105
JAGANNATH INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES B.Voc( Journalism and Media Management) Sem I Human Communication
JAGANNATH INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
B.Voc( Journalism and Media Management)
Sem I
Human Communication
Introduction to human communication :
Unit-1
Defining communication
a.) Understanding human communication
b.) Brief history ,evolution and development of communication on the world with special reference
to India
c.) What is communication? Why do we communicate ?How do we communicate ?
d.) Definitions (A message understood,Social interaction through message sharing experience)
e.) Five senses of communication
Unit-2 Types of communication
a. Verbal and Non-verbal communication-concepts , types and practices
b. Oral and Written commununication
c. 7 C’s of communication
d. Barriers in communication
e. Assignment :Explain types of communication with examples
Unit-3
Levels of communication
a.Interpersonal communication
b.Characteristics of Intra personal communication
c. Interpersonal communication
Group communication
Charactersitics of Group communication
Assignment: Write an interview on any recent issue kepping in mind interpersonal communication
Unit-4
Introduction to Mass communication
a. Mass communication and Origin of media –Functions , role and impact of media
b. Meaning of Mass communication
c. Functions of Mass communication
d. Elements of Mass Communication
Unit-5
Communication Theories and Models
a. Functional Theory of communication
b. Relational Theory
c. SMCR Model ,Osgood Model
d. Shannon and Weaver Model
e. Wilber Schramm Model, Helical Model
f. Lasswell Model ,New Comb Model
g. Gate keeping Model
h. Gerbner’s Model
BMC-1
GDJMC-106
Origins of language :
How and why did language originate :
1. Divine source theory 2. The natural sound source theory 3. The Pooh-Pooh theory 4. The Ding –Dong theory
1. The Divine source theory : According to one view ,God created Adam and “Whatsoever Adam called every living creature that was the name thereof “.(Genesis) .According to Hindu tradition , language came from goddess Saraswati .In most religions , there appears to be a divine source that provided humans with language .Generally , every society has a divine story to tell about the origins of its language .We also notice that the alphabetical symbols or ideographs(a character or a symbol representing an idea.)
2.The Natural Sound theory : Another view of the origin of human speech is based on the concept of
natural sounds. The theory suggests that first words were imitations of natural sounds which early
men and women heard around them .The fact that all languages have some words which seem to
echo naturally occurring sounds could have led to this theory.” Cuckoo”, “bang”, “Buzz”, “Hiss”,
“Bow-Wow theory”, of language origin.
Although it is true that a number of words in every language are echoic or onomatopoeic , it is
difficult to understand how the abstract ideas and emotions could have been referred to in a
language that simply echoed natural sounds .Another argument against this theory is that our
language also seems to influence the way we hear and imitate sound s of nature , e.g., the roasters
crow, “cock –a-doodle-do “ in English : :Kuk –ru-Ka-roo” and “Kikeriki” in German!
3. The Pooh-Pooh theory: In 1987 , in his “Descent of Man “, Darwin proposed that like man himself
, his language also developed from a more primitive form , probably , from expressions of emotions
.For example, a feeling of contempt is accompanied by the action of puffing of air out through the
nostrils or the mouth and this action makes sounds like “pooh” or”Pish”.The critics of Darwin’s
theory scornfully named it as the Pooh-Pooh theory.
4.Müller ,a contemporary of Darwin , proposed the Ding Dong theory of the origin of the language
.According to this theory , there was a mystic relationship between sound and meaning. There was an
instinct in he primitive human being , by which every impression from without received a vocal
impression from within. Just as a particular sound is produced when any object is struck by a solid body ,
similarly human being’s mind gave a particular response to every impact the world made upon it. For
example, the sight of a snake rang a bell and the primitive human instinctively said “snake”.
It is a big puzzle as to how the language began .But, why language began seems to be clear .Language
must have evolved because humans needed it for the following purposes:
1. To give factual information and to convey commands .This is also called information talking.
2. To convey emotions and feelings
3. To maintain social contact on a friendly level .This is also called phatic communication or language of
social chit chat or small talk.
4. For aesthetic reasons like poetry.
5. To relieve nervous tension.
Chapter -1
Definition of language : Language may be defined as a system of sounds and words by human beings
to communicate with each other .Through language we express our ideas and feelings by using
symbols in writing , and sounds while speaking. Language is used to express ideas , information ,
knowledge , attitudes , and feelings. We share them through symbols and sounds which means
language is written as well as spoken.
Functions of language : No person , group or society can exist without interaction with others. Life
would be miserable if we did not talk with anyone at home; did’nt listen to lectures at school or
college; and if we did’nt speak to friends and co-workers.
(SIKRIC)
Language is important to us for its various functions:
1. Socilaization 2. Information dissemination 3. Knowledge and instruction 4. Integration 5. Cultural Promotion 6. Relieves tension(works as an outlet)
1.Socialization: Langauge makes it possible for individuals to live in society .Man is a social animal , and
language helps in the socialization process.
2. Information Dissemination : It is through language that enormous information about environment we live in is provided to us. Information , these days, is regarded as power .The more informed you are the more powerful you become. Language is a tool of gaining the power of information and awareness.
3. Knowledge and Instruction: Language instructs and educates the members of a society .It provides knowledge.This function begins at home –first in the family;then at school and college ; and this process continues throughout life.In addition to providing knowledge , language also provides us skills and expertise for various jobs ;so that we may become effective members of the society.
4.Integration: Language is a great integrating factor in nations and societies .By means of of shared
languages ;individuals , groups , and even cultures come to know each other.We understand and
appreciate each other’s way of life and develop tolerance towards each other.It creates cohesiveness.
5.Cultural Promotion: Through poems , plays , articles and other creative writing , language provides
opportunities for culture to be preserved and promopted.
6.Relieves Tension (works as an outlet) : Language relieves people’s feelings, reduces tensions , and
provides outlets for suppressed emotions.Sometimes;even if there is nothing to say one must talk ;
conversation puts people at ease and in harmony with each other.
English as a language: English Language is the Lingua Franca of the world. It is used as a chief medium of
communication of people in the United Kingdom ,The united States ,Canada ,Australia ,New
Zealand,South Africa and many other countries.
Vocabulary : The English vocabulary has increased greatly in more than 1500 years of development,
growing to more than one million words .It is larger than the vocabulary of any other language .A
continual process of borrowing and adopting words from other languages new words in English.This is
also done by other processes like addition of prefixes and suffixes , the free formation of compounds
etc.
Spelling : English has one of the most difficult spelling systems in the world , maily because the spelling
of words has often not changed but their sounds have changed and because foreign spellings of words
have been retained in new English Words.
New Words: As a result of colonial expansion in the past and globalization in the present , many new
words have entered the English language , including words from the North America , from Australia ,
from Africa and Asia. In addition , thousands of scientific terms have been developed to denote new
concepts;discoveries , and inventions.
In Britain the speech of educated people is known as Received Standard English. In India we mostly use
British English though the use of American English has increased lately.The most distinguishing
differences between American and British English are in prouninciation and vocabulary , with slighter
differences in spelling ,pitch ,and stress.
A unique feature of the English language remains the tendency to grow and change. In recent years , the
English language has become the chief language of the international communication.
Importance of English :
1.English is our link language with the world
2. English is a link language between the various regions of India.
3.English is the medium of instruction for higher studies all over the country.
4.Most of the competitive exams are held through the medium of English.
5.Most of the information in the computer is in the English language .Also most of the communication
through the Internet is also in English.
6.English is a necessary requisite for admission to the universities of U.S.,England, Australia
,Canada,New Zealand, and many other countries, which have now opened their doors to Indian
Students.
7.Most of the interviews in India and abroad are held in English.
8.Journalism and electronic media have further expanded the scope and extent of English in the recent
times .Thre are many Indian channels telecasting programs only in English .
9.Knowledge of “good spoken and written English “ is a desired qualification for most of the jobs.
10. Job opportunities in teaching ,Journalism , advertisement ,acting ,public relations , tourism etc.,
have increased .All these professionals , besides others , require a good command of written and spoken
English.
11.Literature on scientific and technical information is available mostly in English.
History of communication
The history of communication dates back to prehistoric times, with significant changes in communication technologies (media and appropriate inscription tools) evolving in tandem with shifts in political and economic systems, and by extension, systems of power. Communication can range from very subtle processes of exchange, to full conversations and mass communication. Human communication was revolutionized with Origin of language|speech approximately 500,000 years ago. Symbols were developed about 30,000 years ago. The imperfection of speech, which nonetheless allowed easier dissemination of ideas and stimulated inventions, eventually resulted in the creation of new forms of communications, improving both the range at which people could communicate and the longevity of the information. All of those inventions were based on the key concept of the symbol.
The oldest known symbols created for the purpose of communication were cave paintings, a form of rock art, dating to the Upper Paleolithic age. These paintings contained increasing amounts of information: Cro-Magnon people may have created the firstcalendar as far back as 15,000 years ago.[2] The connection between drawing and writing is further shown by linguistics: in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece the concepts and words of drawing and writing were one and the same (Egyptian: 's-sh', Greek: 'graphein').[3]
Petroglyphs
Petroglyphs from Häljesta, Sweden. NordicBronze Age.
The next advancement in the history of communications came with the production of petroglyphs, carvings into a rock surface. It took about 20,000 years for homo sapiens to move from the first cave paintings to the first petroglyphs, which are dated to around 10,000BC.[4]
It is possible that humans of that time used some other forms of communication, often for mnemonic purposes - specially arranged stones, symbols carved in wood or earth, quipu-like ropes, tattoos, but little other than the most durable carved stones has survived to modern times and we can only speculate about their existence based on our observation of still existing 'hunter-gatherer' cultures such as those of Africa or Oceania.[4]
Pictograms
Pictograph from 1510 telling a story of coming ofmissionaries to Hispaniola
A pictogram (pictograph) is a symbol representing a concept, object, activity, place or event by illustration. Pictography is a form of proto-writingwhereby ideas are transmitted through drawing. Pictographs were the next step in the evolution of communication: the most important difference between petroglyphs and pictograms is that petroglyphs are simply showing an event, but pictograms are telling a story about the event, thus they can for example be ordered chronologically.
Pictograms were used by various ancient cultures all over the world since around 9000 BC, when tokens marked with simple pictures began to be used to label basic farm produce, and become increasingly popular around 6000-5000 BC.
They were the basis of cuneiform [5] and hieroglyphs, and began to develop into logographic writing systems around 5000 BC.
Ideograms
The beginning of the Lord's Prayer in Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing. The text reads Nujjinen wásóq – "Our father
/ in heaven"
Pictograms, in turn, evolved into ideograms, graphical symbols that represent an idea. Their ancestors, the pictograms, could represent only something resembling their form: therefore a pictogram of a circle could represent a sun, but not concepts like 'heat', 'light', 'day' or 'Great God of the Sun'. Ideograms, on the other hand, could convey more abstract concepts, so that for example an ideogram of two sticks can mean not only 'legs' but also a verb 'to walk'.
Because some ideas are universal, many different cultures developed similar ideograms. For example, an eye with a tear means 'sadness' inNative American ideograms in California, as it does for the Aztecs, the early Chinese and the Egyptians.
Ideograms were precursors of logographic writing systems such as Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters.
Examples of ideographical proto-writing systems, thought not to contain language-specific information, include the Vinca script (see also Tărtăria tablets) and the early Indus script. In both cases there are claims of decipherment of linguistic content, without wide acceptance.
Writing[edit]
26th century BC Sumerian cuneiform script in Sumerian language, listing gifts to the high priestess of Adab on
the occasion of her election. One of the earliest examples of human writing.
The oldest-known forms of writing were primarily logographic in nature, based on pictographic and ideographic elements. The earliest known form of writing (mostly made up of runes) is called futhark. Most writing systems can be broadly divided into three categories:logographic, syllabic and alphabetic (or segmental); however, all three may be found in any given writing system in varying proportions, often making it difficult to categorise a system uniquely.
The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary in with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic of the late 4000 BC. The first writing system is generally believed to have been invented in pre-historic Sumer and developed by the late3000's BC into cuneiform. Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system and Indus Valley script also date to this era, though a few scholars have questioned the Indus Valley script's status as a writing system.
The original Sumerian writing system was derived from a system of clay tokens used to represent commodities. By the end of the 4th millennium BC, this had evolved into a method of keeping accounts, using a round-shaped stylus impressed into soft clay at different angles for recording numbers. This was gradually augmented with pictographic writing using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced about 2700-2000 BC by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only
for logograms, but developed to include phonetic elements by the 2800 BC. About 2600 BC cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian language.
Finally, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. By the 26th century BC, this script had been adapted to another Mesopotamian language, Akkadian, and from there to others such as Hurrian, and Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian.
The Chinese script may have originated independently of the Middle Eastern scripts, around the 16th century BC (early Shang Dynasty), out of a late neolithic Chinese system of proto-writing dating back to c. 6000 BC. The pre-Columbian writing systems of the Americas, including Olmec and Mayan, are also generally believed to have had independent origins.
Alphabet
A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.
The first pure alphabets (properly, "abjads", mapping single symbols to single phonemes, but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol) emerged around 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt, but by then alphabetic principles had already been incorporated into Egyptian hieroglyphs for a millennium By 2700 BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 22 hieroglyphs to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides forlogograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.
However, although seemingly alphabetic in nature, the original Egyptian uniliterals were not a system and were never used by themselves to encode Egyptian speech. In the Middle Bronze Age an apparently "alphabetic" system is thought by some to have been developed in central Egypt around 1700 BC for or by Semitic workers, but we cannot read these early writings and their exact nature remain open to interpretation.
Over the next five centuries this Semitic "alphabet" (really a syllabary like Phoenician writing) seems to have spread north. All subsequent alphabets around the world with the sole exception of Korean Hangul have either descended from it, or been inspired by one of its descendants.
Types of human communication:
Human communication can be subdivided into a variety of types:
Intrapersonal communication (communication with oneself)
Body language
Interpersonal communication (communication between multiple people)
Group dynamics (communication within groups)
Organizational communication (communication within organizations)
Cross-cultural communication (communication across cultures)
Human communication, or anthroposemiotics, is the field dedicated to understanding
how humans communicate. Human communication is grounded in cooperative and shared
intentions.
Richmond and McCroskey (2009) state that "the importance of communication in human society
has been recognized for thousands of years, far longer than we can demonstrate through recorded
history."[1]
Humans have communication abilities that other animals do not. Being able to
communicate aspects like time and place as though they were solid objects are a few examples. It
is said that humans communicate to request help, to inform others, and to share attitudes as a
way of bonding. [2]
In this chapter:
We use the five senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell to communicate When you see, light travels from an object and across the lens of your eye The ear has three parts - an outer, middle, and inner ear There are four different types of taste buds on the human tongue Sensory hairs identify odours and send messages about smells to the brain
Introduction
Humans use the five senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell to communicate. It may seem like a simple process to see your friend or listen to someone talking, but there are many processes taking place inside the body to receive messages through the senses. See image 1
Sight
We communicate messages through sight by using visual signals that include facial expressions, gestures and posture (or body language). We receive these signals by using our sense of sight.
When we look at something, light bounces off the object and onto the pupil in the eye. The light crosses the lens of the eye, the picture becomes focused, and then turns upside down. The picture then shines on the retina, at the back of the eye. A retina contains rod cells and cone cells, which are both photoreceptors. These cells let your eye see colours and details. The optic nerve sends a message of this picture to your brain, where the picture is turned the right way up. Your brain then tells you what response you should make to the object that you can see.
Your two eyes help you to judge distances and see much more than you would with just one eye.
Some people who cannot see short or long distances wear glasses or contact lenses to correct their vision. This is different from people who are partially (not completely) or completely blind because their vision cannot be fixed by wearing special glasses. People who are blind may use a cane or guide dog to help them get around.
Hearing
The most common way for humans to communicate is by the sound made through speech. One person speaks and the other person receives the message by hearing it with their ears.
The ear has three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Sounds reach the outer ear first, then travel into the ear canal and finally reach the eardrum. The eardrum is a thin piece of tissue that separates the outer ear and the middle ear. There are three tiny bones in the middle ear that make sounds louder. Sounds from the middle ear travel to the inner ear, where they make tiny hairs inside the cochlea (which looks like a snail) move around. The receptor cells then send signals along the auditory nerve to the brain. The brain changes these signals back into meaningful sound that we can understand. See image 2
We have two ears because it helps us to tell which direction that sounds are coming from.
People who cannot hear through their ears may be partially deaf, which means they still have some hearing, or completely deaf. People may be born deaf or may have lost their hearing through an accident or illness.
Taste
We can communicate by receiving messages through taste. Babies make good use of communicating with their world by tasting things around them.
Taste lets you enjoy the flavour of your favourite foods. You can tell if food has gone off because it tastes unpleasant. Taste also tells you if something is dangerous or poisonous, although you should never taste anything if you think that it might be unsafe. If you look carefully at your tongue you will see tiny little bumps all over it - these are called taste buds. There are four different types of taste buds on your tongue. At the front of your tongue you can taste sweet, on both sides of the tongue you taste sour, at the back you taste bitter, and all over your tongue you taste salty. See image 3
Touch
We communicate with touch by feeling things. People hug to show that they are happy to see each other, shake hands to show that they agree, or put their arms around a person who is upset.
We feel messages that are communicated to us by touch through touch receptors. These are located in groups around the skin and look a bit like tiny onions. When they are squeezed, the layers rub against each other and send electrical signals to the brain. Some touch receptors are more sensitive than others. Sensitive touch receptors can be found on different parts of your body, including your face and your fingers.
Smell
We send and receive messages through smell. We can smell dangerous things like smoke from a fire or poisonous gas. We can also smell pleasant things like flowers or a freshly baked cake. Smell communicates powerful messages to our noses.
When we breathe, air goes into the nose through the nostrils. The air then travels down the back of the mouth and into the throat. Any smell, or odour, that passes through the nasal cavity is stuck to the mucus in your nose. The tiny hairs in your nose, called sensory hairs, sense the odour and send messages to your brain where the smell is identified. The smell receptor cell, which responds to the chemicals in the mucus in your nose, is positioned high up behind the nose
Difference between Intrapersonal and interpersonal communication:
The difference is that "interpersonal" refers to relationships or actions that take
place between two or more people while "intrapersonal" refers to things that go on
exclusively within one person.
