SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL

VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 JUNE 1968 230 PARK AVENUE' NEW YORK, N.Y. 10017

PIDGINIZATION AND CREOLIZATION OF LANGUAGES: THEIR SOCIAL CONTEXTS

LANGUAGES called "pidgins" and "creoles" have been something of a stepchild in scientific research, but their origins and social functions pose in particularly clear form problems of the sort with which the Council's Com­mittee on Sociolinguistics is concerned. In analyzing historical change and in describing present structure in language, linguists often find it possible to take social factors for granted. Work proceeds as if something that might be called "normal transmission" of speech from one generation to the next could be assumed, or as if the sample of speech provided by one's informants could be safely assumed to represent a norm identical through­out the community. Whether these assumptions are justified is open to question; what is clear is that even the ordinary work of the linguist cannot proceed without questioning them in the case of "pidgins" and "creoles." These languages demonstrate dramatically the interde­pendence of linguistics and social science, and open up new possibilities for the integration of their methods and theories. During the past decade there has been a notable growth of interest and information concerning such languages, whose implications have not yet been widely recognized.

For these reasons an international conference was or­ganized to encourage research on situations of pidgini­zation and creolization, and call attention to its im­portance. The conference was cosponsored by the

• The author is Professor of Anthropology, University of Pennsyl­vania. As a member of the Council's Committee on Sociolinguistics, he was responsible, in collaboration with Gertrud Buscher, Lecturer in French at the University of the West Indies, for organizing the con­ference on which he reports here. The conference was made possible by a grant to the Council from the National Science Foundation, and funds allocated by the University of the West Indies.

by Dell Hymes·

committee and the University of the West Indies, which has been the principal site of the development of creole studies in the past decade, and was held at the campus of the University in Mona, Jamaica, on April 9-12, 1968. By meeting in Jamaica the conference was able to benefit from the participation of a number of Caribbean scholars for whom creolized languages are of personal and practical, as well as theoretical, impor­tance. The depth and realism of some of the discussion reflected their presence.

Most of the participants in the conference were lin­guists, but many of them had some social science train­ing and about one of four was affiliated with a social science department.1 The papers prepared for the con-

i In addition to Charles A. Ferguson, Allen D. Grimshaw, Dell Hymes, William D. Labov, and Elbridge Sibley of the Committee on Sociolinguistics, the 85 participants included 4 members of the Uni­versity of the West Indies staff-Mervyn Alleyne, Gertrud Buscher, Dennis R. Craig, John Figueroa; and the following: Beryl Bailey, Yeshiva University; Jack Berry, Morris Goodman, Northwestern Uni­versity; Frederic G. Cassidy, University of Wisconsin, Madison; David DeCamp, Edgar G. Polom~, University of Texas; Joseph Dillard, Uni· versit~ Oflicielle de Bujumbura; Christian Eersel, Taalbureau, Surinam; Charles O. Frake, Stanford University; Henry M. Hoenigswald, Uni· versity of Pennsylvania; Terence Kaufman, University of California, Berkeley; David Lawton, Inter-American University, Puerto Rico; Robert B. Le Page, University of York; Sidney W. Mintz, Yale Uni­versity; John Reinecke, Honolulu; Karl Reisman, Brandeis Uni­versity; Irvine Richardson, Michigan State University; William J. Samarin, Hartford Seminary Foundation; Franklin Southworth, Co­lumbia University; William A. Stewart, Center for Applied Linguistics; Douglas Taylor, Paramaribo, Surinam; Stanley M. Tsuzaki, University of Hawaii; Albert Valdman, Indiana University; Jan Voorhoeve, Uni­versity of Leiden; Keith Whinnom, University of Exeter. The con­ference was also attended by Richard Allsopp, Lawrence Carrington, Jean D'Costa, Kemlin Laurence, Joan McLaughlin, Donald Wilson, University of the West Indies; D. Bickerton, A. C. Nunn, University of Guyana; Elizabeth Carr, University of Hawaii; and Martin Joos, Uni-

13

ference were grouped for discussion according to sev­eral main topics of concern: general conceptions of the nature of pidginization and creolization; analysis of specific characteristics and processes; reconstruction of the origins and history of such languages; recognition of the past occurrence of creolization in the history of a language; analysis of contemporary pidginization and creolization; and studies of the social role of pidgin and creole languages in contemporary communities. Two social scientists and two linguists were given the special task of reviewing the conference at its last session: Sidney Mintz (an anthropologist specializing in Caribbean cul­tures) from the standpoint of social history; Henry Hoenigswald from the standpoint of a specialist in com­parative and historical linguistics; Allen Grimshaw as a member of the Council's Committee on Compara­tive Sociological Research; and William Labov from the standpoint of an innovator in sociolinguistic analysis.

"PIDGIN" AND "CREOLE": BACKGROUND

The conference sought to focus attention on processes, and to avoid popular connotations of the terms "pidgin" and "creole." The terms have clear and standard scien­tific meanings. A pidgin is defined as a stable form of speech that is not learned as a first language (mother tongue) by any of its users, but as an auxiliary language by all; whose functions are sharply restricted (e.g., to trade, supervision of work, administration, communica­tion with visitors), and whose vocabulary and overt structure are sharply reduced, in comparison with those of the languages from which they are derived. A creole is defined as an ordinary language that is derived from a pidgin and that through one or another set of circumstances has become the first language of a com­munity, has been adapted to the full range of functions of community life, and has become notably richer in lexicon and structure than the pidgin from which it arose.

In most circumstances in which creoles are found they are considered socially inferior, even though sometimes thought superior in expressiveness. In ordinary usage the term pidgin suggests a mishmash, and certainly in­feriority; only rarely, as among some peoples of New Guinea, is knowledge of a pidgin a badge of cosmo­politanism and male superiority. At best these lan­guages are considered marginal; at worst, debased forms

versity of Toronto, as observers. Jan Daeleman, S. I., Louvanium Uni­versity, Congo; John Gumperz, University of California, Berkeley; and Ian Hancock, London, contributed material to the conference but were unable to attend. The author is especially indebted to David DeCamp, whose survey of the field of creole studies, circulated to the partici­pants, contributed to the background of this report.

14

of speech without structure or value. Such attitudes have made them seem unworthy of study to most of their users and to those concerned with them officially, and have perhaps contributed to the relative absence of their study by others.

The common etymology for pidgin reflects these views. It is thought to be an Asian corruption of English "business," although the changes in pronunciation are unparalleled and unlikely. In fact the word is a six­teenth-century English "corruption" of a South Ameri­can Indian term (Pidian) applied to the people with whom one traded and hence to the language used in trade (d. Indian: Injun). The term and form of speech were carried over the world in the early years of Euro­pean expansion and colonization. Indeed, one major theory is that almost all the world's pidgins and creoles have their origin in an Afro-Portuguese pidgin devel­oped on the coasts of West Africa, itself perhaps adapted from a Portuguese version of the medieval Mediter­ranean pidgin, Sabir, and subsequently rapidly replen­ished in vocabulary ("relexified") from Spanish, English, Dutch, or French, as the case might be, in various parts of the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Asia.

