jeremiah wong Module Chapters 01 – A First Look at Communication (from Lecture Slides) 02 – The Field of Comm. from Historical and Contemporary Perspectives 03 – Perceiving and Understanding 04 – Engaging in Verbal Communication 05 – Engaging in Non-verbal Communication 06 – Listening and Responding to Others 07 – Creating Communication Climates 09 – Identity and Self-concept 10 – Interpersonal Relationships 11 – Small Group Communication 12 – Organizational Communication (Guest Lecture) 13 – Skipped 14 – Mass Communication (E-Learning) 08 – Intercultural Communication (E-Learning) 15 – Personal & Social Media Module Objectives:
• Define and describe key concepts and ideas of human communication • Identify and describe the various contexts of communication study • Explain the various features of communication common to all contexts • Connect theoretical concepts of communication to real-life experience • Begin to evaluate your own communicative behavior • Begin to understand and speak the language of the communication discipline.
Two exams will include a combination of multiple-choice, true/false, matching, and short-answer questions.
• 50%: Final Examination (1 Dec 2011) A final examination will be administered to test comprehension of reading material, lectures, and tutorial activities. Exams will consist of short and long essay questions.
• 10%: Class assignments and activities • 10%: Class participation, quizzes, and attendance
01 – A First Look at Communication Defining Communication “Communication is a systemic process in which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.” 3 Models of the Communication process
Model Method Concept Drawbacks
Linear Info. Source Transmitter
(Noise) Receiver
Destination
Sender è Message è
Receiver
Comm is transmitted from a straightforward manner from a sender to a receiver with concept of noise.
Too simplistic to capture complexity of human communication Mono-directional.
Interactive Change roles;
feedback; fields of
experience
Message sent è ppl. talk back to her è she feedbacks
Built on the Liner model with concept of feedback (response to a message, verbal or otherwise). Sequential process. Takes turns to communicate and feedback.
Cannot capture dynamism of human comm. In real life people comm. Simultaneously. No hard-and-fast designation of ‘sender’ and ‘receiver’. Roles can actually change and combine. Didn’t take Time into consideration. Comm. Changes over time because of what happens between people.
Transactional multiple roles, simultaneous, change over
time
Noise + Systems +
Comm.
Recogizes shared field of exp. All are considered ‘communicators’ rather than ‘Sender’ or ‘Receivers’.
NIL
Communication as Persuasion We’re trying to convince someone. Speak with an intention.
Key Definitions Communication “Communication is a systemic process in which people interact with
and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.” Feedback Response to a message, can be verbal or non-verbal, intentional or
otherwise Meaning Significance assigned to phenomena Content-level of meaning
Literal meaning of sth. e.g. knocking on my door
Relationship-level of meaning
Expresses the relationship between communicators
e.g. friend knocking vs. boss knocking
Noise Anything that interferes with intended meaning of communication Process Ongoing and dynamic system Consists on interrelated parts that affect on another, allowing
communication to take place symbol Abstract, arbitrary and ambiguous representations of things.
Communication is symbolic. Homeostasis A state of equilibrium Openness Extent to which a system is subject to outside factors
02 – The Field of Communications from Historical and Contemporary Perspectives 3 Pillars of Persuasion Ethos – Credibility of the speaker Pathos – Emotional appeal of the speech Logos – Logic and reasoning of the speech Communication Research (CR) – What is it? Quantitative Qualitative Critical Rhetorical Criticism Gathering info thru: statistics, surveys and experiments
Non-numerical knowledge, e.g. feelings
To identify and challenge, causes and stereotypes
To study a select text (verbal or non-verbal) to see if they work communicatively
Methods may be used in tandem; not incompatible. Triangulation: studying phenomena from diff points of view 8 Kinds of communication – How wide is the Communication Field? Intrapersonal Self talk, or thinking How to feel better about yourself Interpersonal Bet. ppl (deg can vary from imperson
to highly personal) How comm. Creates and sustains relationships
Grp & Team Involving 2 or more people to achieve a collective decision
Dynamics of team mgmt
Public Comm. Speeches Argumentation and political communication
Organizational Professional communication between and in companies
Personal relationship between co-workers
Mass comm. Media Perpetuation of social ideals Personal & Social Media
03 – Perceiving and Understanding 3 Perception Processes Perception is an active process of selecting, organizing and interpreting phenomena (people, objects, events, situations and activities). Perception influences our communication and vice-versa. Consists of three interrelated processes.
The Perception Process Selection Organization Interpretation
Selecting what we define as important.
Organize our perceptions in a meaningful way
Affected by Constructivism (Cognitive Schemata).
Affected by perceptual cues (novelty, familiarity constancy), physical qualities (intensity, size) and motives
The subjective process of creating explanations for what we observe and experience
The asking of “WHY?”