"Inter" is a prefix meaning "between." That is why, in the US, we have interstate highways.
These are highways that go between states. We have intermediate schools in some places.
These are schools that go between grade school and high school. Similarly, we have
interpersonal relations that are between two or more people.
"Intra" is a prefix meaning "within." In schools, we sometimes have intramural sports. This
means that the sports are "within the walls" of the school. They are sports played against teams
from within the same school. Similarly, we have intrapersonal issues which exist only within
one person.
Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within an individual. An
individual uses this type of communication for various purposes such as analyzing situations,
clarifying concepts, and reflecting upon phenomena. There are three elements that govern
intrapersonal communication, namely self-concept, perception and expectation. An individual
employs certain methods to communicate within themselves and these are internal discourse
where thinking, concentration and analyzing occur, solo vocal communication which involves
speaking out aloud to oneself, and solo written communication that encompasses writing not
intended for others.
Interpersonal communication on the other hand is the type of communication that takes place
between people. People communicate with each other for a number of reasons such as to explain,
to teach, to inquire, and to inform. The channel of interpersonal communication consists of four
basic elements; sender, message, medium and receiver. There are verbal and non-verbal forms of
communication that are used to conduct interpersonal communication and these include letters,
signs, notes, text messages, e-mails, memos as well as face-to-face conversations.
Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal Communication; compare their
merits & demerits.
Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal Communication; compare their merits &
demerits.
Interpersonal and intrapersonal communication can be differentiated on the following base.
Interpersonal communication:
Introduction: interpersonal communication is the kind of communication which takes place
within or among more than two people with use of different mediums of communication. With
betterment and advancement of the communication mediums, it has brought the community
closer.
Definition:
When communication takes place face to face, both the sender and the receiver reflect personal
characteristics as well as social role and relationships. Some theorists include particularly the
role of mediator in the communication.
Relationship:
For having a proper communication, both the sender and the receiver should have a cordial
relationship.
Face to face meeting:
Communication involves face to face meetings whilst exchanging idea, thoughts and other form
of words between the participants. Here the communication might be mediated by using different
types of mediums of communication such as television channels, telephonic lines and other
modern mediums.
Roles:
Each and every communicator plays distinctive roles in forming a relation between them.
However, there is another definition of communication as ―who says what, in which channel, to
whom and with what effects‖. It is my personal reflection that the communication of this
definition does not reflect time and where does it take place, more than that communication in
modern era does not merely involve talking but it is larger community or social context.
Process of interpersonal communication:
The process of communication can be viewed from the general prospective of Shannon and
Weaver, of this model of communication, there are four basic components forming a proper
communication including the sender and message, the medium and the receiver. Here the noise
provides an additional component.
Here the first two components the sender and message, the sender composes a message to
persuade the receiver. The sender encodes the message properly so as to make sure that the
message will be reflected by the receiver under proper channel.
The channel of communication in this model refers to the mode by which the message is
transmitted. Most familiar channels advancing in the modernity are Radios, television and
telephonic. However, interpersonal communication is different in this regard to mass
communication since some participants may not use certain medium and communication may
take place with face-to-face way.
The forth components of the model is the receiver. The receiver is responsible to receive the
message and decode it in way that they could intelligently response to the sources.
Here the interaction of message takes place when the receiver responses the sender after
decoding properly and it is in form of feedback, it helps to clarify the message and enhance
communication properly. It is cyclical process of communication.
There are different types of communications in terms of number of participants involving:
1. Dyadic communication:
This type of communication lies within two people, for instance discussion takes place between
the Teacher and his student about communication
1. Group communication
The group communication consists of participants more than three; here proper group
communication of interpersonal communication can be resembled when lesser number of people
will be involved. However, there is no distinctive number of exceeding participants to be
involved in the group communication when it limits more than three.
1. Public communication
This types of communication involves a larger participants basically forms in one way style of
communication process. The feedback of the receiver is minimal. It takes place in larger
audience and mostly takes place for entertainment and persuasion.
Interpersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication takes place within one person. It is meant to reflect oneself to
clarify something. There are three concept of intrapersonal communication namely as following:
1. Self-conception
It is the one of the concepts of intrapersonal communication because it determines how he sees
himself and which to oriented to others. It is also known as self-awareness. There are several
factors effecting the communication.
a) Belief
It is self-orientation to know what is true or false, good or bad. It might be descriptive or
prescriptive.
b) Values
Values are integral part of belief to determine what is right or wrong. It is a deep seated
foundation lying within the person’s mind and concept.
c) Attitude
It is a learned idea of the person and it is generally consistent with value. It is often emotional.
1. Perception
When the self-concept lies internally and perception focuses outward. It is deep rooted in belief,
values and attitude. It related and closely intertwined with self concept to create better
understanding of both within and outside world.
1. Expectation
It is futuristic oriented message dealing with long term occurrence. People form expectation on
the base of the strength of ones learned ideas within the society.
There are different types of intrapersonal communications as following
1. Internal discourse
Internal discourse relates to thinking, concentrating and analysing within one self. It might of day
dreaming, praying or meditating.
1. Solo-vocal
It is that communication which takes place while one shouts loudly for clarifying one-self or
rehearsing, when you are talking to yourselves when students don’t do homework properly, you
might talk yourself to remind on the next time to redo it.
1. Solo-written communication
It deals with writing for oneself and not for others. Like writing notes for your future use.
Merits and demerits of intra and interpersonal communication:
1. Irreversibility of communication
Merits:
Once when interpersonal communication has taken place, it could not be hold back. When it has
conveyed properly and in better way, there is always good impact
Demerits:
It is by contrast, when the communication was not properly flowed with good impact, it is
always bad impression.
1. Communication does not only be verbal communication
Merits:
When you are in good mood, you may convey to others in better way.
Demerit:
The communication might be of body language and it is really hard stop when something goes
on emotionally, at that point of time, you may resort to have violence interaction.
1. Situation
Merits:
The communication can also be depending on the situation, when situation will be calm both in
psychologically and sociologically then communication would be flowed smoothly
Demerits:
It is by contrast, when the situation of discourse is in harsh and not good, the communication
might not be good flow
Merits and demerits of intrapersonal communication
Demerits:
When the intrapersonal communication takes place, there is no feedback since there is no
receiver to decode whatever he talks about himself.
Merits:
Intrapersonal communication does not need to wait for secondary feedback and it could take
place whenever he/she wants
Unit-2
Types of Communication
Basics of Communication :
Objective : The aim of this unit is to teach the student principles underlying effective
communication.
2.1 : Communication is a process that includes transmission of information , ideas ,
emotions , skills and knowledge. This is done with the help of symbols , words, pictures ,
figures , graphs, drawings and illustrations etc.
It is a process by which we understand and in turn try to be understood by others.
It is dynamic , constantly changing and shifting in response to the overall situation
.Therefore, “Communication “ can be described as “the interchange of thoughts or ideas”.
This is also referred to as sharing of ideas.
Again , communication is viewed as creation and transmission of information consisting of
distinctive stimuli , from a source to a recipient.
The various objectives of communication , especially with respect to the world of
business are as follows:
•
• What are the objectives of communication?
• 1.Information
• 2.Education
• 3.Advice
• 4.Warning
• 5.Order
• 6.Raising Morale
• 7.Suggestion
• 8. Motivation
• 9. Persuasion
• 1. Information: Information on the following aspects is very essential for the
existence and welfare of any organization:
• 1.Consumer response to its products in comparison with competing products with
reference to quality as well as price.
• 2. Whether they are being produced in conformity with the latest trends?
• 3. The nature of the various financial institutions and the terms and conditions on
which credit is offered by them.
• 4. How better quality raw materials can be produced on easier terms , or if there are
any cheaper substitutes available?
• 5.What kind of effect, the rules and regulations of the government and the
challenging political scene can have on the product policy of the organization?
• 6. Information about the efficiency , suitability ,relative merits and the expenses
involved on the advertising media.
• 7. Information about the latest developments in the field of science and technology.
• 1. Information about the political , social and economic conditions
• 2. Information about the cultural milieu ; geographical and climatic information
• 3. Information about the production and sale capacity of the organization ;detailed
information about the members of the staff , their academic and professional
qualifications , their efficiency , and reliability , their limitations , etc.
• 4.Membership of the chambers of commerce
• 5. Conferences
• Personal interviews with prominent people in the political field , experts in the
professional fields and the members of the general public
• 6. Information about the popularity of a company’s products can be gathered by
circulating carefully prepared questionnaires.
• 7. Trade fairs and exhibitions
• 8. Electronic media particularly the Social media network
• 2. Education : Education here refers to training self and the employees. It also
means keep oneself updated about the latest in the industry. The best way to keep
oneself abreast is by attending conferences and seminars. Reading industry specific
journals and magazines also helps one gain insight into the changing trends and
techniques.
• 3. Advice :
•
• 1. While information is factual and objective in nature ;advice involves personal
opinions and is likely to be subjective
• 2. Advice is given to influence someone’s opinion
• 3. Advice is given on professional matters in the field of finance , taxation , publicity
, engineering, Public Relations , etc.
• 4. Supervisory staff is required to advise the junior employees
• 5. Advice flows horizontally or downwards .The board of directors advising one
another on some policy matter are also engaged in a kind of horizontal
communication.
Points to be kept in mind while offering advice:
• 1.Advice should be both man-oriented and work-oriented , i.e., it should be related
to a specific piece of work , and should be given in such a way that it suits the
individual needs of the recipient .
• 2.Advice should not be given to a person to make him feel conscious of his inferior
knowledge or skill.
• 3. The only justified motive of giving advice is the betterment of the worker .The
adviser should genuinely feel this motive.
•
• 4. If the subordinate staff is given freedom to react, advice can become a two-way
channel of communication .
• Counselling :
• 1. Counsel is objective and impersonal
• 2. A counselor offers advice without any personal interest or involvement
• 3. Advice has a personal touch about it ;counsel is almost professional.
•
• 3.Order : Order is an authoritative communication. It is a directive to somebody,
always a subordinate , to do something , to modify or alter the course of something
he is already doing or not to do something.
• A.)Written or oral orders:
• Written orders are usually given when :
• 1.The order is of a highly responsible nature ;
• 2. the task is repetitive in nature , and it is cumbersome and inconvenient to issue
oral orders every time the task is to be done.
• 3.the person being ordered is remotely situated and it is not possible to give him oral
orders.
• Oral orders are given when :
• 1.the job is required to be done immediately
• 2.it is an ordinary job and there is no need of marinating any written record.
• 3. there is a kind of permanent superior-subordinate relationship between the giver
and the receiver of the order and the order –giver does not feel the need of entering
into the cumbersome process of issuing written orders.
• B.) General and Specific Orders :
• If orders are related to one specific activity , they are specific .If there are a number
of activities having operational similarities , general orders may be issued to cover
all of them.
• C.) Procedural and operational orders: Procedural orders specify procedures to be
adopted. They are general by nature .Operational orders are more closely related to
the job in hand .They specify how a particular job is to be done.
• 2.Mandatory and discretionary orders: Mandatory orders have to be obeyed
.Discretionary orders are usually in the nature of recommendations .They suggest
what is desirable , what should be done. But it is up to the receiver to see their
feasibility and to decide whether he ought to carry them out or not .The Head office
may issue discretionary orders to the branch manager , for the branch manager ,
being present on the spot , knows better whether the orders are to be carried out or
not.
• An effective order possesses the following characteristics :
• 1. It must be clear and complete
• 2. Its execution must be possible
• 3. It should be given in a friendly way
• Steps in the order –giving operation:
• Planning : Before an order is given , the order –giver should be sure about the
following points :
• 1.Exactly what action is required.
• 2. Is it feasible?
• 3. Who is to perform it?
• 1.Preparing the order-receiver
• 2. Presenting the order
• 3.Verfication of reception
• 4. Action
• 5.Follow-up
• 6. Appraisal
• 4. Instruction: Instruction is a p0articular type of order in which the subordinate is
not only ordered to do a job but is also given guidance on how to do it. If the
accounts officer asks one of his clerks to prepare a voucher , he has issued an order
.If he shows the clerk how to prepare a voucher and then asks him to prepare more
, he ahs issued instructions .All the instructions are implied orders , but all orders
cannot be instructions.
• 5.Suggestion: Suggestion enjoys one great advantage over other means of
communication like advice or order .Advice comes from an expert ; order comes
from a higher authority .In either case , the recipient of the communication is
slightly conscious of his inferiority and may resent it .Accepting a suggestion is at his
discretion , so a suggestion is usually welcome.
• 6. Persuasion: Persuasion is an important objective of communication .It may be
defined as an effort to influence the attitudes , feelings or beliefs of others , or to
influence actions based on those attitudes , feelings or beliefs . Buyers have often
been persuaded to buy a particular article available with the seller in place of the
one they actually wanted to buy .In the office or the factory , the lazy , the
incompetent and disgruntled workers have to be persuaded to do their work.
• 1.It is better to use persuasion than compulsion .
• 2.Persuasion has to be indirect and suggestive.
• 3.Persuasion needs conviction on your part
• 4. You must try to persuade the others from a purely selfish motive.
• 5. Give indirect hints and subtle suggestions . Bring your self to the level of the other
person.
• The art of persuasion consists of four steps :
• 1. Analyzing the situation
• 2.Preparing the receiver
• 3. Delivering the message
• 4.Prompting action
7. Warning : If the employees do not abide by the norms of the organization , or violate the
rules and regulations , it may become necessary to warn them.Tardiness , negligence ,
tempering with the records , mishandling equipment , lack of regularity and punctuality ,
gossiping , pilfering office stationery and material , spreading rumors , misleading new
employees are some of the actions that call for a reprimand or a warning. Warning is a
forceful means of communication, for it demands immediate action. But in order to retain
its effectiveness , it should be used sparingly and discreetly
Points to be kept in mind while issuing warnings :
1.Some warnings like “No smoking”, “Beware of the dog”, are general warnings and
are given in the form of notices
2. Some warnings involve disciplinary action in the form of reprimand ; it is therefore
important to ascetain the truth before reprimanding somebody.
3. Reprimand should not be administered to a person in the presence of others .It will
make him feel humiliated and nobody likes to be humiliated.
4. It is also useful to investigate the causes of the worker’s undesirable behavior .
5. The aim of warning should be betterment of the organization .It should not be to
cause disruption.
8.Raising Morale: Morale is the sum of several qualities like courage , fortitude ,
resolution and confidence. High morale and efficient performance go hand in hand
.It acts as a lubricant among people , binds them with a sense of togetherness and
impels them to work in cooperation with one another in the best interest of their
organization.
Factors conducive to the creation of high morale :
1.Every worker gets work suited to his physical and intellectual caliber. He feels his
work is important and is appreciated by the authorities. He is free to do his work as
he likes.He is encouraged to give suggestions.
2. The atmosphere in the premises in congenial .The superiors are efficient and their
attitude is constructive .They enjoy workers’ respect.
3. Promotional avenues are available to the workers .
4. Genuine grievances of the workers are promptly removed.
9.Motivation:
Motivation energizes and activates a person and channelises his behavior towards the
attainment of desired goals .Motivation and behavior are intimately related to each
other .In order and persuasion , the communicator enjoys an upper hand .But in
motivation he keeps himself in the background. He does not order his employees to
work ; he motivates them so that they work willingly and eagerly .A motivated
worker does not need much supervision.
Significance of communication in business :
1.Healthy organizational environment
2.Management –employee relationship
3.The external and internal communication network
4.Functionalisation: The division of the work into different kinds of duties can be called
fictionalization
5.The complexity of business activities
6.Trade unions :labor problems
7.Globalization and language problem
8.Competition
9.Participation and delegation
2.2: Features of communication:
• Meaning based: Every piece of communication has some meaning attached to it.
The most basic and immediate need for communication is to be able to refer to
things in the real world. Hence , it is important that we be clear about what we wish
to say.
• Conventional: All communication must follow a certain set of rules or conventions.
A presentation, for instance, must have a beginning, middle and an end. Similarly,
while writing in a certain language, one must follow the standard grammar rules.
For various kinds of documents to be drafted , there are standard formats available
in organizations. In short, communication is never without conventions, it is to large
extent tradition bound.
• Interact ional: It is the use of language that keeps the channels of communication
open. Communication establishes a suitable rapport between people. Infact, it
allows them to relate to each other beyond the professional or functional areas.
• Appropriate: Communication can be customized to meet the requirements various
age groups and segments. Interaction with technically sound people would be totally
different from the one with ordinary people. In all its forms it must take into
account the relationship between the speaker/writer/ and hearer/receiver , and the
constraints imposed by the setting and circumstances and the selection of
language/style/ tone according to the age ,rank and status of the participants in the
communicative event.
• Structured: Information must be so structured or organized that it comes across as
logical and sequential. So, for any communicative event to make complete sense it
must be logically patterned.
Ingredients of communication:
• Process: communication is the process of exchange of information , ideas,
propositions etc. between two or more people.
• Meanings : Communication carries a set of meanings from one person to another.
• Exchange: Communication becomes an event only when there is an exchange.
• People: For a communicative event to be effective there must be an involvement of
people in it.
• Common set of symbols: For the people involved in the activity of communication ,
it is important that there be a common language or common set of symbols so that
both sides can comprehend each other well.
2.3: Communication serves the following purposes in organizations :
1. Helps establish and disseminate the goals of an organization
2. Facilitates the development of plans for the achievement of goals.
3. Helps managers utilize manpower and other and other resources in the most effective
and efficient way.
4. Helps managers select, develop and appraise members of the organization.
5. Helps managers lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people are willing to
contribute.
6. Facilitates control and evaluation of performance.
Factors responsible for the importance of communication:
Communication
1. facilitates the process of coordination, esp. in a large organization
2. functions as a bridge between the external and the internal environment of the
organization
3. . helps have control over the production process and unions of workers in the
organization :
4. assists in the improvement of relations with the employees
5. allows the managers to help the employees cope with changes in the technology
6. strengthens the public relations activities of the organization
1. Faciliates the process of coordination, esp. in a large organization: The large size of the
modern organization makes it imperative to use innovative and faster
methods of communication. This must be done as no department in an organization can
work without the aid of the other departments or divisions. For a constant exchange of
information on the progress of work and accomplishment of various other goals all the
departments must coordinate with each other and to enable this strong lines of
communication need to be established. Besides, in many organizations the levels of
hierarchy have gone up to thirteen and fourteen. Managing a juggernaut like this again
requires strong communication lines.
