3) but not significantlydifferent. More detail of explanation related to theindividual and fish species number difference among thestrata, statistically it could be seen in the Tabel 4.According to the analysis of Bray Curtis distance, theindividual number of fish in the shallow compared to theintermediate and deep waters showed significantly differentbut not between the intermediate and the deep waters.However, the fish species number was almost all similar.The value of the Bray Curtis distance closes to one meansthat the two objects are more similar.

Table 1. Orders of the demersal fish species identified during thestudy within the Mahakam Delta.

Order No offamily

No ofgenus

No ofspecies

Perciformes 37 54 95Tetraodontiformes 4 8 8Scorpaeniformes 4 3 6Clupeiformes 3 9 9Pleuronectiformes 3 3 3Rajiformes 3 3 3Syngnathiformes 2 2 2Siluriformes 2 2 2Anguilliformes 1 1 1Aulopiformes 1 1 1

61 87 131


Tabel 2. The summarized measurement result of the environmental factors related to thecondition of the study area during the study in the Mahakam Delta.

Samplingareas

Distance(km)

Depth(m)

Salinity(g/L)

Turbidity(mg/L)

Transp.(m)

DO(mg/L)

Shallow 0.03-9.60 1.00-9.10 3.10-31.00 1.00-173.00 0,40-2.30 3.40-7.20Intermediate 0.07-18.0 10.0-18.0 2.10-34.80 3.00-198.00 1.00-7.00 4.00-6.00Deep 4.60-16.90 22.5-42.0 25.40-34.60 1.00-336.00 1.00-8.70 3.00-6.80

Table 3. The diversity indices of the fish community structure based on the water depth strataduring the study in the Mahakam Delta.

Water depth strataDiversityShallow Intermediate Deep

Indexcategory

Shannon Weaver Hln 0.13 to 2.09 0.26 to 2.08 0.30 to 1.98 1 and >3Simpson C 0.18 to 0.96 0.14 to 0.91 0.17 to 0.89 0 and1Margalef R 4.46 to 17.58 2.24 to 16.68 3.48 to 15.71 -Range no of individual 71.00 to 6242.00 16.00 to 1452.00 88.00 to 3042.00 = 43340 indRange no of species 5.00 to 18.00 3.00 to 18.00 5.00 to 17.00 = 131 species

Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of sampling sites (left) and overlapped with thebathimetry and the deltaic plain (right) of the Mahakam Delta of East Kalimantan.

Figure 2. Individual number of fish of the three strata (shallow, intermediate and deep waters)during the study in the Mahakam Delta.

Figure 3. The index of Margalef species richness of the three strata during the study in theMahakam Delta.

In the Table 5, we presentedfour families which comprisingthe most number of species intheir groups identified in theMahakam Delta in order to showthe comparison of the body sizebetween permanently and nonpermanently demersal fish frompart of our samples.

The majority of ponyfish wereobserved living throughout theobserved sites, very small bodysize and much smaller comparedto other groups. Only L. equulusthe length and weight could reachmore than 20 cm and 100 gSeveral members of those fishesof our samples can be seen below(Figure 4).

In Irian Jaya, Genisa (2001)found out that the most importantand populated estuarine demersalfish were family Haemulidae. In2003 he continued to study on thedistribution and fish communitystructure in the same place, but hejust found out four species ofponyfish L. splendens, L.brevirostris, L. fasciatus and S.ruconius (Genisa 2003). Only L.brevirostris Valenciennes 1835was not identified. A study ofponyfishes composition in WestSumatra found out 10 species ofLeiognathus and one species eachfrom the genera of Secutor andGazza (Wedjatmiko 2007). . Inthe Mahakam Delta, the fisheswere identified 11 species, almosthalf of the total number of speciesliving in the Indonesian Waters.Therefore, up to this point weconclude that the Mahakam Deltais rich in fish species because notonly homed many its own fishspecies but also nurses varied fishspecies from other environments.Although in small number andrelatively small size compared totheir real size, we found out manyspecies from outside of theMahakam Delta as presented inthe Table 5. This has a relationwith the statement of Svedang(2003) that the inshore demersalfish communities were dominatedby immature fish that disappearwhen they grow older and mostlikely migrate offshore.


Table 4. Similarity of individual and species number between two strata based on the BrayCurtis distance during the study in the Mahakam Delta.

Based on the individual number Based on the species numberStrata Shallow Intermed. Deep Strata Shallow Intermed. Deep

Shallow 1 0,46081 0,65802 Shallow 1 0,93249 0,97778

Intermed. 0,46081 1 0,75821 Intermed. 0,93249 1 0,95464

Deep 0,65802 0,75821 1 Deep 0,97778 0,95464 1

Table 5. The demersal fish species and their size distribution identified during the study withinthe Mahakam Delta.

Lenght weight distributionSample Lenght (cm) Weight (g)Estuary

Size Min Max Min Max

Ponyfishes (Leiognathidae)Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal 1775) 3453 3.5 20.5 0.81 120L. fasciatus (Lacepede 1803) 1 13 13.5 42.3 43L. splendens (Cuvier 1829) 3278 2.5 17 0.35 74L. leuciscus (Gunther 1840) 560 5 12 0.9 27.14L. bindus (Valenciennes 1835) 1909 3.5 11.6 0.62 23.5L. nuchalis (Temminc and Sckege l845) 24 7.5 10 5.6 14.2L. elongatus (Gunther 1874) 62 10.2 14.2 16.9 41.6Gazza minuta (Bloch 1797) 1484 4 13 0,51 27G. achlamys (Jordan and starks 1917) 2592 8.3 14 9.2 42Secutor ruconius (Hamilton 1822) 2492 3.5 11 0.7 17S. indicius (Monkolprasit 1973) 5 8 10.8 5 16.3

MarineTrevallies (Carangidae)Caranx sexfasciatus (Quoy and Gaimard 1825) 15 9 24 9.43 160Carangoides dinema (Bleeker 1851) 16 13.5 25 33 260C. talamparoides (Bleeker 1852) 19 9.5 20 11.5 129C. ferdau (Forsskal 1775) 8 10.5 16 15.11 58.14C. uii (Wakiya 1924) 13 10.5 14 17.06 38.9C. hedlamdensis (Whitely 1934) 16 14.5 25 34.5 240C. chrysophrys (Cuvier 1833) 3 25 25 260 260Psenopsis humerosa (Munro 1958) 2 10 12.5 19 33Gnathanodon speciosus (Forsskal 1775) 4 6,5 14 4 38Ulua mentalis (Cuvier 1833) 37 6 24 5 240Alectis ciliaris (Bloch 1788) 3 4 25 2.2 240A. indicus (Ruppell 1828) 7 6 29 3.4 390

Groupers (Serranidae)Epinephelus merra (Bloch 1793) 2 20 20 100 162.38E. coioides (Hamilton 1822) 7 11 40 15.65 1000E. amblycephalus (Bleeker 1857) 9 15 26 20 240E. sexfasciatus (Valenciennes 1828) 2 9 16 9 215E. ongus (Bloch 1790) 1 18 - 83 -Cephalopholis microprion (Bleeker 1852) 1 17 - 80 -C. formosa (Shaw and Nodder 1812) 1 16 - 134 -

Snappers (Lutjanidae)Lutjanus erythropterus (Bloch 1790) 2 9 29 12,15 360L. johnii (Bloch 1792) 30 7 75 4.64 5300L. russelli (Bleeker 1849) 31 7 19,5 12.5 280L. quinquelineatus (Bloch 1790) 1 13.5 - 15 -L. vitta (Quoy and Gaimard 1824) 1 14 - 28.4 -L. lutjanus (Bloch 1790) 90 8 15,5 5.5 45L. malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider 1801) 15 12.5 35 27.9 740

To give an idea the demersal fishspecies came from the marineenvironment from among of oursamples, please refer to Figure 5,6 and 7.

Fish distributionEnglish et al. (1994) suggested

that to study fish distribution,observe the correlation betweenfish species and the environmentalfactors, and this would be helpful.In relation to this, the study usedthe CCA that could analyze thecombination of three variables(species, environmental factor andsite) and show the correlation.Many authors used this tool suchas Sanchez and Serrano (2003)and Byron and Link (2010). Fromthe correlations, the distributionpattern of fish could be viewedeasily. The result of the CCA ofour study showed that theenvironmental factors (bold lines)except the dissolved oxygen(DO), namely transparency,salinity, depth, distance andturbidity denoted by Trans, Sali,Depth, Dist and Turb had highlycorrelation between each other(Figure 11).

On the figure, salinity anddepth were sticked together, H42is showing a site with depth of 42m. Again, through viewing on thetriplot and biplot of the CCA, wecan simply interpret the majordistribution of demersal fishes.The CCA shows that Cardinalfishor Gelageh (such as Apogonkiensis Jordan and Snyder 1901and A. poecilopterus Cuvier 1828)denoted by (Gelg) belonging toApogonidae, Herrings or Selangat(Anodontostoma chacundaHamilton 1822 and Hilsa keleeCuvier 1829) denoted by (Slngt),Puput or Ditchelee (Pellonaditchela Valenciennes 1847)denoted by (Pupt) belonging toClupeidae, Croakers or Gulamah(Johnius amblycephalus andAtrobucca brevis) denoted by(Gul) belonging to Sciaenidae,Longfin Anchovy or Bulu Ayam(Setipinna tenuifilis and Anchovyor Bilis (Thryssa mystax) denotedby (BulA) and (Bils) belonging toEngraulidae, Sailfin Perchlet or


Table 6. Distribution of species on the basis of fish group and water depth in the Mahakam Delta.

Water depthCommon name Local name No of

species Shallow Inter-mediate Deep

Speciescategory

Ponyfishes Pepetek 10 √ √ √ Demersal fishGoatfishes Niko 2 √ √ √ Demersal fishSylver biddies Kapas-kapas 4 √ √ √ Demersal fishSnappers Kakap 7 √ √ √ Demersal fishTrevallies Ikan Putih 12 √ √ √ Demersal fishGroupers Kerapu 8 √ √ √ Demersal fishKingfish Baji-baji 1 √ Demersal fishBlack kingfish Gabus laut 1 √ Demersal fishMoonfish Terang bulan 1 √ Demersal fishFlutemouth Ikan terompet 1 √ Demersal fishBigeye Mata besar 1 √ Demersal fish

48

Beseng (Ambasis interruptusBleeker 1852) denoted by (Bsng)belonging to Channidae; all thosespecies negatively correlated withthe environmental factorsincluding sites (water depth). TheCroakers and Anchovy, accordingto Moyle and Cech (2000), areoften found as inhabitants ofturbid estuaries, bays and rivers,and the distribution and theabundance of fish found inestuaries are mainly determinedby physical and chemical factors.We might conclude that the

Figure 4. Members of the Family Leiognathidae (From left L. equulus, L. splendens, L. nuchalis, G minuta and S ruconius (Source:Original photos taken from the samples).

Figure 5. Members of the Family Lutjanidae (From left Lutjanus decussatus, L. malabaricus, L. russelli, L. quinquelineatus and L.erythropterus. (Source: Original photos taken from the samples).

Figure 6. Members of the Family Carangidae (From left Carangoides dinema, C. hedlamdensis, Gnathanodon specious, C.talamparoids, Ulua mentalis. (Source: Original photos taken from the samples).

Figure 7. Members of the Family Serranidae (From left Epinephelus coioides, E sexfasciatus, E merra, E ongus and Cephalopholis(Source: Original photos taken from the samples).

Figure 9. Members of the Family Sciaenidae and Engraulidae (From left Atrobucca brevis Sasaki and Kailola 1988, Johniusamblycephalus Bleeker 1855, Thryssa mystax Bloch and Schneider 1801 and Setipinna tenuifilis Valenciennes 1848.

Figure 10. Members of the Family Rachycentridae, Carangidae, Priacanthidae and Manidae (From left Rachycentron canadumLinnaeus 1766, Seriola fasciata Bloch 1793, Priacanthus tayenus Richardson 1846 and Mene maculata Bloch and Schneider 1801.


H6H5

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Figure 11. Triplot (left) and biplot (right) of the CCA showing correlation among species, environmental factors and sites (denoted byH) and between species and sites.

mentioned fish groups were strictly living in shallow waternear the coastline from 30 m up to 9600 m and theirdistribution was limited mainly by the environmentalfactors of salinity and water depth. Ecologically, Pepetek orponyfish members of the family Leiognathidae such as L.equulus, L. splendens, G. minuta, S. ruconius and othersdenoted by (Petek) mainly inhabit the same environmentbut because some of these species distributed up to the sea(deeper, denoted by H and the number beside the lettershowing water depth), thus they (Petek) separated from(Gelg), (BulA), (Bils) and (Gul). Navarro et al. (2010)surveyed at depth 10 to 60 m, the family with the mostspecies was Sciaenidae. Several of our samples related tothose fishes are shown in the Figure 9 above.

Other species such as Mata Besar or BigeyePriacanthus sp., Baji-baji or Kingfish Seriola sp., GabusLaut or Cobia Rachycentron sp., Terang Bulan or MoonfishMene sp. (please refer to Figure 10 for the complete speciesnames and their authors), ikan Terompet or FlutemouthFistularia petimba Lacepede 1803 denoted by (Matp), ikanNiko or Goatfishes Upeneus sp. denoted by (Niko) andKape-kape or Sylver biddies Gerres sp. denoted by (Kape)positively correlated with the environmental factors. Inother words, they prefer to inhabit very saline andtransparent water away from the coastline up to more than16000 m. These fish groups were strictly living in deeperwater and their distribution are limited at least by theenvironmental factors of salinity, water turbidity, waterdepth and DO concentration. In connection with thedemersal fish distribution, probably other environmentalfactors might also play an important role as Parry et al.(1995) in their study on the distribution, abundance anddiets of demersal fish at depth 07 m (shallow waters), 12 to17 m (intermediate waters) and 22 m (deep waters). Thedemersal fish distribution is linked to the spread of foodsand preys and sedimentary types as well.