Though restricted in content and use, pidgins are real languages with structures of their own that their users must learn. Pidgin English is not just any dis­tortion of English that comes to mind, but a specific code, indeed a series of specific codes, not mutually in­telligible with standard English or necessarily with each other, as between the various sectors of Asia, the Pacific, and Africa in which they are found. There is a fair amount of literature in some pidgins, through transla­tion and local composition.

There are probably several million persons in the world who daily use some pidginized language. Lan­guages characterized as creoles are spoken by more than six million persons in and around the Caribbean, by a variety of groups in West Africa (Sierra Leone, Camer­ouns, Ivory Coast, Guinea especially), and in Asia (In­dia, Macao, the Philippines), as well as in South Africa and Indonesia, if the creole characteristics of Afrikaans and Bahasa Indonesia are taken into account. The ma­jor contemporary cases in the United States, recognized as such, are Gullah, once spoken widely in Georgia, South Carolina, and the Sea Islands, and Hawaiian pidgin and creole.

The circumstances that give rise to such forms of speech continue to occur: in Central Africa a pidgin­ized Sango is spreading, while the ordinary Sango from which it derives (with the aid of French) may be dying out, according to William Samarin; in Katanga a pidgin­ized form of Swahili is reported by Edgar Polome to be undergoing creolization. The Pidgin English (Neo-

VOLUME 22, NUMBER 2

Melanesian) of New Guinea is spreading as an inte­grative force among speakers of New Guinea's many di­verse languages, and may become the national language of the new country; an incipiently creolized Swahili has been adopted as the national language of administration and education in Tanzania.

Creoles, of whose status as full languages there is no question, are major factors in literature and education in the Caribbean and increasingly in England, and some contend that the perspective of the student of creole languages sheds light on the nature of some forms of English in use among Negroes in the United States (a point ably argued by Joseph Dillard). In short, educa­tion, administration, and sometimes quest for national identity are bound up with such languages in several parts of the world.

SIMPLIFICATION

In recent years linguists have tended to avoid ques­tions of differences in complexity and adequacy among languages. With pidgins the questions are inherent in the subject. Much of the discussion at the first session of the conference revolved around the notions of "simpli­fication" or "reduction." Samarin treated pidginization as any "consistent reduction of the functions of language both in its grammar and its use." So regarded, pidginiza­tion is part of a wide range of phenomena, including what the British sociologist Basil Bernstein has called "restricted codes"; much of the interest in the subject lies in this relationship. From this point of view, one undertakes a general study of simplifications and reduc­tions of speech in adaptation to others. The social con­text is patently crucial, since simplification attributable to lack of shared understanding must be distinguished from simplification which represents the economy of means possible to those whose shared understandings are great. Keith Whinnom emphasized, in contrast to Samarin, the rarity with which simplification and mix­ture of speech have led to establishment of a pidgin. He compared cocoliche, a highly unstable and variable variety of speech found among Italian immigrants in Argentina, with Chinese Pidgin English. Cocoliche sur­vived only as renewed by fresh immigrants from Italy, its potential second-generation speakers being instead speakers of Spanish. Whinnom made clear that the circumstances under which a pidgin can emerge must be quite specialized and stressed the process not only of simplification, but also of stabilization of a discrete form of speech not mutually intelligible with the languages from which it derives.

Whinnom suggested characteristics also stressed by William Stewart as essential to effective pidginization:

JUNE 1968

a multilingual situation; separation from the domain of use of languages of wider communication; marginality of the speakers among whom the pidgin arises, such that they are not corrected by, or integrated among, the users of established linguistic norms. Apparently there must also be sufficient difference among the languages in­volved, so that interference of one set of linguistic habits with imperfectly acquired others has a marked effect. (In an original comparison of biological and linguistic theory, Whinnom discussed primary and secondary hy­bridization in a revealing way, and specified the forma­tion of pidgins as "tertiary" hybridization.)

This discussion raised most of the major issues of the conference: the characteristics distinctive of these lan­guages; what the characteristics imply about users of the languages; the linguistic and social prerequisites of the processes involved; theories as to the origin of known pidgins and creoles.

Samarin reported on statistical studies of characteris­tics of pidgins and other forms of speech. Charles Fer­guson noted that societies have varieties of speech that they themselves regard as simpler than others, and as suited for use with babies and foreigners. Their conven­tions must be studied as possibly shaping the outcome of pidginization. For example, absence of copula (forms of "to be" in English) is generally regarded, both by lin­guists and native speakers, as simpler than its presence. Ferguson proposed a series of relevant hypotheses. Their testing would help establish universal principles of simplicity as between forms of speech, and shed light on universals of language.

It was observed that the reduction of overt structure in pidgins may be accompanied by greater use of other modes of communication (intonation, gesture, facial ex­pression); that greater cognitive effort may be involved in communicating with the restricted lexical and gram­matical means of a pidgin; that there may be compensat­ing complexities (as in length of sentences); and that the essential reduction of machinery special to particu­lar languages could be seen as laying bare a substratum common to all.

John Reinecke, whose Yale dissertation thirty years ago was the first systematic American study of pidgin languages, described the Pidgin French spoken in Viet­nam (Tay Boi), now vanishing with the withdrawal of the French. It is a classic case, with pronunciation essen­tially Vietnamese or French, according to the speaker, vocabulary from French, morphology simplified in the direction of Vietnamese, copula almost never used, and verbal means often eked out by gestures and intonation. Charles Frake analyzed the Zamboangueno dialect of Philippine Creole Spanish, whose history poses a num­ber of problems for usual assumptions as to the nature

15

and direction of lexical influence of one language on another. Of particular interest was the semantic struc­ture associated with words of Philippine origin. Span­ish vs. Philippine origin of words is not correlated with differences in the provenience of objects denoted (for­eign vs. indigenous), but with the "unmarked" vs. "marked" in the sense of Joseph Greenberg's general theory. Philippine-derived words are, in contrast with those of Spanish origin, markers of the smaller, nearer, younger, female, plural, or worse of a pair. Where forms are differentiated by style, the Spanish term marks formality (politeness toward addressee), and the Philip­pine is the unmarked conversational form. This indi­cated to the conference a quite unexpected and original possibility of linking the analysis of creolization to the study of language universals.

COMMON ORIGIN

A principal reason for the growth of attention to pidgins and creoles has been the hypothesis, developed only in the last decade, that most or all of them may have a common historical origin. The hypothesis is far from established, but it has already brought students of pidgin and creole languages together in a common field, where previously the study of one such language had been largely cut off from the study of others.