2. Functions as a bridge between the external and the internal environment of the
organization: In an organization , effective communication not only helps managers
discharge their duties, but also builds a bridge between managers and the external
environment of the organization. The external environment consists mainly of customers ,
suppliers , stockholders , government , community and others that affect the success of the
enterprise. By means of an effective communication network , a manger can understand
the needs of customers , the demands of the stockholders and the expectations of the
community , and be aware of the presence of quality suppliers and relevant government
regulations. An organization can function as an opne system only by communicating
effectively with the environment.
3. Helps have control over the production process and unions of workers in the
organization: Effective lines of communication in the form of a good reporting system
allow the managers to know status of production in an organization.
The gaps and lapses can be easily plugged and corrected if one has knowledge of where the
problem lies.
Apart from this, a manager is required to communicate, on a regular basis, with unions of
workers. He has to negotiate with the representatives of the employees on various issues
affecting the employment conditions prevailing in the organization, wages being paid to the
workers, working hours etc. If the workers are dissatisfied and their issues are not
addressed immediately, the work of the organization might come to a sudden halt
.Therefore, it is important to develop a sense of mutual trust, understanding and
cooperation between the management and trade unions. In this regard communication
plays a vital role.
• Assists in the improvement of relations with the employees: It is increasingly being
realized that employee satisfaction can lead to enhanced productivity and better
results. The management’s role is basically to integrate the activities of the
employees and motivate them to give their best. To achieve as much, the
organizations these days pay a lot of attention to their employee relations. A number
of organizations have adopted what is known as the concept of participative
management to inculcate a sense of belonging amongst the employees. This allows
the employees to give meaningful ideas and suggestions for the smooth working of
the organization. Communication also helps in developing strong relationships,
changing attitudes, boosting morale and soliciting cooperation.
• Allows the managers to help the employees cope with changes in the technology:
Changes in technology lead to a lot of resentment and resistance by the
employees.This affects the relationship between superiors and subordinates very
vitally. If, there is no proper communication between the two, the work suffers and
complaints and disputes may crop up. Such changes disrupt the interrelationships
and pose a challenge to the management to educate the subordinates so that they
may smoothly adapt to the dynamic character of the organization.
6. strengthens the public relations activities of the organization: Communication
between the company and customers, government, suppliers , public etc. is of vital
importance. It is necessary for putting the proper image of the whole business in
perspective. Managers, therefore, have to be good communicators with the society. They
have to be wisely sensitive to the internal as well external environment of the organization.
2.4: Process of internal Communication:
• 1.Establishing and dissemination of the goals of an enterprise
• Developing plans for their achievement
• Organizing human and other resources in the most effective and efficient way
• Selecting , developing and appraising the members of the organization
• Leading , directing , motivating and creating a climate in which people want to
contribute their best, and
• Controlling performance
Purpose of External communication :
• 1.Availabulity of suppliers the claims of the stock-holders
• The regulation of governments
• The concerns of the community
• It is through communication that any organization becomes an open system
interacting with its environment and responds to it fruitfully, purposefully and
desirably
• Interaction with the customer
• Through effective communication network , the company becomes aware of the
competition and other potential threats and constraining factors.
Formal communication: When communication flows through an established chain of
command, it is known as formal communication.
Informal communication: When the information exchange takes place without the
prescribed rules or conventions, it is known as informal communication.
2.4 : Dimensions of communication:
Communication is a multidimensional activity .There are various directions in which
communication moves.An organization may have many levels/tiers/layers –all of them
being bound or held together by communication. In a firm communication typically moves
in the following directions:
1.Downward
2.Upward
3. Horizontal
4.Diagonal
• 1. Downward: The flow of information from the higher levels to the lower ones
comes under the category of downward communication. This is in the form of
orders, instructions, policies, rules, manuals etc. All organizations have an inbuilt
hierarchical system and communication invariably moves from top to bottom.
Examples of Downward communication:
Downward Communication:
• Written : e.g. instructions
• Memoranda
• Letters
• Handbooks
• Pamphlets
• Policy Statements
• Procedures
• Electronic News displays
• Oral:
• e.g. Instructions
• Speeches
• Meetings
• Telephone
• Loudspeaker
Problems of Down ward communication:
• Information while on its way down the chain of command is invariably lost or
distorted
• Many directives or instructions are not understood or even read
• Time consuming
• The more the levels, the more the chances of delay or dilution of information
• Downward communication is likely o be filtered , modified or distorted at any or
each level
• Limited accuracy by the status and power differences between manager and
employee ,, and lack of trust
• 2.Upward : Upward communication takes place when the lower levels inform the
upper levels about the activities happening at the lower levels. This can be in the
form of reports , feedback, suggestions, appeals, complaints, joint setting of
objectives, exit interviews, group meetings and ombudsperson.
Upward communication: Main purpose:
• 1. Supply information to the upper levels about what is happening at the lower
levels
• 2. Travels from people at the bottom and reaches the upper levels of the
organization structure
• There is very little appreciation of this form of communication as it does not fit into
the traditional concepts of organization behaviour according to which the right to
communicate wa supposed to have been vested in the higher ups only.
• Essentially participative in nature and can flourish only in democratic
organizational environment .
• People at the upper levels get to know specifically about production performance,
marketing information, financial data , what lower level employees are thinking and
feeling about the whole or part of the business.
• Suggestion systems, appeal, and grievance procedures, compliant systems ,
counseling sessions, joint setting of objectives, the grapevine, group meetings , the
practice of open-door policy , morale questionnaires , exit interviews and
ombudsperson.
• Problems of Upward Communication:
• 1.Psychological problems : The higher ups do not like to hear from their juniors
anything against their wishes.
• 2. A piece of communication may quite often not even be allowed to go up; it may be
distorted or misrepresented
• 3. In the absence of a healthy open door policy , it may be misrepresented ,
misinterpreted , misunderstood
• 4.Employees may feel let down or become shy and reluctant to express themselves
.In such a situation the communication even become a non-event .It is increasingly
being taken care of by modern management that has come to appreciate the
importance and right of the individual /groups of individuals to express.
• The concepts of Ombudsperson:
• Ombusperson –a Swedish word meaning a commissioner appointed to investigate
the complaints of private citizens against govt. officials or agencies. Till quite recent
times this concept remained only in Sweden. But now many Americal companies ar
emaking very profitable use of it. They have established a position for a person who
investigates the employees’ concerns .General Electric , Mc.Donnell Douglas and
AT&T are just a few companies that are using Ombudsperson for promoting
upward communication.
• 3.Horizontal or lateral: When communication takes place between people working
at the same levels but in different departments , it is said to be horizontal or lateral
communication. People serve the organization in different capacities but their goals
are common. So, this kind of communication happens mainly to maintain
coordination. A good example of this kind of communication is that between
functional managers.
• 4.Diagonal or crosswise: Diagonal or crosswise communication includes the
horizontal flow of information as also that among persons at different levels who
have no direct reporting relationship. This kind of communication is used to speed
the information flow to improve understanding and to coordinate efforts for the
achievement of organizational objectives.
• Example of Diagonal communication :
Oral: Informal meetings, Lunch hour meetings, formal conferences, task teams, project
organization meeting, advisory authority interacting with line managers of different
departments.
Written communication: Company newspaper or magazine, bulletin boards, general
notices.
• In this type of communication , proper safeguards need to be taken top prevent
potential problems. Special care has to be taken (1.) crosswise communication build
s appropriate crosswise relationships , (2.) subordinates will refrain from making
commitments beyond their authority , and
• 3.) subordinates will keep their superiors informed of important interdepartmental
activities .In brief , diagonal or crosswise communication may create difficulties ,
but it is a necessity in many enterprises in order to respond to the complex and
dynamic organizational environment .In other words we may say that in order to
secure efficiency in decision –making , all messages do not necessarily route through
vertical channels of communication .Organizations also build up environment for
cross contacts .
• : Channels of Communication: Formal Vs. Informal:
1.Formal Channel of Communication :
A formal channel of communication can be defined as a means of communication that is
normally controlled by managers or people occupying similar positions in an
organization. Any information , decision, memo , reminder etc., will follow this path.
The influence of the Formal channels of communication:
Formal channels cover an ever-widening distance as organizations grow.
For eg. effective communication is far more difficult in large retail organization with
branches spread far and wide than in a small or big department store located at one
place.
Informal channel of communication:
Factors responsible for grapevine phenomenon:
Feeling of uncertainty or lack of sense of direction when the organization is passing
through a difficult period
Feeling of inadequacy or lack of self-confidence on the part of the employees , leading to
the formation of groups .
Formation of a coterie , clique or favored group by the manager , giving other
employees a feeling of insecurity or isolation.
Types of grapevine chains:
Single –strand chain: In this type of chain “A” tells something to “B” who tells it to “C”
and so on it goes down the line. This chain is the least accurate in passing on the
information.
Gossip chain: In it one person goes and gives information to a whole set of people. But ,
the information is usually non-job related.
Probability chain: In this people passing on the information are indifferent about
whom they are passing the information to. The information involved is again interesting
but not really significant.
Cluster chain: In this type of chain one person tells something to a few selected people
and then some these people further pass the information to another selected set of
people.
Merits of the Grapevine:
Speedy transmission
Feedback value
support to other channels
Gives psychological satisfaction and strengthens solidarity
Demerits of grapevine:
1.Less credible
2. Incomplete information
3.Distorted information
4.the speed with which grapevine spreads at times proves to be counterproductive
Effective use of the Grapevine :
• A tactful manager will keep the employees well-informed about the
organizational policy matters , plans and prospects
• Fruitful group activities enhance self worth and update knowledge
• A manager should , as far as possible, have an open door policy giving the
impression of cheap popularity or favoritism.
• The manager should create an environment where there is room for personal
talk.
• The manager must tactfully identify leaders and win their confidence so as to
feel the pulse of their followers.
• The manager should be with decision making
• The manager must keep trying to get clues about his stle of functioning
through regular interaction with employees in as tactful , diplomatic manner
as possible.
• Rumor mongering aimed at charcter assassination or maligning somebody in
theorganization should not be encouraged.
• A manager must learn to be a good listener .
• Oral and written communication:
• Advantages of oral communication:
• Provides immediate feedback
• Build up healthy climate in the organization by bringing the superior and the
subordinate together
• Oral communication is a time saving device
• Oral communication is the most effective tool of persuasion
• Effective in interacting with groups
• Oral communication is also very economical , both in terms of money and time.
• Oral communication provides ample scope to the sender of the message to make
himself clear by suitably changing his ords , voice , tone, pitch etc.
• Disadvantages of oral communication:
• Oral communication does not always save time and money
• Not always effective . Meetings become a complete waste of time in the absence of a
proper agenda and preparation.
• Human memory has a limited retentive power
• No legal validity
• Can lead to misunderstanding
• Length of the message
• Difficult to assign responsibility
2.6: Ten commandments of listening:
• 1.Stop talking: One must silence one’s inner voice in order to listen to others
effectively.
• 2.Put the talker at ease: Allow the speaker express his views.Do not interrupt just
for the sake of doing so. If the speaker is not comfortable , he will not be able to do
his job properly.
• 3. Show the talker that you want to listen: The talker must be given to understand
that you wish to listen. Do not distract him unnecessarily by looking outside or
making looking away from him.
• 4.Remove distractions: Certain activities like tapping of the feet or shuffling of
papers , passing something along distract the speaker.
• 5. Empathize with the talker : The only way to appreciate the a speaker’s point of
view is to put yourself I his place. This way he will be able to build a climate
conducive to communication.
• 6.Be patient : Give enough time to the talker .Do not get aggressive or emotional
about what is being said.Do not jump to conclusiosn .Allow the speaker to finish
before asking him something.
• 7. Hold your temper: Anger blocks the minds of others’ words.So, do not lose
temper about what is being said if it is not in accordance with your principles or
views.
• 8.Go easy on argument and criticism: Remember, arguments cannot be
• won and do they do not land a person anywhere. So, go easy on criticism.
• 9. Ask questions: Asking questions shows interest on the part of the listener .So ,
have an open mind and ask questions to clarify and show interest.
• 10.Stop talking: Once again, effective listeners always silence their innerselves to
prepare themselves for listening activity.
2.7: Silence as communication:
1.Can send out negative signals – If somebody asks us for a loan and we keep quite , it
will be construed as a negative response.
Silence shows disinterestedness-not asking questions in the class; reaming silent on
being asked something.
Collective silence of the workers in an office communicates a lot about their attitude to
work.
There is a world of difference between a place buzzing with raucous noises and one that
has people working quietly .Working quietly shows satisfaction while making noises at
work shows some discontent.
In a meeting or a group discussion if somebody keeps quiet it is construed that he is
mentally absent or probably not really interested in what is going on. It may also be
interpreted as his ignorance of the matter being discussed .In the same way a
candidate’s silence in an interview betrays his ignorance.
Silence on the part of the audience at the time of speech shows interest and participative
listening .
2.8 : Written communication:
Salient features of written communication:
1.A creative activity
2.Time factor
3. Fewer Cycles
Advantages of written communication:
Provides records , references, ,etc.
Maintenance of proper records , letters , reports and memos build up legal defenses of
the organization
Promotes uniformity in policy and procedure
Gives access to a large audience through mass mailings.
Builds up the organization’s image
Has the advantage of being accurate and unambiguous
Is permanent in nature
Facilitates proper assignation of responsibilities
Disadvantages of written communication:
• Creates mountains of paper
• Runs the risk of becoming ineffective in the hands of people otherwise good in their
job but poor in expression
• Is mostly handicapped by its inability to get immediate feedback.
• Written communication is a costly process
• It is costly in terms of man-hours lost in taking dictation, typing , entering in the
diary , desptching etc.
• Clarification cannot be given immediately
Any breakdown in communicating a message is known as a barrier to communication.
Problems /barriers /breakdowns may arise at any of the following levels:
• The sender’s level:
(1.) formulating /organizing thought , ideas, message ;
(2.) encoding the message
• The receiver’s level in :
• receiving the message
• decoding the received message
• understanding /interpreting the message
• Transmission level where “noise” occurs
• The feedback /reaction level that is a necessary condition of the completion of the
entire process.
2.9: Barriers to communication:
1.Noise:
2. Lack of planning
3. Wrong/unclarified assumptions
4. Semantic problems
5. Cultural barriers
6.Socio-Psychological barriers
7. Emotions
8.Selective perception
9. Filtering
10. Information overload
11. Loss by transmission
12. Poor retention
13.Poor listening
14.Insufficient period for adjustment
15. Goal –Conflicts
16. Offensive style of communication
Barriers to communication :
1.Noise: Unfortunately communication is very often affected /distorted/blunted by noise
primarily at the transmission level .Literally the word “noise” means “interference” that
occurs in a signal and prevents you from hearing sounds properly”. It is , therefore, the
first major barrier to communication .In a factory, for example, where there are machines
and engines making a constant noise, communication becomes difficult. Blaring
loudspeakers around is bound to interfere with your conversation ,whether face to face or
on telephone .In the same way a static in the transmission line, as in a poor telephone line
connection or faulty TV cable distorts the sound signal and affects communication. In the
same way some technical problem in the ultramodern communication systems or adverse
weather conditions interfering with transmission may lead to major communication
barriers /breakdowns.
Noise, in its wider connotations includes many other factors that are likely to hinder
communication. For example, on the sender’s part encoding may be faulty because of the
use of confusing or ambiguous symbols. At the receiver’s level reception may be inaccurate
because of inattention. Decoding may be faulty because of wrong or unexpected
interpretation may be attached to words/symbols. At the receiver’s level reception may be
inaccurate becsue of inattention.Decoding may be faulty because wrong or unexpected
interpretation may be attached to to words/symbols. Understanding of the message may be
warped by prejudices. Desired results may not take palce because of fear or inherent
resistance to change.In this way we see that noise is not one single factor but a whole range
of factors rolled into one big barricade that we must make every effort to overcome but we
cannot wish away with.
2. Lack of planning: Communication , especially in business environment , is not a casual
affair .But unfortunately, some people take it lightly. The result is that the message to be
sent across may not be carefully planned. It may not be properly organized or composed ,
or may be transmitted through a wrongly chosen medium. For example, giving a long
winding narration of events /meetings /results etc in respect of sales during a particular
period where a presentation through tables /graphs is needed will lead to
miscommunication.In the same way careful choice of time is also very important.And so is
the choice of place.
3. Wrong/unclarified assumptions: Communication quite often breaks down or becomes an
embarrassing affair if we keep acting on assumptions without caring to seek clarifications.
As somebody has lightly but effectively said , “If you assume you make an ass of U (“you)
and me.” If for example, somebody , say a customer , writes to us that he /she would be
visiting our office /factory on a particular day without caring to write /telephone that he
she would like to be picked up assuming that we will do all that as a routine, it will be
regarded as a case of incompelete communication.It may lead to loss of goodwill.
4. Semantic problems: Communication is primarily concerned with the transmission of
meaning the systematic study of which is semantics. That is why any problem arising from
expression /transmission of meaning are called semantic problems or barriers. Most of the
communication is based on words and words are liable to be used in myriad different ways.
The number of words, howeverlarge, is limited, but the contexts , intended meanings and
interpretations, their combinations and usages are many times more. The meaning is in
the mind of the receiver as also in that of the sender. It is , therefore, of vital importance for
the sender to encode his message in such a way that the receiver decodes it to get the
intended meaning. And very often that does not happen.
5. Cultural barriers :Cultural differences in international environment often cause
communication problems. The same catgory of words , phrases, symbols , actions , colours
mean different things to people of different countries /cultural backgrounds.For example ,
in Western countries black colour is associated with death and mourning while in the Far
East white is the colour of mourning. In the United States people love to be called by their
last name .In the hierarchical structure of Indian society and business environment also the
last name is important.
6.Socio-Psychological barriers: The attitudes and pinions , place in society and status –
consciousness arising from one’s position in the hierarchical structure of the organization ,
the state of one’s relations with peers , seniors, juniors, family background –all these
factors deeply influence one’s ability to communicate both as a sender and receiver , both
in encoding and decoding the messages .Status –consciousness is widely known to be a
serious communication barrier in rganization. It creates psychological distance leading to
breakdown of communication or miscommunication. A ma high up in an organization
often builds up a wall around himself that the people below find it difficult to break
through .Thus it is seen that power –centers restrict participation of the less powerful in
decision –making .In the same wat one;s family background formulates one’s attitudes and
communication skills.