From a total of 131 species, 43 species formed sixgroups and to exhibit a wide range of distribution withinthe study area, and five species were restricted to the deepwater (Table 6).

CONCLUSION

During the study, in the bottom trawls, 131 demersalfish species belonging to 87 genera, 61 families and 10orders were identified. The most abundant fish was Pepetekor Ponyfishes (15860 individuals, 36.59%) and theydistributed throughout the observed sites from shallow todeep as well as from brackish to salt waters, Bulu Ayam orLongfin Anchovy (7520.0 individuals, 17.35%) andGulamah or Croakers (7310.0 individuals, 16.86%). Basedon the CCA, Herrings, Croaker, Longfin anchovy,Anchovy, Ditchelee, Cardinalfish and Sailfin perchlet hadstrongly negative correlation with salinity, distance, waterdepth, turbidity and transparency. Meanwhile BlackKingfish (Cobia), Bigeye, Goatfish, Threadfin bream,Sylver biddy, Flutemouth and Moonfish were strongly andpositively correlated with the environmental factors. Thus,members of the first family groups were distributedapproaching the coastline, while the second ones tended tobe away from the coastline.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Dean Faculty of Fisheries andMarine Science Mulawarman University, Marine Affairsand Fisheries Service of Tenggarong and TotalFina E&PBalikpapan for the collaborative works.


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Diversity of some fauna in National Chambal Sanctuary in MadhyaPradesh, India

PREMANAND KALKRISHANA MESHRAM ♥

Forest Entomology Division, Tropical Forest Research Institute, P.O. RFRC, Mandla Rd, Jabalpur- 482021, Madhya Pradesh, India. Tel. +91-761-2840483, Fax. +91-761-2840484. email [email protected]

Manuscript received: 16 August 2010. Revision accepted: 29 October 2010.

ABSTRACT

Meshram PM (2010) Diversity of some fauna in National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, India. Biodiversitas 11: 211-215.National Chambal Sanctuary (NCS) gives very good account of avifauna. It over emphasizes significant and important birds speciesavailable which are of National and International importance. Crocodiles use sand banks for nesting and basking. Fauna in the NCS isvery much influenced by various factors like habitat suitability and protection of their habitats. Their distribution is depending onavailability of deep water pools. Another important factors on which distribution of animals depends long stretches of long sand banks.Sloppy to steep sand bank with loose soil were good habitats for nesting of crocodiles, turtles and birds. NCS areas were considerablyaltered and there were disturbance by the sand miners, poachers, fishermen and farmers. Consequently the poor survival isrecommended to greater protection by management practices. Effective co-operations between the Forest Department of MadhyaPradesh and neighbouring states were needed as sand mining and poaching becomes an interstate problem. Thus, strategic location ofthis site in the migratory route of water birds enhances its importance as a significant water bird habitat. In the present study diversity ofsome fauna in NCS is discussed.

Key words: National Chambal Sanctuary, fauna, diversity.

INTRODUCTION

In India, National Chambal Sanctuary is lying in threestates of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.The interstate boundary of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthanalong the Parvati river up to the point where Chambal rightmain canal crosses the Parvati river and the interstateboundary of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradeshrunning parallel at a distance of one km either side ofChambal river has been declared National ChambalSanctuary for Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), Gharial(Gavialis gangeticus) and other wild animals. During 1978the Chambal river was declared as a Crocodile Sanctuaryunder Crocodile Project with an aim to provide fullyprotected habitat for conservation and propagation ofgharial, crocodilian and other wild animals. The riverChambal is one of the country's most beautiful and leastpolluted river systems. The National Chambal Sanctuaryextends over the Chambal River from Jawahar Sagar Damto Kota barrage and after a gap of 18 km free zone, fromKeshoraipatan (Rajasthan) through Pali to Pachanada UttarPradesh where it forms a common confluence with theYamuna along with the Kunwari, Pahuj and Sindh rivers.The total length of the river inside the sanctuary is about600 kms. The width of the river that is included inside theSanctuary is 1000 m from midstream on either side of thebank in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh hasa greater width to an area 635 sq. km geographically. The

sanctuary lies between the latitudes 25o 35' N and 26o 52' Nand longitudes 76o 28' E and 79o 01' E.

In Madhya Pradesh the Sanctuary runs for a length 435km. The National Chambal Sanctuary was established toprotect this pristine river ecosystem, complete with itsvaried flora, aquatic life and avifauna. The river harbors avariety of aquatic life like the elusive Ganges RiverDolphin (Platanista gangetica), Gharial (Gavialisgangeticus), Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), sevenspecies of fresh water turtles (Aspideretes gangeticus,Lissemys punctata, Chitra indica, Batagur kachuga,Kachuga dhongoka, Pangshura tentoria and Hardellathurjii), the otter (Lutra perspicillata) and a variety offishes. The rare Ganges river Dolphin P. gangetica, thesole member of the cetaceans group is one of the mainattractions of the sanctuary. So called the queen ofChambal, the Dolphin inspire of being blind can be seenperusing their playful antics in the water while coming outto breathe for air. The Chambal Sanctuary is one of theirsafest breeding areas. As per the management plan ofNational Chambal Sanctuary, around 170 species of birdshave been identified in the Sanctuary. Among the differentspecies of birds found in the sanctuary are: bare headedgoose, brahmini duck, teals, cormorants, egrets, black andwhite ibises, brown headed gulls, pointed stork, commoncrane, sarus crane, herons, spoon bills, pelicans, etc. Onecan have an easy sighting of the Indian Skimmer- thehighest population of which in the world is found in the


NCS. The other important terrestrial animals present in theravines of the sanctuary are land monitor lizard, variety ofother lizards and snakes, sambhar, porcupine, hares, desertcat, blue bull, wild boars etc. (Anon. 2003). In the presentstudy diversity of some aquatic, terrestrial fauna and theirprobable impact in National Chambal Sanctuary arediscussed.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The information of general habitat of animals wascollected. Habitat analysis was carried out on the basis ofriver bank types located in different zones both aquatic andterrestrial and the water depth during different seasons.Habitats used by the various animals were observed. Datasheets were prepared to record field observations, interviewresults, past records etc. A detailed survey was carried outby motorboat and also walking along the river bank.During 5th May, 2010 a stretch of 1.0 km on NationalChambal Gharial Sanctuary (Figure 1) was surveyed for

recording the fauna. The fauna is divided into terrestrialand aquatic and exhibits a wide diversity in faunalcomposition. The aquatic birds were observed with the helpof field binoculars. The fauna were identified with the helpof Dr. R.K. Sharma, Range Officer, National ChambalSanctuary, Deori, Morena, M.P. (India) and usingmanagement plan of National Chambal Sanctuary (2003).

As a measure of - diversity (diversity within habitat),the most popular and widely used the following Shannon'sdiversity index (H') was calculated since it is well acceptedthat all species at a site, within and across systematicgroups contribute equally to its biodiversity (Ganeshaiah etal. 1997).

Shannon's index H' = (pilnpi)i=1

p= is the proportional abundance of the i th speciess =total number of speciesln = is the log with base'e' (Natural log)

Figure 1. National Chambral Sanctuary in three states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, India (circle).

MADHYA PRADESH

UTTAR PRADESH

RAJASTHAN

Morena

MAP OF INDIA

MESHRAM – Diversity of fauna in National Chambal Sanctuary, India 213

Table 2. Density percentage and Shannon diversity index of someaquatic and terrestrial fauna in NCS during 2010.

Scientific name Common name %Density

Dicrurus adsimilis Black drongo 0.766284Vanellus indicus Redwattled lapwing 5.747126Phalacrocorax niger Little cormorant 0.766284Vanellus spinosus Spurwinged plover 1.915709Rynchops albicollis Indian skimmer * 0.766284Hirundo rustica Common swallow 9.961686Merops orientalis Green bea eater 0.766284Dendrocygna javanica Whistling teals 10.72797Egretta garzetta Little egret 0.383142Columba livia Blue rock pigeon 0.383142Acridotheres gingianus Bank myna 1.532567Streptopelia tranquebarica Red tuttle dove 1.149425Burhinus oedicnemus Stone curlew 0.383142Lanius excubitor Grey shrike 45.97701Sterna aurantia River tern 0.766284Streptopelia decaocto Ring dove 0.766284Pavo cristatus Common peafowl 0.766284Neophron percnopterus Scavenger vulture 0.383142Danaus chrysippus Plain tiger 1.149425Terias (Eurema) blanda Grass yellow 0.766284Catopsilia crocale Common emigrant 0.766284Orthetrum pruinosum neglectum Dragonfly 1.915709O. taeniolatum Dragonfly 1.149425Gavialis gangeticus Gharial 1.915709Crocodylus palustris Mugger 0.383142Kachuga kachuga Hard shell tuttle 0.766284Labeo rohita Rohu 1.915709Catla catla Catla 0.766284Heteropneustes fossilis Cat fish 4.597701

100Shannon Diversity Index 2.17057


The numbers of fauna sighted,density percentage and Shannondiversity index of some fauna inNational Chambal Sanctuary (NCS)during the present study are shown inTable 1 and 2. During the survey thewetland avifauna was observed in highernumbers as compared to other fauna.The surveyed stretch of the site ismainly sandy banks. The sandy banks ofriver are used by the gharial, mugger andturtle for basking and nesting. Fishesconstitute secondary level of food chain.Availability of avifauna in their numbersand available species is anotherimportant significant biodiversitycriteria that requires immediate attentionin this site. World famous KeoladeoGhana Bird Sanctuary at Bharatpur isonly 95 kms away from this site and it isvery natural to expect richness species,numbers and offering an extensivehabitat for resident as well as migratorybirds. Chambal River lies on themigratory route of aquatic faunaproviding an approximate stretch of 300km of perennial wetland habitat forwintering aquatic bird fauna. Most of theentire avifauna recorded in this site areeither residents or migrants.

On the basis of data of avifaunaclearly indicates that major congregator birds are fishfeeders exemplifying the richness of fishes in the riversystem. This also signifies high levels of primaryproduction in the site. It was also observed that birdpopulation fluctuate in Chambal river which has somedirect relation with the habitat condition with Bharatpurwhich is one of the major habitat for water bird situated 95km away from this site. It is presumed that during thedrought period in Bharatpur more birds take refuse inChambal River which perhaps includes endangeredSiberian Crane which is also reported from MadhyaPradesh. Wetlands are highly productive systems. They arerated third among the highly productive systems of theworld. The food chain and food pyramid of NCS isdepicted in the following diagram (Figure 2).

In NCS, cattails, Typha spp. is the main aquatic plant.Typha accounts for high level annual net primaryproduction levels (tons/h), which is 10-94 tons/ha. Likeprimary production the secondary production is also fairlyhigh in wetlands. The secondary production depends uponthe pathway and efficiency of utilization of energy inprimary production. In wetlands a relatively small portionof primary production of algae and higher plants is directlyutilized by herbivores. Large part of plant production isused only after it is dead and partly decomposed. Variousbenthic organisms, some fishes and dolphins feed ondetritus in different stages of decay. Other carnivores

Table 1. Census of some aquatic and terrestrial fauna in NCS during 2010.

Scientific name Common name FamilyNo. offauna

sightedRemark

BirdsAcridotheres gingianus Bank myna Sturnidae 4Burhinus oedicnemus Stone curlew Burhinidae 1Columba livia Blue rock pigeon Columbidae 1Dendrocygna javanica Whistling teals Anatidae 28Dicrurus adsimilis Black drongo Dicruridae 2Egretta garzetta Little Egret Ardeidae 1Hirundo rustica Common swallow Hirundinidae 26Lanius excubitor Grey shrike Laniidae 120Merops orientalis Green bea eater Meropidae 2Neophron percnopterus Scavenger vulture Accipitridae 1Pavo cristatus Common peafowl Phasianidae 2Phalacrocorax niger Little cormorant Phalacrocoracidae 2Rynchops albicollis Indian skimmer * Laridae 2Sterna aurantia River tern Laridae 2Streptopelia tranquebarica Red Tuttle Dove Columbidae 3Streptopelia decaocto Ring dove Columbidae 2Vanellus indicus Redwattled lapwing Charadriidae 15Vanellus spinosus Spurwinged plover Charadriidae 5EntomofaunaI. LepidopteraCatopsilia crocale Common emigrant Pieridae 2Danaus chrysippus Plain Tiger Danaidae 3Terias (Eurema) blanda Grass Yellow Pieridae 2II. OdonataOrthetrum pruinosum neglectum Dragonfly Libellulidae 5Orthetrum taeniolatum Dragonfly Libellulidae 3CrocodilesGavialis gangeticus Gharial Crocodylidae 5 5 nestsCrocodylus palustris Mugger Crocodylidae 1TurtlesKachuga kachuga Hard shell tuttle Emydidae 2 2 nestsFish SeasonalLabeo rohita Rohu Cyprinidae 5 R/YCatla catla Catla Cyprinidae 2 R/YHeteropneustes fossilis Cat fish Saccobranchidae 12 R/YNote: *Globally Threatened, R/Y Round the year


including amphibians, fish, certain turtles, gharial, mugger,dolphin and waterfowl consume the Benthos and fish.Gharial, mugger and dolphin are important tertiary playersin the food chain but almost all of them are basicallysympatric with each other in their feeding habits. Thus,they generally avoid each other for food and habitat or tosay there is least competition among the various carnivoresfor food and space. Gharials hunt surface fishes, dolphinsmostly depend on deep water fishes, otters may havehabitat overlapping with dolphins, but muggers are totallydifferent with respect to size and quantity of the prey. Theygenerally feed on bigger prey. Birds to some extentcertainly compete with muggers and gharials of lower agegroup for the small catch fish.

