4/14/2012

1

Understanding

10th G.A. Leonards LectureApril 13, 2012 - Purdue U.

Soil Properties and Behavior- Recent Developments -

J. Carlos SantamarinaGeorgia Institute of Technology

1921 Born (April 29, Montreal)

1943 BSc ( McGill University )1944 Army @ McGill 44-45 Canadian Mines & Resources1945 Married45-46 Canadian DoT1948 MSc (Purdue)

Taught Mechanics & Drafting"MUD-LAB" (compaction and shear tests)6 week trip in the USA (Shannon, Casagrande)

Harvard? Caltech? Purdue?

1952 PhD (Purdue): Compacted clay1952 Assistant Professor1955 A i t P f1955 Associate Professor1958 Full Professor

1960 US Citizen1965 Norman Medal

1976 "Best CE Teacher"

1980 Terzaghi Lecture – Failures1985 Workshop Dam Failures1989 Member NAE

1991 Professor Emeritus1997 Died (February 1)

4/14/2012

2

1921 Born (April 29, Montreal)

1943 BSc ( McGill University )1944 Army @ McGill 44-45 Canadian Mines & Resources1945 Married45-46 Canadian DoT1948 MSc (Purdue)

Frozen ground Pavements

1952 PhD (Purdue): Compacted clay1952 Assistant Professor1955 A i t P f Clays: σ-history1955 Associate Professor1958 Full Professor

Clays: σ history

1960 US Citizen1965 Norman Medal

Friction (and vibration)Clays - Repeated loadingCracking Earth DamsShallow Foundations

1976 "Best CE Teacher"

Sands: σ-history; vibration; dynamic compactionFly AshFailuresPile Foundations

1980 Terzaghi Lecture – Failures1985 Workshop Dam Failures1989 Member NAE

Slope Stability – Landfills – Dam failuresWeak seamsLateral Earth PressureCulvertsUndrained loading – Liquefaction of sandsTower of Pisa

1991 Professor Emeritus1997 Died (February 1) Hydraulic conductivity, piping, erosion

1921 Born (April 29, Montreal)

1943 BSc ( McGill University )1944 Army @ McGill 44-45 Canadian Mines & Resources1945 Married45-46 Canadian DoT1948 MSc (Purdue) Clays

SandsFly Ash

1952 PhD (Purdue): Compacted clay1952 Assistant Professor1955 A i t P f

y

Frozen ground Discontinuities - Weak seamsFrictionHydraulic conductivityPiping, erosion

Pavements - CulvertsShallow and Deep FoundationsSl d d

1955 Associate Professor1958 Full Professor

1960 US Citizen1965 Norman Medal

1976 "Best CE Teacher"

Slopes and damsLateral Earth Pressure

Failures1980 Terzaghi Lecture – Failures1985 Workshop Dam Failures1989 Member NAE

1991 Professor Emeritus1997 Died (February 1) Energy Geotechnology

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Energy Geotechnology

GAL Historical Geology (Homework #1)

1.0

x

Energy and Life

LEI EI GDPIHDI3

+ +=

(Global 2008)

0.4

0.6

0.8

man

Dev

elop

men

t Ind

ex

0.0

0.2

0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00

Hu

Total power per person [kW/person]

data spirces: CIA, UN, EIA

C. Pasten

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1.0

xUSA

1 billion

Energy and Life (Global: 2008 – BRIC trends: 1980-2007)

0.4

0.6

0.8

uman

Dev

elop

men

t Ind

ex

India

China

BrazilRussia

0.0

0.2

0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00

Hu

Total power per person [kW/person]

Countries following the same trend: P↑ HDI ↑

Sources – Case: USA2008 LLNL – DOEUnits: [QUADS]

Efficiency in geotechnology? crushing<5% tunneling<< ants!

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1 By4.5 B

2 By3 By4 By 0

Geo-Centered Perspective: Time Scale

1 By4.5 B

2 By3 By4 By 0

3.5

BYA

:ba

cter

ia

2.5

BYA

: O

2at

mos

ph

1.5

BYA

: pl

ants

230-65 MYA: dinosaurs

coal & petrol

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1 By4.5 B

2 By3 By4 By 0

0 My2 My4 My6 My8 My10 My

1 By4.5 B

2 By3 By4 By 0

0 My2 My4 My6 My8 My10 My

400k 300k 200k 100k 0k

Fedorov et al 2006

8 o C

220

300

380

T

CO2

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1 By4.5 B

2 By3 By4 By 0

0 My2 My4 My6 My8 My10 My

0 2000 yr-2000 yr-4000 yr-6000 yr

History of fossil fuels: a δ-function

CO2

Geo-Centered Perspective: Spatial Scale

C

Fossil Fuel: ~90%

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FOSSIL FUELS (C-BASED) RENEWABLENuclear

Petroleum Gas Coal Wind Solar BiofuelsGeo-T Tidal

• fines & clogging

Energy Geotechnology

•sand production• shale instability• EOR• heavy oil & tar sand

• gas hydrates• gas storage• low-T LNG found.