7. Emotions: Encoding and decoding of messages depends to quite some extent on one’s
emotional state at a particular time.Extreme emotions, like jubilation or depression, are
likely to hinder effective communication .Anger is the worst enemy of communication. A
message received when one is angry is likey to be interpreted in a very different manner
than when one is calm and composed .Stress may also lead to building up of negative
emotions , further leading to communication breakdown.
8.Selective perception: It means that the receivers selectively see and hear depending upon
their needs , motivations, background , experience and other personal characteristics
.While decoding the messages they project their own interests and expectations into the
process of communication further leading to a particular kind of feedback.The fact is that
we don’t see reality .We interpret what we see and call it reality.
9. Filtering: Filtering means that a sender manipulates information in such a way that it
will be seen more favorably by the receiver. For example, a manager likes to tell his boss
what he feels his boss wants to hear. In this process he is filtering information. The result
of filtering is that the man at the top perhaps never gets objective information. The lower
level specialists provide information in such a way that they would get the answer they
wanted. In the process opf filtering the information for onward transmission to the senior
executives, the people at the lower levels condense and synthesize it, this sometimes holding
back /ignoring some important parts of information.Th emore vertical levels in the
hierarchical system, the more there are chances of filtering.
10. Information overload: Unrestricted flow of information may, and very often does ,
become another barrier .Too much information is no unmixed blessing. It may stfle the
senior executive or bore and frustrate him .Peopel respond to this kind of information in
different ways.Firstly , they may disregard certia information as, for example, we see that
very many letters are ignored .Secondly , people are also likely to make errors , when they
becomes overwhelmed or swamped with too much information .Thirdly, people may delay
processing /responding to information at least for the time being. Delay may become a
habit, causing serious communication problems.Fourthly , people may becomes highly
selective in their response .And selectivity may and may not contribute to effective
communication.
11. Loss by transmission: When messages pass on from person to person in a series of
transmissions they are likely to become less and less accurate .They get diluted on the way.
12. Poor retention: Human memory has limited capacity to retain information. Thus, the
necessity of repeating the message using several channels/media becomes obvious. That is
why organizations often use more than one m,edium to communicate with the same
message.
13.Poor listening : Poor listening causes serious problems in communication. Thre are two
many talkers and too few listeners .The importance of listening has already been
highlighted .And, ofcourse ,everybody knows about it. But even then problems do keep
cropping owing to poor listening and hasty evaluation .One reason is that mostly people are
too much involved in their own problems and pampering their own egos. The result is that
they are really not interested in the speaker. In order to become good listeners we have to
learn to rise above our egos, keep our eyes and ears open and empathise with others.
Otherwise the habit of poor listening is bound to become a major barrier to
communication.
14.Insufficient period for adjustment: As has been said in the beginning the purpose of
communication is to effect change. It may concern change in employees’ shifts in time , an
employee’s transfer to another department, change in type of work , decisions regarding
the skills to be used and so on. The management may decide to send communications
regarding further training , career adjustment etc. People respond to change in different
ways , and they require their own time to think about the full meaning , implications, and
consequences of the message. It is, therefore, important to give them sufficient time .Only
then the communication will be effective.
15. Goal –Conflicts: Various units and sub-units in an organization internalize their goals ,
leading to splitting or bifurcation of interests. This internalization of sub –unit goals while
communication can be conflict –reduction mechanism. When two parties start competing
for the fulfillment of their narrow sectional interests a number of barriers to
communication arise.
16. Offensive style of communication: Experts point out, and as we also realize , the
greatest barrier to communication is quite often the style of communication used by the
manager .When a manager sends a message in such a way that the workers /juniors
become defensive he /she contributes to the negative factor of poor interpersonal
relationship. And if the relationships are already strained, any offensive style adopted by
the manager is bound to lead to communication breakdown.
______________________________________________________________________
How to overcome barriers to communication:
1.Clarity of purpose
2. Shared activity
3.Common set of symbols
4. Focus on the needs of the receiver
5. Use feedback
6. Active listening
7. Controlling emotions
8.Politeness
9. Eliminate noise
10. Clarify assumptions
11. Avoiding connotations and ambiguities
12. Socio-psychological aspect
13. Completeness
14. Conciseness
15. Proper use of body language
1.Clarity of purpose: In the first place we must make careful analysis of what exactly we
wish to communicate .As is often the case in business , we may not be bale to clarify the
issue completely, unless it is by nature very simple. But any effort made in this direction
proves to be fruitful.Hence it is absolutely necessary to understand the purpose of our
message. And this requires careful planning. Lack of planning becomes the first major
barrier in communication .Communication does not just take place.We have to make all
possible efforts to understand the why’s and how’s , the when and where , and above all the
“what” of our message. As George Bernard Shaw says , “The major mistake in
communication is to believe that it happens.”
2. Shared activity:
Communication is the responsibility of all persons in the organization. That may be at any
level –managerial or non-managerial. They are all working towards a common goal .It
means that all of them have a share , directly or indirectly , in many different ways , in the
process of communication. Whether communication is effective can be judged on the basis
of the intended results .And the results are the responsibility of the entire organization.It
has, therefore, to be group-responsibility. Managers are advised to consult with others
whenever necessary .Often it is necessary to seek authority to communicate before a
message is sent , or someone is to be kept in the picture in regard to the action intended.
3.Common set of symbols: The encoding and decoding of the message should be done with
symbols that are familiar to the sender and the receiver .It is an immutable condition of
communication that the code or set of symbols be mutually understood/intelligible. That is
why managers, and especially the specialist staff, are advised to avoid unnecessary
technical jargon which is intelligible only to the experts in their respective fields. Quite
often communication becomes ineffective if the specalists /technical experts , who are
accustomed to using a special kind of vocabulary and phraseology among themselves , use
their particular variety of language even with the administrative or accounts section of the
organization. They must remember that, beyond their jargon ,there is a common core of
language.
4. Focus on the needs of the receiver: whenever we communicate we must keep in mind the
needs of the receivers of the message /information. It should be our endeavour to see that
whenver we communicate should be of value to the receiver , both in the short run and in
the distant future. Our awareness of the needs of the receiver will make him more
receptive.
5. Use feedback: “Communication is complete only when the message is understood by the
receiver .And we can never know whether communication/message is understood unless the
sender gets feedback .Many communication problems arise because of misunderstandings
and inaccuracies.They are less likely to occur if we make sure that “feedback loop” is
utilized is the communication process. We can achieve this target by asking questions ,
requesting a reply to a letter, and encouraging the receiver to give his reations to the
message /information.
6. Active listening: Active or “participative” listening is as important as any other element
in the process of communication. It shows , again, that communication is a joint
responsibility of both the sender and the receiver .
7. Controlling emotions: Emotions play an important in interpersonal relationships
between superiors , subordinates and colleagues in an organization. It should , be therefore
an important aim of communication to create an environment in which people are
motivated to work toward the desired goals of the enterprise while they achieve their
personal goals.There must be generated a healthy climate of involvement and synergistic
growth.It must also be remembered that an important function of communication is
control-not just top –down control but also self control.It means that a successful
communicator must learn /train himself to execise restraint on his emotions , especially
anger .The truth is that we do not always communicate in a fully rational manner.Our
reasoning is often clouded with negative emotions /feelings. And that leads to all sorts of
misunderstandings owing to emotion loaded encoding of the message or misinterpretation
of the incoming message
8.Politeness: This leads us to the tonal aspect of communication.There is a saying, “The
tone makes the music”. In the same way , in communication , the tone of the voice , the
choice of language and the congruency or logical connection between what is said and how
it is said influence reactions of the receiver. That is why managers are advised to shun
authoritarianism , or in other words , to exercise authority with grace. Everbody knows
that politeness pays, and it is reflected so very “loudly” both in words and
actions.Moreover , in an organization, politeness encourages participative communication
involving people at all levels , leading to lateral and diagonal communication from the
conventional , hierarchically –structured downward communication.
9. Eliminate noise: Ever possible effort must be made to eliminate the element of noise that
distorts communication at the transmission stage.It becomes especially important in the
wake of modern technological advancement. Anything going wrong with the equipment or
any disturbance in the transmission line is bound to defeat the very purpose of
communication.
10. Clarify assumptions: No effective communication can be based on assumptions. The
sender of the message must first clarify his assumptions and then go ahead with proper
encoding of the message.
11. Avoiding connotations and ambiguities: Semantic problems can be solved by using
simple language and avoiding connotations. Care must be taken to see that the receiver of
the message does not have to go beyond the text of the message .A sender should , therefore,
use denotative words and expressions in preference to connotative ones.It is also necessary
to avoid all ambiguity that means using words with double meaning.
12. Socio-psychological aspect: As communication is a two-way process involving both the
sender and the receiver , both should make conscious efforts to understand each other’s
cultural and socio- psychological background.
13. Completeness: One must also endeavor to send a complete message, furnishing all
necessary facts and figures. Incomplete communication annoys the receiver as a result of
which proper feedback will not come. The message should be so organized
14. Conciseness: Completeness does not mean inclusion of unnecessary details or diversion.
An effective communication is concise and crisp .The sender should be clear headed and
properly focused in his vision.
15. Proper use of body language: Proper use of body language is of paramount importance
, especially in oral communication. No oral communication can be successful or effective if
we do not take care of body language .In the first place there must be good eye-contact with
the person to whom we are speaking. The movement of our hands and feet must be
graceful .Every listener observes carefully how we walk and how we talk. Our gait says a
lot about us. A warm handshake can do wonders. Holding our head straight on our
shoulders shows confidence.Infact, our overall appearance can really make or mar our
communication.
2.10: Seven C’s of communication:
For transmitting effective written or oral messages, certain principles must be followed.
These principles advocated by Francis J. Bergin provide guidelines for the choice of
content and style of presentation adapted to the purpose of the receiver of the
message.They are also called the seven Cs of communication.They
are:1.Completeness2.Conciseness3. Consideration 4. Concreteness 5.Clarity, 6. 6.Courtesy
7.Correctness
Completeness :
Conciseness
Consideration
Concreteness
Clarity
Courtesy
Correctness
1.
• Completeness: A business message is complete when it contains all facts the
reader or listener needs to give a desired response. People are influenced by
their backgrounds, viewpoints, needs, experiences, attitudes, status and
emotions. Because of all these differences, communication senders need to
assess their messages through the eyes of receivers to be sure they have
included all relevant information.
One must keep the following guidelines in mind , as one strives for completeness.
a.)Provide all necessary information
b.) Answer all questions asked
c.) Give something extra ,when desirable
2.Conciseness: Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible
words without sacrificing the other qualities. A concise message is complete without being
wordy.
Conciseness is a prerequisite to effective business communication. A concise business
message saves time and expense for both sender and receiver .Conciseness contributes to
emphasis ;by eliminating unnecessary words , one lets important ideas stand out.
To achieve conciseness , one must observe the following:
• Eliminate wordy expressions
• Include only relevant material
• Avoid unnecessary repetition.
How to eliminate wordy expressions:
1.Use single –word substituites instead of phrases whenver possible without changing
meanings:
a.) Wordy : Have a need for
Concise: need
2.Omit trite , unnecessary expressions:
Wordy : Please be advised that your admission statement was received.
Concise: Your admission statement has been received.
3.Replace wordy conventional statements with concise versions:
Wordy : Please find attached the list you requested.
Concise : The list you requested is attached.
• Avoid overusing empty phrases.
Wordy : It was known by Mr. Smith that we must reduce inventory.
Concise: Mr.Smith knew we must reduce inventory.
• Omit “which” and “that” clauses whenever possible.
Wordy: She bought desks that are of the executive type.
Concise: She bought executive-type desk.
• Eliminate unnecessary prepositional phrases.
Wordy: The issue of most relevance is teamwork.
Concise: The most relevant issue is teamwork.
• Limit the use of the passive voice.
Wordy: The total balance due will be found on page 2 of this report.
Concise: The balance due is on page 2 of this report.
3.Consideration: Consideration means preparing every message with the
message receivers in mind;try to put yourself in their place . You are considerate
, you do not lose your temper, you do not accuse, you do not charge them
without facts. You are, foremost , aware of their desires, problems,
circumstances, emotions, and probable reactions to your request. Then handle
the matter from their point of view .This thoughtful consideration is also called
“You –attitude”, empathy, the human touch, and understanding of human
nature.
Three specific ways to indicate consideration are :
a.)Focus on “You” instead of “I” and “we”.
b.) Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver.
c.) Emphasize positive , pleasant facts.
We –Attitude : I am delighted to announce that we will be extending our hours to make
shopping more convenient.
You-Attitude: You will be able to shop evenings with the extended hours.
4.
Concreteness: Communicating concretely means being specific ,definite and vivid than
vague and general. Often it means using explicit rather than connotative( ideas) words.
Guidelines for composing concrete ,convincing messages:
• Use specific facts and figures
• Put action in your verbs
• Choose vivid , image building words.
1.Vague statement: Student GMAT scores are higher.
Concrete : In 1996 the GMAT scores averaged 600; by 1997 they had risen to 610.
• Put action in your words:
Passive : The test were administered by the professors.
Active : Professors administered the tests.
• Choose vivid words:
Bland expression: Her work in groups was exemplary.
Vivid: She could be called the spark plug of the group.
5.
Clarity: Getting the meaning from your head into the head of your reader –
accurately –is the purpose of clarity.
Guidelines for bringing clarity in expressions:
• Choose precise , concrete and familiar words.
• Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
a.)Choose precise , concrete and familiar words:
Familiar: about
Pretentious: Circa(L)
b.) Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
Unclear: His report was about mangers , broken down by age and gender.
Clear: His report focused on age and gender of managers.
6.
Courtesy: True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspective of
others, but also of their feelings .Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude . It
is not merely politeness with mechanical insertions of “please” and “thank-you”,
although applying socially accepted manners is a form of courtesy.Rather , it is
politness that grows out of respect and concern for others.
Suggestions for generating a courteous tone :
• Be sincerely tactful , thoughtful and appreciative.
• Use expressions that show respect.
• Choose nondescrminatory expressions.
a.)sincerely tactful , thoughtful and appreciative:
Tactless, Blunt: I rewrote that letter three times; the point was clear.
More tactful: I’m sorry the point was not clear; here is another version.
b.)Expressions that show respect:
Offensive : Give my regards to the little lady-And wish her the best for the new
life your are about to start with her;she will need it.
Respectful: Give our warm regards to your partner.
c.) Choose nondescrminatory expressions:
7.Correctness: At the core of correctness is proper grammar , punctuation and spelling.
However, the message must also be factually correct.
Guidelines for composing a correct message:
1. Use the right level of language
2.Check accuracy of figures , facts and words
3.Maintain acceptable writing mechanics
• Use the right level of language : There are three levels of language : formal,
informal, and substandard.
Formal : Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writng :doctoral dissertations
,scholarly articles, legal documents , top-level government agreements, and other materials
where formality in style is demanded.The style is unconventional , usually impersonal , and
often contains long and involved sentences.
Informal: Informal writing is more characteristic of business writing .Here you use words
that are short , well-known, and conversational .
More formal: Participate , Procure, Endeavour, Ascertain
Less formal: Join, get, try, find out
Questionable : Manpower
More desirable: Workers, Employees , Work force
Difference between Intrapersonal and interpersonal communication:
The difference is that "interpersonal" refers to relationships or actions that take
place between two or more people while "intrapersonal" refers to things that go on
exclusively within one person.
"Inter" is a prefix meaning "between." That is why, in the US, they have interstate highways.
These are highways that go between states. We have intermediate schools in some places.
These are schools that go between grade school and high school. Similarly, we have
interpersonal relations that are between two or more people.
"Intra" is a prefix meaning "within." In schools, we sometimes have intramural sports. This
means that the sports are "within the walls" of the school. They are sports played against teams
from within the same school. Similarly, we have intrapersonal issues which exist only within
one person.
Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within an individual. An
individual uses this type of communication for various purposes such as analyzing situations,
clarifying concepts, and reflecting upon phenomena. There are three elements that govern
intrapersonal communication, namely self-concept, perception and expectation. An individual
employs certain methods to communicate within themselves and these are internal discourse
where thinking, concentration and analyzing occur, solo vocal communication which involves
speaking out aloud to oneself, and solo written communication that encompasses writing not
intended for others.
Interpersonal communication on the other hand is the type of communication that takes place
between people. People communicate with each other for a number of reasons such as to explain,
to teach, to inquire, and to inform. The channel of interpersonal communication consists of four
basic elements; sender, message, medium and receiver. There are verbal and non-verbal forms of
communication that are used to conduct interpersonal communication and these include letters,
signs, notes, text messages, e-mails, memos as well as face-to-face conversations.
Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal Communication; compare their
merits & demerits.
Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal Communication; compare their merits &
demerits.
Interpersonal and intrapersonal communication can be differentiated on the following base.
Interpersonal communication:
Introduction: interpersonal communication is the kind of communication which takes place
within or among more than two people with use of different mediums of communication. With
betterment and advancement of the communication mediums, it has brought the community
closer.
Definition:
When communication takes place face to face, both the sender and the receiver reflect personal
characteristics as well as social role and relationships. Some theorists include particularly the
role of mediator in the communication.
Relationship:
For having a proper communication, both the sender and the receiver should have a cordial
relationship.
Face to face meeting:
Communication involves face to face meetings whilst exchanging idea, thoughts and other form
of words between the participants. Here the communication might be mediated by using different
types of mediums of communication such as television channels, telephonic lines and other
modern mediums.
Roles:
Each and every communicator plays distinctive roles in forming a relation between them.
However, there is another definition of communication as ―who says what, in which channel, to
whom and with what effects‖. It is my personal reflection that the communication of this
definition does not reflect time and where does it take place, more than that communication in
modern era does not merely involve talking but it is larger community or social context.
Process of interpersonal communication:
The process of communication can be viewed from the general persspective of Shannon and
Weaver, of this model of communication, there are four basic components forming a proper
communication including the sender and message, the medium and the receiver. Here the noise
provides an additional component.
Here the first two components the sender and message, the sender composes a message to
persuade the receiver. The sender encodes the message properly so as to make sure that the
message will be reflected by the receiver under proper channel.