Some support for the hypothesis has appeared in a study by Morris Goodman that points to a common ori­gin for all French-based creoles. Ian Hancock is advanc­ing a similar thesis for English-based creoles. The gen­eral thesis is that there was an early Portuguese-based pidgin, rapidly stabilized, and readily relexified. From this standpoint, Chinese Pidgin English, for example, would not have arisen from confrontation of English and Chinese, but through adaptation of a pre-existing pidgin by speakers of Chinese. Frederic Cassidy dis­cussed the linking of a pidgin element in Jamaican vo­cabulary to such a source. Such analysis of origins entails greater complexity of argument than can be sum­marized here, but clearly it is inseparable from social history, from specification of the location and move­ment of peoples at specific times, and from comparative analysis of the types of social situation in which com­munication occurred. Mervyn Alleyne challenges the Portuguese hypothesis, so far as Caribbean creoles are concerned, on just such grounds. He rejects, as do other creolists, the picture, derived in part from Leonard Bloomfield, of Europeans in each separate situation speaking baby talk or the like to inferiors, who in good faith adopt such talk while introducing features of their own language; and he accepts a common general origin for Caribbean creoles on the west coast of Africa; but

16

he insists that the situation must be seen from the stand­point of Africans, learning one or another European language, and reinterpreting it in terms of patterns common to West African languages, leading to a syncre­tism in language like that well known in culture. Rather than a rapid crystallization of pidgins, Alleyne sees per­sistence of a continuum of variation from the most to the least standard (English, French), with the eventual outcome depending on the development of the total ac­culturation situation. Where the European linguistic model was withdrawn (as English was withdrawn from Surinam when Dutch was introduced), the creole end of the continuum is set off as a separate new language in a simple bilingual situation. Where the European model remains, as in Jamaica, the creole portion of the con­tinuum moves steadily toward the standard, so that those who envisage an earlier dichotomy between the creole and standard language speak of the present situa­tion as a postcreole continuum and predict the disap­pearance through absorption of the distinction.

Crosscutting this issue of the social process is the ques­tion of linguistic classification. Some would classify Haitian Creole as a dialect of French, Jamaican Creole as a dialect of English, etc., depending upon the Euro­pean language from which the bulk of the vocabulary and, apparently, of morphological detail derives. Per­haps such classification is in part an effort to confer prestige upon the languages. Others point to the com­mon grammatical patterns of Caribbean creoles whose lexical stocks are from diverse European languages, as evidence for their descent from a common pidgin an­cestor, variously relexified, and as an indication that they are truly "new" languages, not properly to be classified or interpreted in terms of the usual methods of historical and comparative linguistics. In support of this view is the fact that basic vocabulary (the common core of meanings for body parts, natural objects, and the like found in all languages) tends to change at about the same rate in all languages, except pidgins (New Guinea Pidgin English) where the rate of change is wildly accelerated. From either point of view the different rates of change in basic vocabulary of pidgins and creoles challenge pre­vailing theory and recent procedures.

In a detailed study of Marathi and other Indo-Aryan languages of India, Franklin Southworth suggested that pidginization and creolization may have intervened in the history of indigenous Dravidian languages. John Gumperz provided evidence of almost total conver­gence in all but vocabulary forms between two con­temporary Indian languages, one Dravidian (Kannada), one Indo-Aryan (a dialect of Marathi). Morris Goodman presented the problem of Mbugu, a language in Tan­zania, whose grammatical structure pointed to Bantu

VOLUME 22, NUMBER 2

origins, and whose basic vocabulary apparently did not. While inconclusive, these studies directed attention to the fact that if prior pidginization and creolization could have intervened widely in the past history of languages, many accepted classifications and subgroupings of lan­guages would be of questionable validity. The great de­sideratum would be to establish linguistic, or social, cri­teria for the occurrence of the processes. Much more linguistic and social analysis is needed for this purpose. The results might considerably change usual approaches to linguistic prehistory and linguistic change.

PRESENT SOCIAL ROLES

Much of the interest of the conference, especially given the Caribbean setting, was in the status and conse­quences of creoles in contemporary societies. Jan Voor­hoeve and Christian Eersel analyzed the situation in Surinam (former Dutch Guiana). A prestige variety of Sranan Tongo ("Church Creole") was developed by mis­sionaries, and Voorhoeve's translation of the Bible into the non prestigious Sranan vernacular is still under de­bate and cannot be used. Eersel analyzed choice between use of Dutch and Sranan Tongo in political affairs, per­sonal relations between sexes and persons of different status, parents and children, etc. Sranan is becoming standardized and a vehicle of poetry. One comparison of interest is that to speak Dutch with standard grammar and vocabulary is good, but to speak it with a standard pronunciation is to put on airs. To speak standard Sranan with a standard Dutch ("bakara") pronunciation, conversely, does confer prestige.

David DeCamp, Beryl Bailey, and Robert Le Page directed attention to problems of describing the actual state of affairs in a complex multilingual situation, wherein any given speaker (as in Jamaica) has command of not one norm, but a set of norms spanning part of a continuum. All introduced novel methodological de­vices for coping with such situations. DeCamp proposed a seven-point linguistic spectrum for Jamaica, and dis­cussed ways of incorporating the multiplicity of varieties defined in the spectrum within a single set of rules of the sort used in transformational generative grammar. He argued that the limitation of a given speaker to some part of the continuum could find a place within a single grammar of the whole, and called for study of the factors that govern the actual switching of speakers within the span at their command-factors whose operation is as yet unknown. Bailey established creole and standard as two ideal types, introducing the number of rules re­quired to go from both types to a given text as a measure for categorizing it as one or the other. Le Page argued for starting with the individual speaker as the basis from

JUNE 1968

which regularities and relationships must be built up. Comments on the papers raised many questions which descriptive linguistics has only begun to answer.

Dennis Craig raised the question of the cognitive consequences of use of a creole language (a point that Whinnom had also discussed), and reported studies of the effects of teaching of standard English in schools. There was considerable discussion of the interplay be­tween features of language, education, attitudes, and social structure in Caribbean communities and others, such as Hawaii, and of the future of the creole speakers in them.

OVERVIEW

In his concluding statement Sidney Mintz asked why present-day creoles are so largely concentrated in the Caribbean, and in the French and English (rather than Spanish) parts of it. He answered in terms of precondi­tions for creolization, giving a succinct demographic and historical analysis of a massively imported population caught up in quasi-urbanizing plantation life. Henry Hoenigswald spoke of the historical linguist as having two main interests in these languages: in their histories (genesis, change, disappearance), and in the relations of the phenomena of pidginization and creolization, and those of social change in general. In synthesizing many aspects of the discussion, he concentrated on the possible destructive consequences (noted above) of study of cre­oles and pidgins on notions of change, descent, family tree, and classification; and recommended clarification of the traditional concepts. Attention to classic cases in Indo-European showed the critical role of basic vocabu­lary in permitting a decision as to historical affiliation. There may be no sharp differentiation between pidgini­zation and ordinary change in some sort of continuous space. Allen Grimshaw vigorously reviewed the develop­ment of comparative sociology, its relations with linguis­tics, and their areas of common interest. William Labov discussed types of linguists with respect to their methods and criteria for accepting results. Mentioning the near despair of some linguists in their efforts to write gram­matical rules, he outlined several strategies for combin­ing social and linguistic analysis to obtain convincing results.