Pre- predatory and intra –predatory relationships are theleast studied aspect in the NCS almost all the key stonespecies viz. gharial, gangetic dolphin and mugger arepisivorous species. Illegal fishing on commercial scales hasreduce in the availability of chief prey in the NCS whichmay have a direct bearing on the reduced numbers of theabove species especially that of gharials. Birds prey, someof the migratory birds, jackles, monitor lizards, carnivoresand omnivore turtles prey upon eggs and hatchlings ofgharial and mugger. This intra-predatory relationshipcontrols the natural recruitment of gharial and muggers.Thus, it becomes very important to study pre-predator andintra-predatory relationships to maintain dynamic andviable populations of keystone species in the site.

Figure 2. Food pyramid diagram of National Chambal Sanctuary(NCS), India.

Population directly dependent upon wetland resourcesand cultural-indigenous practices of wetland resourceutilization

As detailed elsewhere more than four lakes populationis directly dependent on the river ecosystem. Theyinvariably cultivate the land up to the brim, pump out thewater for irrigation purposes. Agricultural practices up tothe brim of the river to some extent certainly adverselyaffect the nesting behavior of gharials, muggers and turtles.Fishing is almost through the length of the sanctuary.Fishing on commercial scales is most prevalent in NCS.

There are many fake owners who auction the fishingpermits every year to small traders. The fishing activity inrecent times is gravely affected actual numbers of gharialand mugger population. Once caught in to the fishing netsthese creatures get entangled and then beaten to death torelieve the fishing nets. Simultaneously fishing activity alsoreduces the food availability for tertiary components of thebiological pyramid (keystone species). Sand mining is themajor detrimental activity that is destructing the habitat in ahighly dangerous way. Recent survey of NCS and the courtcommissioner's report has brought out some disturbingpicture of habitat destruction and highly mortality of wildanimals (Anon. 2003).

Existing conservation measuresNational Chambal Sanctuary is one of the rare protected

areas where good levels of conservation measures weresuccessfully taken up and implemented. Gharialrehabilitation project was started in the year 1979 when alltime low gharials were recorded (50 gharials as per reportof science today report in 1979). Deori has been designatedas Gharial Rehabilitation Centre (DGRC) where artificialhatching and rearing of gharials was carried out. In all 1287gharials were released into the sanctuary. Initially therewas no much pressure with respect to resource andutilization on to the Chambal Ecosystem. Then people werelaw obedient and had fear for administration. There was aspirit of team work that resulted in better conservationmeasures as reflected in above table. But, as a result ofgradual political and muscle power getting into lucrativesand mining business over a period of 10-15 years, peoplehave become more daring and destructive. Unabated illegalsand extraction in many stretches of the NCS resulted insevere habitat destruction and reduction in number ofgharials. Even the migratory avifauna is being huntedmercilessly in the NCS. Around 37 animals were founddead during the survey of the year 2003. The casualtiesincluded 8 gharials, 2 muggers, 1 dolphin, 7 turtles andseveral birds. The high rate of mortality of wild animalscaused by illegal fishing and mining is a matter of seriousconcern. Additional boon for NCS is simultaneousconservation of one of the rarest and highly endangeredaquatic mammal i.e. fresh water river dolphin (GangeticDolphin) during implementation of gharial project. Resultsof the recent survey indicated that the number of gharialsdwindled almost less than 50% in comparison to 1997estimated population. Regular monitoring could have savedthe NCS. NCS on the river Chambal is a refuge for the rareand endangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and gangesriver dolphin (Platanista gangetica). The Chambal river isholding the best population of dolphins among the southerntributaries of Ganges. The 400 km stretch of crystal clearwater also supports marsh crocodiles, smooth coated otters,7 species of turtles (Aspideretes gangeticus, Lissemyspunctata, Chitra indica, Kachuga kachuga, K. dhongoka,Pangshura tentoria and Hardella thurjii) and 250 speciesof birds. The Chambal river also supports more than 40species of fish species, which include Deccan mahseer Torkhudree and the giant fresh water ray Himanturachaophraya, which occur only in the Chambal river

Gharial,Otter,

Mugger,Dolphin,

Fish eating turtlesFish eating birds

Turtles, Fishes & Water fowl

Macrophytes

MESHRAM – Diversity of fauna in National Chambal Sanctuary, India 215

(Taigor and Rao 2010). A good population of IndianSkimmers is the strongest birding attraction here. BlackBellied Terns, Red Crested and Ferruginous Poachards,Bar-Headed Goose, Sarus Crane, Great Thick-Knee, IndianCourser, Pallas's Fish Eagle, Pallid Harrier, Greater andLesser Flamingos, Darters, and the resident Brown HawkOwl, all add up to an impressive list of birds of Chambal.The habitat of aquatic animals in the Chambal river ischaracterized by expanses of open sand which is sparselycovered with the variety of herbs, the most common in theopen sand being Tamarix dioica. Some Turtle speciesfrequently dig nest adjacent to the T. dioica on someoccasions soft shell turtles also dig nests near thisvegetation. The T. dioica on the open sand help prevent thewind from eroding the sand and exposing nests. Aquaticand semi-aquatic vegetation are similar along the entireChambal river. Herbivorous Turtles feed and take shelteron T. dioica, Potamogeton demersum, and Zannichelliaspp. vegetation. During summer the aquatic vegetationdries up due to low water level, however, during wetseason the vegetation is completely submerged in the floodwaters and it is difficult to collect the plant material duringthis period. Major tree species are Prosopis spp., Acaciaspp., Ziziphus mauritiana, etc. Turtle, Aspideretesgangeticus travel more than 500 m and lay eggs under theshade of Acacia spp. (Taigor and Rao 2010).

The habitat of the fauna in NCS is mostly aquatic withterrestrial habitat within 1 km from the mid river bank. Themicro habitats are: deep water pools, shallow riffle areas,sand peninsulas, muddy banks, sand banks (steep and sandbanks), rocky banks, xerophytes vegetation on the banksetc. The habitat as the key to organizing knowledge aboutfauna and maintenance of appropriate habitat is thefoundation of all wildlife management (Thomas 1979).Species richness can be affected by habitat loss,fragmentation and modification. Habitat studies providecrucial information about the ecological requirements of aspecies or community. Increasing habitat loss causes asignificant increase in extinction risk among many species.The management criteria in the NCS are cessation ofcommercial fishing, anti-poaching measures, extendingprotection to habitat and rehabilitation of Gharial under'grow and release program' and monitoring of thepopulation of fauna and research (Singh 1985).

CONCLUSIONS

Observations of NCS were considerably altered andthere are disturbances by the sand miners, poachers,

fishermen and farmers. Considering the poor survival, it isrecommended to provide greater protection by managementpractices. Effective co-operations between the ForestDepartment of Madhya Pradesh and bordering states areneeded as sand mining and poaching becomes an interstateproblem. Thus, strategic location of this site in themigratory route of water birds enhances its importance as asignificant water bird habitat. NCS Management Plan 2003gives very good account of avifauna of the NCS. It over-emphasizes significant and important birds speciesavailable in the NCS which are of National andInternational importance. Crocodiles use sand banks fornesting and basking. Fauna in the NCS is very muchinfluenced by various factors like habitat suitability andprotection of their habitats. Their distribution is dependingon availability of deep water pools. Another importantfactor on which distribution of animals depends is longstretches of long sand banks. Sloppy and steep sand bankwith loose soil are essential for good habitats for nesting ofcrocodiles, turtles and birds. NCS will have negativeimpact mainly on the Gharial, Turtle breeding programsand other avifauna.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Author is thankful to Dr. M.S. Negi, Director, TropicalForest Research Institute, Jabalpur for providing thenecessary facilities. Author is highly indebted to DivisionalForest Officer, Forest Division, Morena, M.P. for providingthe field facilities. Author is also grateful to Dr. R.K.Sharma, Range Officer, National Chambal Sanctuary,Deori (Morena),Madhya Pradesh, India for identifying thefauna.

REFERENCES

Anon (2003) National Chambal Sanctuary Management Plan. ForestDivision, Morena, Madhya Pradesh, 35 pp.

Ganeshaiah KN, Chandrasekara K, Kumar ARV (1997) A new measure ofbiodiversity based on biological heterogeneity of the communities.Curr Sci73: 128-133.

Singh LAK (1985) Gharial Population Trend in National ChambalSanctuary with notes on radio-tracking. Study Report Dec. 1985.Crocodile Research Centre, Wildlife Institute of India, Hyderabad.

Taigor SR, Rao RJ ( 2010) Habitat features of aquatic animals in theNational Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh. Asian J. Exp. Biol.Sci. 1: 409-414.

Thomas JW (1979) Wildlife habitat in managed forests: The blueMountain of Oregon. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Handbook 553,Washington, D.C.


Biodiversities and limiting factors of Lashgardar Protected Area (LPA),Hamadan Province, Iran

MAHDI REYAHI KHORAM1,♥, VAHID NORISHARIKABAD2

1Department of Environment, School of the Basic Knowledge, Islamic Azad University- Hamadan Branch, P.O.BOX: 65155-184, Hamadan, Iran. Tel:+98811 8268595. Fax: +98811 4494170. email: [email protected]

2Graduate School of the Environment and Energy, Islamic Azad University- science and Research Branch in Tehran, Tel: +98811 9131933595. Fax:+98811 4226162. email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 30 July 2010. Revision accepted: 4 September 2010.

ABSTRACT

Reyahi-Khoram M, Norisharikabad V (2011) Biodiversities and limiting factors of Lashgardar Protected Area (LPA), HamadanProvince, Iran. Biodiversitas 12: 216-221. Lashgardar Protected Area (LPA) located in Hamadan Province in Iran, it is a mountainousand plain area and proximal to Malayer Township. In 1991, the region was known as a protected area for increasing wild animals'population. This research has been conducted during 2001 through 2009. Plant and animal species of the region were identified andstatistics of the population of animal flagship species were gathered. In this research, valid academic resources were used foridentification of animal and plant species. Geographic Information System (GIS) has been used to evaluate the land as main tool. Thesoftware used was Arc View (version 3.2a) scale was 1/50,000. Due to cold mountainous climate, the region is covered by a widediversity of trees, shrubs, grasses and herbs. There were 18 species of mammals as well as 75 bird species in LPA. Most abundantmammalian population belongs to wild sheep (558 animals) and the second abundance was related to wild goat (515 animals). Also, themost abundant bird species belong to ortolans. Result of the present study showed that construction of connection roads in vicinity theregion, establishment of factories inside and around the region, military garrison, unauthorized grazing, unlawful hunting, andAhangaran mine and rail road have all exposed put LPA to serious threat and danger.

Key words: biodiversity, environment, Lashgardar, protected area, wildlife.

INTRODUCTION

At the onset of life on the earth, land was covered withvarious plant and animal species and consequently full ofnatural resources, which had always been exposed totransformations due to geological evolutions and climaticchanges. Such changes happened very quickly sometimes,but occurred much slowly at most times. Although asregards quality and quantity, these changes could never becompared to the changes Made by Human Hands. Thehuman power is regarded as a very powerful factor inchanging the living conditions of plants and animals, whichhas led to destruction of habitats and deterioration ofgenetic resources. Hasty measures and interferences ofhuman in the habitats have led to reduction of species,extinction of a remarkable diversity of species, and loss ofbiodiversity. Therefore, those concerned with environmentissues have considered strategies on international level soas to protect the biodiversity. A protected area is an area,which has been determined specifically for protection andmaintenance of its biodiversity, natural and culturalresources, and is protected and controlled through legalmeasures or common traditional methods. In fact, protectedareas are the manifests of creation and their protection isthe fundamental basis for activities of environmentalists(Najmizadeh and Yavari 2006).

Protection of biodiversity and genetic Diversity couldreliably support the goals of development. Today's, theprocess of destruction of habitats has outrivaled restorationand reconstruction. Extinction of species in all growthecosystems has had a soaring increase and once thescientists do not investigate and solve this crisis, within ashort time it would threaten the life of many plant andanimal species.