The channel of communication in this model refers to the mode by which the message is
transmitted. Most familiar channels advancing in the modernity are Radios, television and
telephonic. However, interpersonal communication is different in this regard to mass
communication since some participants may not use certain medium and communication may
take place with face-to-face way.
The forth components of the model is the receiver. The receiver is responsible for receiving the
message and decoding it in way that they could intelligently respond to the source.
Here the interaction of message takes place when the receiver responses the sender after
decoding properly and it is in form of feedback, it helps to clarify the message and enhance
communication properly. It is cyclical process of communication.
There are different types of communications in terms of number of participants involving:
2. Dyadic communication:
This type of communication lies within two people, for instance discussion takes place between
the Teacher and his student about communication
2. Group communication
The group communication consists of participants more than three;
Public communication
This typeof communication involves a larger number of participants.It basically forms one style
of communication process. The feedback of the receiver is minimal. It takes place in larger
audience and mostly takes place for entertainment and persuasion.
Interpersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication takes place within one person. It is meant to reflect oneself to
clarify something. There are three concept of intrapersonal communication namely as following:
2. Self-conception
It is the one of the concepts of intrapersonal communication because it determines how one sees
himself and how he is oriented to others. It is also known as self-awareness. There are several
factors affecting the communication.
a) Belief
It is self-orientation to know what is true or false, good or bad. It might be descriptive or
prescriptive.
b) Values
Values are integral part of belief to determine what is right or wrong. It is a deep seated
foundation lying within the person’s mind and concept.
c) Attitude
It is a learned idea of the person and it is generally consistent with values. It is often
emotional.An expression of favor or disfavor towards something.
a. Perception
While the self-concept lies internally and perception focuses outward. It is deep rooted in belief,
values and attitude. It is related and closely intertwined with self concept to create better
understanding of both within and outside world.
b. Expectation
It is futuristic oriented message dealing with long term occurrence. People form expectations on
the basis of the strength of ones’ learned ideas within the society.
There are different types of intrapersonal communications as following
f.Internal discourse
Internal discourse relates to thinking, concentrating and analysing within one self. It might of day
dreaming, praying or meditating.
g.Solo-vocal
It is that communication which takes place while one shouts loudly for clarifying one-self or
rehearsing, when you are talking to yourselves when students don’t do homework properly, you
might talk yourself to remind on the next time to redo it.
h.Solo-written communication
It deals with writing for oneself and not for others. Like writing notes for your future use.
Merits and demerits of intra and interpersonal communication:
2. Irreversibility of communication
Merits:
Once when interpersonal communication has taken place, it could not be held back. When it has
conveyed properly and in a better way, there is always a good impact
Demerits:
In contrast , it leaves a bad impression if the message is not conveyed properly.
2. Communication does not only be verbal communication
Merits:
When you are in good mood, you may convey to others in better way.
Demerit:
The communication might be of body language and it is really hard stop when something goes
on emotionally, at that point of time, you may resort to have violence interaction.
Situation
Merits:
The communication can also be depending on the situation, when situation will be calm both
psychologically and sociologically then communication will flow smoothly
Demerits:
When the situation of discourse is unpleasant , the communication may turn out to be unpleasant.
Merits and demerits of intrapersonal communication
Demerits:
When the intrapersonal communication takes place, there is no feedback since there is no
receiver to decode whatever he talks about himself.
Merits:
Intrapersonal communication does not need to wait for secondary feedback and it could take
place whenever he/she wants
Unit-2
Body language and conversational skills
2.11: Non –Verbal communication
Kinesics ,Proxemics and Paralanguage
Verbal communication: 7%
Bodily movements , gestures -55%
Voice tone,inflection etc.-38%
• It can be defined as communication that involves neither written nor spoken words
but takes place without the use of words.
• In it we are concerned with such things as body movements, space ,time,
voice/tone,pitch, general characteristics of the environment colour ,design, and any
other kinds of visual and /or audio signals that the communicator may devise.
• Reflection of thoughts ,Feelings and Position:
• 1. All bodily movements –postures , gestures etc. are guided by our thought
processes.
• 2.By nodding our head, blinking our eyes, waving our hands, shrugging our
shoulders , and various other ways we send out signals and messages that often
speak louder than words.
• That is why this area of inquiry has been called Body Language.
• Just as language uses sets of symbols to convey meaning , our body ,consciously as
well as unconsciously or instinctively carries messages ,attitudes, status
relationships, moods, warmth/indifference, positive/negative feelings and so on.
• We have , however, to infer these meanings from body symbols.
We look for these symbols in the face and eyes, gestures, posture, and physical appearance
each of which has its own functions.
Importance of Body language:
• “When people don’t know whether to believe what they are hearing or what they
are seeing ,they go with the Body Language-it tells the truth.
• You can play fast and loose with words , but it is much more difficult do that with
gestures.-Nancy Austin
• “Status manifests itself subtly in a relaxed posture and way of interacting .The
classic example is that of a soldier standing at attention in the presence of a superior
officer. His body is extremely tense and perfect symmetry –signs of subservience”
Prof.Alber Mehrabian
Kinesics:
• Facial expression:
• “The face is the index of mind”.
• Consider the facial expressions generally associated with happiness, surprise, fear ,
anger, sadness, bewilderment, astonishment, and contentment.
• Different kinds of smiles: a frown, corners of lips, the position of eye brows, the
cheeks-whether drawn up or back or drooping , the jaw , nose/nostrils, the position
of the eye brows, and observe our own expressions by looking at ourselves in a
mirror.
• The thoughts and feelings conveyed may be positive or negative. It follo0ws then,
that, we can change our behavior/expression by changing the inner nature.
• Eye Contact :
• When we look at somebody’s face we focus primarlily on his eyes and try to
understand what he means.
• The eyes , alongwith the eyebrows,eyelids and the size of the pupils convey our
innermost feelings.
• Eyebrows and eyelids raised and combiled with dilated pupils tell us that the person
is excited, surprised or frightened .
• On the other hand, eyebrows with upper and lower eyelids closed and combined
with constricted pupils tell us that the person is angry or in pain.
• Eye movement also conveys different kinds of meanings:
• Looking at somebody for a long time shows the intensity of our interest in him.
• A brief eye contact indicates nervousness or embarrassment on our part.
• Gestures: Physical movement of legs ,arms, hands, torso and head.
• They play a very important role in conveying meaning without using words.
• Examples: Pounding your fist on the table shows anger.
• A fore finger held high above the head shows number 1.
• A fore –finger and thumb touching to form a circle stands for “OK”.
• Arms spread wide apart convey the meaning of “wide”
• Shuffling from one leg to another means “nervous”.
• Torso erect and extended ,slightly forward has been interpreted as intense.
• Head and Posture:
• “Hold your head high”: Sign of honour ,self-respect and self confidence, integrity
and interest.
• A head bent low ,depending upon the situation would show modesty, politeness or
diffidence.
• A head drawn too far backwards or stiffly held up straight up indicates pride or
haughtiness .
• Head jerks indicate insolence , rejection, or agreement depending upon the context
and the personality of the person concerned.
• Nodding the head sideways or back and forth conveys the intended meaning more
eloquently than words.
• Leaning backward or forward ,standing or sitting erect ,slouching haphazardly or
bending sideways-all these postures make an immediate impression on the other
person’s mind.
• Appearance : Clothing ,hair ,jewellery ,cosemtics. All these may seem unrelated to
body language. But on having a closer look we find that they are very meaningfully
related to our face,eyes, gestures and postures.
Effective use of body Language:
• 1. Mind the body talk
• 2. Carefully identify the little things that people do when they are tense.Some people
play with the lock of their hair or pen in their hand.These things undermine the
strength of what we want to say.
• 3. Be careful with the handshake.
• 4.Establish good eye contact
• 5.Communicate at the level of the person before you.
• 6. We must be ourselves
• 7. Graceful movements and confident posture improve the atmosphere at the
workplace.
Advantages of Body Language:
• 1.Body language is the most easily visible part of communication.
• It , therefore, helps the receiver of he message in decoding the message.
• 2. Body language complements verbal communication .Specially in face-to-face , no
message can be completely sent across without the accompaniment of facial
expressions and gestures.It helps in establishing rapport.
• 3. Body language adds intensity to the process of communication .In the absence of
any gestures , change of posture , proper eye contact any face-to –face
communication will look bland or insipid.
• 4.Because people care for body language it goes a long way to improve the overall
atmosphere and looks of the organization. A resourceful manager can make very
effective use of it.
• Limitations of Body Language : 1.Since it is non-verbal communication ,relying on
facial expressions , gestures it cannot be wholly relied upon. Words written or
spoken can be taken seriously , but body language cannot always be taken seriously.
• 2.People belonging to different cultural backgrounds send out different signals. One
has to be , therefore, to be vary carefully careful in their use and understanding.
• 3. Facial expressions , gestures, postures etc. become ineffective if the listener is
inattentive .It , therefore, requires extra care in getting the right message.
• 4. Use of body language is not very effective in large gatherings .It is effective in
face-to-face situation , that means there are just two or a small number of
participants in the communication situation.
•
• Facial expression:
• “The face is the index of mind”.
• Consider the facial expressions generally associated with happiness, surprise, fear ,
anger, sadness, bewilderment, astonishment, and contentment.
• Different kinds of smiles: a frown, corners of lips, the position of eye brows, the
cheeks-whether drawn up or back or drooping , the jaw , nose/nostrils, the position
of the eye brows, and observe our own expressions by looking at ourselves in a
mirror.
Paralanguage:
• Voice : The first signal we receive or use is our voice.It tells us so much about the
speaker’s gender , background, education, training and temperament.
• There are all kinds of voices – clear, musical, raucus, cultivated, pleasant/unpleasant
and son on.
• Unless damaged by some injury to the vocal cords or some neurological problem,
the human voice normally does a satisfactory job.In other words, it coveys the
meaning or the message.That is why, it is absolutely necessary in certain jobs for the
applicant to have a clear and pleasant voice.
• For example, jobs involving the use of telephone ,traffic control , tape-recording etc.
require a very clear voice.
• A.)Pitch variation: Most of us introduce wide variations in pitch while speaking .It
is necessary to catch the listener’s attention and to keep him interested in us. Those
who speak in monotones fail to keep the listener’s attention. That is why the wor
“monotonous” has come to be used as a synonym for “boring” .Many speakers are
not aware of this weakness on their part. Once they become aware of it, the problem
can be solved.
• B.) Speaking speed : In the first place it must be made clear that fluency in a
language is not the same thing as the speed of speaking. We, do however, speak at
different speeds on different occassions and while conveying different parts of the
message . As a general rule we should present easy parts of the message at a brisk
pace because it is likely to be understood easily and soon. On the other hand, the
difficult ,complicated , highly technical part of the information should be conveyed
at a slower pace. If we reverse the order the result will be counterproductive.
• C.) Pause: The pace or speed of speaking is also accompanied by pause. We d not ,
go on speaking without pausing voluntarily or involuntarily. But the pauses have to
be at the right moments. Incorrect uses of pauses can create problems.A pause can
be highly effective in emphasizing the upcoming subject and in gaining the listener’s
attention .But it must also be noted thatfrequent ,arbitrary pauses spoil the speech
and distract the listener’s attention.
• D.)Volume variation: We must speak loudly enough for all of our audience to hear ,
but not too loudly. The loudness of our voice should be adjusted according to the
size of our audience.The simple
• Logic is that the larger the audience the louder our voice will be. But some speakers
incorrectly believe that the only way to sound convincing is to speak louder and
louder. But the fact is that we become more convincing but adjusting our volume
from loud to soft .
• E.) Proper Word stress: By putting stress or empahsis on a word here or a word
there in the same sentence or utterance we can change the whole meaning .
• Advantages of Paralanguage:
• A.) Paralanguage is very closely allied to language .No oral message is complete
without it.
• B.) Paralanguage is a sufficiently dependable indicator of the speaker’s place in the
organization.On the basis of his voice-quality one can easily guess his position in the
hierarchy.
• C.) Paralanguage tells us quite clearly about the speaker’s educational background.
• D.) Paralanguage speaks volumes about the speaker’s national /regional
background.This information is of immense use to the recever /organization dealing
with him.
• 2. Specially what is said and how it is said must be blended .But very often it does
not happen .It , therefore, requires extra care to get the exact content of the
message.
• 3. The voice quality and pitch of the speaker may unnecessarily prejudice the
receiver of the message .the listener /receiver of the message has, therefore, to be
very open minded and patient.
• 4. Because of the reasons given above paralnguage may sometimes misguide or
mislead.
• 5. As speakers belong to different speech communities it is difficult to achieve
unformity in oral communication.
Proxemics:
• 1.The space around us and its contents convey a definite meaning.Of course , it
requires quite some effort on our part to arrange them meaningfully , and on the
part of others to understand or interpret the meaning. Since it is first of all a
personal matter , proxemics has come to be regarded as”personal space language”.
• 2. Our interaction with the people around us has a rather well-defined or well
understood spatial dimension. Conversely we can say that the spatial dimension or
distance between us and other people tells us something important about our
relations and nature of our communication with them.
• 1. Intimate
• 2.Personal
• 3. Social
• 4.Public
• Distance wise it can be stated as follows:
• 1.Intimate : Physical contact /touch to 18 inches
• 2. Personal : 18 inches to 4 feet
• 3. Social: 4 to 12 feet
• 4. Public: 12 feet to as far as we can see and hear.
• 1.Intimate space : Family members, closest friends and selected people enter this
area.
• 2. Personal space : Normal conversations with close friends, colleagues, associates
and visitors.
• 3. Social space language : Formal purposes –most of our business is done within this
area.
• 4.Public space: Detachment of perception , objectivity of approach and formailty of
communication/speaking.
• 5.Fixed and semi-fixed spaces : Walls, room sizes, the building, its total capacity
,places, corners, counters for special purposes and so on.
• In semi fixed spaces the physical features are, to some extent , changeable or likely
to be rearranged. This flexibility in arrangements permits a variety of spaces that
can be used to conduct different types of communication activities. For example, the
same type of furniture , heavy or not so heavy , can be arranged or rearranged for
an interview, a group discussion , or for an oral presentation.
• 6. Space use: Proxemics is also concerned with the use of space by groups of people.
The way groups of people use the space assigned to them determines their respective
places and interaction patterns. For example people who begin conversation and
those who seated at thefront are usually considered leaders of the group.If the same
people are seated in a row their communication pattern will be of a different nature.
Seated around a round or oval table they will most likely communicate in the form
of a conference.
• 7. Time Language : We communicate with others in terms of time by showing them ,
in our own cultural way , what time means to us. We do this mostly by symbolizing
time, and by sending out signals regarding the importance of time, a particular
point of time and so on.
• “Time management” is now one of the most important parts of overall management.
TMI(Time management international) is one of the most important American
consultancy companies. It renders valuable advice to business organizations in
respect of optimal time use.
• 8. Surroundings: Our surroundings or physical environment speak their own
nonverbal language. It is a vast area .It is, therefore, worthwhile to cover only two
important aspects of our physical context-colour and layout or design for the
purpose of non verbal communication.Through our sensory perception we get
meaning from our surroundings , in the same way as through our choice of colour
and design we send out definite signals to others.
• 9. Colours: Colours are associated with different behaviour patterns , attitudes and
cultural backgrounds .People make serious effort to choose the right colour for any
significant moment and indifference to choice of colour is regarded as lack of
cultivation.
• Pink ,yellow, red , purple, blue, green are gay colours.
• Black and gray are associated with negative feelings.
• 10. Layout and Design: The space arrangement of an office ,carpeting or its absence
, the furniture and its designing everything conveys a meaning. Everybody is
impressed by a “tastefully” furnished office , the layout of a lobby /dining hall/
conference room/ reception desk.
The significance of Body Language :
Body Language Interpretation
Facial expressions
Frown Displeasure , unhappiness
Raised eyebrows Disbelief,happiness, amazement,
freindliness
Narrow eyes and pursed lips anger
Hurling , trembling lips Excitement , nervousness
Drooping lips Sadness , disappointment
Half-open lips Sexual excitement, eagerness
Eye movement /expressions
Eye to eye contact Interest ,keenness
Steady glancing Active listening , interest
Side on glancing Seduction ,sexual interest
Avoidance of eye contact Lack of confidence , discomfort,
embarrassment
Shifting of eyes Lack of concentration , disinterest,
avoidance
Blinking of eyes rapidly Poor confidence
Rubbing one side of the neck gently Insecure , lacking in confidence
Gently stroking the chin Considering issues carefully
Clenching of the fists Angry , irritated
Rubbing of the hands fast Excitement , enthusiasm
Slow rubbing of hands Preoccupation , disinterest
Washing of the hands gesture Done and over with
Fidgeting ,doodling Boredom
Shrugging of shoulders Indifference
Squaring of shoulders Problem solving , concerned listening
Biting the lips , biting finger nails Nervouness , tension
Sitting on the edge of the chair Listening with great interest
Slouching in the chair Lack of interest
Tapping fingers on table /chair Boredom, disinterest
Tilting head Sign of interest
BODY GESTURES
Wringing the fingers Authority /displeasure
Folded arms Not open to suggestions
Arms at the side Open to suggestions and relaxed
Crossed arms Skeptical/defensive
Closing arms behind the head Dominance posture , authority stance
Hands on the hips Anger /defensiveness
Scratching of the head Thoughtful/puzzled/unsure
Styles of Walking Interpretations
Head bent , shoulders drooping walk Depressed , disappointed
Eyes looking towards the ground walk Preoccupied , lost in thought
Eye looking upward in the air walk Preoccupied , searching for solutions
Kicking an imaginary object with leg Anger , frustration
Walking with hands in pocket Withdrawn , shy , thoughtful, macho
Speech and Voice Modulations Interpretation
Voice types Interpretation
1. High-pitched voice Enthusiasm , excitement , eagerness
2.Low –pitched voice Disinterest
3.Slow –paced voice Disappointment
4. Monotonous Voice Boredom ,lack of enthusiasm
5. Sharp tone voice Amazement
6. Fast –paced voice Confidence /or hiding the real issue
Smiles and communication Interpretation
The happy smile
Broad smile or grin Pleased with the interaction
Where both sets of the teeth are exposed
The mouth is oriented upwards
or Only the upper set of teeth are
exposed
Desire to continue with the interaction
Walking styles Interpretation
Head bent , shoulders dropping walk Depressed , disappointed
Eyes looking towards the ground walk Preoccupied , lost in thought
Eye looking upward in the air walk Preoccupied , searching for solutions
Kicking an imaginary object with leg Anger , frustration
Walking with hands in pocket Withdrawn, shy , thoughtful, macho
STANDING : Straight and shoulders pulled back reflect confidence and control. Keeping
hands in the pocket while conversing is neither graceful nor polite . Folded arms and
locked ankles both indicate lack of openness and feelings of discomfort.