Several memoranda indicating a variety of research needs had been circulated in advance of the conference. If a single result can be said to have emerged from the conference, it is somewhat ambiguous: retrospectively, considerable satisfaction in seeing the study of pidgini­zation and creolization change from the marginal work of a few pioneers to a central object of research and theory; prospectively, a sense of urgency concerning the

17

great amount of research needed to resolve the many problems brought into focus. There are still too few ade­quate descriptions of too few of the world's pidgin and creole situations; too few linguists able to approach the historical origins of these languages with a knowledge of their putative African sources; too few linguists able to study the use and consequences of these languages in a

manner informed by social science. Some of the Carib­bean scholars urged particularly that the relation of these languages to questions of national identity and literature be given concentrated attention at some future conference. It is likely that the next decade will see as great a transformation of our knowledge in all these respects as has the last.

COMMITTEE BRIEFS

EXCHANGES WITH ASIAN INSTITUTIONS

John K. Fairbank (chairman), Albert Feuerwerker, Don­ald G. Gillin, George E. Taylor, C. Martin Wilbur; staff, Bryce Wood

At the committee's meeting on January 17, 1968, final ap­pointments were made under the committee's program to facilitate participation of American social scientists in the development of research and communication with scholars at the Toyo Bunko (Oriental Library), Tokyo, and the In­stitute of Modem History, Academia Sinica, Taipei: Samuel C. Chu, Associate Professor of History, University of Pitts­burgh, for research at the Toyo Bunko on the Grand Coun­cil; Lloyd E. Eastman, Associate Professor of History and Asian Studies, University of Illinois, for research at the Insti­tute of Modem History and the Toyo Bunko on the Kuo­min tang and national unification during the Nanking period, 1928-37; Michael Gasster, Associate Professor of History and Far Eastern and Slavic Languages and Litera­tures, University of Washington, for research at the Institute of Modem History and Toyo Bunko on the Chinese Revolu­tion of 1911 and its consequences; Edgar B. Wickberg, As­sociate Professor of History and East Asian Studies, Univer­sity of Kansas, for research at the Toyo Bunko on land tenure on the Chinese mainland and in Taiwan since 1850.

Two fellowships were awarded under the committee's special program to facilitate research in the archives of the Institute of Modem History, Academia Sinica: Irwin T. Hyatt, Jr., Instructor in History, Emory University, and Ph.D. candidate in history and Far Eastern languages, Harvard University, for research on the missionary move­ment in Shantung, 1860-1912; Jonathan Porter, Ph.D. candidate in history, University of California, Berkeley, for research on the suppression of the Taiping rebellion by Tseng Kuo-fan.

SOCIAL SCIENCE IN ITALY (Joint with Adriano Olivetti Foundation)

Manlio Rossi Doria (chairman), Joseph LaPalombara (liaison), Francesco Alberoni, Norberto Bobbio, Massimo Fichera, Pendleton Herring, George H. Hildebrand, Wil­bert E. Moore; Secretary, Alberto Spreafico

The committee held its fifth meeting in Rome on March 24-27. Peter de Janosi of the Ford Foundation was present

18

at the first session. Major attention was devoted to an evalua­tion of the programs sponsored by the committee, particu­larly those in graduate training which constitute its most im­portant activity. It was reported that the programs in economics at Ancona and in quantitative methods and sociology at Milan were progressing quite satisfactorily, par­ticularly the program in economics which is now in its second year. At Milan the program in quantitative methods has been merged with that in sociology, under the aegis of the Institute of Sociology. The Institute itself represents a singular innovation in Italian higher education in that it enjoys independent status as to curriculum; it is jointly sponsored by the four private and public universities in Milan, and has already achieved a high degree of institu­tionalization, the further development of which is a central purpose of committee assistance to such centers. Equally important at Milan is the extent of indigenous financing, which the program has encouraged, both from Italy's Na­tional Research Council and from local governmental and industrial sources. The Olivetti Corporation has supplied equipment for the training centers.

In the field of political science the committee decided to provide initial support for a training program at the Uni­versity of Florence, to be directed by Giovanni Sartori. With the hope of assuring a longer-range program in this area, the committee had asked Norberto Bobbio to investi­gate, and prepare a report on, the feasibility of locating such a program at the University of Turin. Part of his explora­tion was carried on in the United States (with the aid of a Travel and Study Award from the Ford Foundation); he observed the organization of political science depart­ments at Boston, Princeton, and Yale Universities and the University of North Carolina. His encouraging report was favorably reviewed by the committee, and a program will be launched at Turin in September 1968. Giovanni Sartori will also participate in this program.

The social sciences that are less developed in Italy, such as cultural anthropology and social psychology, raise per­plexing problems for the committee. The foremost problem is whether these fields have reached a level of development ~here committee efforts would have more than a marginal mfluence. As an exploratory approach to this question, the committee decided to provide modest financing for a series of seminars, in each of these fields, to take place during 1968.

VOLUME 22, NUMBER 2

These seminars will be directed by Francesco Alberoni; Gustavo Iacono, University of Naples; Luigi Meschieri, Na­tional Institute of Psychology, Rome; and Gilberto A. Marselli, Institute of Agricultural Economics, Naples.

The two work groups authorized by the committee in March 1967 to explore needs for basic data in social and economic fields have been organized and have begun their explorations. After several general meetings, attended by Italian experts in each relevant field, research and writing groups were constituted in economics, under the direction of Francesco Forte, and in sociology under Luciano Gallino, Paolo Ammassari, Giuseppe De Rita, and Renato Curatolo.

Late in 1967 the committee awarded pre doctoral fel­lowships for research at four private research centers to the following:

Marzio Barbagli, for survey research at the Carlo Cattaneo Institute, Bologna, on the relationship between problems of teachers and administrators associated with the new in­tegrated middle schools in Italy

Ugo Leone, for research at the Nord e Sud Research Cen­ter, Naples, on the development of air traffic and the aeronautical industry in Italy

Carlo Massa, for research at the Italian Center of Research and Documentation, Rome, on the role and function of the mass media in an industrial society

Heidi Munscheid, for research at the Center for In­dustrial and Social Research, Turin, on scholarship and pro­fessional aspirations of youth in the Valle d'Aosta.

Each fellow is expected to publish a monograph incor­porating the results of his research program. Notwithstand­ing the intrinsic merits of this program the committee does not expect to extend it.

The two institutes to which the committee gave modest support for improvement of social science curricula and training programs-the Advanced School of Sociology at the University of Rome and the Luigi Sturzo Institute of Sociology, Rome-appear to have made good use of this assistance. Individual committee members have visited these organizations for consultations about curricula, research programs, and future developmental plans.

Special courses for public administrators have been in­itiated with the aid of the committee. A first course in soci­ology was successfully concluded under the direction of Franco Ferrarotti, University of Rome.