WHAT? HOW? WHY? Answered by Attribution
Constructivism (Cognitive Schemata) Constructivism: theory of how we organize and interpret our experiences by applying cognitive schemata.
Cognitive Schemata 1. Prototype
Specific, representative example of someone, who defines its own encompassing broad category. How a teacher should look like; how Afghanistanis look like
2. Personal Construct Bipolar, mental yardsticks used to measure people and situations, a more specific category. Is this teacher attractive or unattractive? Kind or unkind? Insects: Food or not-food?
3. Stereotype Predicative generalization about people and situations based on our categorization, which may or may not be true. Malays like to play guitar and are good at soccer. Indians are smelly, but speak well. Chinese are hardworking, but calculative.
4. Script Rough idea about how some event should play out; rules governing events and their sequence Different scripts (e.g. ways of talking) for interacting with friends, or professors, or partners, or strangers.
Attribution Attribution is the act of explaining why. Its accuracy can be affected by Self-serving bias, when we attribute to serve our own personal interests. 4 Dimensions of Attribution Consider when I did not do well for a test. (choy!) I did poorly because… Locus Internal
I did not really study hard… External (factors) Of the professor…
Stability Stable Even though the questions were often discussed during lectures…
Unstable (uncontrollable circumstances) There were a lot of tricky questions…
Specificity Global And are not new…
Specific (instances) On that particular test…
Control Within …I knew I could have done so much better if I did put in effort.
Beyond (my control) …So that no matter how hard I studied, I couldn’t do well.
Self-serving bias. Self-serving bias: act of accepting excessive credit for what we do well; and denying responsibility for our failings è Can distort our perceptions. (Internal & Stable) Influences on Perception Why do our perceptions differ from one another? Physiological factors If you’re tired, or sick… Expectations What we know forehand will determine what we will expect
Positive Visualization
Positive thinking helps us be more effective at what we do
Expectation Violation Theory
when what we expect doesn’t happen, we become more cognitively alert as we struggle to understand and cope to unexpected changes
Cognitive Complexity Number of personal constructs used and how abstract they are. (Children vs. Grown-ups)
Person-Centeredness
Ability to perceive another as a unique individual. After seeing that they’re different, we can then adapt our communication to the particular individual
Empathy
Not the same as person-centeredness. Not technically possible to feel with another
Social Roles
Perception determined by our professions and roles (teacher vs. students’ perception of a ‘module’, for e.g.)
04 – Engaging in Verbal Communication (Language) Language consists of symbols. Symbols are representation of phenomena (people, events). Verbal Communication: symbols in form of spoken and written words. Connotation: the implied meaning. Denotation: the dictionary meaning. E.g. ‘home’ (denotation) vs. no place like ‘home’ (connotation) 3 Features of Language Arbitrary Ambiguous Abstract Are not intrinsically connected to what they represent
No clear-cut, precise meaning; have different connotations for people with different backgrounds and experiences
Not concrete or tangible phenomena to which they refer
e.g. ‘chat room’ as virtual spaces for chat. ‘chair’ as in furniture or chairman?
e.g. ‘dog’ as pets, but food to some! ‘best friend’ is only ONE?
e.g. Comm. Mosaic > textbook > book > reading matter
Can cause misunderstanding in relationships.
Can cause confusion due to overgeneralization.
Ladder of Abstraction Action Avoid interacting with Andrea Judgment Andrea is a selfish and immature person. Label Applied Andrea is taking more than her share of time. Perceived Behavior Andrea asks a lot of questions during the meeting. Concrete Phenomena Andrea moves around a lot; she says she is worried about
making a good grade in the course; and she asks many questions.
Principles of Communication
1. Creates Meaning 2. Guided by Rules 3. Punctuation affects Meaning
Language Creates Meaning Because language is abstract, ambiguous and arbitrary, we need to interpret to find out its meaning. Interpretation: an active, creative process to make sense of experiences. Brute facts Institutional Facts Objective, concrete phenomena and activities Interpreted meanings of brute facts ‘huddling’ during a rugby game. They were really huddling.
But they are planning for their next round.
Guided by Rules Communication rules: shared understandings among members of a particular culture or social group about what communication means, and what behavior is appropriate in various situations. Brute Facts Institutional Facts Objective, concrete phenomena and activities Interpreted meanings of brute facts ‘huddling’ during a rugby game. They were really huddling.
But they are planning for their next round.
Regulative Rules Constitutive Rules Regulate interaction by specifying when, how, where, and with whom to communicate about certain things.