SIITING: Slouching or sinking in the chair is bad and slovenly .Avoid this at all costs
.Crossing the legs is seen as a defensive posture. Never ever shake a leg or thigh. It is ugly
and impolite .At times it is seen as a nervous gesture , also.
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS: Have to be warm and friendly .Never try to fake an expression
.Avoid overdoing any of the expressions .the face must never show a frown or a furrow,
These are read as carrying negative connotations .Blank expressions or poker faces are
treated with suspicion or lacking in commitment. These are seen poorly in business
contexts . Meeting the other person in the eye is seen as a sign of interest , while avoiding
the eye contact is viewwd as an attempt at deception .Staring iis not only rude, but
interpreted to mean threat as well. So this is inappropriate all times. Continuous eye
contact is also a strict no , no.
Gestures : To much of gesticulation is seen as having a poor taste .Snapping of fingers,
playing with one’s hair , pursing one’s lips , biting the finger nails are all perceived as poor
and lacking etiquettes .Excessive head nodding is not taken well .The nodding has to be
measured and dignified .Nodding along with smiling is a far more mature response to
agreeing to understanding any conversation.
Unit-3
Levels of Communication
Difference between Intrapersonal and interpersonal communication:
The difference is that "interpersonal" refers to relationships or actions that take
place between two or more people while "intrapersonal" refers to things that go on
exclusively within one person.
"Inter" is a prefix meaning "between." That is why, in the US, they have interstate highways.
These are highways that go between states. We have intermediate schools in some places.
These are schools that go between grade school and high school. Similarly, we have
interpersonal relations that are between two or more people.
"Intra" is a prefix meaning "within." In schools, we sometimes have intramural sports. This
means that the sports are "within the walls" of the school. They are sports played against teams
from within the same school. Similarly, we have intrapersonal issues which exist only within
one person.
Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within an individual. An
individual uses this type of communication for various purposes such as analyzing situations,
clarifying concepts, and reflecting upon phenomena. There are three elements that govern
intrapersonal communication, namely self-concept, perception and expectation. An individual
employs certain methods to communicate within themselves and these are internal discourse
where thinking, concentration and analyzing occur, solo vocal communication which involves
speaking out aloud to oneself, and solo written communication that encompasses writing not
intended for others.
Interpersonal communication on the other hand is the type of communication that takes place
between people. People communicate with each other for a number of reasons such as to explain,
to teach, to inquire, and to inform. The channel of interpersonal communication consists of four
basic elements; sender, message, medium and receiver. There are verbal and non-verbal forms of
communication that are used to conduct interpersonal communication and these include letters,
signs, notes, text messages, e-mails, memos as well as face-to-face conversations.
Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal Communication; compare their
merits & demerits.
Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal Communication; compare their merits &
demerits.
Interpersonal and intrapersonal communication can be differentiated on the following base.
Interpersonal communication:
Introduction: interpersonal communication is the kind of communication which takes place
within or among more than two people with use of different mediums of communication. With
betterment and advancement of the communication mediums, it has brought the community
closer.
Definition:
When communication takes place face to face, both the sender and the receiver reflect personal
characteristics as well as social role and relationships. Some theorists include particularly the
role of mediator in the communication.
Relationship:
For having a proper communication, both the sender and the receiver should have a cordial
relationship.
Face to face meeting:
Communication involves face to face meetings whilst exchanging idea, thoughts and other form
of words between the participants. Here the communication might be mediated by using different
types of mediums of communication such as television channels, telephonic lines and other
modern mediums.
Roles:
Each and every communicator plays distinctive roles in forming a relation between them.
However, there is another definition of communication as ―who says what, in which channel, to
whom and with what effects‖. It is my personal reflection that the communication of this
definition does not reflect time and where does it take place, more than that communication in
modern era does not merely involve talking but it is larger community or social context.
Process of interpersonal communication:
The process of communication can be viewed from the general persspective of Shannon and
Weaver, of this model of communication, there are four basic components forming a proper
communication including the sender and message, the medium and the receiver. Here the noise
provides an additional component.
Here the first two components the sender and message, the sender composes a message to
persuade the receiver. The sender encodes the message properly so as to make sure that the
message will be reflected by the receiver under proper channel.
The channel of communication in this model refers to the mode by which the message is
transmitted. Most familiar channels advancing in the modernity are Radios, television and
telephonic. However, interpersonal communication is different in this regard to mass
communication since some participants may not use certain medium and communication may
take place with face-to-face way.
The forth components of the model is the receiver. The receiver is responsible for receiving the
message and decoding it in way that they could intelligently respond to the source.
Here the interaction of message takes place when the receiver responses the sender after
decoding properly and it is in form of feedback, it helps to clarify the message and enhance
communication properly. It is cyclical process of communication.
There are different types of communications in terms of number of participants involving:
3. Dyadic communication:
This type of communication lies within two people, for instance discussion takes place between
the Teacher and his student about communication
3. Group communication
The group communication consists of participants more than three;
Public communication
This typeof communication involves a larger number of participants.It basically forms one style
of communication process. The feedback of the receiver is minimal. It takes place in larger
audience and mostly takes place for entertainment and persuasion.
Interpersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication takes place within one person. It is meant to reflect oneself to
clarify something. There are three concept of intrapersonal communication namely as following:
3. Self-conception
It is the one of the concepts of intrapersonal communication because it determines how one sees
himself and how he is oriented to others. It is also known as self-awareness. There are several
factors affecting the communication.
a) Belief
It is self-orientation to know what is true or false, good or bad. It might be descriptive or
prescriptive.
b) Values
Values are integral part of belief to determine what is right or wrong. It is a deep seated
foundation lying within the person’s mind and concept.
c) Attitude
It is a learned idea of the person and it is generally consistent with values. It is often
emotional.An expression of favor or disfavor towards something.
c. Perception
While the self-concept lies internally and perception focuses outward. It is deep rooted in belief,
values and attitude. It is related and closely intertwined with self concept to create better
understanding of both within and outside world.
d. Expectation
It is futuristic oriented message dealing with long term occurrence. People form expectations on
the basis of the strength of ones’ learned ideas within the society.
There are different types of intrapersonal communications as following
f.Internal discourse
Internal discourse relates to thinking, concentrating and analysing within one self. It might of day
dreaming, praying or meditating.
g.Solo-vocal
It is that communication which takes place while one shouts loudly for clarifying one-self or
rehearsing, when you are talking to yourselves when students don’t do homework properly, you
might talk yourself to remind on the next time to redo it.
h.Solo-written communication
It deals with writing for oneself and not for others. Like writing notes for your future use.
Merits and demerits of intra and interpersonal communication:
3. Irreversibility of communication
Merits:
Once when interpersonal communication has taken place, it could not be held back. When it has
conveyed properly and in a better way, there is always a good impact
Demerits:
In contrast , it leaves a bad impression if the message is not conveyed properly.
3. Communication does not only be verbal communication
Merits:
When you are in good mood, you may convey to others in better way.
Demerit:
The communication might be of body language and it is really hard stop when something goes
on emotionally, at that point of time, you may resort to have violence interaction.
Situation
Merits:
The communication can also be depending on the situation, when situation will be calm both
psychologically and sociologically then communication will flow smoothly
Demerits:
When the situation of discourse is unpleasant , the communication may turn out to be unpleasant.
Merits and demerits of intrapersonal communication
Demerits:
When the intrapersonal communication takes place, there is no feedback since there is no
receiver to decode whatever he talks about himself.
Merits:
Intrapersonal communication does not need to wait for secondary feedback and it could take
place whenever he/she wants
Unit-2
Body language and conversational skills
Group communication:
A Group Discussion can be defined as a formal discussion involving ten to 12 participants
in a group.
It is a methodology used by an organization to gauge whether the candidate has certain
personality traits and/or skills that it desires in its members. In this methodology, the
group of candidates is given a topic or a situation, given a few minutes to think about the
same, and then asked to discuss the it among themselves for 15-20 minutes.
As in a football game, where you play like a team, passing the ball to each team member
and aim for a common goal, GD is also based on team work, incorporating views of
different team members to reach a common goal.
Here are some of the most important personality traits that a candidate should possess to
do well at a GD:
Team Player
Reasoning Ability
Leadership
Flexibility
Assertiveness
Initiative
Creativity/ Out of the box thinking
Inspiring ability
Listening
Awareness
1. Team Player
It is essential for managers to be team players.
The reason: Managers always work in teams.
At the beginning of his(manager) career, a manager works as a team member. And, later, as a
team leader.
Management aspirants who lack team skills cannot be good managers.
2. Reasoning Ability
Reasoning ability plays an important role while expressing your opinions or ideas at a GD.
For example, on India's growth and its effect's: Any Answer for this should be based on reasons, not assumptions.
3. Leadership
There are three types of situations that can arise in a GD:
~ A GD where participants are unable to establish a proper rapport and do not speak much.
~ A GD where participants get emotionally charged and the GD gets chaotic.
~ A GD where participants discuss the topic assertively by touching on all its nuances and try to
reach the objective.
Here, a leader would be someone who facilitates the third situation at a GD.
A leader would have the following qualities:
~S/he shows direction to the group whenever group moves away from the topic.
~S/he coordinates the effort of the different team members in the GD.
~S/he contributes to the GD at regular intervals with valuable insights.
~S/he also inspires and motivates team members to express their views.
Caution: Being a mere coordinator in a GD does not help, because it is a secondary role.
Contribute to the GD with your ideas and opinions, but also try and steer the conversation
towards a goal.
4. Flexibility
You must be open to other ideas as well as to the evaluation of your ideas: That is what
flexibility is all about.
But first, remember: Never ever start your GD with a stand or a conclusion.
Say the topic of a GD is, 'Should India Ban night work for Women at night hours?'
Some participants tend to get emotionally attached to the topic and take a stand either in favour
or against the topic, ie 'Yes, India should', or, 'No, India should not'.
By taking a stand, you have already given your decision without discussing the topic at hand or
listening to the views of your team members.
Also, if you encounter an opposition with a very strong point at the 11th hour, you end up in a
typical catch-22 situation:
~If you change your stand, you are seen as a fickle-minded or a whimsical person.
~If you do not change your stand, you are seen as an inflexible, stubborn and obstinate person.
5. Assertiveness
You must put forth your point to the group in a very emphatic, positive and confident manner.
Participants often confuse assertiveness with aggressiveness.
Aggressiveness is all about forcing your point on the other person, and can be a threat to the
group. An aggressive person can also demonstrate negative body language, whereas an assertive
person displays positive body language.
6. Initiative
A general trend amongst students is to start a GD and get the initial kitty of points earmarked for
the initiator.
But that is a high risk-high return strategy.
Initiate a GD only if you are well versed with the topic. If you start and fail to contribute at
regular intervals, it gives the impression that you started the GD just for the sake of the initial
points.
Also, if you fumble, stammer or misquote facts, it may work against you.
Remember: You never ever get a second chance to create a first impression.
7. Creativity/ Out of the box thinking
An idea or a perspective which opens new horizons for discussion on the GD topic is always
highly appreciated.
When you put across a new idea convincingly, such that it is discussed at length by the group, it
can only be positive.
You will find yourself in the good books of the examiner.
8. Inspiring ability
A good group discussion should incorporate views of all the team members.
If some team members want to express their ideas but are not getting the opportunity to do so,
giving them an opportunity to express their ideas or opinions will be seen as a positive trait.
Caution: If a participant is not willing to speak, you need not necessarily go out of the way to ask
him to express his views. This may insult him and hamper the flow of the GD.
9. Listening
Always try and strike a proper balance between expressing your ideas and imbibing ideas.
10. Awareness
You must be well versed with both the micro and macro environment.
Your awareness about your environment helps a lot in your GD content, which carries maximum
weightage.
What is the normal duration of a GD? A GD is generally of 15-20 minutes duration.
How many panel members are there to evaluate? There are usually 3-4 panel members to evaluate.
Is there time given for preparation after the topic is given and before starting the GD? Usually some time (2-5 minutes) is given to collect one's thoughts, but there could be instances
when this does not happen, so it is best not to bank on this.
Should I address the panel or the group members? Don't ever make the mistake of addressing the panel members. The GD is between you and the
other members, not the panel members. You must avoid even looking at the panel members
while the GD is in progress. Just ignore their existence.
What is the seating arrangement like? It could be semi-circular, or circular, or seating along side a rectangular table, depending upon
the venue. It is best not to bother about trivial issues like this, which you have no control over.
How should I address the other group members? If you are initiating the discussion, you could do so by collectively addressing the group as
"Friends". Subsequently, you could use names (if the group has had a round of self-introduction
prior to starting the discussion and you remember the names) or simply use pronouns like "he" or
"she".
Suppose I have a lot to say on the topic, should I say all of it? You would not be looked upon favourably if you kept speaking all the time and did not listen to
anyone else. Contrary to the misconception, the person who talks the most is not necessarily the
one who is judged the best. The quality and not the quantity of your contribution is the success
factor.
Should I encourage others to speak up? Do not directly put someone who is consistently silent on the spot by asking him/her to speak up.
If someone has been trying to speak and has a good point but is cut off constantly, you may
encourage him/her to continue with her point as you would like to hear her out.
Are the group members supposed to keep track of the time or will the panel keep track? It would be good if you are conscious of the time, but not to the point of getting so distracted
looking at your watch that you do not contribute to the discussion.
Are we allowed to carry a piece of paper during the GD for noting down important points? Normally you are, but there may be instances when it is specifically forbidden to carry paper.
Is there any particular seating arrangement, which is favourable to the participants? If participants are asked to sit in a circle or a semi circle, one position is as good as another. But
if you are asked to sit on either side of a rectangular table, then choose a position as close to the
centre as possible.
Should we begin the GD by appointing a leader amongst ourselves? No. You should not. Leadership in a GD is established implicitly through one's performance in a
GD.
Should we distribute the total time available to all the participants to ensure that
everybody gets a chance to speak? Since a GD is not a debate or elocution, the participants should not resort to the strategy of
distributing time amongst themselves.
Can we take a definite stand in the GD and then later on during the GD, switch over to
another stand? Yes, provided you do it the right way. In a GD it is quite likely that some other participant's
counter-argument convinces you to your point. If this happens, then it is best if you accept his
argument and explain to the group how your previous argument was true within a narrow range,
and how the new argument is applicable to a broader range. Naturally, it is safer not to make any
rash statements for or against a topic before you learn the facts of the argument. Blindly taking a
stand will definitely lead you to trouble. This does not mean you should sit on the fence. You
may participate actively by pointing out both sides of the issue in a reasonable and logical
manner.
If we do not understand the meaning of the topic, should we ask the moderator to explain it
to us? No. You cannot. Instead of displaying your ignorance in this manner, it is better to wait for some
other participant to explain the meaning of the topic. So listen to the discussion carefully for the
first few minutes and when you have figured out what the topic is about, start participating in the
discussion.
Should we address the other participants by their names or their assigned numbers? As far as possible, you should try and avoid names or numbers. It is better to use pronouns such
as "he", "she", "you" etc. while referring to the members of the group.
Are we expected to stick to the normally accepted line of thought or can we come up with
something radical? By all means you can. It would demonstrate your creativity and originality. Just make sure it is
relevant to the topic.
If I feel strongly about an issue, should I voice my feelings? It is important to be cool and emotionally objective in a GD. If you react emotionally you are
likely to lose control over yourself during the group discussion. You have to be calm and logical,
not emotional in a GD.
Can I use technical terms or jargon, which is clear to me, but not to the group? If you have to use technical terms, please do not use abbreviations. After mentioning the term in
full take time out to explain to the group what it means. It is quite likely that other participants of
the group have a different academic background from you, and you should make sure you are all
on a level playing field.
Do I begin my participation by requesting the group's permission to do so? It is not likely that you will get a chance to ask for such permission. It may also go against you
(as appearing weak on your part).
What is the right time to enter a GD to ensure that I am heard properly? In any GD, there are crests and troughs during the discussion. The crest is when the noise level is
at its peak. The trough is when there is almost total silence. Ideally, you should enter the GD
during the trough period. But in competitive GDs, the crests occur more often and troughs may
not occur at all. In such cases, you could identify the stages in the GD, where ideas dear to you
are being discussed and enter the GD irrespective of the noise level.
How do I participate when the noise level is too high? You could try the following strategy - Identify the most powerful speaker in the group, and note
down the points that he/she is making. The moment the noise level reduces a little, enter
supporting the powerful speaker. You will have made a strong ally who will carry you through
the noise.
Do I have to be cautious about other participants' feelings (on sensitive issues like religion,
caste etc)? You certainly do. Insensitivity to others displays a lack of maturity and viciousness. It will act
against your favour.
Is it beneficial to be the first speaker in a group discussion? Being the first speaker is a high risk, high return strategy. If you can make a good opening
statement, which is relevant and sets the tone for the GD, it will go in your favour. If you do this
well, you may automatically become the group leader. However if you bungle it up (by speaking
for the sake of speaking, not really having anything pertinent to say), it will be remembered and
will go against your favour.
How critical is my fluency in English to my performance? Command over English is certainly advantageous but will not compensate for lack of good
content. If your content is good, then even if your English might not be great, you must speak it
out, rather than be inhibited by lack of good English. You will get credit for soundness of ideas.
How necessary is it to use examples for illustrating an idea? Use of examples is helpful in elaborating your point, and helping others understand your idea
better. But please remember to keep it short and simple because in a competitive GD nobody has
the patience to listen to long, drawn out
Who Learn's from mistake's is the won who has the wisdom, and who repeats mistake is
the one who does not.
Here's a list of the most common mistakes made at group discussions
Emotional outburst
Rashmi was offended when one of the male participants in a group discussion made a statement
on women generally being submissive while explaining his point of view. When Rashmi finally
got an opportunity to speak, instead of focussing on the topic, she vented her anger by accusing
the other candidate for being a male chauvinist and went on to defend women in general.