After reviewing its ongoing programs, the committee turned its attention to problems of continuing its activi­ties beyond the initial period of three years for which funds were provided by the Ford Foundation and the Olivetti Foundation. Discussion centered on means of securing institutionalization of training programs under way or soon to be inaugurated; possibilities for an addi­tional social science training center at the University of Naples; problems implicit in the withdrawal of committee support for training programs; and the nature of com­mittee activities other than improvement of graduate train­ing. Considerable attention was given to international as­pects of the committee's work. 1- LAP.

JUNE 1968

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Charles A. Ferguson (chairman), Jacques Brazeau, Susan M. Ervin-Tripp, Joshua A. Fishman, Allen D. Grimshaw, John J. Gumperz, Everett C. Hughes, Dell Hymes, William D. Labov, Stanley Lieberson; staff, Elbridge Sibley

A report by Dell Hymes on the conference on social con­texts of pidgin and creole languages, held April 9-12 at Mona, Jamaica, under joint sponsorship of the committee and the University of the West Indies, appears on pages 13-18 above.

The next phase of the committee's program of pilot re­search on acquisition of communicative competence will take place at the University of California, Berkeley, during the summer term, June 19 - September 7. Four work groups will be directed respectively by Susan Ervin-Tripp, John J. Gumperz, Dan I. Slobin of the University of Cali­fornia, and Charles A. Ferguson, assisted by visiting con­sultants, including Basil Bernstein, Martin D. S. Braine, Aaron Cicourel, Dell Hymes, Vera John, Edward S. Klima, Ursula Bellugi-Klima, William D. Labov, Wick Miller, Harry Osser, and Emanuel Schegloff. Six doctoral candi­dates who have carried on research under the committee's auspices will participate in the workshops as research as­sociates, presenting their data and findings on children's learning of communicative skills in varied social settings in India, Samoa, Mexico, and the United States. The research associates are: David Argoff, Jan Brukman, Keith Kernan, Claudia Mitchell, and Brian Stross, all doctoral candidates at the University of California, Berkeley; and Carolyn War­drip, a doctoral candidate at Stanford University.

Thirty-six graduate students who plan to undertake com­parable field studies in the future will also be admitted to the summer workshops. The following have been offered stipends and/or travel allowances under a grant to the Council from the Division of Graduate Education of the National Science Foundation: Kay Atkinson, University of California, Los Angeles; Mary Ann Campbell, University of Chicago; Ronald W. Casson, and Arlene I. Moskowitz, Stanford University; Sybillyn J. Mehan, University of Cali­fornia, Santa Barbara; P. David Pavy, III, Harvard Univer­sity; Diana 1- Risen, and Sandra M. Storm, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Abigail B. Sher, New York University; Merrill K. Swain, University of California, Irvine. Applica­tions for admission to the workshops were received from 50 students and staff members at 26 different institutions or campuses; the 36 admitted are at 22 different places.

The Field Manual for Cross-cultural Study of the Acquisi­tion of Communicative Competence, a preliminary draft of which has guided the field workers on the committee's proj­ect, will be revised during the summer session. Copies of a second draft of the Manual are now available to interested persons.

Seven courses in linguistics and sociolinguistics are in­cluded in the summer session curriculum at Berkeley, and will be open to participants in the committee's program who desire formal instruction in these subjects.

19

PERSONNEL

RESEARCH TRAINING FELLOWSHIPS

The Committee on Social Science Personnel-Norton Ginsburg (chairman), Milton C. Cummings, Jr., Robert B. MacLeod, John C. McKinney, Ronald 1. McKinnon, Mur­ray G. Murphey, and Allan H. Smith-on March 6-7 voted to offer 14 new appointments and named several alternates, 4 of whom have subsequently been awarded fellowships. Of the 18 awards 2 are pre doctoral and 16 postdoctoral:

William A. Brown, Ph.D. candidate in history, University of Wisconsin, Madison, postdoctoral fellowship for training at an Islamic university in Africa, including study of Islamic institutions and advanced Arabic lan­guage training

Colin B. Burke, Ph.D. candidate in history, Washington University, for training in the application of soci~l science techniques in research on the history of Amen­can higher education in the nineteenth century

Emanuel G. Fenz, Assistant Professor of History, Purdue University, postdoctoral fellowship for training at the University of Michigan in social sciences relevant to the history of ethnic minority groups

Fred M. Frohock, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Syracuse University, postdoctoral fellowship for study in London of analytic philosophy as a basis for political theory

Richard A. Gillam, Ph.D. candidate in history, Stanford University, for training in sociology at Harvard Uni­versity in preparation for research in American in­tellectual history

David Hunt, Ph.D. candidate in history, Harvard Uni­versity, postdoctoral fellowship for training in psycho­logical and anthropological approaches to the history of child rearing and social attitudes toward children

Byrd L. Jones, Assistant Professor of History, California Institute of Technology, postdoctoral fellowship for training at Stanford University in macroeconomics in preparation for research on the development of eco­nomic planning in the United States

Samuel Leinhardt, Ph.D. candidate in sociology, Uni­versity of Chicago, postdoctoral fellowship for training at Harvard University in algebraic models applicable to a theory of social structure

Peter Loewenberg, Assistant Professor of History, Uni­versity of California, Los Angeles, postdoctoral fellow­ship for training in psychoanalytic theory applicable to historical research

Peter B. Natchez, Ph.D. candidate in government, Harvard University, postdoctoral fellowship for training at Mas­sachusetts Institute of Technology in quantitative methods for the study of politics

Philip Pomper, Assistant Professor of History, Wesleyan University, postdoctoral fellowship for training in per­sonality psychology as a basis for historical research

John M. Richardson, Jr., Ph.D. candidate in political sci­ence, University of Minnesota, postdoctoral fellowship for training in mathematical organization theory ap­plicable to research on political development

20

John R. Staude, Assistant Professor of History, University of California, Riverside, postdoctoral fellowship for training at the University of California, Berkeley, in sociological theory and research methods

Henry J. Steck, Assistant Professor of Political Science, State University of New York, College at Cortland, post­doctoral fellowship for training at Yale University in research on comparative politics

Jeremy J. Stone, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Pomona College, postdoctoral fellowship for training at Stanford University in economics

Russell G. Thornton, Ph.D. candidate in sociology, Flori· da State University, postdoctoral fellowship for ad· vanced study at Harvard University in the sociology of bureaucracy

Daniel B. Wackman, Ph.D. candidate in mass communi­cations, University of Wisconsin, Madison, postdoc­toral fellowship for training at the University of Min­nesota in research on socialization and interaction processes

Sidney R. Waldman, Ph.D. candidate in political science, University of North Carolina, and Assistant Professor of Political Science, Haverford College, postdoctoral fellowship for training at Yale University in applica­tions of psychology in research on political behavior

FACULTY RESEARCH GRANTS

The Committee on Faculty Research Grants-Frank R. Westie (chairman), Stanley M. Elkins, James L. Gibbs, Jr., Edward E. Jones, Everett C. Ladd, Jr., Jerome L. Stein, and Lawrence Stone-held the second of its two scheduled meet­ings on March 17. It awarded grants to the following 29 so­cial scientists:

Steven J. Brams, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Syracuse University, for application of modern mathe­matics in the study of political systems

Berenice A. Carroll, Assistant Professor of History, Uni­versity of Illinois, for a comparative study of the ending of wars of selected nations since 1775

William R. Charlesworth, Associate Professor of Child Psychology, University of Minnesota, for research in Munich on ontogenetic changes in cognitive and ex­pressive behavior in infants

Seymour Drescher, Associate Professor of History, Uni­versity of Pittsburgh, for research in France on post­Revolutionary responses of the elite to social change: the humanitarian movement, 1815-48

Marshall Durbin, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, Tulane University, for research on linguistic sources of variation and bias in attitude-scaling techniques (joint with Michael Micklin)

Duncan K. Foley, Assistant Professor of Economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for research in England on the role of information exchange in eco­nomic decisions

Henry G. Grabowski, Assistant Professor of Economics, Yale University, for research on a microeconomic analy­sis of factors influencing industrial growth

VOLUME 22. NUMBER 2

Richard F. Hamilton, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, for research on class and politics in the United States

Patrick L.-R. Higonnet, Assistant Professor of History, Harvard University, for research in Europe on Euro­pean diplomacy from 1750 to the French Revolution m the light of concurrent changes in the European s ta te-sys tern

Jeffry J. Kaplow, Assistant Professor of History, Colum­bia University, for research in France on the condition of the Parisian poor on the eve of the Revolution

Mark Kesselman, Assistant Professor of Government, Co­lumbia University, for research in France on political parties in selected departements

Seymour Leventman, Lecturer in Human Relations, Uni­versity of Pennsylvania, for research on race pride, black power, and the Negro community

Darwyn E. Linder, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Duke University, for research on attitude change as a result of dissonant cognitions introduced after behav­ioral commitment

Peter H. Merkl, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of California, Santa Barbara, for empirical research in Italy and West Germany on the "decline of ideology" and patterns of socialization in partisan politics

Michael Micklin, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Tulane University, for research on linguistic sources of varia­tion and bias in attitude-scaling techniques (joint with Marshall Durbin)

D. C. Moore, Associate Professor of History, University of California, Los Angeles, for research in England on the social and political structure and the dynamics of po­litical action in selected boroughs in the mid-nineteenth century

Dietrich Orlow, Associate Professor of History, Syracuse University, for research in Germany on the organiza­tional history of the Nazi Party, 1933-45

Hortense Powdermaker, Professor Emeritus, Queens Col­lege, City University of New York, and Research As­sociate, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, for research on contemporary clothing and grooming styles, as reflecting changes in social roles of sex and age groups and in the develop­ment of ego-identity

Abraham Rosman, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Barnard College, for research on the relationship be­tween exchange and social structure (joint with Paula G. Rubel)

Paula G. Rubel, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, Barnard College, for research on the relationship be­tween exchange and social structure (joint with Abra­ham Rosman)

Mark B. Schupack, Associate Professor of Economics, Brown University, to construct and test empirically theoretical models of the production of technological information by a firm

T. Y. Shen, Associate Professor of Economics, University of California, Davis, for research on technological change in manufacturing industries

Hung-chao Tai, Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Detroit, for comparative analysis of rural political participation in the developing countries

JUNE 1968

Robert B. Tapp, Professor of Philosophy of Religion, Meadville Theological School, Lombard College, for research on a posttraditional response to secularization: value-based religion as a successor to belief-based church and individual behavior

Herbert Waltzer, Professor of Government. Miami Uni­versity. for research on network television reporting of the 1968 presidential election

Norbert Wiley. Assistant Professor of Sociology. Wayne State University, for research on the theory of class and politics

Robert Wohl, Associate Professor of History. University of California, Los Angeles, for research in Munich and Rome on Europeans who reached maturity in 1914

Joachim F. Wohlwill, Professor of Psychology, Clark Uni­versity, for research on certain problems of scientific method and research design in developmental psy­chology

Mary E. Young, Associate Professor of History, Ohio State University, for research on the administration of fed­eral public lands in the United States in the nineteenth century

GRANTS FOR ASIAN STUDIES

The Joint Committee on Asian Studies, sponsored with the American Council of Learned Societies-Robert I. Crane (chairman), H. G. Creel, Marius B. Jansen, John L. Landgraf, Richard L. Park, and Laurence Sickman-at its meeting on February 17 awarded grants to 19 scholars under its continuing program of aid for advanced research in the humanities and social sciences dealing with Asia:

Will em R. C. Adriaansz, Assistant Professor of Music, University of Washington, for research on the reper­toires and practices of three related schools of Japanese koto performance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

George N. Appell, Research Associate in Oceanic Eth­nology, Harvard University, for research on religious texts collected among the Rungus of Northern Borneo

Richard K. Beardsley, Professor of Anthropology, Uni­versity of Michigan, for research on the conduct of pub­lic affairs in Japanese villages under industrial influence

Albert E. Dien, Associate Professor of Chinese, Columbia University, for research on military organization in the medieval period in China (third to eighth centuries)

Peter Duus, Assistant Professor of History, Harvard Uni­versity, for research on the Japanese liberal intelli­gentsia, 1890-1940

Willard H. Elsbree, Professor of Government, Ohio Uni­versity, for research on Japanese economic and political relations with Southeast Asia since World War II

Ainslie T. Embree, Associate Professor of History, Colum­bia University, for research on social and political change in India in the eighteenth century

Edwin M. Gerow, Associate Professor of Sanskrit and Indian Literature, University of Washington. for a study of the methods, curriculum, and theory of a tra­ditional Sanskrit school

Harry Harootunian, Associate Professor of History, Uni­versity of Rochester, for research on tradition, historical consciousness, and modernity in Japanese thought

21

Donald Holzman, Sous Directeur d'Etudes, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, for research on the end of antiquity in China: social and intellectual history of the third century

Walter H. Maurer, Associate Professor of Sanskrit and History, University of Hawaii, for study of the Indian grammarians Panini and Vopadeva and preparation of critical text and English translation of the Mugdha­bodha

Morris D. Morris, Professor of Economics, University of Washington, for research on growth, change, and stag­nation in the Indian economy, 1800-1947

Masatoshi Nagatomi, Associate Professor of Buddhist Studies, Harvard University, for research on Sthira­mati's Abhidharmakosavrtti in the Tibetan and Chi­nese translations

Robert S. Ozaki, Associate Professor of Economics, Cali­fornia State College at Hayward, for research on the role of economic policy in japan's postwar foreign trade

Nicholas N. Poppe, Professor of Slavic and Altaic Studies and Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Wash­ington, for study of Mongolian manuscripts in Euro­pean libraries

Irwin Scheiner, Assistant Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley, for research on revolt and dis­sent in Meiji Japan

Conrad D. Totman, Assistant Professor of History, North­western University, for research on the collapse of the Tokugawa bakufu, 1845-68