Define what a particular communication stands for.
e.g. cannot argue at dinner table, interrupting during a speech is rude.
e.g. showing respect (listening attentively, not correcting); as a good friend (sharing confidences, defending them)
When and how to communicate How to interpret others’ verbal and non-verbal communication
Punctuation Affects Meaning We punctuate to interpret meaning. Punctuating verbal communication marks a flow of activity into meaningful units. Thru it we perceive when our interaction begins and ends. Point of punctuation can differ è misunderstandings can result. e.g. on internet forums, communication is punctuated differently by participants who join in the conversation at different times è difficult to know which messages are responding to which è misunderstandings may result.
1. one person creates closeness thru personal talk
2. the other tries to keep distance by avoiding and retreating
3. the first person tries to demand further personal talk
4. the other retreats even further 5. and so on…
I pursue because you withdraw. I withdraw because you pursued.
6 Symbolic Abilities How language as a symbol affects our lives. Defines Phenomena
• semantic definition of phenomena • our perception formed by our labels • totalizing effect (referring to a
person as if it is all there is to it, e.g. ‘Asian’)
‘car’ à ‘my car’ ‘Angmoh’ à might be all that we notice about that person, ignoring other points (over-generalisation)
Evaluates Phenomena (others)
• thru descriptive words (adj) • Symbols are loaded with values • Loaded language strongly slant
perception è ethical concern è reappropriation
‘good-looking’, ‘eloquent’, ‘arrogant’
allows Organizing of Experience (cognitive schemata)
• Lets us categorize phenomena using cognitive schemata and influence its interpretation
• Can also distort thinking (by stereotyping)
Criticism by ‘friend’ = contructive. But, criticism by ‘enemy’ = insult Over-geneneralisation (bad by-product of the abstractness of a language)
allows Hypothetical Thought (about past & future)
• Thru enabling words like ‘when’, ‘if’, to think of experiences not part of concrete, daily reality
Words give form to ideas, enable us to hold and reflect them in our minds è goal setting
Allows self-reflection
• ‘I’ vs ‘Me’ – 2 aspects of self • ‘I’ – I myself. • ‘Me’ – me in the context of society,
socially conscious
‘Me’ moderates the impulses of ‘I’
Defines relationships and interaction
• represent responsiveness, liking and power
Totalising is different from stereotyping. Consider an elderly woman. Totalising Stereotyping ‘she’s old.’ ‘She probably cannot walk fast.’ based on her intrinsic value of being elderly predicative generalization that elderly will be
05 – Engaging in Non-Verbal Communication Non-verbal communication: all aspects of communication other than words E.g. gestures, body language, inflection (tone), volume, environmental features that affect meaning (temperature, lighting), objects that affect personal images 5 Principles of Non-Verbal Communication Ambiguous Ambiguity arises because meanings change over time.
Guided by
• Constitutive Rules (what behaviours are understood to count for)
• Regulative Rules (when and where behaviours are appropriate)
Interacts with Verbal Communication
• Repetition (Nodding head when saying ‘yes’) • Inflection (to emphasize certain words, most) • Gesturing (Complementing Words) • Contradict Verbal messages (Saying “Nothing’s
Wrong” angrily) • Substitution for Verbal behavior (Rolling of eyes)
- Illustrators Adaptors Double-binders Emblems
Establishes Relationship-level meanings
• Responsiveness (eye-contact, facial expressions, body postures)
• May differ due to culture (Japanese vs. American)
• Liking (smiles, friendly touches vs. frowns) • Differ between male and female (Women tend to sit
closer, more eye contact than men do)
• Power (space and silence) • Distinguishes between superiors and subordinates
Regulates interaction
• Physical movements (signals) that organize interactions between people.
Regulators
Reflects cultural values
• Dependent on cultures that allow different non-verbal behavior
• E.g. personal spaces, timeliness, eye contact differ between US and Asia, or Hispania
06 – Listening and Responding to Others Listening as just as important as talking. Listening is
• a complex process within self-control • a learned skill • active
The Listening Process Listening is not hearing. Hearing is a passive, physiological process). What does Listening Involve? Being Mindful • Focusing on what is happening at the moment
• Increases our understanding of others’ thoughts • Promotes more complete communication by others
• Cognitive schemata (organize what we selectively perceive) • Define the listening situation and construct its meaning. • Use a script we’re familiar with to deal with the person
Interpreting • Put together that we selected and organized to make sense of it • Ethical listening: making an earnest effort to grasp what they think
07 – Creating Communication Climates Effective communication depends on the communication climate. Communication climate: emotional tone of a relationship between people. Levels of Confirmation and Disconfirmation Interpersonal confirmation: expressed valuing of another person. When we’re confirmed: we feel appreciated and respected. When we’re disconfirmed: we feel discounted and devalued. Most relationships are a mixture of the two climates.