What Rashmi essentially did was to
Deviate from the subject.
Treat the discussion as a forum to air her own views.
Lose objectivity and make personal attacks.
Her behaviour would have been perceived as immature and demotivating to the rest of the team.
Quality Vs Quantity
Gautam believed that the more he talked, the more likely he was to get through the GD. So, he
interrupted other people at every opportunity. He did this so often that the other candidates got
together to prevent him from participating in the rest of the discussion.
Assessment is not only on your communication skills but also on your ability to be a team
player.
Evaluation is based on quality, and not on quantity. Your contribution must be relevant.
The mantra is "Contributing meaningfully to the team's success." Domination is
frowned upon.
Egotism Showing off
Krishna was happy to have got a group discussion topic he had prepared for. So, he took pains to
project his vast knowledge of the topic. Every other sentence of his contained statistical data -
"20% of companies; 24.27% of parliamentarians felt that; I recently read in a Jupiter Report
that..." and so on so forth. Soon, the rest of the team either laughed at him or ignored his attempts
to enlighten them as they perceived that he was cooking up the data.
Exercise restraint in anything. You will end up being frowned upon if you attempt
showing-off your knowledge.
Facts and figures need not validate all your statements.
Its your analysis and interpretation that are equally important - not just facts and figures.
You might be appreciated for your in-depth knowledge. But you will fail miserably in
your people skills.
Such a behavior indicates how self-centered you are and highlights your inability to work in an
atmosphere where different opinions are expressed.
Get noticed - But for the right reasons
Srikumar knew that everyone would compete to initiate the discussion. So as soon as the topic -
"Discuss the negative effects of India joining the WTO" - was read out, he began talking. In his
anxiety to be the first to start speaking, he did not hear the word "negative" in the topic. He
began discussing the ways in which the country had benefited by joining WTO, only to be
stopped by the evaluator, who then corrected his mistake.
False starts are extremely expensive. They cost you your admission. It is very important
to listen and understand the topic before you air your opinions.
Spending a little time analyzing the topic may provide you with insights which others
may not have thought about. Use a pen and paper to jot down your ideas.
Listen! It gives you the time to conceptualize and present the information in a better
manner.
Some mistakes are irreparable. Starting off the group discussion with a mistake is one such
mistake, unless you have a great sense of humor.
Managing one's insecurities
Sumati was very nervous. She thought that some of the other candidates were exceptionally
good. Thanks to her insecurity, she contributed little to the discussion. Even when she was asked
to comment on a particular point, she preferred to remain silent.
Your personality is also being evaluated. Your verbal and non verbal cues are being read.
Remember, you are the participant in the GD; not the evaluator. So, rather than
evaluating others and your performance, participate in the discussion.
Your confidence level is being evaluated. Decent communication skills with good
confidence is a must to crack the GDs.
Focus on your strengths and do not spend too much time thinking about how others are superior
or inferior to you. It is easy to pick up these cues from your body language.
While selection tools and techniques like tests, interviews etc. provide good data about an
individual, they fall short in providing real life data of how an individual would be performing in
a real life situation especially a group situation. Team work being an integral part of the BPO
work profile, it is important to ascertain group and inter-personal qualities of an individual.
Group discussion is a useful tool to ascertain these qualities and many organizations use GDs as
a selection tool along with Personal Interviews, aptitude tests etc. A GD is an activity where
Groups of 8-10 candidates are formed into a leaderless group, and are given a specific
situation to analyse and discuss within a given time limit, which may vary between
twenty minutes and forty-five minutes, or
They may be given a case study and asked to come out with a solution for a problem
They may be given a topic and are asked to discuss the same
1. Preparing for a Group Discussion: While GD reflects the inherent qualities of an individual,
appearing for it unprepared may not augur well for you. These tips would help you prepare for
GDs:
Reading: This is the first and the most crucial step in preparation. This is a never ending process
and the more you read, the better you are in your thoughts. While you may read anything to
everything, you must ensure that you are in good touch with current affairs, the debates and hot
topics of discussion and also with the latest in the IT and ITES industry. Chances are the topics
would be around these. Read both for the thoughts as well as for data. Also read multiple view
points on the same topic and then create your point of view with rationale. Also create answers
for counter arguments for your point of view. The electronic media also will be of good use here.
Mocks: Create an informal GD group and meet regularly to discuss and exchange feedback. This
is the best way to prepare. This would give you a good idea about your thoughts and how well
can you convince. Remember, it is important that you are able to express your thoughts well. The
better you perform in these mocks the better would be you chances to perform on the final day.
Also try to interact and participate in other GD groups. This will develop in you a skill to discuss
with unknown people as well.
2. During the Group Discussion:
What do the panelists assess:Some of the qualities assessed in a GD are:
Leadership Skills - Ability to take leadership roles and be able to lead, inspire and carry the
team along to help them achieve the group's objectives.
Communication Skills - Candidates will be assessed in terms of clarity of thought, expression
and aptness of language. One key aspect is listening. It indicates a willingness to accommodate
others views.
Interpersonal Skills - People skills are an important aspect of any job. They are reflected in the
ability to interact with other members of the group in a brief situation. Emotional maturity and
balance promotes good interpersonal relationships. The person has to be more people centric and
less self-centered.
Persuasive Skills - The ability to analyze and persuade others to see the problem from multiple
perspectives.
GD is a test of your ability to think, your analytical capabilities and your ability to make your
point in a team-based environment.
These are some of the sub-skills that also get assessed with the skills mentioned above:
Clarity of thought
Group working skills (especially during a group task of case study discussion)
Conflict handling
Listening and probing skills
Knowledge about the subject and individual point of view
Ability to create a consensus
Openess and flexibility towards new ideas
Data based approach to decision making
While, it is not possible to reflect all these qualities in a short time, you would do well if you are
able to show a couple or more qualities and avoid giving negative evidence on other.
Group decision making :
Techniques of Group-Decision making:
a.) Committees and Committee Meetings : As the advantages of group decision far
outweigh those of individual decision , it is common practice for people in an
organization to form groups for decision making. Most of these groups are face-to-
face , interacting groups getting together to take part in a “semantic exchange.”
They are known as committees. By definition “a committee is a group appointed by
the parent organization , which meets to investigate a problem and later to
formulate its report and recommendation.”
There are various kinds of committees –standing committees, executive committees,
advisory committees, ad-hoc committees and so on. Each of them has its terms of reference
well laid out. A standing committee is a permanent committee empowered and entrusted to
take management decisions .Its members may periodically change or rotate as per the
constitution adopted by the organization.
An advisory committee consists of experts in a particular field or fields or people deemed to
be qualified /experienced enough to advice the organization in crucial decision
making.Such a committee is generally elected from amongst the members of an
organization at an annual general meeting.Its powers are laid down by the parent body to
which it is supposed to report periodically. Its functions relate to the broad organizational
goals. Ad-hoc committee is constituted for a particular purpose after the fulfillment of
which it is dissolved.
Working of a committee:
The working of a committee can be spelt out in the following stages:
1. get a clear factual perspective , or collect data.
2. explore attitudes and sentiments of the members
3. combine the logical and psychological elements
4. arrive at a decision in the light of the factors stated above.
5. have a faithful record of the deliberations and decisions arrived at.
The role of the group leader /chairperson:
No group decision making /meeting can proceed without a leader .The terms “leader”,
“chairman”, “Chair” ,
“chairperson”are used interchangeably nowadays. It is, however, more common to use the
terms “leader” in the context of an informal group discussion, and “chairman” in the
context of a committee/conference/ public meeting/formal discussion.
As a manager one has to chair both formal and informal discussions.The roles of the leader
for both occasions are separately stated but more often than not they get easily combined.
The onus of piloting the discussion lies on the shoulders of the chairman.
Some useful guidelines for the group leader /chairperson:
1.Understand the “group personality” : Every group has a personality of
its own. Even if the members are drawn from different backgrounds
/fields of activity /branches of the organization , they tend to acquire
certain chracteristics that they share with one another.This way the
group gets what one may call unity in diversity, a homogeneity arising out
of heterogeneity .Once we belong to a group we tend to achieve a certain
amount of conformity , and our opinions and actions are influenced by
group opinion. This tendency gives the group , as well as the individual
members of the group recognition and approval.
Every group wields considerable power. Needless to say that a group is always stronger
than an individual. By the sheer social force of the group we develop a sense of belonging,
turn to the group for support ,take up matters of vital importance with higher authorities
or the “power of consumer.
forums,Residents”, “welfare associations “, and of course, the workers’ unions. A
chairperson cannot afford to overlook “group prejudice” .We may not admit that we have
strong likes and dislikes , prejudices and predilections.In a group of likeminded people
these prejudices become not only stronger but clearly expressed binding factors.
Every group cherishes certain values or ideals.These ideals/values have to be shown proper
respect/regard. A clear understanding of the group values will provide a basis for
predicting or foreseeing the programmes or actions that the group is likely to support. It
will also help the leader to understand one group’s aggressiveness to another. It is to be
remembered that any change is met with some degree of resistance. Much will depend on
the group’s attitude to social /technologically structured change. It is also useful to know
how the group itself would like to bring a change or , perhaps , they would like the status
quo to continue .
So, it is very important on the part of a leader /chairperson to be familiar with the
personality traits of the group on the deliberations of which he is going to preside.
2.Planning and purpose: It is obligatory for the leader to get the agenda of the meeting
circulated fairly in advance .It will help the members to come prepared.
1. Encourage participation and invite contributions from all members : The group leader
must handle the entire group decision making situations deftly. The members should be
given importance and be encouraged to speak.
4.Expert comments :The manager must be in a position to give expert comments on
whatever the members speak, which means he should be well informed .He need not be ,
and cannot be , a specialist .But a very good general awareness is an invaluable assert.
5.Summation: In order to save time, and to give time to as many members as possible to
speak, the chairperson must keep summarizing .For this purpose he has to have clear
thinking and very good communication skills.
6.Ability to communicate in more than one language : Ability to interpret from one
language to another , is also an important asset for a manager care has to be taken to keep
the spirit of the original. Now, that almost every business is going global , one must have
the ability to communicate in more than one language.
1. Intervention by the chairperson : No meeting can be successful
unless the chairperson learns to control the members and
insists or relevance.
8.Insistence on reason rather than emotion: Human beings are guided by logic but do get
carried away by emotions.No meeting can be successful if emotion is allowed to get the
better of reason. The chairperson must be very cool-headed working with a positive
approach to all kinds of situations and persons.
9.Impartial: A chairperson has to be impartial and every member must be given equal
opportunity or attention.
10.Stick to business: With all these positive traits , the leader has also to stick to business.
b.) Command meetings: This is a meeting between a manager and subordinates. In a
command meeting the manager alone is responsible for decisions and the subordinates are
obliged to give him the benefit of their opinion. But then, in this context, the term
“industrial democracy” loses its meaning .The difficulty is that subordinates in a group
setting, under the command of their boss often feel compelled to act as the opposition”,
while actually the aim of the manager /leader is to share information with them and clear
up misunderstandings, state policies of the company and spell out instructions .The
subordinates are under no obligation to implement the decisions of a command meeting. In
this type of meeting , it is for the manager to decide where and when the meeting should
take place , and what procedure is to be followed.
“Groupthink and group shift”: Groupthink is a group phenomenon related to norms. It
relates to the situations in which pressure for conformity , as has been pointed out earlier ,
deter the group from critically examining unusual minority or unpopular views
.Groupthink has been called a “disease” that “attacks” many groups and can dramatically
hinder their performance. The unwritten laws of groups under the pressure of
“groupthink” are conformity and an illusion of unanimity.
“Groupshift” , on the other hand, is a phenomenon in which group members tend to
exaggerate the initial position they held. In some situations , it has been observed , caution
dominates and there is a conservative shift . It can also be regarded as a special case of
groupthink.The decision the group reflects the dominant making norm that develops in the
course of discussion.Now,whether the shift will be in thedirection of greater caution or
more risk , will depend on the prediscussion norm.
a.) Brain-storming session: The group decision making technique known as
“brainstorming” was developed on 1939 by an American advertising agency .Since
that time it has been widely used by business , government and military
institutions.the principles underlying brain –storming can be stated as follows:
1.no ideas are criticized.
2. free wheeling is encouraged ; the more outlandish or unusual an idea the better.
3.The emphasis is on quantity of ideas.As we can see from the principles stated above,
brainstorming is a clever device meant to overcome pressures of conformity that obstruct
the development of creative ideas.It is , infcat, an idea generation process that encourages
all alternative approaches , and withholds criticism.
In a typical brain-storming session , six to ten people sit around a table .the group leader
clearly states a problem. The group members than “free-wheel” as many alternatives as
they can come ahead with in a given length of time.Without any criticism , all alternatives
are recorded for discussion and analysis. Even the most bizarre idea is not criticized and
the members are encouraged to “the unusual” .It is basically a process of gathering ideas.
b.) Nominal group technique: The nominal group technique , as the term itself suggests
, restricts discussion or interpersonal communication .The group members are only
physicallt present as in a traditional meeting, but they operate independently
.When a problem is presented , the following steps are taken in the stated sequence
:
1.Members meet as a group , but each member independently writes down his ideas on the
problem, before any discussion takes place.
1. Then each member presents his idea to the group , either by writing on a flip
chart or chalk board.No discussion takes place until all the ideas have been
recorded.
2. Each member silently , and independently rank orders the ideas.
3. The final decision is taken on the basis of the idea with highest aggregate
ranking.
The advantage of the nominal group technique is that it permits the group to react
formally without restricting independent thinking as happens often in the interacting
group.
c.) Delphi technique : Delphi technique is similar to the nominal group technique
except that it does not require the physical presence of the group’s members .Infact,
it does not allow the group members to meet face to face .The steps of this technique
can be stated in the following sequence.”
1.The problem is identified and members are asked to provide solutions through a series of
carefully designed questionnaires.
2.Each member anonymously and independently completes the first questionnaire.
3.Results of the 1st questionnaire are compiled as a central location, transcribed and
reproduced.
4.Each member receives a copy of the results.
4. After viewing the results members are again asked to give their solutions .the
results trigger new solutions or cause changes in the original position.
5. Step 4 and 5 are repeated as often as necessary until consensus is reached .As
in nominal group technique , the Delphi saves the group members from one
another’s undue influence.Since it does not require the physical presence of
the participants ,the Delphi technique can be used for decision making
among groups geographically scattered over distant places.For eg., Sony has
used this technique to get feedback from its managers posted in Tokyo
,Brussels,Paris ,London ,New York ,Tornoto.
Delphi technique has its drawbacks also .In the first place, it is extremely time consuming.
Where a speedy decision is needed this technique cannot be used.the responses to the
questionnaires may not be satisfactory .Moreover , this technique takes the rich harvest of
alternatives and creative ideas that come up in face-to-face interaction.
Effectiveness of different group making techniques :
One may ask which of these techniques is the most effective.Each of these techniques has its
own strengths and weaknesses.It is all a matter of the criterial laid down for the group and
what the organization seeks to achieve .Traditionally we have been used to face-to-face
interacting group meetings.They are indeed good for building up group cohesiveness and
interpersonal relationships. Brainstorming sessions encourage free and unusual ways of
thinking , and keep the social pressures to the barest minimum.Nominal group technique
also encourages independent thinking and discourages group or social pressure. The
Delphi technique make demands on our intelligence to design questionnaires, and to give
carefully thoughtout answers /responses to them. As the respondents to the questionnaires
are placed wide apart, the Delphi technique minimizes interpersonal conflict. So, off hand
it is difficult to say which technique is the best or most effective.
All these techniques are decision making techniques, and their results are binding on the
organization. There are certain other group activities in which a lot of information is
gathered , shared , generated and passed on, processed.But the conclusion
/inferences/decisions of these group activities are not binding in the first instance. On the
other hand their outcome may , and very often does , lead to more intensified group
devision making processes through special committees , advisory committees, action groups
and son on. Conferences/colloquiums/conventions ,seminars and workshops are such
activities that the organizations are now more and more resorting to .Their decisions are
recommendatory rather than mandatory.
Conferences :
The word “conference” has been derived from “confer” that means “to consult together” ,
“compare opinions,””carry on a discussion “ by “bringing together “. So, a conference is
essentially a gathering or coming together of people of a particular area of interest or
related areas of interest to exchange information. More and more organizations –private ,
government, non-governmental, multinational, academic and scientific –are holding
periodic , mostly annual, conferences/conventions/colloquiums, primarily with a view to
having information up-date. Moreover, especially in a large conference , delegates
representing various organizations, “sometimes co-operative , sometimes hostile”, meet to
consider a problem , and to recommend a joint course of action.
A conference , in this way, is coming together of a much larger number of
participants/members /delegates than those in a committee meeting. An organization may
host a yearly national or international conference inviting other organizations to
participate in detailed discussions on the latest technologies , marketing strategies ,
national/global situation vis-à-vis the constraints of the organization etc.
Since the scope of a conference is generally vast, it has to be divided into several groups or
sub-groups for discussion , and to be presided over by duly elected chairperson or group
leaders. The reports of all these groups , and their discussions /series of discussions are
read out at the end of the conference.The most important part of these reports the
recommendations made by the participants on the basis of their “pooled in” expertise or
experience.The reports and recommendations of these groups are then compiled into a
consolidated report edited and published for wide circulation or brought out in book form
for internal circulation among concerned members /trainees of the organization.
As a result of all these discussions , and publication of its reports , a conference acquires
immense educational value.Even by “actively listening” to the expert experienced speakers,
the audience improve upon their already acquired knowledge. They leatn new skills and
sharpen their minds.Through discussions the participants improve their interaction, and
establish useful business contacts. Very often transactions are made in the course of
conference itself.
Seminars and workshops:
A seminar is a meeting for exchanging information and holding discussion on a somewhat
smaller scale than a conference .Moreover, a seminar is more limited and formal in its
nature while a conference is wider and more informal .As a result more serious discussions
are held in a seminar within a limited period than in a conference. Every participant in a
seminar is supposed to present a paper after the reading of which all the participants are
supposed to discuss it in great detail .Sitting quiet in a seminar is generally not expected.