Today, biodiversity is prone to threat even in protectedareas. Destruction of habitats and their turning into islandshas put long-term protection of many protected habitats indilemma. Wildlife habitats are areas in whichundomesticated species of plant or animal could find theirfood, water and shelter needs and other required necessitiesfor survival. It is estimated that 5000 species of mammals,10000 species of birds, 8000 species of reptiles, 5500species of amphibious and 27000 species of fishes oraquatics exist throughout the world (Nunes-Paulo et al.2003). A recent study in Iran has shown that Iran withabout 1.65 million square kilometer surface area is a largecountry and after Turkey is the richest country in plantdiversity in the Middle East. The rich flora and fauna andunique landscapes of this land and its old civilizationattracted many biologists and orientalists (Jafari andAkhani 2008).The climatic diversity of Iran has resulted inthe growth of 7576 plant species, the occurrence of 517bird species, 208 reptile species, 170 fish species, 164

REYAHI-KHORAM & NORISHARIKABAD – Biodiversity of Lashgardar PA, Iran 217

mammal species and 22 amphibians (Reyahi-Khoram et al.,2010a,b). The general acceptance of the concept ofprotected areas in Iran and the necessity to allocate areas tothem which was materialized by the foundation of threenational parks and 15 protected areas in 1967 is considereda turning point in the history of the environmentalprotection in Iran. Continuous increase in the number, areaand diversity of the protected areas over the last 40 yeardocumented protection history of Iran indicated publicawareness and will to protect biological resources andreserves. Designation of 160 protected areas of the totalarea of 11824599 hectares until 2006 covering 7.17 percentof the entire country area indicates an annual increase rateof 4.2 areas and 311174 hectares (Darvishsefat 2006). LPAbeing Located in Hamadan Province, it is a mountainousand plain area and proximity to population centers asMalayer Township have facilitated educational, researchand tourist activities in the region. Malayer is one of thecities of Hamadan province in west of Iran.

With expansion of environmental Knowledge andvaluable activities of Non governmental Organization(NGO), the necessity of protection of plant and animalhabitats and the areas under management of Department ofEnvironment (DoE) with the aim of developing ecotourism,biodiversity, and research and educational affairs becomesmore clear every day so that everyone understands itsimportance. In the ecosystems of arid and semi-aridregions, as Iran, the issue of protection becomes moreimportant because the ecosystems are fragile.


This research has been conducted during 2001 through2009. Documentary and observation methods have beenused to access to information. This means that identifyingbiodiversities and limitations of the LPA was made duringthe research years through extensive field inspections anddirect field observations. Plant and animal species of theregion were identified and statistics of the population ofanimal flagship species were gathered. In this research,valid academic resources were used for identification ofanimal and plant species (Mansoori 2001; Ziaie 2008).

To identify and define ecologic resources of the region,digital maps were used and on this basis the topologysituations as well as ground cover of studied area have beenaccomplished. In addition, Geographic Information System(GIS), Remote sensing tools and technology were used indetermining any changes in this study area and evaluate theland. The software used was Arc View (version 3.2a) withthe Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection andscale was 1/50,000.


General status of the regionLPA with 24,000 hectares surface area is situated

between 34º,09',00'' and 34º,20',00'' northern latitudes and

between 48º,51',30'' and 49º,02',00''eastern longitudes, onnorthern highlands of Malayer Township in HamadanProvince. "Koh Sardeh" Mountain with a height of 2858meters from sea level is in northern part of the region. Therocks of this mountain are the main habitat of wild goats(Capra aegagrus). Also dune-bedded parts of this regionare known to be the main habitat of wild sheep (Ovisorientalis). Ahangaran Mountain with altitude of 2758 m isin the southeastern part of the region (Figure 1). This is ahigh rocky mountain with several valleys, appropriateground cover and sufficient expansion, which has createdsuitable conditions for survival of flagship species. Basedon the initial investigations made by the experts of DoE inOctober 1984, this region was officially declared as aprohibited hunting area for five years. For the second timein 1989, this region was officially announced as aprohibited hunting area for another three years. Finally, in1991, the region was known as a protected area forincreasing wild animals' population. In order to manageand control of LPA, two units ranger's station (PoliceStation) located in the western area and north area of theregion are fully controlling and supervising the region byseveral facility and with full equipment.

Because of the type of land application, plain regions ofthe studied area are suitable mainly for agriculturalactivities and pasture management. The rocky areas withsleep slopes, cliffs, caves, deep valleys are suitable forreproduction of different species of wild animals andpassing the winter season. High mountains cause snowprecipitation, which in turn is very effective to recharge theunderground water table. In reciprocal interaction, soil andground cover help survival and stability of ecosystem.

The studied area has average water resources. Thismeans that the water need of different animal and plantspecies are supplied through permanent and seasonal watersprings. This region has 11 permanent springs of which;only five springs have been sanitized and improved. Thereis not any permanent river in LPA. The only seasonal riverof this region is Jozan-Aznaveleh, which is rooted inGomasab Babolghani Mountains and joins HaramabadRiver after passing through the region. Because it is aseasonal river, no aquatic lives in it and no aquatic bird canmake nest there. Regarding the situation of springs, thewild sheep have easy access to water. Also, some springssuch as Ozon Dareh flow from the heights to near the plainregions. LPA is a mountainous area, minimum altitude of1750 meters in plain regions and maximum altitude of2858 meters in Koh Sardeh Mountains.

According to statistics of meteorological stations,maximum ambient temperature in summer is 36.8ºc in July,while the minimum is 6.5ºc below zero in January. Theamount of annual precipitation is different from 250millimeters in plain regions to 320 millimeters in theheights. Most of the precipitations occurred in the form ofsnow in cold months of the year. Average relative humidityof the area is 28% in the hottest month (July) and 70% inthe most humid month (March).


Figure 1. General status of Lashgardar Protected Area (A) in Hamadan Province (B).

Wind direction is south-north in this region. Also theground level of these regions is covered with rock land,which is in turn influenced by wind blow, i.e. due to windblow the soil surface layer undergoes corrosion and willfind no chance for improvement. In the winter due to highwind speed, wild animals are mostly seen in the lowest partof the region. But in summer, the animals choose thesouthern rocky part of the region which is a leeward part astheir daylong sleeping and grazing.

Unfortunately no watershed management project hasbeen implemented in the region. Therefore a small amountof water from precipitations infiltrate to land, and land isquite dry in the heights. As a result of this, wild animals ofKoh Sardeh Region, which are mainly wild goats, sufferfrom severe shortage of water in the summer.

There are 16 villages around the region. All villages arelocated in the border area of the region. The main businessof these villagers is related to farming, gardening andanimal husbandry. Whereas the villages' population hasincreased in recent years and the villages' economy is basedon farming, gardening and animal husbandry and whereasthere are a few free zones for animal grazing around theregion, LPA suffer from animal grazing pressure.

Ahangaran lead and iron mine is in the eastern side ofAhangaran Mountains inside LPA. This mine was

exploited in 1960 for extraction of lead. Lead extractionfrom the depth of ground, tunnel excavation operations andsoil withdraw created insecurity in the region. Therefore ifa better method is used for extraction, its business iscoordinated with the issue of protection. There is a garrisonin the northeast part of the region. This place has beentransferred to the army by the city's endowment departmentwithout coordination with DoE. Ozamen spring in the northof garrison is the main drinking pond for wild animals,which can hardly have access to it due to insecurity.

Regarding implementation of national and regionaldevelopment programs in recent years, the need forestablishment and expansion of connecting roads, railroads,electricity and gas supply lines have increased. Thesecommunication roads are mainly concentrated in thesurrounding border area of the region.

Plant coverage of the regionLPA has different plants so that most plant reserves of

Hamadan Province could be seen in this area. Based on therecent study that was accomplished in LPA, it was reportedthat, 43 families, 184 genera and 266 plant species areexisted in LPA, almost 28 species of which are endemic ofIran (Safikhani et al. 2003). The most important medicinalplant species of LPA are: Gundelia tournefortii L.,

BA

Iran, Islamic Republic

Lashgardar Protected Area

Hamadan Province


Carthamus tinctorius L., Rheum acuminatum, Ziziphoracapitata L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Plantago major L.,Mentha longifolia (L). Hadson and Malva sylvestris L. Dueto cold mountainous climate, the region is covered by awide diversity of trees, shrubs, grasses and herbs. But thereis no forest area, shrub species are sporadically seen in theheights of the region and the most important shrub speciesof LPA are: Crataegus meyeri A. Pojark, Berberisintegerrima Bunge and Amygdalus lycioides Spach. Themost important tree species of LPA are Ficus carica,Pistacia atlantica Desf. and Rhus coriaria L. The mostimportant of herb and grass species of LPA are:Acantholimon olivieri (Jaub. & Spach) Boiss, Phlomisolivieri Benth, Achillea wilhelmsii C. Koch., Cicer oxyodonBoiss. & Hohen, Atraphaxis spinosa L., Zataria multiflora,Peganum harmala L, Echinops pungens Trautv, Fritillariaimperialis L., Rheum ribes L. and Hypericum perforatum L.

Wildlife of the regionThere are 16 species of mammals from 11 families and

4 orders as well as 75 bird species from 23 families and 6orders in LPA. The most mammal population belongs towild sheep (Ovis orientalis) (558 animals) and the secondabundance is related to wild goat (Capra aegagrus) (515animals). Also, the most bird family belongs to Turdidae.

MammalsDue to the form of hoof and inability in escaping from

carnivores, wild goat (Capra aegagrus) is not interested inliving in plain regions. It chooses its living place inmountainous and rocky places, and high lands with rockypartitions. The breeding season takes place in December.The lambs, usually two, are born in late May or June. Thisanimal is territorial and protects its mating place. Amongother characteristics of wild goat is that it does not migratebut lives as a native animal in the region. This behavior,beside the situation of ecological island of the area, i.e. itscomplete surrounding by human societies and expansion ofagricultural, industrial and urban installations, has led togenetic equalization and jeopardizing this specie in the longterm.

Wild sheep such as Armenian sheep (Ovis orientalisgmelini) and Esfahan sheep (Ovis orientalis isphahanica)too exist in western areas of the country. In LPA, thedifferences observed in the morphology of existingpopulation indicate presence of hybrid species in theregion; a white spot is seen in the waist of this specie, andthese wild sheep are called "Allakamar", which by wordsmeans white-waist. Females are smaller than males andhave short slightly curved horns. Due to natural behavioralcharacteristics and migration to Markazi province from theeast of the region on one side, and migration to Nashrprohibited hunting area in Hamadan province and finallyGhazvin province, although this specie is subject tonumerous hazards related to migration route.

On the other side, regarding the diversity of mammals,carnivores such as wolf (Canis lupus), Common fox(Vulpes vulpes), golden jackal (Canis aureus) and StripedHyena (Hyaena hyaena) could be seen in the region. Dailyand seasonal migrations of mammals play an important role

in their settlement in the region and they exist almosteverywhere in the region. Other mammals with sufficientpopulation as Afghan Pika (Ochotona rufescens), WildBoar (Sus Scrofa), Indian crested porcupine (Hystrixindica), Cape hare (Lepus capensis) and Yellow GroundSquirrel (Spermophilus fulvus) specie live in the region.Figure 2 and 3 summarize the distribution of mammalorders and species in the studied area.

Due to regular and efficient protection so far, theprocess of growth of two important species of the region,including wild goat and wild sheep indicates favoritegrowth of population of these species in recent years so thatthe total population of wild goat reached from 117 animalsin 1999 to 515 animals in 2009. Wild sheep populationreached from 127 animals in 1999 to 558 animals at theend of 2009 year. The populations growths related to wildsheep and wiled goat are shown in Figure 4. Optimumincrease of population has led to issuance of hunting permitof these species to respond to the demands of the hunters inthe region so that in 2003, 22 special permits were issued(15 for wild sheep and 7 for wild goat) and in 2009, 15permits including 10 permits for wild sheep and 5 permitsfor wild goat were issued. Certainly substantial habitatcharacteristics as the most important factors have playedtheir role in improvement of biotic conditions.

BirdsWith varied plain, foothill and mountainous ecosystems

and also an intact pasture and shrub coverage, beside fruitorchards close to the region, LPA has managed tosuccessfully play its role as a suitable habitat for differentfamily of birds. The most bird population is related toTurdidae family and the highest percent of abundance isrelated to Passeriformes order (69%) including Alaudidae,Motacillidae, Laniidae, Turdidae, Sylviidae, Sittidae,Emberizidae, Fringillidae, Ploceidae, Sturnidae andCorvidae families. After this, Falconiformes order with11% presence and finally Caprimulgiformes order with 1%has minimum abundance of LPA. Figure 5 summarizes thedistribution of bird orders and families in the studied area.

Figure 2. Classification of mammal orders in LPA of the year2009

Artiodactyla65%

Carnivora11%

Lagomorpha3%

Rodentia21%


DiscussionThe present results showed that LPA, as a

natural environment it has a diversity and expansionof different plant and animal species and in fact, itis necessary to protect this region as an animal andplant habitat. In addition, LPA has manyappropriate industrial and economic developmentcapabilities, but as a natural environment it has adiversity of plant and animal species. Fieldobservations and studies showed that constructionof connection roads in vicinity the region,establishment of factories inside and around theregion, military garrison, unauthorized grazing,unlawful hunting, and Ahangaran mine and railroad have all put LPA in serious threat and danger.Therefore it is extremely necessary that LPAmanagement intensify its protective and securitymeasures with full alertness for survival of wildlifeof the region. A few management studies that havebeen carried out have focused on the improvementof management and environmental educationactivities in protected areas (Xu J. et al. 2006);(Geneletti and Iris 2008). Meliadis et al. (2010)reported that current technologies can be used formodeling environmental parameters which improveour knowledge of the attributes, characteristics,situation, trends, and changes of natural ecosystemsin the protected area.

It is also quite necessary to take appropriatemeasures and make useful interference in the saidLPA in order to improve and stabilize the existingconditions. It is obvious that the suggestedinterfering measures are provisional, which areaimed at stabilizing and improving the existingconditions; otherwise man has no right to interferein natural characteristics of the region.

The obtained results showed that in this regionwater resources are mainly permanent and seasonalsprings and no water shortage is seen in most timesof the year. But watershed management studies andimplementation of watershed projects will result incontrolling water and soil corrosion andmaintenance. Due to the existence of rocky areaswith sleep slopes, cliffs in the rocks, deep valleysand dune-bedded areas with different valleys, thisregion has provided suitable conditions forreproduction and passing winter season of differentspecies of wildlife.