• characterization• optimal extraction• subsurface conv.

•periodic load• ratcheting

• engineered soils• decommission• leak detect• leak repair

• mixed fluid flow, percolation • contact angle & surface tension = f(ua)

GEOLOGICAL STORAGE

CO2 sequestration Energy Storage Waste 104-105 yr BTHCMmineral dissolution shear faults, pipes

CAES, phase-changeCyclic HTCM

storage105 yr BTHCM

GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION

CONSERVATION

•Hydro‐electric:  capacity almost saturated

Energy: critical for development

High increase in demand in next decades

Lessons Learned

Resources: C-economy

Environmental implications

Geotechnology: Central Role

Production, transport, conservation, waste

Rich & complex phenomena - interwoven processes

Urgency ….

Fascinating !

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Clays Fly Ash Sands

Ottawa sand

> 50 μm< 10 μm

http://www.minersoc.org

illite

kaolinite crushed granite

sintered lead(The Diatoms –1990)

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http://www.minersoc.org

smectitekaolinite illite

Clay Minerals: Very High Specific Surface

Implications: (1) small pores (2) very low kgas (3) adsorbed gas (clay)(4) high capillary entry (5) low gas recovery (6) low bioactivity

Ss= 10 m2/gdpore=10 nm

Ss= 50 m2/gdpore=2 nm

Ss= 300 m2/gdpore=0.3 nmfor n=0.2

Critical fines Content FC*

Grain Size Distribution: The Role of Fines

(for mechanical properties …)

finecoarse

coarse

total

fine*

ee1e

MMFC

++==

Sediment e1kPa FC*Silt ~0.7 ~ 25 %

Kaolinite ~1.5 ~ 20 %

Illite ~3.7 ~ 11 %

Montmorillonite ~5.4 ~ 8 %

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Particle Forces

Skeletal

WeightWeight

Buoyant

Hydrodynamic

Capillary

ElectricalElectrical

attraction

repulsion

Cementation

Skeletal

Weight

Particle Forces

Weight

Buoyant

Hydrodynamic

Capillary

Electrical

U

W FdragElectrical

attraction

repulsion

Cementation

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Skeletal

Weight

Particle Forces

Weight

Buoyant

Hydrodynamic

Capillary

ElectricalElectrical

attraction

repulsion

Cementation

Skeletal

Weight

Laponite 1200 H2O 24 Na+

Particle Forces

Weight

Buoyant

Hydrodynamic

Capillary

ElectricalElectrical

attraction

repulsion

Cementation(N. Skipper - UCL)

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Skeletal

Weight

2d'N σ=3d)6/G(W

boundary-determined

Particle Forces

Weight

Buoyant

Hydrodynamic

Capillary

Electrical

3ws d)6/G(W γπ=

3ww d)6/(VolU γπ=γ⋅=

dv3Fdrag μπ=

dTF scap π=

A

particle-level

Electrical

attraction

repulsion

Cementation

dt24

AAtt 2h=

dec0024.0pRe o8 ct10

o−=

dtT tenσπ=

contact-level

123Skeletal

Weight

Particle Forces

μN

mN

Att

Fcap

WN 100 kPa

forc

e

Buoyant

Hydrodynamic

Capillary

Electrical

attraction nN

μm mm

diameter d

attraction

repulsion

Cementation

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Soil Properties and BehaviorSoils: particulate mediaParticle-level forces

Lessons LearnedKingston Fossil Plant – 22 December 2008

Transition: d ~10μm

Energy GeotechnologyFly ash pondsResource distributionResource recoveryyFines migration and formation damageDevelopment of discontinuities – Fractures and lensesMixed fluid conditions (oil-water; gas-water)Gas migration…

Hydraulic Conductivity&

Fines Migration

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fabric inherent and stress‐induced anisotropy particle & pore‐scale

Pore Size Distribution

Log (dpore/micron)

1.00

10.00

100.00

devi

atio

n of

d [m

icro

n]

d

d

0.4σμ

=

0.01

0.10

0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 1000.00

Mean of d [micron]

Stan

dard

d

(σd/μd) ≈ σln(dpore)