A workshop , by definition , is “ a period of discussion or practical work on a particular
subject in which a group of people learn about the subject of the knowledge/information
sharing and decision-making activity .Most of the seminars and workshops begin with the
address of an expert specially invited for the occasion. Then the participants concentrate on
the various aspects of the problem/ subject spelt out in the expert’s address and start
working on the task assigned to them.
Unit-4
Introduction to Mass Communication:
Mass Communication:
A study of how people and entities relay information through mass media to a large
segment of the people at the same time.
• 1. It is usually understood to relate to newspapers, magazine and book publishing as well
as radio, television, film, internet. These media are used for disseminating information ,
news and advertising.
• 2. It differs from the studies of other forms of communication such as inter-personal
communication or organizational communication , in that it focuses on a single source
transmitting information to a large number of receivers.
3.The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the content of mass
communication persuades or otherwise affects the behaviour ,attitude , opinion or emotion of the
person or people receiving the information
Difference between Business communication and Mass Communication:
• While a business letter mentions both the addressor and the addressee , Mass
communication targets no one in particular. In fact, it aims at reaching out to a well-
defined target group which is not confined to any known address.
• Mass communication efforts always ensure that communication reaches out not only to
the target audience but also attracts their attention.
• While a business letter mentions both the addressor and the addressee , Mass
communication targets no one in particular. In fact, it aims at reaching out to a well-
defined target group which is not confined to any known address.
• Mass communication efforts always ensure that communication reaches out not only to
the target audience but also attracts their attention.
Mass Communication and its functions:
• Mass communication helps to inform , influence & seek action.
• It is a game of numbers. The objective here is to reach out with the purpose of providing
specific or general information , influencing the thinking of the target group and eliciting
a certain action or response.
• Newspapers , periodicals & other products of journalism essentially seek to influence and
inform.
Mass media as a diversified collection of Media technologies:
• A diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via Mass
communication.
• The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of
outlets:
• Broadcast media transmit information electronically via such media as film, radio,
recorded music or television.
• Digtal media comprises such services as email, social media sites, websites and
internet based radio & television.
• Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites and
Internet based radio &television.
• Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web , by such means
as linking to or running TV ads online or Print media to direct mobile users to a
website.
In this way Mass communication utilizes the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities
the internet offers. The information, thereby , goes to many different regions cost
effectively and simultaneously.
• Outdoor Media Transmit information via such media as AR advertising
(Augmented reality), billboards, blimps, flying billboards(signs in tow of air planes),
placards or kiosks placed inside & outside buses ,commercial buildings, shops,
sports stadia, subway cars or trams, signs or skywriting.
• Print media transmits information via physical objects such as books , comics,
magazines , newspapers or pamphlets.
• Event organizing and Public speaking can also be considered forms of Mass Media.
• The organizations that control these technologies , such as movie studios, publishing
companies and radio &television stations are also known as the mass media.
Role and impact of Mass media:
• Mass media is a significant force in modern culture . Sociologists refer to this as
mediated culture where media reflects & creates the culture communities & individuals
are bombarded constantly with messages from a multitude of sources including
TV,Billboards and Magazines to name a few.
• These messages promote not only products , but moods ,attitudes and a sense of what is
and is not important.
• Mass media makes possible the concept of celebrity ; without the ability of movies
,magazines and news media to reach across 1000’s of miles , people could not become
famous. In fact only political &business leaders as well as the few notorious outlaws
were famous in the past. Only in recent times have actors , singers and other social elites
become celebrities or ―stars‖.
• The current level of media saturation has not always existed. In the 1960’s and 70’s , the
television for eg ., consisted of primarily one or two networks , public broadcasting and a
few local independent stations. These channels aimed their programming primarily at two
–parent , middle class families. Even so, some middle class households did not even own
a television.
• Today one can find a television in the poorest of homes and multiple TVs in most middle
class homes. Not only has the availability increased , but programming is increasingly
diverse with shows aimed to please all ages , incomes ,backgrounds and attitudes. This
widespread availability and exposure makes television the primary focus of most mass –
media discussion.
• More recently , Internet has increased its role exponentially as more businesses &
households ―sign on‖ .Although TV & the internet have dominated the mass media ,
movies &magazines –particularly those lining the aisles at grocery checkout stands –also
play a powerful role in culture –as do other forms of media.
What role does Mass Media play?
• Legislatures ,Mass Media Executives ,local school officials and sociologists have all
debated this controversial question while opinions vary as to the extent and type of
influence the mass media wields , all sides agree that mass media is a permanent part of
modern culture.
• Three main sociological perspectives on the role of media exist :
• 1. The limited effects theory
• 2. The class dominant theory
• 3. The culturalist theory
• 1.The limited‐effects theory argues that because people generally choose what to watch
or read based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence
• . This theory originated and was tested in the 1940s and 1950s. Studies that examined the
ability of media to influence voting found that well‐informed people relied more on
personal experience, prior knowledge, and their own reasoning. However, media
―experts‖ more likely swayed those who were less informed.
• Critics point to two problems with this perspective. First, they claim that limited‐effects
theory ignores the media's role in framing and limiting the discussion and debate of
issues. How media frames the debate and what questions members of the media ask
change the outcome of the discussion and the possible conclusions people may draw.
Second, this theory came into existence when the availability and dominance of media
was far less widespread.
• Class-dominant theory:
• The class‐dominant theory argues that the media reflects and projects the view of a
minority elite, which controls it. Those people who own and control the corporations that
produce media comprise this elite. Advocates of this view concern themselves
particularly with massive corporate mergers of media organizations, which limit
competition and put big business at the reins of media—especially news media. Their
concern is that when ownership is restricted, a few people then have the ability to
manipulate what people can see or hear. For example, owners can easily avoid or silence
stories that expose unethical corporate behavior or hold corporations responsible for their
actions.
• The issue of sponsorship adds to this problem. Advertising dollars fund most media.
Networks aim programming at the largest possible audience because the broader the
appeal, the greater the potential purchasing audience and the easier selling air time to
advertisers becomes. Thus, news organizations may shy away from negative stories about
corporations (especially parent corporations) that finance large advertising campaigns in
their newspaper or on their stations.
• Television networks receiving millions of dollars in advertising from companies like
Nike and other textile manufacturers were slow to run stories on their news shows about
possible human‐rights violations by these companies in foreign countries. Media
watchers identify the same problem at the local level where city newspapers will not give
new cars poor reviews or run stories on selling a home without an agent because the
majority of their funding comes from auto and real estate advertising. This influence also
extends to programming.
•
• Critics of this theory counter these arguments by saying that local control of news media
largely lies beyond the reach of large corporate offices elsewhere, and that the quality of
news depends upon good journalists. They contend that those less powerful and not in
control of media have often received full media coverage and subsequent support. As
examples they name numerous environmental causes, the anti‐nuclear movement, the
anti‐Vietnam movement, and the pro‐Gulf War movement.
• 3 .The culturalist theory, developed in the 1980s and 1990s, combines the other two
theories and claims that people interact with media to create their own meanings out of
the images and messages they receive. This theory sees audiences as playing an active
rather than passive role in relation to mass media. One strand of research focuses on the
audiences and how they interact with media; the other strand of research focuses on those
who produce the media, particularly the news.
• Theorists emphasize that audiences choose what to watch among a wide range of options,
choose how much to watch, and may choose the mute button or the VCR remote over the
programming selected by the network or cable station.
• Studies of mass media done by sociologists parallel text‐reading and interpretation
research completed by linguists (people who study language). Both groups of researchers
find that when people approach material, whether written text or media images and
messages, they interpret that material based on their own knowledge and experience.
• Thus, when researchers ask different groups to explain the meaning of a particular song
or video, the groups produce widely divergent interpretations based on age, gender, race,
ethnicity, and religious background. Therefore, culturalist theorists claim that, while a
few elite in large corporations may exert significant control over what information media
produces and distributes, personal perspective plays a more powerful role in how the
audience members interpret those messages.
Elements of Mass Communication:
What are the various elements of mass communication?
The elements of mass communication are:
- Public who has to be communicated with
- Media(Medium) which is the means of communication
- Message because of which the process has been created
- Sender of the message
- Marketing, advertising, Public relations extra can be termed as the sub elements of mass
communication.
Functions of Mass Media:
• Modern mass media serve functions very similar to those fulfilled by traditional media in
some ancient societies, and in some developing countries today. Western media theorists
generally identify three major functions ; surveillance of the environment , intepretation
of the information and prescription for conduct , and the transmission of heritage.The
developmental and liberation and empowerment funcions , or even the ritualistic or
celebratory functions of the media rarely find mention in Euro –American media
theory.South American media theorists have contributed to our understanding of media
for ―liberation‖ while African and Asian scholars have explored the relevance of media to
―national development‖.
• But the mass media cannot or should not stop at watching the horizon for us, through
news bulletins or advertisements or documentaries. They need , and often do help us
―correlate our response to the challenges and opportunities which appear on the horizon
and to reach consensus on social actions.‖ In rural India , the panchayat meetings help the
village elders to decide on the challenges and opportunities.
• The mass media help us to keep culture and heritage of our society alive , and to transmit
it to others. This is what media should ideally do, but often don’t .Folk media serve a
similar purpose in developing countries.
• Entertainment :
• A fourth function is the viatl function of enterainment .entertainment has been a
legitimate function of the traditional folk media , but the mass media provide it with a
vengeance. They help to pass the time, and to relax with family and friends.
• Advertising : An equally vital function is that of mass media helping to sell good and
services through sponsorships and commercials. The commercials function has indeed
been served well, perhaps too well , especially in the United States , where the networks
would have to close down if the support from commercials were to dry up.
• At the same time, it would be suicidal to let this function dominate the mass media at the
expense of other four functions.India too promotes the commercial function , and has
allowed its representatives to take over programming of radio and television .This is
equally true of the press and its dependence on advertising.
• Development : In the developing countries of Asia ,Africa and Latin America , the
massmedia , which include traditional media , have a different function to perform. In a
word , development communication i.e., cmmunication that focuses on the information
needs of the ppor and nthe oppressed , and their socio-economic and cultural interests.
Unit -5 Commuinication theories and Models:
Introduction Relational dialectics is a concept within communication theories which is introduced by professors Leslie Baxter and Barbera M.Matgomery in 1988, the concept focuses on the contradictions in relationships. The relational dialectics has its roots from the concept of the extreme will sustain the sources of the contrary. This philosophical concept reflects the tensions that exist being in a relationship. The concept as mentioned comes from the contradictions that arises when two people of varying differences maintain a relationship.
Relational Dialectics Theory A relationship is a union where two individuals from different background compromise in many ways. People experience internal tensions inconsistently while being in a relationship. Over time the pressures will be recurring in nature and from this extreme tendencies, the relationship sustains. For instance consider the point between harmony and separation. Communication patterns causing constant state of instability acts as a contrary in sustaining a relationship.
Concepts
Contradictions– in relational dialectics, the concept is that the extreme contrary has the characteristics of its opposite
Totality– in relational dialectics, the totality comes when the opposites unite. Thus the relationship is balanced with contradictions and only then it reaches totality
Process– relational dialectics can be comprehended through various social processes. These processes simultaneously continue within a relationship in a recurring manner
Praxis– the relationship progresses with experience and both people interact and communicate effectively to realise their needs. Praxis is a concept of practicability in making decisions being in a relationship despite of opposing wants and needs
The most common dialectics in a relationship are 1. Openness and closeness In a relationship, both partners expect openness in their communication as to be dependable and also to maintain an healthy relationship. But on the contrary, the individual desires privacy.
2. Certainty and uncertainty Certainty is one factor that bonds the relationship. It is the promise that one keeps and makes both the parties comfortable. But on the contrary, being so predictable makes the relationship dreary thus an element of surprise or ambiguity spur up the relationship.
3. Connectedness and separateness A relationship to continue, people has to be bonded physically and mentally. But on the contrary too much of connectedness can blur the individuality of the person.
Managing Relational Dialectics
Alternation- prioritising the problems alternatively
Denial- being one sided while confronting a problem while ignoring the other
Segmentation- dealing with the problem one-sidedly. Unlike denial, the problem is being faced in a different circumstance
Disorientation- avoiding the problem by terminating the relationship
Balance- keeping a balance between the situation while solving a problem
Reaffirmation- accepting the problem to maintain the relationship
Integration- both the parties are made satisfied by developing methods to solve problems Applications The relational dialectics can be applied in studying interpersonal relationships. The behavioral changes in the partners can be comprehended by applying the contradictions that balances the relationship. To maintain a relationship it is important to understand the core concepts of relational dialects.
Example Sam and Susan started dating for almost a year and once perfect relationship are confronted with problems from both sides. As every couple they started a relationship being open to each other which was comfortable in the beginning and as time progressed they both started longing for privacy.
Susan began to get bored of sitting inside the house rather than going out and longed for a romantic date with Sam like before. Their life became monotonous. Sam started to miss his friends when every time he reminded of Susan waiting in the house for him.
The tension between these couples can be managed by understanding that the relationships are inconsistent by communicating effectively and accepting the contrary behaviors of the partners in a relationship.
Functionalist theory of communication:
The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It has its
origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in how social order is possible or how society remains
relatively stable. As such, it is a theory that focuses on the macro-level of social structure, rather than the micro-level of
everyday life. Notable theorists include Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, and Robert K. Merton.
Overview Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society is functional for the stability of the whole. Durkheim actually envisioned society as an organism, and just like within an organism, each component plays a necessary part, but none can function alone, and one experiences a crisis or fails, other parts must adept to fill the void in some way.
Within functionalist theory, the different parts of society are primarily composed of social institutions, each of which is designed to fill different needs, and each of which has particular consequences for the form and shape of society. The parts all depend on each other. The core institutions defined by sociology and which are important to understand for this theory include: family, government, economy, media, education, and religion. According to functionalism, an institution only exists because it serves a vital role in the functioning of society. If it no longer serves a role, an institution will die away. When new needs evolve or emerge, new institutions will be created to meet them.
Let's consider the relationships between and functions of some core institutions. In most societies, the government, or state, provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. The family is dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. From the functionalist perspective, if all goes well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the parts of society then must adapt to produce new forms of order, stability, and productivity.
Functionalism emphasizes the consensus and order that exist in society, focusing on social stability and shared public values. From this perspective, disorganization in the system, such as deviant behavior, leads to change because societal components must adjust to achieve stability. When one part of the system is not working or is dysfunctional, it affects all other parts and creates social problems, which leads to social change. The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in the 1940s and 50s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert K. Merton, who divided human functions into two types: manifest functions, which are intentional and obvious, and latent functions, which are unintentional and not obvious. The manifest function of attending a church or synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a religious community, but its latent function may be to help members learn to discern personal from institutional values. With common sense, manifest functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent functions, which often demand a sociological approach to be revealed. Functionalism has been critiqued by many sociologists for its neglect of the often negative implications of social order. Some critics, like Italian theorist Antonio Gramsci, claim that the perspective justifies the status quo, and the process of cultural hegemony which maintains it. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social environment, even when doing so may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees agitating for social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate in a seemingly natural way for any problems that may arise.
Models :
SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Sender -> Message(transmitted through some means)-> Receiver-> Feedback
• 1. The basic process of communication needs a sender and a message that he or she
transmits or conveys through some means , say a channel to a receiver who responds
,according to his or her understanding of the message , the sender(feedback).
• 2. This model was advocated by David –Berlo, and is also known as the Source-Message
–Channel-Receiver Model of Communication .This model is significant because it
emphasizes the importance of ―thorough understanding of human behavior as a pre –
requisite to communication analysis‖.
• The receiver interprets the message depending upon the background , knowledge ,skill,
attitude , culture etc. If both the source and the receiver were matched in their standing,
the communication would be fruitful.Otherwise , there would be gaps.
S -> COMMUNICATION SKILLS;ATTITUDES;KNOWLEDGE;SOCIAL
SYSTEM;CULTURE
M-> CONTENT; ELEMENT;TREATMENT;STRUCTURE;CODE
C-> SEEING; HEARING; TOUCHING; SMELLING;TOUCHING
R-> COMMUNICATION SKILLS;ATTITUDES;KNOWLEDGE;SOCIAL
SYSTEM;CULTURE
• Berlo's Model has mainly, four components to describe the communication process. They
are sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the component is affected by many
factors.
• Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message. The person
or source sends the message to the receiver. The following are the factor related to sender
and is also the same in the case of receiver:
• Communication Skills:
Communication skills of a person is a factor that affects the communication process. If
the sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better than
if the sender's communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver can not grasp
the message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills include
the skills to speak, present, read, write, listening, etc.
• Attitude:
The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The person's
attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of
the message.
•
• Knowledge:
Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated message have its
effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicator send the message
effectively.
• Social Systems:
Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect the sender's way
of communicating the message. It creates difference in the generation of message. Place
and situation also fall under social systems.
• Culture:
Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture might find
something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture.
• M-Message
• A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It might be in
the form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors affecting the
message are
• Content:
Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from beginning to end is
the content.
• Elements:
Elements are the non verbal things that tag along with the content like gestures, signs,
language, etc.
• Treatment:
Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment also
effects the feedback of the receiver.
• Structure:
The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects the
effectiveness of the message.
• Code:
Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text,
video, etc.
• C-Channel
• Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and other
forms of communication, technical machines might be used as a channel like telephone,
internet, etc. But in general communication, the five senses of a human being is the
channel for the communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of the channel.
• Hearing- We receive the message through hearing.
• Seeing- We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages by seeing.
• Touching- Many of the non-verbal communication happens from touching like holding
hands.
• Smelling- We collect information from smelling.
• Tasting- Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.
• R- Receiver
• Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model believes that
the thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in sync to that of the
sender for the communication to be effective. The message might not have the same
effect as intended if the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a
very good listening skill. Other factors are similar to that of the sender.
• Communication skills
• Attitudes
• Knowledge
• Social Systems
• Culture
• Criticisms of Berlo's SMCR Model:
• There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
• There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication process.
• It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
• Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.
• Criticisms of Berlo's SMCR Model:
• There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
• There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication process.
• It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
• Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.
Osgood model of communication:
• This model is ―highly circular‖ model . The important characteristic of Osgood’s model
is that the message receiver is also a message sender.
• Thus the message moves in cycles .And the sender and the receiver interact with one
another establishing a kind of ―interactive relationship‖ between the source and the
receiver where one person may be source one moment and the a receiver next and again a
source the following moment .This process mostly takes place in interpersonal
communication.