LPA has a diversity of mountainous plants andbecause of cold weather, it has a rich coverage ofshrubs and grasses in the heights and pasture plantsin dune-bedded hills. Therefore the region's animalhas no special critical problem regarding forage andfood. Also with regard to construction of two unitsranger's House in the said region and by employingexperienced rangers, the region's securitycoefficient increases too, although some shortagescould also be seen in these areas.

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Figure 5. Classification of birds orders in LPA of the year 2009


CONCLUSION

These results, and previous studies, indicated thatexpansion of road lines, highways and railroads around theregion created problems related to migration routes of thewild animals of the region by hindering the genetic transferfrom one generation to the other. The author sure that thisfactor can prevents the genetic diversity which in turn isresponsible for species diversity, because the wild animalsin free zones and in LPA have little chance of migrationdue to permanent traffic of vehicles. In the meantime wildanimals need in-migrations and out-migrations with freehabitants in order to pass winter season, reproduction andother habitat needs. It has been observed that species likecape hare (Lepus capensis), golden jackal (Canis aureus)and Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) clash with vehicleswhen they are migrating and die. Permanent traffic ofvehicles in these roads has its influences on wildliferestriction due to creating insecurity.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Because of migrations the wildlife, it is recommendedthat the migration route related to wildlife be organized tostudying and designing roads and it is necessary to attendthe construct of underpass for wildlife migration. Sincemanagement of the LPA is very important, it is highlyrecommended that consultant of LPA plan shouldaccelerate to complete and approve the guideline for thepreparation of management plans for LPA. From apractical perspective, authorities may consider controllingdrought and preparing the region's watershed managementplan and implementing necessary mechanical andbiomechanical installations as well as managementstrategies in a timely manner. It is recommended that theauthorities consider providing sufficient credit to identify,determine the parcel national lands and people-ownedlands of studied area and purchase un-national lands andobtain legal document for all lands in the entire region.Since carrying capacity studying is very important relatedto environmental management, it is suggested that theauthorities consider identify the carrying capability of LPAand determining the number of wild animals and theirreproduction in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by Hamadan ProvincialDirectorate of Environmental Protection, to which theauthors’ thanks are due. The authors also thank Mr.Mohammad pour, the head of Hamadan ProvincialDirectorate of Environmental Protection, for theircollaboration in this study. Also special thanks to AdelArabi and Mahdi Safikhani, the experts of EnvironmentalProtection in Hamadan province and other experts for theirparticipation.

REFERENCES

Darvishsefat A (2006) Atlas of protected areas of Iran, Islamic Republicof Iran, Department of The Environment, Tehran.

Geneletti D, Iris VD (2008) Protected area zoning for conservation anduse: A combination of spatial multi criteria and multi objectiveevaluation, Landscape Urban Plann 85 (2): 97-110.

Jafari SM, Akhani H (2008) Plants of jahan nama protected area, golestanprovince, N. Iran, Pakistan J Bot, 40 (4): 1533-1554.

Mansoori J (2001) Field guide to the birds of Iran. Nashre Zehn Aviz,Iran.

Meliadis I, Platis P, Ainalis A, Meliadis M. (2010) Monitoring andanalysis of natural vegetation in a special protected area of mountainAntichasia-Meteora, Central Greece. Environ Monit Assess 163: 455-465.

Najmizadeh S, Yavari A (2006) Zoning and planning of Khabar Nationalpark with the aid of GIS. J Environ Stud 31 (38): 47-58.

Nunes-Paulo ALD, Vanderbergh CJM, Nijkamp P (2003) The ecologicaleconomics of biodiversity methods and applications. Edward Elgar,United Kingdom.

Reyahi Khoram M, Karami nour M (2010a) Ecological land classificationfor range and forest management; case study: Hamadan province inIran, Proceeding of The 2010 International Conference onEnvironmental Science and Development (CESD 2010), 26-28February 2010, Singapore.

Reyahi Khoram M, Norisharikabad V, Abdollahi R (2010b) Survey onKhan Gormaz Protected Area (KGPA) and its ecotourism attractions,Proceeding of 4th International Colloquium on Tourism & Leisure, 6-9th July 2010, Bangkok, Thailand.

Safikhani K, Rahiminejhad MR, Kalvandi R (2003) Presentation of flora,life forms, endemic species and their conservational classes inprotected region of Lashgardar (Malayer city, Hamadan province),Pajouhesh & Sazandegi 60: 72-83.

Xu J, Chen L, Lu Y, Fu B. (2006) Local people's perceptions as decisionsupport for protected area management in Wolong BiosphereReserve, China. J Environ Manag 78 (4): 362-372.

Ziaie H (2008) A filed guide to the mammals of Iran. Department of theEnvironment, Tehran, Iran.


Forest land use by the community in Sorong Natural Tourism Park atSorong City, West Papua Province

YOHANES YOSEPH RAHAWARIN♥

Faculty of Forestry, the State University of Papua, Jl. Gunung Salju, Amban-Manokwari 98314, West Papua, Indonesia, Tel & Fax.: +62-986-211364,♥email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 2 June 2010. Revision accepted: 14 August 2010.

ABSTRACT

Rahawarin Y (2011) Forest land use by the community in Sorong Natural Tourism Park at Sorong City, West Papua Province.Biodiversitas 12: 222-227. The aim of the research was to: (i) identify the type and extent of forest land use alteration at Sorong NaturalTourism Park (or SNTP), (ii) investigate society activities that cause forest land use alteration, and (iii) make the zoning level ofenvironmental damage (iv) investigate the causative factors of forest land use alteration at SNTP. The method used was survey withfield observation and semi-structural interview techniques. The primary data of biophysical aspects consist of type and extents of landusage by society; while data of socio-cultural aspects consist of level of community dependency upon land and the existing of localinstitution and management of SNTP. Secondary data that had been collected consist of study results documentation and report of SNTPmanagement aspects. Data were analyzed by using (i) qualitative descriptive analysis of society socio-cultural and management aspects,(ii) spatial analysis of biophysical aspects, and (iii) environmental analysis of biophysical, socio-cultural and management aspects.Evaluation of environmental analysis was used to arrange directive and environmental management strategy at SNTP. Result of researchindicated that since its establishment in 1981 to 2009, SNTP forest land utilizing for settlements, forest product extraction and shiftingcultivation activity by society had been cause of land use alteration occurred which was incompatible with area function about 11,53%.Changing in the land use caused by society activities in land utilizes such settlements, forest product extraction and shifting cultivation.Level of environmental degradation in the catchments area of damage SNTP level indicates that 8.01% of total of land area was inslightly damaged, 2.36% was moderately damaged and 1.16% is in heavily damaged. Inadequate support on socio-cultural aspects ofsociety at SNTP and the lack of founding and supervising upon SNTP management was pointed as causative factors on environmentaldamage. Based on level of environmental damage, community based forest management system will be able to be implemented asenvironmental management strategy at SNTP.

Key words: forest land use, environmental degradation, Sorong Natural Tourism Park.

INTRODUCTION

Forest is multifunctional natural resources in support ofhuman life, not only as a place for the conservation ofbiodiversity and maintenance of ecosystem functions, butalso to produce goods and services for the community. Theforest area in Papua has the potential of natural resourceswith a rich diversity that is high enough, by requiring theprotection, conservation and sustainable use to maintain itsdiversity. Conservation, also function as a protected area,area also has other functions such as life-support systemsand as a means of research and development of science,education, nature tourism and support for aquacultureactivities. Sorong Natural Tourism Park (SNTP) or “TamanWisata Alam (TWA) Sorong” is a tourism park located inthe province of West Papua. It has a high biodiversity andis based on the Decree of the Minister of Agriculture No.397/Kpts/Um/5/1981 date may 1981 07 a surface of 945.9ha (MoA 1981; BKSDA West Papua 2007). This regionserves as a nature which can be exploited for tourism andrecreation natural conservation area.

The existence of the conservation area at this timeusually undergoes a variety of incredible pressure. There is

no conservation area which is free from illegal activity,either in form of illegal logging, poaching, the invasion ofthe area for growing, settlements, exploration andexploitation of minerals, land use conflicts or other uses.Moga (2005) suggested that the cause of the destruction ofthe area of conservation was because of the weakness ofthe social aspects of the surrounding community.Nitibaskara (2005) said that there was an institutionallimitation of Government which was responsible for themanagement of conservation, as the weakness of thegrowth of the population, especially in the communitiesaround the edge of the forest area reduction policy areas.

Sorong Natural Tourism Park is adjacent to the locationof the residential areas. It is resulted in the interruption ofthe broadening of the forests. This area has becomed thestone angle society needed to meet the needs of everydaylife. Some of the internal effects among others aresettlement in the region, the forest for activities not relatedto the conservation and agriculture, gardens and fields, theuse of wood and other forest products, mainly for land usefirewood, illegal to local needs, logging hunting andtrapping in the region. External effects with predominantlyhappen among others are wildlife and move the fields on

RAHAWARIN – Forest land use in Sorong Natural Tourism Park 223

the form, the use of the area of conservation for otherpurposes such as mining and others, as well as theconstruction of roads in the area of conservation overlay.

Negative impact of such utilization is reductionrecharge area in SNTP region. It can lead to surface runoffand erosion causes floods, landslides or during the rainyseason. It is caused of because the loss of trees with itswide crown serving as water retention. A way that can bedone to overcome the negative impact is that by increasingthe flow of groundwater of infiltration. Several impacts oflogging activity are a threat to environmental damage ofSNTP. This research aims to analyze the form and theextensive use SNTP, to analyze forest land utilization bypeople around, the effect damage emerged and to analyzethe effect factors of the cause of land use change.


Data collectionThe method used in the research was survey with field

observation and semi-structural interview techniques.Biophysical aspects of primary data consist of the shapeand the use of soil and vegetation cover area. Socio-culturalof society aspects, including the degree of dependence ofthe population of the land and the Community institutionsand the SNTP management data. Secondary data areachieved from documents/reports the results of researchrelated to aspects of management of SNTP. Secondary datais done through listing documents or research reports.

Land use changeThere is forest land utilization done by the people

around in the forest land. In order to know the location, theform, and the land use change, the tracking through GPS isimplemented. The data obtained are spatially processed in away to calculate the area of overlapping polygons using anArcView GIS using version 3.3 of the program (FoGGMU2009)

Catchment areas damageProcessing of data for the analysis of damage to areas

of recharge used spatial analysis with scoring method(Kastaman et al. 2007). Natural environmental componentsaffected the infiltration of outstanding potential, type ofsoil, and precipitation, whereas the land use affect the realinfiltration land use. Score method with a system of classesbased on Permenhut No. P.32/MENHUT-II/2009 (MoF2009).

Socio-cultural aspects of societyAspects of weighting system and the parameters used in

the assessment of the socio-cultural aspects of society. Thegeneral formula used to calculate a value for eachparameter of the aspects socio-cultural is: the indicatorvalue = frequency x score x weight parameters. In addition,aspects of socio-cultural support for each parameter valueis calculated based on the percentage weight of eachparameter in the lowest and better qualifications.

Data analysisParameters aspects management of SNTP observed

included the integrity of the boundaries of the area, if anybad supervision and guidance to the public. The descriptivedata processing based on interviews and comments field,and information as well as secondary data. Data analysiswas performed by: (i) qualitative descriptive analysis forthe social aspects of public culture and parametersmanagement SNTP, (ii) the spatial analysis of the aspectsof biophysics (land-use change), and (iii) an environmentalassessment for the aspects of social and culturalmanagement region, which later became the basis in theformulation of the direction and strategies forenvironmental management of SNTP.


Land use changeLand use activities

SNTP laid down in the Decree of the Minister ofagriculture No.397/Kpst/UM/I/1981 area of 945.90hectares per day in October 2009 Note research occurredduring the use of the soil that is incompatible with theregion in SNTP functions. SNTP land-use change beganaround the year 1998, starting with the public for a varietyof needs, land use activities both for settlements, forestproduct extraction and shifting cultivation.

Type and size of land useThe results of measurement and analysis of spatial

forms of land are known that from the total SNTP land of945.9 Ha, the converted areas for others used about 109.06hectares (11.53%). The form and area land use SNTP arepresented in Table 1, and spatially depicted in thematicland use such as shown in Figure 1.

Table 1. Type and land use area of SNTP

Location and type of land use Area(ha)

Percentage(%)

Inform-ation

Garden and field Klasaman village 5.30 0.56 2 plot Klablim village 19.29 2.04 11 plot

Sub-total 24.59 2.60Settlement Klasaman village 0.38 0.04 1 plot Klablim village 7.85 0.83 2 plot

Sub-total 8.23 0.87Shrub Klasaman village 1.89 0.20 2 plot Klablim village 73.87 7.81 1 plot

Sub-total 75.76 8.01Open land Klasaman village 0.47 0.05 1 plotLowland forest Klasaman and Klablim village 836.81 88.47Total 945.9 100.00


Figure 1. The map land use in Sorong Natural Tourism Park (SNTP)

The results of Table 1 and Figure 1 shows the largestland conversion is a shrub (8.01%), followed byplantations/crops (2.60%), residential (0.87%) and openfield (0.05%), while the rest continue forming lowlandforests (88.47%). Due to the availability of the road and theentrance to the forests of the community to facilitatedevelopment of housing, gardening fields area land usechange/and forest harvesting. Basuni et al. (2009) said thathuman activity is usually inside and outside the area ofconservation, particularly in unregulated land use andbecome a threat to the sustainability of the area ofconservation. When the threat is permanent, without end(eternal external threat) then land conservation areas andtheir products will remain the limited resources for agrowing population.