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Network Models – Upscaling

Poiseuille’s Eq. PL

Rq ΔΔ

=ηπ

8

4

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛Δ

=L

Rηπα

8

4

Mass Balance at Nodes

c0 q=∑( ) ( ) ( ) ( )a a c b b c r r c l l c0 P P P P P P P P= α − +α − +α − +α −

a a b b r r l lP P P PP α +α +α +α

Pl

Pb

Pc

Pa

Pr

( )a a b b r r l l

ca b r l

P =α +α +α +α

System of Equations1B A P then P A B−= =

COV(R2)=0.49 COV(R2)=1.26 COV(R2)=1.95

Spatially Correlated Porosity

Log (dpore/micron)

Uncorrelated

Correlated

J. Jang

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Skeletal

Weight

Particle Forces

μN

mN

Wfo

rce

10-1 m/s

10-3 m/s

Detach.(high i & k)

No

Buoyant

Hydrodynamic

Capillary

Electrical

attraction nN

μm mm

Att

diameter d

10-5 m/sNo Detach.

attraction

repulsion

Cementation

Bridging

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Bridging Conditions

Glass Beadsmin max

Particles

Container

Orifice

Mica

Sand

min

maxmin

max

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pore throat -to- particle diameter O/d

5

J. Valdes

Grain-Fluid paths

Deviation enhanced:ρs / ρf ↑

ec ↑

ρs / ρf = 3.2 ρs / ρf = 1.3

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Clogging in radial flow

Test 2Δh=1.18m

Volout = 20cc Volout = 40cc Volout = 70cc Volout = 100cc

Test 3Δh=2.66m

Volout = 20cc Volout = 40cc Volout = 70cc Volout = 100cc

out out out out

Volout = 10cc Volout = 30cc Volout = 60cc Volout = 100cc

Test 4Δh=4.13m

Soil Properties and Behavior

Inherent: pore size distribution

Lessons Learned

Emergent: fluid flow localization reactive fluid transport ?

Fines migration retardation bridging

Emergent: clogging ring at characteristic length scale

Energy Geotechnology

Oil and gas recovery

Geothermal

CO2 injection (….but different)

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Discontinuities

GAL CracksWeak seams

1965 ASCE Norman Medal

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Desiccation Cracks

cmpro.corbis.com

Surface Tension

BBC News In pictures Visions of Science.jpg

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Suction

ab

Desiccation Cracks - Evolution

Time

wat

er c

onte

nt

a b c d e

bc

d

e

Desiccation Cracks

Hosung Shin

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Desiccation Crack: Capillary Forces

1D Consolidation~ Isotropic Consolidation

Soil is in compression EVERYwhere

Microscope/ Digital camera

Forced Invasion of Immiscible Fluid

Pressure transducer

Pressure port

40 m

m

Sediment (water)

Invading fluid (oil, gas)

Drainage

100 mm

4( )

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Forced Fluid: Oil

Apparent Tensile Strength

q/p=0.98

σt=50kPa

e=2.38

50kP

q/p=0.52uc=100kPa

e=2.1

σt=50kPa

uc=100kPa

)'sin(1)'sin(2

0 φφσ

+≤uT

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DISCONTINUITIESInvasion

Invasion vs. Open-mode Discontinuities

1.0 100.1

LensesFracturesRoots

Fluid invasionCrystal growth in pores

d'2

NF LVc

σΤ

π=

fine grained soilslow effective stress

coarse grained soilshigh effective stress

1 2 3

Forced Miscible Fluid: Hydraulic Fracture

4 5 6

5cm

Hosung Shin

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Hydraulic Fracture: Seepage Drag Forces

Soil is in compression EVERYwhere

1D Consolidation

10

Miscible and/or Immiscible Fluid Invasion

(d) Mixed mode opening

(c) Drag-driven opening

(b) Capillary-driven opening

1.0

(a) Fluid invasion ith t

d'2

NF LVcap

σΤ

π=

opening

0.1 1.0 100.1

without localization

d'v3

NFdrag

σμ

π=

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Low P High P

CO2-H2O Interfacial Interaction ?