Attentiveness to what a person feels, thinks or says
Accepting a person’s feelings as valid (doesn’t mean agreeing)
A smile, handshake Nodding head, eye contact “hello”, “nice to meet you” Direct responses to other’s
communication / acknowledging their feelings e.g. “sounds like you’re having some difficulty with this project”
Accepting the validity of his/her situation “it’s normal to feel like this when you encounter such project mates”
You exist. Listening What you say is true. You don’t exist. Not listening. You are wrong. Hello. I’m sorry you’re hurt. What you feel is normal. <Silence> You’ll get over it. It’s stupid to feel that way.
Defensive and Supportive Climates Communication can promote defensive climates, or supportive climates. Evaluation Using ‘You’ language Evaluates the other
person and hold him responsible for how I feel
“You upset me”
Description Using ‘I’ language Describes how I feel and avoids judging others
“I feel upset when you scream”
Certainty Only one valid answer
(no discussion) Slams door on further discussion
“My mind cannot be changed”
Provisionalism using tentative language
Openness to other points of view
“the way I tend to see the issue is”
Strategy Manipulating a person for
own benefit We become defensive “remember how I
helped you last time?”
Spontaneity Open, honest, not manipulative.
May not necessarily ethical (respectful)
“I really need your help now”
Control Dominating; imposing
views on others on the basis of superiority
We become defensive, resent or rebel
“I like it and I have the money to pay”
Problem Orientation
Resolving tensions and problems
Work collaboratively to find something everyone finds acceptable
“It seems each of us have different ideas. Let’s find a way for all of us to achieve what we need”
Neutrality Indifference to others We get defensive when
we feel strongly about something that others dis
“How you fight with your boyfriend is not my business”
Empathy Confirms worth of others shows concern “I can understand why you think that way”
Superiority Act like they are better than
us We shut out messages that belittle us
“I know a lot more than you do”
Equality Communicates respect Open, unguarded climate for communication
1. people depend on each other 2. have different views, interests, values, responsibilities, or objectives 3. and perceive the differences as incompatible
Conflicts can be Overt or Covert Overt: people express differences in an outright, straightforward manner Covert: indirectly. Conflicts can be Managed Well or Poorly 4 key Components of Conflict Process 1. Interest 2. Orientations 3. Responses 4. Outcomes Goals, interests or opinions that seem imcompatible
Differing individual attitudes towards conflict
Overt behavioral responses to conflict
How conflict is managed and how relationships are affected
We need to resolve in a way that doesn’t harm the relationship
• lose-lose • win-lose • win-win
Diagram below
• prevailing decisions
• impact on relationships
Conflict can be Beneficial Conflict can benefit our relationships and ourselves when managed constructively, in a supportive interpersonal climate. Prompts us to consider other point of views. Increase our insight into relationships, situations and ourselves.
09 – Identity and Self-concept Self: defined as a process, made up of perspectives about ourselves, others and social life resulting from experiences and interactions with others. Greatly influenced by communication. Communication and Personal Identity We develop self-understanding through process of communicating with others. The self arise in communication with others. Self-fulfilling prophecies: expectations or judgements of ourselves that we bring about through our own actions. “Expect to do well, and they do well.” If we accept others’ judgements, we fufill their prophecies. Particular Others
• specific people who are impt to us and shape how we see ourselves
• can vary according to culture
• mother, father, sibling, peers
Generalized Other
• Views (rules, roles, and attitudes) endorsed by the overall society and communities we belong
• other people, social institutions, media etc.
Institutions • communicate values that further
convey the perspectives of the generalized other
• (e.g. Many prisons à convey that our society values law and order)
• reflect and express prevailing social prejudicies
• Rich defendants can afford better legal counsel
Glass-looking self / Reflected appraisal: process of seeing ourselves through the eyes of others. (Looking thru the ‘mirrored’ eyes of others, learning how others see them) Self-concept. We see ourselves from the perspectives of others.
Communication with Family Members Family interaction dominates our early years, sculpts the foundation of our self-concepts. They do it thru:- Direct Definition Explicitly telling us who we are (labeling us and our behaviors)
• Children internalize them, use them as models for self
• Can enhance or deplete our self-esteem
• Children learn how others see them, what others value à shapes how they regard themselves and their self-expectations
“You’re my sweet little girl.” à girls are sweet. “You’re a big, strong boy now.” à boys are strong and big “You’re great at soccer” vs “You’re stupid”
Life Scripts Rules for living and identity
• Defines our roles, how we play them and the things that make for a ‘right’ life
“Always help others”, “Save your money”, “Look out for yourself”
Attachment Styles
• Patterns of parenting that teaches us how to view ourselves and personal relationships
Communication with Peers Childhood playmates, work associates, friends and romantic partners. Reflected Appraisals
• Same as above
Direct Definitions • Strong in commenting on social gender norms
e.g. drinking is manly. Wearing designer clothes in feminine.