Tsuen-hsuin Tsien, Professor of Chinese Literature, U ni­versity of Chicago, for research on the art and tech­nology of Chinese printing

Charles D. Weber, Professor of Art, University of Bridge­port, for a study of the pictorial bronze vessels of ancient China in collections in Taiwan and Japan

GRANTS FOR SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES

With support granted to the American Council of Learned Societies by the Ford Foundation, the Joint Com­mittee on Asian Studies also initiated a special program of aid for studies of the Southeast Asia mainland-Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. At a meeting on April 27, the committee made 10 awards under this new program:

Clark E. Cunningham, Visiting Lecturer in Anthro­pology, Yale University, for research on the culture of health and illness in Chiang Mai, Thailand

John C. Donnell, Associate Professor of Political Science, Temple University, for research on South and North Vietnamese politics

Hans-Dieter Evers, Associate Professor of Sociology, Yale University, for research on Buddhist monastic organiza­tion and social structure in Thailand

Wesley R. Fishel, Professor of Political Science, Michigan State University, for research on South Vietnamese elections and the changing political elite

Fang Kuei Li, Professor of Far Eastern Languages, Uni­versity of Washington, for research on comparative Tai

John T. McAlister, Jr., Lecturer in Public and Interna­tional Affairs, Princeton University, for research on the process of revolution: a case study of Vietnam

22

Ithiel de Sola Pool, Professor of Political Science, Massa­chusetts Institute of Technology, for research on social groups and national integration in Vietnam

Roger M. Smith, Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Michigan, for research on conflict and cooperation among the Indo-China states

Edward Van Roy, Assistant Professor of Economics, State University of New York at Stony Brook, for research on structure and change within three interacting economic systems in north Thailand

Alexander Woodside, Ph.D. candidate in East Asian studies, Harvard University, for research on Vietnam and the Chinese institutional model: Nguyen emperors and their civil bureaucracy, 1802-47

GRANTS FOR LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES

The Joint Committee on Latin American Studies, spon­sored with the American Council of Learned Societies­Joseph Grunwald (chairman), Richard N. Adams, John P. Augelli, Frank Dauster, Daniel Goldrich, L. N. McAlister, and Enrique Oteiza-at its meeting on February 8-9 awarded 22 grants for research and 4 collaborative research grants:

Research grants Samuel L. Baily, Assistant Professor of History, Rutgers­

The State University, for research in Argentina on the assimilation of working-class Italian immigrants in Buenos Aires and New York, 1880-1910

Winfield J. Burggraaff, Assistant Professor of History, University of Missouri, for research in Venezuela on processes of modernization, 1935-48

Robert M. Carmack, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, for research in Guatemala on th~ social system of the Prehispanic Quiche state

Peter Dodge, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of New Hampshire, for research in Brazil on the family firm and economic development

Mary Alice Ericson, Professor of Sociology, Coe College, for research in Costa Rica on the social organization of planned agricultural settlements of the Agrarian Re­form Agency

Marysa Navarro Gerassi, Associate Professor of History, Newark State College, for research in Brazil on the de­velopment and role of Afiio Integralista Brasileira

Gino Germani, Professor of Latin American Affairs, Harvard University, for research on economic, politi­cal, and social modernization in Latin America

Benjamin Keen, Professor of History, Northern Illinois University, for research on the Aztecs in Western thought

Kenneth P. Langton, Assistant Professor of Political Sci­ence, University of Michigan, for comparative studies in South America of political socialization

Paul H. Lewis, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Tulane University, for research in Brazil on voting pat­terns in state and local elections, 1954-64

Joseph L. Love, Jr., Assistant Professor of History, Uni­versity of Illinois, for research in Brazil on the state of Rio Grande do SuI as a source of instability in Brazilian politics 1889-1932: a study in regionalism

VOLUME 22, NUMBER 2

Markos J. Mamalakis, Associate Professor of Economi<;s, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, for research m South America on trends in employment and value added in services in selected countries, 1950-64

James L. Payne, Assistant Professo! of Govern~e.nt, Wes­leyan University, for research ill the DomlnIcan Re­public on political processes

Carlos M. Pelaez, Assistant Professor of Economics, University of Pittsburgh, for research in Brazil on in­dustrialization and economic development, 1920-50

Campbell W. Pennington, Professor of Geography, South­ern Illinois University, for research in Mexico on the Pima Bajo of Sonora

Fredrick B. Pike, Professor of History, University of Notre Dame, for research in Madrid on Spain and the rap­prochement with Spanish America, 1898-1934

Ivan L. Richardson, Professor of Public Administration, California State College at Fullerton, for research in Brazil on metropolitan government in the state of Guanabara

Bernard C. Rosen, Professor of Sociology, Cornell Uni­versity, for research in Brazil on family structure and achievement motivation

Donald E. Smith, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of Pennsylvania, for research in Latin Ameri­ca on Catholicism and political development

Martin S. Stabb, Professor of Spanish, University of Mis­souri, for research in Argentina on literary activity during the Peron period (1946-55), with special refer­ence to the relationship between intellectual life and an authoritarian regime

Lewis A. Tambs, Assistant Professor of History, Creighton University, for research in Brazil and Peru on an oral history of the Amazon rubber boom, 1890-1912

Ray A. Verzasconi, Assistant Professor of Spanish, Oregon State University, for a critical study of the literary works of Miguel Angel Asturias

Collaborative research grants

Roy E. Carter, Jr., Professor of Sociology and Mass Communication, University of Minnesota, and Orlando Sepulveda, Professor of Sociology, University of Chile, for research in Chile on the functions of television in the lives of its viewers in Santiago de Chile: a study of mass communication and modernization

Aaron V. Cicourel, Professor of Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara, and Eliseo Veron, Research Associate, National Council for Scientific and Technical Research, Buenos Aires, for research in Argentina and the United States on language socialization and the child's acquisition of concepts of social organization

Carlos F. Diaz-Alejandro, Associate Professor of Econom­ics, University of Minnesota, and Mario S. Brodersohn, Senior Economist, Center for Economic Research, Tor­cuato Di Tella Institute, Buenos Aires, for research in Argentina and the United States on the patterns of industrial relative prices and the efficiency of Latin American industries

Richard D. Mallon, Development Adviser, Harvard Uni­versity, and Juan V. Sourrouille, Chief, National Ac­counts Section, United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, for research in Argentina and the United States on recent Argentine economic policy in relation to political-institutional constraints

JUNE 1968

GRANTS FOR RESEARCH ON THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST

In addition to the awards listed in the March issue of Items, the Joint Committee on the Near and Middle East, sponsored with the American Council of Learned Societies, has made the following 2 grants for research:

Ira M. Lapidus, Associate Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley, for research in Europe, Turkey, and Egypt on the evolution of Islamic sociaf and politi­cal institutions in the period of the 'Abbasid Empire, 750-945 (renewal)

Joseph S. Szyliowicz, Assistant Professor of International Relations, University of Denver, for research in Turkey on the bureaucratic elite