Surface Tension and Contact Angle

Water droplet in

CO2 gas

CO2 liquid

N. Espinoza

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Soil Properties and Behavior

Effective stress analysis: NO tension anywhere

Particle-level forces:

Lessons Learned

Particle level forces:

skeletal-capillary

skeletal-drag

Energy Geotechnology

Resource recovery: oil shale gas hydrates coalbed CH4 geoTResource recovery: oil, shale gas, hydrates, coalbed CH4, geoT

Development of discontinuities – Fractures and lenses

Unsaturated soil behavior: GREAT (but adapt)

Common: Mixed fluid conditions: oil-H2O; CH4-H2O; CO2-H2O

Lateral Earth Pressure

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Lateral Earth Pressure

Jacky 1944Brooker and Ireland 1965Schmidt 1966

For all soils [NC and OC], Ko should asymptotically approach unity

Andrawesand El-Sohby 1973Abdelhamid and Krizek 1976Mayne and Kulhawy 1982Feda 1984Kavazanjian and Mitchell (1984)Leonards 1985M i d H t 1993Mesri and Hayat 1993Michalowski 2005Castellanza and Nova 2004

…. among others….

Mount St. Helens – May 18, 1980

Washington State

2,950 meters WSPR

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Mount St. Helens – May 18, 1980

USGS

Mount St. Helens – May 18, 1980

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Volcanic Ash Soils: Formation

timewind

e= 0.8-1.5

Ss~0.1-1 m2/g

volcanic glass

time

e= 2.0-7.0

Ss=50-to-200 m2/g

hallositeimogolitel h

wind

alophane

ko= ??ko=1-sinφ

USGS

0.00

rain

90% glass bead + 10% NaCl

ko: Experimental Results

0 5

0.6

0.7

ss c

oeffi

cien

t, k

0.02

0.04 Vert

ical

str

0.3

0.4

0.5

0 1000 2000Time (sec)

Late

ral s

tres

Hosung Shin

4/14/2012

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constz =σ

ko: DEM Simulation

N= 9999 (in 2D) - 8000 (in 3D)

cov particle diameter: 0.25

Interparticle friction: 0.5

Simulation: reduce D or G

0.45

0.50

ent,

K a c

2D - diameter gradually reduced - 20% of particles

ko: DEM Simulation

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

Late

ral s

tres

s co

effic

ie

b

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Vertical strain, εz (%)

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ko: DEM Simulation – Pressure Solution

Minsu Cha

250m

seabedPolygonal Fault Systems

1kmCartwright (2005)

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Soil Properties and Behavior

Lessons Learned

Dissolution and diagenesis: affect ko

Emergent phenomena: shear localization

Complex geo-plumbing

Energy Geotechnology

Resource accumulation (oil, gas)

Gas recovery from hydrate bearing sediments

Leakage (C-sequestration)

Frozen Ground

GAL: PavementsTeton Dam

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1965 Highway Research Board "Best Paper Award"

Ice Lenses

Viggiani – Grenoble

Kaolin

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Ice Lens Formation Under Stress Boundary

TensionTension

Tension /compression

Compression

Taesup Yun

Hydrate lenses – Pressure cores

Percussion Core - KUB

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102

103

Pore-filling

10

WHcap

d'2

NF

σΤπ

=

2π

4102π

Hydrate Bearing Sediments

10-1

100

101

eris

tic p

artic

le s

ize

d 10 [ μ

m]

Lenses

Mt. Elbert

NGHP

102π

10-2 10-1 100 101 10210-4

10-3

10-2

Effective stress σv' [MPa]

Cha

ract

e

Nodules

Blake Ridge

Sheng Dai

Soil Properties and Behavior

FIELD: lens formation = Normal to thermal front

Lessons Learned

MORE GENERAL: also affected by effective stress

Energy Geotechnology

Frozen ground engineering

GREAT

but… generalize

Hydrate distribution

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FrictionFriction&

Repetitive Loading

<3500 BC Mesopotamia The wheel

~2750 BC Egyptians Sliding on sand and on wet silt

1452-1519 L. da Vinci T ≠ (apparent contact area)

1663-1705 G. Amontons Re-discovered da Vinci's

1736-1806 C.A. Coulomb Referred to Amontons observations

Strength and Repeated LoadsLarew & Leonards (1962)

Subsidence and VibrationBrumund & Leonards (1972)

F i ti d Vib tiFriction and VibrationBrumund & Leonards (1973)

Dynamic Compaction Leonards, Cutter & Holtz (1980 )

Undrained Monotonic And Cyclic StrengthAlarcon , Leonards & Chameau (1988)

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irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.cawww.dot.ca.gov

Reinforced Earthcoal mine – Australia – guardian.co.uk

100200

Bearing Capacity – N�

factor

10Nγ100

Nγ

10 10 20 30 40

φ °

00 10 20 30 40

φ °

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pφ

Macroscale Response in q, p’, e, ε

q

cvφ

ψ p'εa

q=Μp’