Social comparisons
• Rating ourselves relative to others with respect to our talents, abilities, qualities etc
• Compare if we are like them, tend to stick to similar people
• Compare to measure specific aspects of ourselves (if we’re normal)
• Good if comparisons are realistic
e.g. same interests? Same political beliefs? e.g. am I as smart as Jim? As fit as Matt?
Self-disclosure • Revealing personal info about ourselves that others are unlikely to know on their own
• To express private hope • Others’ response to our self-disclosure affects how we see
ourselves Johari Window Known to self Unknown to self
Known to others Open
- name, music tastes Blind
- personal perception of leadership
Unknown to others Hidden
- vulnerabilities, traumas, self-doubts
Unknown - untapped resources, fears,
abilities A healthy self-concept requires knowledge of myself Important to gain access to information in our blind and unknown areas:-
• Trying novel activities, experiment new ways to communicate (Unknown areas) • Ask others how they perceive me (Blind areas) • Disclose personal info to trusted friends (hidden areas)
Uncertainty Reduction Theory: We ask questions to reduce uncertainty. Self-disclosure Self-disclosure can reduce uncertainty. It is not primary in long relationships, because:-
• Initally self-disclosure can build intimacy. Necessary and desirable • Once a relationship is built, bulk of communication focus on task-related stuff • Benefits of trust built thru time and initial disclosure encourages the rsn
• inclusion: becoming involved • affection: having fond / tender feelings for others • control: ability to influence others and ourselves
Symmetrical vs Complementary Relationships Symmetrical: both parties do the same thing. Same thing.
Competitive Symmetry Submissive Symmetry Neutralized Symmetry • tries to exert control
over others • communicates
submission • Communicates
similarly Chris: Do it now. Amy: I'll do it when I'm good and ready; otherwise, do it yourself.
Chris: What do you want for dinner? Amy: Whatever you'd like is fine.
Amy: Jackie needs new shoes. Chris: And a new jacket.
Complementary: one exerts control while the other submits, or vice-versa Competitive (Control) à Submissive Submissive à Competitive (Control) Amy: Here, honey, do it this way. Chris: Oh, that's great; you're so clever
Amy: I need suggestions for managing this new team of recruits. Chris: Oh, that's easy; I've managed similar groups for years.
4 Features of Personal Relationships Most of our relationship are social, not personal.
1. Uniqueness
Social Relationship Personal Relationship • Replaceable (classmate in lecture;
can replace with another one) • Rsn defined by the role they fulfill,
not who they are • Non-unique
• Irreplaceable (cannot find a new best friend or parent)
• Rsn defined by who they are and what they create
• unique e.g. lecture classmate, project mate, co-workers
e.g. friendships, intimate partners, best friends, parents
Relationship Rules Unspoken understanding between partners.
Constitutive rules (What) Regulative rules (How) Shalt Not rules • what is expected in
certain kinds of relationships
• Constitutive rules ‘constitute!’
• when and with whom to engage in various kinds of communication
• Regulative rules ‘regulate!’
• What each other won’t tolerate
• Both trival and impt
e.g. friends should be LOYAL. Hugs are AFFECTION. Silence is ANGER.
e.g. okay to criticize in private but not public. Kids should not interrupt adults.