Catchment areas damagePotential infiltration

Potential penetration values obtained from the type ofsoil and factors slope factor rain infiltration in SNTP.Precipitation infiltration coefficient will be multiplied bythe amount of precipitation divided into 100 days with rain.On the basis of climatic data (BMG Sorong 2009) showedthat the rainfall over the last 10 years (1999-2008) was2887.40 mm, the number of rainy days as many as 218days, precipitation infiltration 6295 mm, includingclassification of very large (> 5500 mm). Forest land inSNTP is divided into two kinds of Brown podzolic and

alluvial soils. Brown podsol ability penetration is fairlylarge, and alluvial soils are classified as small. SNTPconditions slope with flat areas (0-8%) and slope (8-15%).

Spatial analysis results showed that 90.06% of SNTPable to absorb the water with great skill, while the rest(9.94%) is of average size water infiltration. Hamzah(1975) in Tokede (1989) states the ability to store waterforest soils depends largely on the percentage of silt andclay. The higher the percentage, the more water is stored; itis not excessive humidity that can lead to poor soilaeration. Commonly known that the growths of trees inclay soils are better than in clay or sandy soil.

Actual infiltrationLand use, vegetation cover mainly affects the

infiltration through three forms, namely: the root and thepores enlarge permeability soil, vegetation cover to holdrun-off and vegetation cover reduces the amount ofpercolation of water through transpiration. Canopy treesfalling rain erosivity power to change is by changing thespeed and grain size of rain drops. Factors that contributeto high canopy cover, canopy thickness, density, so thegarbage, grass and herbs as ground cover. Given the role ofvegetation cover and or use of land in SNTP region, thevalue of the actual infiltration rate of the area, then basedon qualitative Permenhut No P.32/MENHUT-II/2009 (MoF2009) presented in Table 2.


Table 2. Classification value of actual infiltration of SNTP

Type of land use Scale closure Value of actual infiltrationLow land forest 76-100% largeShrub 51-75% small largeGarden and field 25-60% moderateSettlement 0.5-25% rather smallOpen land < 0.5% smallSource: Modified from Barbour et al. (1987); Indriyanto (2006);MDNR (2007); MoF (2009).

Table 2 explains that this area of land is in variousforms of land use conversion above have resulted changesin the level of cover. SNTP forest serving act to protect theinterests of biology nature conservation area. The

ecological function of natural processes that took placebecame interrupted due to changes in the abundance ofcover, such as pressure and threats the diversity of speciesand changes in patterns of succession of forests and thediversity of species and the community in a landscapepatterns.

Forest areas opening activity SNTP society to be usedas a bird capture zones acted by vegetation cover. Thedevelopment of settlement by municipality Klasamanactivities, Srahwata and Kolam Susu coatings intend toreduce the abundance and spread community activities thatmake rotation of crops through the opening of the gardensor the fields in this area.. Thus, abundance decline due todevelopment solution from SNTP, land use changecoverage collection of forest products and gardening

activities or agriculture is a threat ofdamage to the environment if notproperly managed will threaten theexistence of functional areas.

The level of damage of rechargearea

The results indicate spatialanalysis with overlay and scoringmethod between the potential ofthematic infiltration and actualinfiltration thematic. Based on theanalysis, it is true that the thematiclevel of damage catchment areas isin accordance with Permenhut No.P.32/MENHUT-II/2009, as it isshown in Figure 2. Based on Figure2 it is known that the change in theland use caused by society activitiesin land utilizes such settlements,forest product extraction and shiftingcultivation. Level of environmentaldegradation in the catchments area ofdamage SNTP level indicates that75.77 ha (8.01%) is in slightlydamaged, 2.36 ha (2.36%) is inmoderate damaged and 10.97 ha(1.16%) is in heavily damaged. Thedamage of the recharge area iscaused by land use change with littleabundance of land cover and alsospread of rarely so that it emergesbigger surface stream. Changing inthe use and ground vegetation coverhydrological is very influential inquantities. In this case, it is theamount of infiltration so that regionswith a level of abundance and coverwill be much better then rechargeswater. It is good and natural. On theother hand, the more scarce the landover and damage, the higher thedamage level of recharge area (Bruce1966 in Nurlita 2008).

Figure 2. The map of damage level of recharge area in SNTP


Table 3. Indicator value support social and cultural aspects of society against environmental managemnet SNTP

VillageSocio-cultural aspectsKlasaman Klablim

SNTP

Level of dependence of population on land Land area moderate (6.50) less (4.68) moderate (5.59) Land status very strong (5.98) strong (4.55) very strong (5.27) Livelihood diversification moderate (3.55) moderate (3.75) moderate (3.65) Distribution and allocation of work time less (1.71) moderate (1.98) moderate (1.85) Special customs and traditions strong (2.38) strong (2.45) strong (2.42)Total value (1) strong (20.12) moderate (17.41) moderate (18.77)Community institutions Institutional activity less (3.15) less (2.42) less (2.78) Forms and functions of institutions less (2.59) moderate (3.50) moderate (3.05)Total value (2) less (5.74) less (5.92) less (5.83)Total value of socio-cultural aspects (1) + (2) moderate (25.86) moderate (23.33) moderate (24.59)

Changing in forest cover to be housing, the openground, bush and the dry land crop will reduce the abilityto store the ground water supplies. This is in accordancewith the proposal of Rauf (2009), the ability of the land toabsorb the water varies depend on the characteristic of thesoil, soil management, and in particular of the soil coverageitself. Forest land can absorb more water than land-use.According to Fahmuddin et al. (2004), when the use offorest land is converted into other use, soil, plants and thehydrological cycle in it are also influenced. This is becausethe impact caused by the physical, biological and chemicalchanges as well as the life on earth that is above them. Alsobe aware of the system of management of the land used forother functions, especially biodiversity is lost because ofthe conversion forest land.

The factors of environmental damage of SNTPSocio-cultural aspects of society

The results of socio-cultural support the managementof the SNTP area can be seen in Table 3. Table 3 showsthat the level of dependency of the population on the landwhich remains weak contribution (18.77) against themanagement of SNTP. This fact can be seen in thecontribution of less support far-reaching general land,livelihoods diversification and the distribution allocation ofwork time. This situation illustrates the possibility of strongenough environmental damages of SNTP to support thecontribution of the aspects of the dependence of thepopulation in the land for the management of the area. Theparameters of the socio-cultural aspects of society thatdescribes the support for tradition is strong; and the supportof land use is very strong. According to Ekawati et al(2005) the state of the farm that is carved out by the owner,there is a tendency to be managed in a sustainable manner.Conversely, if it is not managed by the owners of the land,there is a tendency of the land managed without taking intoaccount aspects of conservation, because the user is moreresult oriented at the time.

The society custom is that taking benefit from the forestland fertility and potential environmental of SNTPrelatively wide for their life. Purba (2005) says thatagricultural systems that move periodically (rotated) arevery adaptable to the environment and forests show proven

wisdom environment suitable for the preservation of thebiodiversity of tropical forests. Thus, the degree ofdependence of the population in an area that is strong andpowerful reflects the status of land and traditionscontributing to the community in supporting the efforts topreserve the region against the threat of environmentaldamage.

The lack of institutional aspects of the society tosupport the efforts of environmental management SNTP, iscause the form and function of local institution which is notfully involved in the management area. Apart from that, theabsence of local institution activity provides support for theconservation and management of SNTP. The activities ofmanagement are inactive and the institutions are likelywaiting for instruction from government institutions.According to Purba (2005), the plan and theimplementation of the social environment management thatare carried out by local government will not alwaysguarantee community of people to always be able to get thebest benefits in the environmental management to improvesocial welfare. The principle of the social environmentmanagement must give greater priority to the participationof the community and the community as a whole. Tokedeet al. (2008) explained that forest management based oncommunity of people is characterized by specific typologyof forestry society that the final goal is the empowermentand welfare society.

The aspects of the SNTP managementThe results showed that optimal development activities

have not been done so and are still limited to the public ingeneral as students, university student of Sorong.Illumination to people in both towns has not done well.This is clearly seen from existence of different point ofview how about the community should participate in themanagement of the SNTP. The main limitation is theshortage of human resources and operational support.Based on field observations and interviews with people andofficials, it is known that many landmarks are broken orgone, which are intentionally pulled out or broken in thelandmark of SNTP. The landmarks which are built sincethe beginning are not taken care well. The nursing such aspainting and giving new number are not done yet. Based on


the description of the aspects of area management, it isknown that the incompleteness of the boundary regionsince it is broken, gone and the not optimum directingactivity to society caused by the work control of SNTP.

Environmental management strategy of SNTPIn general, management policies are divided into three

parts namely technical policy (water and soil conservation),socio-cultural address and the policy guidelines. Technicalpolicy is in the form of activities and the implementation ofreforestation and agroforestry systems. Socio-culturalpolicies referred to forest management systems based oncommunity. Policy guidelines aimed at changing theparadigm of the management of single stakeholder to manystakeholders. SNTP strategies of management is donethrough the following activities: (i) the stabilization of theregion, (ii) the formulation of the area, (iii) construction ofinfrastructure and facilities for recreation and tourismnature, (iv) the potential area management, (v) protectionof the area, (vi) the research and education, (vii) themanagement of nature tourism, and (viii) development ofcross-sector integration and coordination.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Since established in 1981 until 2009, the activity oftaking benefit from SNTP by community around(urbanization, forest product extraction and gardening orshifting cultivation activities) has led to a change of landuse for 11.53%. The conversion of SNTP forest land to behousing and open field has increased of damage rechargearea for 10.97 ha (1.16%) to be badly damage; 22.36 ha(2.36%) was in damage condition in the form of plantationland; 75.77 ha (8.01%) was in rather damage in the form ofbush. The lack the support of social and cultural societyand the ineffective supervision and monitoring ofmanagement activities are factors of the cause ofenvironmental damage in SNTP. Based on the level ofdamage and the factors cause of environmental damage,SNTP environment management strategies can beimplemented through forest management system based oncommunity that includes a number of activities, namely: (i)the stabilization of the region, (ii) preparing a managementplan that could accommodate the participation ofcommunities and other stakeholders, (iii) construction ofinfrastructure and facilities for recreation and tourismnature, (iv) the potential area management, (v) theprotection and security of the area, (vi), research andeducational activities, (vii) the management of naturetourism (viii) development of cross-sector integration andcoordination.

The need of approach changing paradigm in themanagement of SNTP from single stakeholder to manystakeholders with basic management change, namely fromgovernment based management to multi stakeholders basedmanagement (collaborative management). Improvement

and prevention toward the existence of threat to SNTPenvironmental damage can be done with involvingsurrounding people in reforestation and the implementationof agroforestry through forest management systems basedon community.

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Authors Index

Abbas B 112 Abbot LK 145 Abdulhadi R 187 Abedi R 182 Adhikerana AS 46 Ahmad F 118 Amin M 69 Ardaka IM 15 Ariyanti EE 124 Bintoro MH 112 Bratawinata AA 204 Budiharta S 151 Bustam BM 9, 129 Dewiyanti I 139 Djuuna IAF 145 Ehara H 112 Fitri L 129 Gibson B 200 Iskandar E 55 Junaedi DI 75 Jusuf M 187 Karwa A 97 Khoram MR 216 Kuntorini EM 102 Kusmana C 187 Kyes RC 55 Lestari Y 65 Marwoto B 176 Meshram PK 211 Mirmanto E 82 Mudiana D 124 Mutaqien Z 75 Nelly N 93 Norisharikabad V 216 Nugroho LH 102 Nurmeiliasari 200 Pamoengkas P 34 Pangastuti A 65 Perwitasari-Farajallah D 55 Poerba YS 118 Pourbabaei H 182 Putranto HD 200 Rahawarin YY 222

Rahayu S 187 Rai MK 97, 157 Renwarin Y 112 Ruchaemi A 204 Rusli R 93 Saharjo BH 40 Shahabuddin 29 Sidik AS 204 Siregar HM 15 Siregar IZ 5, 107 Siregar M 15 Siregar UJ 107 Soetrisno E 200 Subahar TSS 24 Sudarsono 112 Sudo S 40 Sugardjito J 46 Sugiyarto 89 Suharsono 187 Suhartono 59 Suhartono MT 65 Sumardi I 167 Sunaryanto R 176 Surahman M 112 Sutarno 1, 89 Suwanto A 65 Suwarno 19 Suyatna I 204 Taurusman AA 133 Tsuruta H 40 Van Niel K 145 Widodo 89 Widoretno S 89 Wilujeng S 194 Wulandari M 167 Yaherwandi 93 Yonemura S 40 Yuliana A 24 Yunanto T 5 Yusmarika F 93 Zueni A 200 Zulfahmi 107

Subject Index

Aceh 5, 87, 130, 132, 139, 140,

144 Agaricus 97, 98, 101 alang-alang 39-44 AM Fungi 145-149, 165 anatomical character 167, 168, 170, 172 antibiotic 59, 63, 64, 68, 98, 129-

132, 176-178, 180, 181 antimicrobial activity 176-178, 181 Austrostipa 9, 10, 12-14 bacterial community 65-68, 132 Bali Botanic Garden 15-18 banana cultivar 118, 122, 123, 167-175 Begonia “Tuti Siregar” 15-18 biodiversity 4, 5, 24, 25, 28-36, 39,