'⎛ ⎞

e

ecsecs cs 1kPap 'e e log

kPa⎛ ⎞= −λ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠

Constant Volume Shear0.9

0.7

0.5

sphe

ricity

cvφ

30

40

50

ctio

n an

gle

cv 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9

0.3

roundness

10

20

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Roundness R

CS

fri

cv 42 17 Rφ = −

Gye-Chun Cho

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Dilatency Anglee

p'po'

eo

ecs

λ dilative

contractive

Ε

ψ

8

12

16

20

24y

angl

e ψ

[deg

]Kogyuk sand(0~10% fines)Beaufort sand A (2~10% f ines)Beaufort sand B (5% f ines)Banding sand, Hauchipato sand (Castro 1969)Hokksund sand (NGI)Monterey no. 0 sand (Lade 1972)

p po

-4

0

4

8

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1

State parameter E

Dila

tanc

y

(Been and Jefferies 1985)

Peak Friction Angle pφ

p cvtan tan tanφ = φ + ψ

p cv 0.8φ = φ + ψ

Taylor 1948:

Bolton 1986:

0.4

0.6

0.8

ak fr

ictio

n si

n(φ

p)

rotation

slippage

(DEM 3D from Thornton 2000), (DEM 2D from Kruyt and Rothenberg 2006), Drained TC( ), Undrained TC( ), Drained TE(�), Undrained TE(�) (DEM-3D from Yimsiri 2001), (experiments) and (DEM 3D from Suiker and Fleck 2004), by the authors.

0.0

0.2

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Interparticle friction coef. m

Pea

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Residual Friction Angle

0 8

rφ

Note: clay fraction must exceed ~20%

0.4

0.6

0.8

ilize

d fr

ictio

n sin

( φ)

Soft claysSoft and stiff claysShalesClay minerals

( )[ ] 6IPlog5.1246 ±−=φ

l fric

tion

angl

e si

n(φ

r)

diatomaceous

0.20 50 100 150 200

Plasticity index [%]

Mob

iR

esid

ual

Plasticity Index IP

Very large strains

particle alignment

r cvφ < φ

size segregation

shape segregation

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Macroscale Response in q, p’, e, ε

q

p'εa

e ?

0.58e cs=0.844e max=0.894

Repetitive Loading – Terminal Density

0.52

0.54

0.56

Voi

d ra

tio, e

εa =0.015 peak-to-peak

εa =0.050 peak-to-peak eT = 0.560α = 0.093

eT = 0.520α = 0.067

Void

Rat

io

0.500 50 100 150 200

Event number

e min=0.511

Event Number

Guillermo Narsilio

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Soil Properties and Behavior

Friction: complex parameter !φcv particle shape

Lessons Learned

ψ packing density (OC), shape, cementation

φp = φcv + 0.8 ψ

φr clay(PI) or mica >~20% … also segregation

Repetitive loading: further work needed

Energy GeotechnologyEnergy Geotechnology

Vibration and repetitive loading: common !

stress: e.g., foundations

temperature: energy piles

miscible/immiscible fluid fronts: e.g., geo-storage

Slopes Instability &

Dam Failures

GAL's analysis of failures: Multiple working hypotheses + FalsificationGAL's life: either PASSIONATE or SKEPTICAL

4/14/2012

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Teton

Baldwin Hill

VajontMalpasset

Pre‐session meal  "harmony"

Vajont Landslide9 October 1963

http://www.landslideblog.org

L. MullerL. G. BelloniJ. HendronF.D. Patton

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Baldwin Hills Reservoir 14 December 1963

http://www3.gendisasters.comR.F. Scott

Teton Dam June 5, 1976

http://www.geol.ucsb.edu

http://wwweng.uwyo.eduM. DuncanJ. SherardJ.W. Hilf

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Malpasset Dam December 2, 1959

P. LondeJ. L. SerafinW. Wittke

The Man In A Red TurbanJan van Eyck (1433 - Oil)

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Conclusions

GAL "Lessons Learned"

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G.A. Leonards: (1) deepest clear-thinker (2) passion

Emphasized: Understanding

Historical geology

Discontinuities – Weak seams

Multiple working hypotheses + Falsification

Contributions: soils, geo-processes, engineering

Renewed relevance in the context of energy geotechnology

Fascinating field !!

Closing Remarks Workshop on Dam Failures

" Speaking for myself in the future I will be more" Speaking for myself, in the future I will be more humble and more tolerant of the errors and omissions that may befall a fellow engineer ….

and [I will be] a lot more careful before taking a decision that could affect the security of an important structure"

Thank you !

Leonards 1985