e.g. cannot marry outside religion or race
e.g. LOYAL vs DISLOYAL. OK vs NOT OKAY Can vary with culture. Evolutionary Course of Personal Relationships Many relationships (friendships and romances) develop similarly. Turning points move a relationship towards or away from intimacy. They are events or points of discovery (e.g. first kiss, meeting parents, taking a trip together, sharing personal information). Events like conflict, discovering infidelity (mismatch) can steer a relationship away from intimacy. 6 Stages of Friendships Waning friendship • When one or both stop being committed
• Could be circumstantial
Stabilized friendship • Assumption of continuity • Trust
Both know they’ll keep seeing each other
Nascent friendship • Increased involvement and caring • Social norms and roles are less impt • Work out private ways to relate
Setting and committing to common routines
Moving towards friendship
• Stepping beyond social roles • Personalize a relationship by introducing
a more personal topic
Sharing feelings, values, attitudes
Friendly relations • Checking the other person out if we have common grounds and interest to develop a good friendship
Age, background, interests, status
Role-limited interaction
• Have standard social rules, careful in disclosures
How Relationships Deteriorate: 5 Processes Not all intimately bonded relationships eventually endure. Intrapsychic • Relational deterioration
• One / both partners brood about problems in the rsn à self-fufilling prophecies
thinking whether she’s really the right one, insecurity about my looks
Dyadic • Breakdown in behaviorial norms in a relationship
no longer calling her at night, not speaking regularly
Social support
• Telling others about the troubled rsn • Rsn becomes harder to ignore • Partners give self-serving accounts of
the rsn and expect others to take sides
Telling friends about the private problems John telling his friends all the ways Alice is at fault and him being the innocent one
Grave Dressing
• Partners decide how to tell and explain their situation to friends and family
• Particular others may take sides if the partners do not craft a joint explanation
Break ups can still be good in some ways:- Personal growth New insights into future rsn Improved family rsn
Resurrection • Moving on to a new stage of life without the ex-partner
Challenges in Personal Relationship Jealousy • Perception of threat to the self and/or the romantic relationship
by a real or potential rival relationship • Threat to self (he’s more handsome, richer etc) • Threat to relationship (seems to be on better terms with her then
me) • Infidelity (betrayal in sexual relations)
Dealing with distance
• long distance relationships
Dual-careers • changing domestic obligations, social responsibilities Violence • negotiating safe sex
11 – Small Group Communication Communication influences productivity and climate of interaction in groups. Group members use:
• verbal & non-verbal communication • check perceptions • listen mindfully • build good climates • adapt communication
Groups vs Teams Groups: 3 or more people who:-
• interact over time • depend on one another, and • follow shared rules of conduct to • reach a common goal
Groups Teams
• involve interaction, interdependence, shared rules and common goals People have:-
• different and specialized resources to a project (a mission)
• greater interdependence and • stronger identity
All teams are groups, but not all groups are teams! Rules Goals Groups develop rules (constitutive and regulative) that members understand and follow. Constitutive – What counts as what (e.g. some groups regard disagreement as sign of involvement, other groups regard it is negative) Regulative – Regulate how, when, and with whom we interact (e.g. No interrupting when someone else is speaking; no sharing of internal things with outsiders)
Citizens à accomplish political goals Workers à implement policies at work Students à find support at school, common interests
Participation affects Effectiveness of Small Groups Members must be able to participate effectively. 5 feature of small groups that affect and are affected by small groups. Cohesion / Closeness
• Degree of closeness among members, sense of group spirit
• Enhanced by communication that builds group identity
• Cohesiveness ßà Participation
• Excessive cohesiveness: too ‘nice’ to offer good, honest advice
• Groupthink: members fail to think independently
Group Size (5 – 7)
• Larger group, less commitment per member to outcomes
• Too small a group à scarce resources à unwilling to criticise
Power Structure
• Power over: ability to help or harm others
• Power to: ability to help others succeed
• Power ßà Participation • Social climbing
• High power à centre of group communication, greater influence in group decisions
• High power à greater satisfaction cos’ they get their way more easily
Interaction Patterns (Explicit Rule)
• Centralised (1 or more people hold central positions) vs Decentralised (more balanced communication, members have roughly equal power)
Group norms (Implicit Rule)
• Norms: guidelines that regulate how members act and interact
• Grows out of interaction
e.g. at an initial meeting some member do not pay attn. when others are talking à norm of disrespect develops
Social climbing: people tend to hang out with leaders (whoever has more power in the group), go near the ‘core’ to share some of their power Power Structures Reward Coercive Legitimate Expert Referent Giving people things they value
Must convey detailed instructions, to prevent misunderstandings
Confident, decisive
Charismatic I’m on your side and I promise you
Supportive Animated facial exp, high energy level, eloquence
Types of Communication in Groups Constructive participation
• Task communication – focuses on problem, issues, information • Procedural communication – gets group organized and on track • Climate communication – creates and maintains productive environment
12 – Organizational Communication (Guest Lecture) Even though organizations differ, all of them need communication. 3 Keys of Organizational Communication In addition, Organizational Communication needs:-
• Structure • To occur in a Communication network • Links to external environments
Structure Communication Network Links to Ext. Environments • Different levels of power • Specifies the chain of
command
• Formal & informal links between members in org
• Organizations are systems that interact with diff contexts
Organizational Culture Cultures are shaped by shared values, behaviours, practices and communication forms. In Organization communication, its culture reflect a company’s identity. Organization Culture: shared meanings by members of an org Org Cult ß cross influences à interaction bet. Members
Vocabulary Reflects & expresses an Org’s history
Hierarchical Language • Languages that
communicate rank • Unequal terms of
address
e.g. “Yes, Sir.” “Captain” e.g. “Good morning, Jan. Hello Prof. Detenber.”
Masculine Language • Organizations dominated by men in history
Establish and sustains Org Cult Corporate Stories • Convey values, style and
history of an org • To socialize new members
into the org
About the past founding history, successes and failures, etc.