40, 45, 46, 52, 54, 80-81,87, 89, 92,, 97, 100, 111, 117, 128, 141, 149, 151, 152, 154-157, 162, 165-167, 176, 182-183, 185, 186, 192, 212, 215-217, 221, 222, 226

biodiversity protection area 151, 152, 154, 155 biomass burning 40, 41, 44, 45 biotechnological strategies 157, 164 Bosscha Observatory 24, 25, 28 Brassicaceae 93-96, 111 bulb 102-106, butterfly diversity 24, 25, 27, 28, canonical correspondence analysis 204, 205 Central Kalimantan 35, 82, 87, 88, 154, 156 chloroplast DNA 107, 109, 111-114, 117,

193 chloroplast microsatellites 107, 108, 111, 117 coastal water 133, 134, 138, 210 community 23-25, 28-30, 32-34, 42,

65-68, 76, 80, 82, 85-87, cooking bananas 118, 119, 121 deforestation 29, 33, 37, 45-47, 49, 52,

53, 54, 92, 151, 156, 182, 198, 199

demersal fish 204-210 development 3, 16, 19, 20, 22-25, 27-

28, 34-39, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 55, 65-70, 72-74, 82, 87, 89,90, 101-107, 111, 117, 124-128, 133, 145, 146, 150, 154, 157-158, 160-166, 169, 170, 175, 180-182, 188, 192, 194, 196, 197, 199, 204, 210, 216, 218, 220, 222, 224-227

dipterocarp species 34-37, 111, 152, 154, 155 Dipterocarpaceae 35, 36, 46, 82, 83, 107,

111, 112, 117, 151, 153-155, 198

diversity 1, 4, 5, 8, 24, 25, 27-34, 37, 40, 45, 52-57, 65-70,

73, 75, 81, 83-85, 87, 89-98, 100, 101, 107, 109, 110-112, 114-118, 122, 123, 133, 137, 138, 145, 148-151, 153-157, 163, 166, 168, 182-187, 190, 192-194, 198, 204-206, 210-214, 216, 217, 219-222, 225

DNA banks 157, 163-166 domination 25, 79, 194, 198 dung beetles 29-32 electrophoresis 2, 6, 8, 59, 60, 63-65,

108, 119, 177 Eleutherine americana 102, 106 environment 3, 8, 19, 23-25, 27, 28,

34, 35, 37, 40-42, 44, 45, 52, 54, 67, 75, 82-85, 91-93, 98, 100, 101, 103, 105, 107, 115, 118, 124, 129, 133, 136-138-142, 144-149, 155, 165-167,178, 185-187, 189, 191, 192, 194, 196-199, 204-210, 216, 217, 220-223, 225-227

environmental degradation 222, 225, estrous cycle 200-203 eutrophication 133-136 evenness 65-67, 151, 153-155, 182-

186 fauna 23, 28, 32-34, 91, 133,

135, 138, 150, 210-213, 215

feeding guild 133-138 floristic composition 82, 85, 87, 88, 151, 153-

156 flow of genetic intervention 69 flower and fruit development 124-128 flowering 8, 16, 18, 25-27, 87, 91,

92, 111, 124, 127, 128, 154, 192, 194, 196, 197, 199

forest conversion 29, 31, 33, 151, forest land use 47, 54, 222 GAM 145-149 Ganoderma 97, 100 Gede Pangrango National Park 155, 156, 187, 192 genetic diversity 1, 5, 8, 56, 57, 70, 89,

100, 107, 110, 112, 115-118, 122, 123, 157, 163, 187, 192, 216, 221

genetic variation 1, 3, 4, 8, 57, 58, 73, 74, 92, 107, 109, 111, 116, 117, 120, 123, 189, 192

GH gene 1, 8 GLM 145-149 GOT 5-8 grassland rhizosphere 129, 130

growth 1-4, 12, 19, 20, 23, 34-39, 46, 60, 61, 65, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 87, 88, 98, 103, 104, 106, 111, 117, 129-132, 136, 145, 149, 150, 154, 156-158, 160-166, 168, 17, 175, 178, 180, 186, 188, 191, 192, 197-199, 216, 219, 220, 222, 224

Guilan 182-186 habitat fragmentation 24, 46, 52, 54, 80, 81 habitat selection 29, 32 haplotype 112-112, 114-117 High Conservation Value Forest (HCVF)

151, 156

host plant 20, 22, 24-28, 93, 187 Hoya multiflora 187-193 imagery 46, 47 immature stages 19-21, 23, 93, Indonesia 1-5, 15, 18, 24, 28, 29,

30, 33-37, 40,41, 45-47, 52-56, 58, 65, 69, 73, 74, 79-82, 87-88, 92, 96, 107, 108, 111-113, 116, 117, 123, 129, 133,134, 137-140, 144, 151-152, 156, 158, 159, 167, 168, 170, 175, 176, 187, 188, 192, 194, 200-204, 206, 210,

Indonesian local cattle 2, 3 inheritance and linkage 5, 8 isolation 2, 60, 61, 66, 98, 100,

108, 112, 113, 129-132, 155, 176-178, 181

isozyme 5-8 Jakarta Bay 133-138 land use 24, 29, 30-33, 38, 40, 44,

46-54, 98, 145-150, 199, 221-227

Landsat 46, 47, 51 large plasmids 59-64 Lashgardar 216-218 leaf 10, 13-18, 22, 39, 93, 97,

102-105, 108, 113, 117, 119, 139-142, 144, 150, 159, 161-163, 166-168, 170-175, 186, 188, 189, 191-193, 195, 199

leaves litter 139, 144 Lepidoptera 19, 22, 23, 28, 93-96, 213 Litopenaeus vannamei 65, 67, 68 local cattle 2, 3, 69, 70, 73 long-tailed macaques 55-58 Macaca fascicularis 55-58 macrozoobenthos 133-138 Mahakam delta 204-208, 210 main stands 89-92 marine Actinomycetes 176-181 marker assisted selection 1, 3, 4, 162 mass loss 139-142 medicinal 81, 97, 98, 100, 151, 157-

160, 162-166, 187, 218 medicinal plants 97, 157, 158, 160, 162,

164-166, micro morphological 9-14 microbes 67, 129-132, 142, 161,

164, 165 micropropagation 157-159, 164-166 microsatellite 55-58, 107-111, 117, 164 minimum inhibitory concentration 176, 178-180, 179 molecular 1, 3, 4, 9, 42, 58, 60-65,

67, 106, 108, 109, 111-114, 116-118, 122, 123, 132, 162-164, 167, 168

morphological diversity 187 morphology 12-14, 16, 60, 68, 91, 97,

128, 130, 167, 168, 170, 171, 173-176, 178, 181, 189, 192, 219,

Mount Patuha 75, 80, 81 mtDNA 1, 2, 73, Musa acuminata 118, 119, 121, 123, 167,

168, 171-173, 175 Musa balbisiana 118, 119, 121, 167, 168,

171-173 mushrooms 97, 98, 100, 101 mycorrhization 157, 159, 160, 162, 164-

166 naphtoquinone 102, 103, 105, 106 national chambal sanctuary 211, 212, 214, 215 natural enemies 19-23 new cultivar 15, 16, 18 nutrients 87, 98, 135, 139, 144,

160, 185 Papilio polytes 19-23, 26, 27, parasitoid 19-23, 93-96 PCR-RFLP 1, 2, 3 peat grass 40-44 peat soil 40-44 peat-swamp 82-87 PFGE 59, 60, 63, 64 phenotypic variation 6, 69, 71 Pinus merkusii 5-8, 89 plant ecology 33, 39, 75, 92, 111, 117,

150, 227 plantain 33, 118, 122, 123, 175 Pleurotus 97, 100 ploidy level 167-170, 172-174 population 3, 4, 8, 19-23, 27,32, 34,

41, 42, 46, 53-59, 63, 68, 69, 73, 74, 78-81, 90, 93-95, 107-118, 122, 123, 129, 132, 140, 149, 150, 151, 155, 160, 163, 178, 182, 187-189, 191-194, 196, 197, 199-201, 205, 211, 213-220, 222, 223, 224, 226

population dynamic 19, 21-23, 57, 68 production forest 34, 35, 75, 151, 156 production landscape 151, 156, 182, RAPD analysis 111, 118 RE (restriction enzyme) 2-3, 59-64, 66, 67, remnant forest 75 Rhizophora stylosa 139-144 richness 24, 29-33, 36, 66, 67, 81,

83-86, 89-93, 100, 101, 151, 153, 154, 156, 182, 184-186, 204-206, 212, 213, 215

Rural Heritage Museum 182-186 sago palm 112-117 sambar deer 200-203

screening 58, 118, 129, 132, 161, 165, 166, 176, 178, 181

seasonal effect 200, 201, 203 seasons 19-23, 96, 98, 100, 194,

197, 199, 201, 202, 205, 212

Sebangau 91, 96, 97, 101, 128, 132-134, 136-138, 144, 155, 186, 192, 196, 197, 205, 206, 210, 215, 222-227

selective cutting and line planting 34-36 selective logging 30, 33, 34, 53, 82 sexual behavior 200-203 Shorea acuminata 107-110 social groups 55-57 soil quality 34-36, 38, 39 Sorong Natural Tourism Park 222, 224, 227 Sowang 194, 196-199 standard walk 24, 25 stipoid grasses 9, 12, 14 Syzygium pycnanthum 124-128 taxonomic diversity 89, 90

trace gas 40, 42, 44, 45 transformation 31, 157, 162-166 trawl 204, 205, 209, 210 tree communities 54, 75, 77, 79, 80 T-RFLP 65-68 uropathogenic E. coli 59, 63 variations 1, 6, 54, 55, 58, 73, 83,

117, 125, 133, 135, 169, 187-189, 192

vegetation 23, 28-30, 32-37, 39-43, 45-47, 75-77, 80-92, 98, 139-141, 144, 146, 149, 156, 182, 183-186, 196, 199, 214, 215, 223-225, 227

Wanagama 89-92 water depth 137, 204-206, 208, 209,

212 wildlife 28, 53, 81, 151, 156, 203,

215,216, 219-222 Xanthostemon novaguineense 194, 195, 197-199

List of Peer Reviewers

Abd Fattah N. Abd Rabou Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Islamic University of Gaza, Palestine Agung Kurniawan Bali Botanic Garden, Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI), Tabanan, Bali, Indonesia Ahmad Dwi Setyawan Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University,

Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia Akira Itoh Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Japan Alan J. Lymbery Division of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Australia Ali Saad Mohamed College of Veterinary Medicine, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, North-

Sudan Alfonds Andrew Maramis Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, State University of Manado,

Tondano, North of Sulawesi, Indonesia Am Azbas Taurusman Department of Utilization of Fisheries Resources, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Bogor

Agricultural University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia Artini Pangastuti Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University,

Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia Bambang Hero Saharjo Forest Fire Laboratory, Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural

University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia Bambang Sulistiyarto Christian University of Palangkaraya, Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia Betty Mauliya Bustam Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Syiah Kuala University,

Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, Indonesia Bradley Bergstrom Department of Biology, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA, USA Charis Amarantini Faculty of Biology, Duta Wacana Christian University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Cristina Cruz Department of Zoology and Anthropology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidade do Porto, Portugal Cynthia Fowler Society of Ethnobiology, Wofford College, Spartanburg, SC, USA Daiane H. Nunes Department of Agronomy, State University of Londrina, Londrina, Brazil Danielle Kreb RASI – Conservation Foundation, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia Deden Mudiana Purwodadi Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Pasuruan, East Java, Indonesia Dewi Ayu Lestari Purwodadi Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Pasuruan, East Java, Indonesia Dirk Holscher Division of Tropical Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Faculty of Forest Sciences and Forest

Ecology, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany Djoko Purnomo Faculty of Agriculture, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, Indonesia Dwi Hastuti Stabilization Office of Forest Area XI, Ministry of Forestry, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Dwi Murti Puspitaningtyas Center for Plant Conservation, Bogor Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor,

West Java, Indonesia Edi Rudi Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Syiah Kuala University,

Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, Indonesia Eizi Suzuki Earth and Environmental Sciences,Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima

University, Japan Esti Endah Ariyanti Purwodadi Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Pasuruan, East Java, Indonesia Fitmawati Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, State University of Riau,

Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia Freddy Pattiselanno Animal Production Laboratory, Animal Science, Fishery & Marine Sciences, State University of

Papua, Manokwari, West Papua, Indonesia Gono Semiadi Zoology Division, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong-Bogor,

West Java, Indonesia Guofan Shao Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Hapry Fred Nico Lapian Faculty of Animal Science, Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia Haryono Zoology Division, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong-Bogor,

West Java, Indonesia Hwan Su Yoon Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, McKown Point Road, West Boothbay Harbor, ME, USA Irnanda Aiko Fifi Juuna Department of Soil Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Agriculture Technology, State University

of Papua, Manokwari, West Papua, Indonesia.

Iskandar Z. Siregar Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia

Issirep Sumardi Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Jamsari Plant Breeding Section, Faculty of Agriculture, Andalas University, Padang, West Sumatra,

Indonesia Joko Ridho Witono Center for Plant Conservation, Bogor Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor,

West Java, Indonesia Kanika Sharma Microbial Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, University College of Science, M.L.

Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India Kristamtini Assessment Institute for Agricultural Technology Yogyakarta, Ministry of Agriculture,

Yogyakarta, Indonesia Lily Surayya Eka Putri Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, State Islamic University Syarif

Hidayatullah Jakarta, Indonesia Livia Wanntorp Department of Phanerogamic Botany, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden Luitgard Schwendenmann School of Environment, University of Auckland, New Zealand Made Sri Prana Botany Division, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong-Bogor,

West Java, Indonesia Magdy H. Abd El-Twab Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia City,

Egypt Magdy Ibrahim El-Bana Department of Biology, College of Teacher, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Mahendra Kumar Rai Department of Biotechnology, SGB Amravati University, Maharashtra, India Manuela Winkler

Institute of Botany, Department of Integrative Biology, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

María de los Ángeles La Torre Cuadros

Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry Sciences, National Agrarian University, La Molina, Lima, Peru

Maria Teresa Manfredi

Department of Animal Pathology, Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Universita Studi degli di Milano, Italy

Medi Hendra Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Mulawarman University, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Mera Wulandari Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Mochamad Arief Soendjoto Faculty of Forestry, Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, Indonesia, Nina Dwi Yulia Purwodadi Botanic Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Pasuruan, East Java, Indonesia Nur Fadli Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Syiah Kuala University,

Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, Indonesia Onrizal Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, North Sumatra University, Medan, North Sumatra,

Indonesia Peter C. Boyce School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Phillip T.O. Raburu Fisheries Department, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya R. Susanti Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Semarang State University,

Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia. Rofiq Sunaryanto Center of Biotechnology, Agency for the Assessment and Application Technology, South

Tangerang, Banten, Indonesia Serafinah Indriyani Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Brawijaya University, Malang,

East Java, Indonesia. Shahabuddin Faculty of Agriculture, Tadulako University, Tondo, Palu, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia Shao-yun He Department of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, P.R. China Simone M. Scheffer-Basso Universidade de Passo Fundo, Bairro São José, Brazil Siti Sofiah Purwodadi Botanic Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Pasuruan, East Java, Indonesia Skyler J. Hackley University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA and Ecosystems Center, Marine Biological

Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA Sri Wilujeng

Biology Program, Department of Mathematics and Basic Science Education, Faculty of Education, Cendrawasih University, Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia

Sugardjito Zoology Division, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong-Bogor, West Java, Indonesia

Sugiyarto Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia

Suhadi Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, State University of Malang, Malang, East Java, Indonesia

Suhartono Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, Indonesia

Sundaram Seshadri Shri AMM Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre, Taramani, Chennai, India Supyani Faculty of Agriculture, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, Indonesia Sutarno Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University,

Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia Tati Suryati S. Subahar School of Life Sciences & Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, West Java,

Indonesia Thomas C. Wanger Environment Institute, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide,

Australia Titut Yulistyarini Purwodadi Botanic Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Pasuruan, East Java, Indonesia Tiziano Bo Department of Life and Environmental Science, University of Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria,

Italy Udhi Eko Hernawan Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Tual, Southeast Maluku,

Indonesia Utaminingsih Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Wilhelm Barthlott Nees-Institute for Biodiversity of Plants, Bonn, Germany Wiryono Faculty of Agriculture, Bengkulu University, Bengkulu, Indonesia Yaya Ihya Ulumuddin Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, North Jakarta, Indonesia Yekki Yasmin Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Syiah Kuala University,

Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, Indonesia Yohan Rusiyantoro Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tadulako, Tondo Palu,

Indonesia Yohanes Y. Rahawarin Faculty of Forestry, State University of Papua, Manokwari, West Papua, Indonesia Yuyu Suryasari Poerba Botany Division, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong-Bogor,

West Java, Indonesia Zaenal Mutaqien Cibodas Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia Zhu Hua Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, P.R. China Zumaidar Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Syiah Kuala University,

Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, Indonesia

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GUIDANCE FOR AUTHORS

BIODIVERSITAS, the Journal of Biological Diversity publishes scientific articles, i.e. original research and review in all biodiversity aspects of plants, animals and microbes at the level of gene, species, and ecosystem. Scientific feedback (short communication) is only received for manuscript, which criticize published article before. Manuscripts will be reviewed by managing editor and invited peer review according to their disciplines. The only articles written in English (U.S. English) are accepted for publication. This journal periodically publishes in January, April, July, and October. In order to support reduction of global warming as a consequence of transportation vehicles emission and forest degradation for paper manufacturing, management of the journal prefer receiving manuscripts via e-mail rather than in hard copy. Manuscript and its communications can only be addressed to the managing editor; better to “CC” to one of the communicating editor for accelerating evaluation. A letter of statement expressing that the author (s) is responsible for the original content of manuscript, the result of author(s)’s research and never been published must be attached.

Manuscript is typed at one side of white paper of A4 (210x297 mm2) size, in a single column, double space, 12-point Times New Roman font, with 2 cm distance step aside in all side. Smaller letter size and space can be applied in presenting table. Word processing program or additional software can be used, however, it must be PC compatible and Microsoft Word based. Names of sub-species until phylum should be written in italic, except for italic sentence. Scientific name (genera, species, author), and cultivar or strain should be mentioned completely at the first time mentioning it, especially for taxonomic manuscripts. Name of genera can be shortened after first mentioning, except generating confusion. Name of author can be eliminated after first mentioning. For example, Rhizopus oryzae L. UICC 524, hereinafter can be written as R. oryzae UICC 524. Using trivial name should be avoided, otherwise generating confusion. Mentioning of scientific name completely can be repeated at Materials and Methods. Biochemical and chemical nomenclature should follow the order of IUPAC-IUB, while its translation to Indonesian-English refers to Glossarium Istilah Asing-Indonesia (2006). For DNA sequence, it is better used Courier New font.

Symbols of standard chemical and abbreviation of chemistry name can be applied for common and clear used, for example, completely written butilic hydroxytoluene to be BHT hereinafter. Metric measurement use IS denomination, usage other system should follow the value of equivalent with the denomination of IS first mentioning. Abbreviation set of, like g, mg, mL, etc. do not follow by dot. Minus index (m-2, L-1, h-1) suggested to be used, except in things like “per-plant” or “per-plot”. Equation of mathematics does not always can be written down in one column with text, for that case can be written separately. Number one to ten are expressed with words, except if it relates to measurement, while values above them written in number, except in early sentence. Fraction should be expressed in decimal. In text, it should be used “%” rather than “gratuity”. Avoid expressing idea with complicated sentence and verbiage, and used efficient and effective sentence. Manuscript of original research should be written in no more than 25 pages (including tables and picture), each page contain 700-800 word, or proportional with article in this publication number. Invited review articles will be accommodated.

Title of article should be written in compact, clear, and informative sentence preferably not more than 20 words. Name of author(s) should be completely written. Running title is about five words. Name and institution address should be also completely written with street name and number (location), zip code, telephone number, facsimile number, and e-mail address. Manuscript written by a group, author for correspondence along with address is required. First page of the manuscript is used for writing above information.

Abstract should not be more than 200 words, written in English. Keywords is about five words, covering scientific and local name (if any), research theme, and special methods which used. Introduction is about 400-600 words, covering background and aims of the research. Materials and Methods should emphasize on the procedures and data analysis. Results and Discussion should be written as a series of connecting sentences, however, for manuscript with long discussion should be divided into sub titles. Thorough discussion represents the causal effect mainly explains for why and how the results of the research were taken place, and do not only re-express the mentioned results in the form of sentences. Concluding sentence should preferably be given at the end of the discussion. Acknowledgments are expressed in a brief.

Figures and Tables of maximum of three pages should be clearly presented. Title of a picture is written down below the picture, while title of a table is written in the above the table. Colored picture and photo can be accepted if information in manuscript can lose without those images. Photos

and pictures are preferably presented in a digital file. JPEG format should be sent in the final (accepted) article. Author could consign any picture or photo for front cover, although it does not print in the manuscript. There is no appendix, all data or data analysis are incorporated into Results and Discussions. For broad data, it can be displayed in website as Supplement.

Citation in manuscript is written in “name and year” system; and is arranged from oldest to newest and from A to Z. The sentence sourced from many authors, should be structured based on the year of recently. In citing an article written by two authors, both of them should be mentioned, however, for three and more authors only the family (last) name of the first author is mentioned followed by et al., for example: Saharjo and Nurhayati (2006) or (Boonkerd 2003a, b, c; Sugiyarto 2004; El-Bana and Nijs 2005; Balagadde et al. 2008; Webb et al. 2008). Extent citation as shown with word “cit” should be avoided, and suggested to refer an original reference.

APA style in double space is used in the journal reference as follow: Journal: Carranza S, Arnold EN (2006) Systematics, biogeography and evolution of

Hemidactylus geckos (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) elucidated using mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol 38: 531-545.

Saharjo BH, Nurhayati AD (2006) Domination and composition structure change at hemic peat natural regeneration following burning; a case study in Pelalawan, Riau Province. Biodiversitas 7: 154-158.

Book: Rai MK, Carpinella C (2006) Naturally occurring bioactive compounds.

Elsevier, Amsterdam. Chapter in book: Webb CO, Cannon CH, Davies SJ (2008) Ecological organization,

biogeography, and the phylogenetic structure of rainforest tree communities. In: Carson W, Schnitzer S (eds) Tropical forest community ecology. Wiley-Blackwell, New York.

Abstract: Assaeed AM (2007) Seed production and dispersal of Rhazya stricta. 50th

annual symposium of the International Association for Vegetation Science, Swansea, UK, 23-27 July 2007.

Proceeding: Alikodra HS (2000) Biodiversity for development of local autonomous

government. In: Setyawan AD, Sutarno (eds) Toward mount Lawu national park; proceeding of national seminary and workshop on biodiversity conservation to protect and save germplasm in Java island. Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, 17-20 July 2000. [Indonesian]

Thesis, Dissertation: Sugiyarto (2004) Soil macro-invertebrates diversity and inter-cropping plants

productivity in agroforestry system based on sengon. [Dissertation]. Brawijaya University, Malang. [Indonesian]

Information from internet: Balagadde FK, Song H, Ozaki J, Collins CH, Barnet M, Arnold FH, Quake

SR, You L (2008) A synthetic Escherichia coli predator-prey ecosystem. Mol Syst Biol 4: 187. www.molecularsystemsbiology.com Publication manuscript “in press” can be cited and mentioned in

reference (bibliography); “personal communications” can be cited, but cannot be mentioned in reference. Research which not be published or “submitted” cannot be cited.

Some annotation. Manuscript typed without sign link (-) (except repeated word in Indonesian). Usage of letter “l” (el) to “1” (one) or “O” (oh) to “0” (null) should be avoided. Symbols of α, β, χ, etc. included through facility of insert, non altering letter type. No space between words and punctuation mark.

Progress of manuscript. Notification of manuscript whether it is accepted or refused will be notified in about three months since the manuscript received. Manuscript is refused if the content does not in line with the journal mission, low quality, inappropriate format, complicated language style, dishonesty of research authenticity, or no answer of correspondence in a certain period. Author or first authors at a group manuscript will get one original copy of journal containing manuscript submitted not more than a month after publication. Offprint or reprint is only available with special request.

NOTE: Author(s) agree to transfer copy right of published paper to BIODIVERSITAS, Journal of Biological Diversity. Authors shall no longer be allowed to publish manuscript completely without publisher permission. Authors or others allowed multiplying article in this journal as long as not for commercial purposes. For the new invention, authors suggested to manage its patent before publishing in this journal.

NOTIFICATION: All communications are strongly recommended to be undertaken through email.

SPECIES DIVERSTY

Anatomy and morphology character of five Indonesian banana cultivars (Musa spp.) based on their ploidy level ISSIREP SUMARDI, MERA WULANDARI

167-175

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY

Marine Actinomycetes screening of Banten West Coast and their antibiotics purification ROFIQ SUNARYANTO, BAMBANG MARWOTO

176-181

Plant diversity in natural forest of Guilan Rural Heritage Museum in Iran ROYA ABEDI, HASSAN POURBABAEI

182-186

Morphological variation of Hoya multiflora Blume at different habitat type of Bodogol Research Station of Gunung Gede Pangrango Natonal Park, Indonesia SRI RAHAYU, MUHAMMAD JUSUF, SUHARSONO, CECEP KUSMANA, ROCHADI ABDULHADI

187-193

The effects of forest burning and logging toward regeneration ability of Sowang (Xanthostemon novaguineense Valet.) in Cycloop Mountain, Jayapura, Papua SRI WILUJENG

194-199

Recognition of seasonal effect on captive Sumatran Sambar deer reproductive cyclicity and sexual behaviors HERI DWI PUTRANTO, EDI SOETRISNO, NURMEILIASARI, AHMAD ZUENI, BERRY GIBSON

200-203

Demersal fishes and their distribution in estuarine waters of Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan IWAN SUYATNA, ACHMAD ARIFFIEN BRATAWINATA, ACHMAD SYAFEI SIDIK, AFIF RUCHAEMI

204-210

Diversity of some fauna in National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, India PREMANAND KALKRISHANA MESHRAM

211-215

Biodiversities and limiting factors of Lashgardar Protected Area (LPA), Hamadan Province, Iran MAHDI REYAHI KHORAM, VAHID NORISHARIKABAD

216-221

Forest land use by the community in Sorong Natural Tourism Park at Sorong City, West Papua Province YOHANES YOSEPH RAHAWARIN

222-227

Front cover: Cervus unicolor

(PHOTO: ABU ABDURRAHMAN)

Published four times in one year PRINTED IN INDONESIA

ISSN: 1412-033X (printed edition) ISSN: 2085-4722 (electronic)

ISSN: 2085-4722 (electronic) ISSN: 1412-033X (printed)

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