GRANTS FOR SLAVIC AND EAST EUROPEAN STUDIES

The Subcommittee on Grants for Slavic and East Euro­pean Studies (of the Joint Committee on Slavic Studies, sponsored with the American Council of Learned Societies) -Edward J. Brown, Clayton L. Dawson, Alexander Erlich, Charles Jelavich, Stephen D. Kertesz, and Hans J. Rogger­at its meeting on February 24 awarded 22 grants for re­search:

Patricia M. Arant, Assistant Professor of Slavic Languages, Brown University, for research on the traditional oral lament in North Russia

Abraham Ascher, Associate Professor of History, Brook­lyn College, City University of New York, for research on Pavel Axelrod and the development of democratic Marxism in Russia

Michael Cherniavsky, Professor of History, University of Rochester, for research on the iconography of Russian rulers, 1500-1700

Bogdan Czaykowski, Assistant Professor of Slavonic Stud­ies, University of British Columbia, for a critical survey of Polish poetry from C. K. N orwid to the present

Donald Fanger, Associate Professor of Modem European Languages, Stanford University, for a critical study of Nikolai Gogol

George R. Feiwel, Professor of Economics, University of Tennessee, for research on new economic patterns in Czechoslovakia

Mark G. Field, Professor of Sociology and Anthropology, Boston University, for research on the Soviet health system

Mojmir Frinta, Associate Professor of Art, State Univer­sity of New York at Albany, for research on sculpture of the Beautiful Style in East Central Europe

Deno J. Geanakoplos, Professor of History and Religious Studies, Yale University, for research on Byzantine ecclesiastical and cultural influences on Russia

Richard A. Gregg, Associate Professor of Russian Lan­guage and Literature, Columbia University, for re­search on the poetic achievement of N. A. Nekrasov

Robert C. Howes, Professor of History, Oakland Uni-versity, for a translation of the Moscow Chronicle

Ervin Laszlo, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Univer­sity of Akron, for research on the current influence of

23

Western natural and social philosophy on the Hun­garian intellectual elite

Ian M. Matley, Professor of Geography, Michigan State University, for research on the pastoral economy of the Bihor Mountains, Transylvania, Rumania

Deborah D. Milenkovitch, Assistant Professor of Eco­nomics, Barnard College, for research on Yugoslav economic thought on planning and the market

Dagmar H. Perman, Associate, American Historical As­sociation, for research on Czechoslovakia in United States foreign policy, 1922-48

Arshi Pip a, Associate Professor of Romance Languages, University of Minnesota, for research on Girolamo de Rada: Milosao

Nathan Rosen, Associate Professor of Foreign and Com­parative Literature, University of Rochester, for re­search on Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov

Joseph Rothschild, Associate Professor of Government, Columbia University, for a political and socioeconomic analysis of East Central Europe between the two World Wars

Michael Shapiro, Assistant Professor of Slavic Languages, University of California, Los Angeles, for research on derivational morphology of contemporary standard Russian

Benjamin A. Stolz, Assistant Professor of Slavic Lan­guages and Literatures, University of Michigan, for a linguistic analysis of the Journal of Michael Konstan­tinovic

Robert C. Tucker, Professor of Politics, Princeton Uni­versity, for research on Stalin and Russian communism

J. K. Zawodny, Professor of Political Science, University of Pennsylvania, for research on the Warsaw uprising, 1944 (renewal)

NEW PUBLICA rlONS

The City in Modern Africa, edited by Horace Miner. Product of the conference on methods and objectives of research on urbanization in Africa, sponsored by the Joint Committee on African Studies, April 1-3, 1965. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, December 1967. 375 pages. $7.50.

The Construction Industry in Communist China, by Kang Chao. Sponsored by the Committee on the Economy of China. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, February 1968.252 pages. $8.75.

Early Education: Current Theory, Research, and Action, edited by Robert D. Hess and Roberta M. Bear. Papers prepared for the Conference on Preschool Education, sponsored by the Committee on Learning and the Educa­tional Process, February 7-9, 1966. Chicago: Aldine Pub­lishing Company, March 1968. 282 pages. $6.95.

Economic Trends in Communist China, edited by Alexan­der Eckstein, Walter Galenson, and Ta-Chung Liu. Prod­uct of a conference sponsored by the Committee on the Economy of China, October 21-23, 1965. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, May 1968. c. 800 pages. c. $17.50.

Genetic Diversity and Human Behavior, edited by J. N. Spuhler. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, No.

45. Proceedings of a symposium, September 17-25, 1964, jointly sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the Committee on Bio­logical Bases of Social Behavior. Chicago: Aldine Pub­lishing Company, December 1967. 302 pages. $7.50.

Genetics, edited by David C. Glass. Papers prepared for the conference on genetics and behavior cosponsored by Rockefeller University, Russell Sage Foundation, and the Committee on Biological Bases of Social Behavior, No­vember 18-19, 1966. New York: Rockefeller University Press and Russell Sage Foundation, May 1968. 270 pages. $7.50.

Revolutionary Russia, edited by Richard Pipes. Product of the conference on the Russian Revolution, cosponsored by the Joint Committee on Slavic Studies and the Harvard University Russian Research Center, April 4-9, 1967. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, January 1968. 376 pages. $7.95.

The Spatial Economy of Communist China, by Yuan-li Wu. Prepared with the aid of the Committee on the Economy of China. New York: Frederick A. Praeger for the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, January 1968. 386 pages. $10.

SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL

230 PARK AVENUE, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10017

Incorporated in the State ot Illinois, December 27, 1924, tor the purpose ot advancing research in the social sciences

Directors, 1968: 'VILLI AM O. AYDELOTTE, ABRAM BERGSON, PETER M. BLAU, DORWIN CARTWRIGHT, JAMES S. COLEMAN, HAROLD C. CONKLIN, LEE J.

CRONBACH, PHILIP D. CURTIN, CHARLES A. FERGUSON, DANIEL X. FREEDMAN, MORTON H. FRIED, 'VILLIAM J. GOODE, ZVI GRILICHES, MORRIS H. HANSEN,

CHAUNCY D. HARRIS, SA~IUEL P. HAYS, PE:'o/DLETON HERRING, STANLEY LEBERGOTT, GARDNER LINDZEY, COLIN M. MAcLEOD, FRANCO MODlGLlAXI, FREDERICK

MOSTELLER, DON K. PRICE, AUSTIN RANNEY, ALBERT REES, HERBERT A. SI~JON, ALl.AN H. SMITH, JOHN THIB.\UT, DAVID B. TRU~IAN, ROBERT E. ''lARD

Officers and Staff: PENDLETON HERRING, President; PAUL WEBBINK, HI:.,\;RY W. RIECKEN, Vice-Presidents; ELBRIDGE SIBLEY, BRYCE WOOD, Execu­tive Associates; ELEANOR C. IsBELL, ROWLAND L. MITCHELL, JR., NORMAN W. STORER, Staff Associates; JERO~IE E. SINGER, Consultant; CATHERINE

V. RONNAN, Financial Secretary

24