Personal Stories • Tell stories about themselves To show someone that you are a ‘supportive’ player
Collegial Stories • Telling about other member in the org
• To help newcomers socialize and get along
Rites Verbal & non-verbal practices that express and reproduce Org Cult
Rite rules (1 event, many ideas)
• Dramatic, planned sets of activity that bring together aspects of cultural ideology in a single event
Aka ‘initiation’, rites of passage to acknowledge, affirm etc. Workplan retreats (rite of renewal).
Rituals (1 idea, many events)
• Forms of comm that occur regularly, members see it as familiar and routine parts of org life
• Personal: indv use to express org identities
• Social: standard behavior that affirm rsn bet members of org
• Task: repeated activities
e.g. CEO sends mail to every dept to show coy’s openness e.g. bitching about week’s work every day e.g. asking standard questions “May I see your license please?”
Structures Organizes relationship between members in an Org
Roles
• Responsibilities and behaviors expected due to their specific position
• Not tied to a person • Set of functions, fixed even when the
Scholars categorize communication as 4 types:- • Informational transfer • Transactional process • Strategic control (using comm as a tool to control the environment) • Balance of creativity and constraint (balancing the dialectic of wanting to be creative,
yet being tied down by constraining aspect of cultures) Communicators in Organizations transfer info, gets feedback, controls the environment, and balances creativity and constraints.
14 – Mass Communication (E-Learning) Mass Comm: major source of information and entertainment
1. One to many 2. Anonymous audience (masses) 3. Mediated communication (e.g. TV, Radio, Magazines)
Since it is MASS comm, it does NOT include personal (computer-mediated) communication mediums like social networks, emails or SMSes. Evolution of Mass Communication Epoch Dominant Sense Tribal • Since oral traditions, face-to-face
• Talking Hearing (Listening)
Literate • Since invention of phonetics • Writing based on symbols • Written media limited to elite class
Sight (Reading / Writing)
Print • Since Gutenberg invented printing press
• Face-to-face no longer necessary • Visual reading matter no longer for
just the elite
Sight (Reading / Writing)
Electronic • Since invention of telegraph • Increased access to into à global
village (modern worldwide community that reflects the tribal village)
Hearing (Listening)
4 Theories of Mass Communication Hypothermic Needle “How do media affect us?”
• Media is direct, immediate and powerful effect on
• People who are vulnerable, passive audiences
• Not true today, but is accurate in history (Nazi media)
Later rejected:- 1. scholars realize
people not totally powerless
2. mass comm not the sole influence of people’s behavior
Uses and Gratification “Why people use media?”
• we attend to mass comm to gratify ourselves
• we use media for its value to us & for pleasure (Music)
• audience put messages to use; these usage affects its effects
• media establishes an agenda for us by spotlighting certain issues at the expense of others
• media can own self select and divert our attention to its own issues
• coverage and non-coverage • Gatekeepers: people and groups that
decide which messages (information and info sources) pass thru to consumers
•
e.g. editors of newspapers, books, producers, governments
Cultivation Theory TV influence à Attitudes (not behavior)
• TV cultivates an inaccurate worldview but viewers think it’s real
• TV promotes distorted views of life
• Mainstreaming: stabilizing and homogenize views in society
• Resonance: Similarity bet TV and personal experiences creates credibility
• Mean World Syndrome: belief that the world is a dangerous place, full of mean people that cannot be trusted and likely to harm us
e.g. more violent & dangerous than really is e.g. shows portray Whites as good and other races as bad à viewers will think this is true e.g. someone who had been robbed identifies with TV violence à assume it accurately represents the world
Cultural Studies
• Mass Comm ßà Culture • We use mass comm in deliberate
and strategic ways
• Political Economy studies: how media ownership controls cultural life
• Media driven by capitalism à maximize profits
• Product Placements: putting
products in shows to portray a lifestyle / statement thru a character
• Immersive advertising: putting a
product / brand into actual storylines and plots
e.g. Extreme Makeover à people shd not settle for their natural appearance, our job to make ourselves more attractive e.g. media corps may not be really interested in media accuracy e.g. Sear’s appliances featured in Extreme Makeoverà reap money for media owners e.g. Prada bags in Gossip Girl
Mass comm influences us in ways we don’t notice. Consumers of media are actively involved in shaping media’s meanings and using media to affect emotions, moods and pleasures.
• Windows to see beyond our immediate surroundings • Interpreters to help us make sense of experience • Platforms or carriers that convey information • interactive communication that includes audience feedback, • signposts that provide us with instructions and directions, • filters that screen out parts of experience and focus on others, • mirrors that reflect ourselves back to us, • barriers that block the truth
Medium Theory McLuhan: The Medium is the Message, because it’s the medium that shapes and controls the scale and form of human association and action. Hot Media Cold Media
• “High-definition” • Media filled with data • Low in participation
• “Low-definition” • Media has little data given, to be
filled in by receiver
e.g. Movie, radio, photography, lecture e.g. TV, telephone, cartoon, seminar Convergence: currently, most media theorists agree both content and medium matter. Castells: the medium is the message, and the message is the message Media and Reality Do media reflect reality? May promote negative social values regarding violence and sex à crime? Basic Functions Social Functions
• To inform • To educate • To entertain • To serve the economy
• Surveillance • Correlation • Transmit culture
Gender stereotypes: successful male characters are portrayed as strong, heroic, independent and confident. Vs. Women who look beautiful, young, slim and caring towards others.
Media Literacy Media Literacy: being able to have control in media (resist and redefine inaccurate and harmful media messages) Don’t be passive. Understand, analyze and respond thoughtfully to media. Media determines one’s attitudes and social perspectives to a certain extent. Interrogating Media messages:
• Why so much attention? • Any vested interests? • Are viewpoints balanced? • How are different people framed by gatekeepers?
08 – Intercultural Communication (E-Learning) Culture: a shared way of life, system of ideas, values, beliefs, customs and language Iceberg: Metaphor of Culture Questions Implications Do you know the size and shape of the iceberg?
Below the surface (culture), there are deep, unseen cultures, just like an iceberg.
How much is above water? How much is under the water?
We can see but a tiny bit of culture, but much is underneath and unseen
Communication Occurs in Cultural Systems All parts in a system are related à change 1 part à whole system changed. System > Sum of its parts (new elements are introduced). Strive for equilibrium, but hard to sustain balance à change inevitable. Culture ßà Communication
1. We learn culture when communicating 2. Language indicates existence of culture 3. Many social communities coexist in a single culture 4. Communication sustains and expresses culture 5. Communication is a source of cultural change
2 Cultural Indications & Communication Styles
Individualistic Culture…
• Everyone is distinct • Values indv rights and independence • Comm is assertive / competitive • Celebrate indv goals
Collectivist Culture…
• Everyone is interdependent • Values collective harmony & indep. • Comm is other-oriented & co-operative • Celebrate communal goals
… has Low context comm style
• People are distinct indv à no shared meanings à everything must be spelled out clearly
… has High context style
• People are interconnected à have shared meanings à no need to spell everything out
Co-cultures Culture may co-exist in a single society
• Culture not defined by geography • E.g. gender, race & social class • One person can belong to several co-cultures
Standpoint Theory: social groups in a culture distinctively shape members’ perspective E.g. gendered communities, black communities etc. Communication varies among race, socio-economic, religious statuses. (e.g. a rich black and a poor black responds differently.) Communication à Culture Languages: English language is has many words related to time à Western culture is time-driven Religion: Buddhism believes in “Something after Nothing” à Eastern belief in life after death What makes Communication ‘Intercultural’? When the people communicating have:
1. Cultural perceptions 2. Symbol systems (what they use to express meaning) 3. That are DISTINCT enough to alter the communication event
Effective Communication between Cultures Adapting to people is a basic communication process. Resistance Attacks practices of one culture & denies its value / validity Tolerance Accepts differences even though they are not approved / clearly
understood Understanding Adopts cultural relativism (understanding other’s activities & beliefs
thru THEIR cultural context) Respect Forgoes judgment of cultural diff Participation Incorporated aspects of other cults into my life
15 – Personal & Social Media Main difference btw traditional and personal / social media is digitalization. Digitalization is:-
• Manipulation à removes line dividing production and consumption of media • Convergence à video & sound are on the same network (being digital) • Instant speed à prevents careful vetting à jeopardizes accuracy
History of Communication Technologies Comm Tech: means of recording, transferring and working with information. Drawbacks Written Comm • Letters, papers,
articles, books • Needs time and effort to prepare • People have difficulty in
language (vocab & grammar) • Easily ignored in today’s digital
world Telephonic comm
• Calling, fax, SMS • Phone convos have no privacy (people can overhear)
Controversies about Personal and Social Media These media impact how we think, communicate and relate to each other. Should we allow them to do as they please? Comp Tech affects Thinking?
• Allow and encourage multi-tasking • Cause us to react to visual stimuli • Makes us reliant on programs to
direct our action and judgment
à But we are not born to multitask à we become impatient (everything must be instant) à Discourage independent, critical thinking
Online community affects Social Relations?
• Can join and leave at will
• Able to disclose, withdraw or falsify personal info
• à Good: helps people seek acceptance
à Virtual communities provide support without responsibility à Bad: led to deceptive crime (e.g. child molestation)
Newer Tech increase productivity?
• Some activities (e.g. shopping, withdrawing money) become more efficient
