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Introductio TO PHYSICS

 Jeshua NathanielDevan | Physics | , 20

Pn Nor "a#lin $t% &aduaani

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'hat is Physics(

Physics )In *ree+ -./1 3natural3, 4ro5 the *ree+ 6./ 3nature37 in the study o4 thenatural, 8hich is the science o4 the 5atter 9:, and is involved in his 5ove5entthrou;h s<ace and ti5e, i4 they are set as the ener;y and the 4orce o4 their relatives%=ore $roadly descri$ed, the <hysical nature o4 thin;s, it is a ;eneral e><lanation o4the causes o4 intelle;andas to call 4orth all the 8ay to the case o4 8hich the universe%

Physics is one o4 the 5ost venera$le acade5ic disci<line, <erha<s the na5e o4 theancient )8ith astrono5y7% That $y t8o thousand years, ho8ever, until a4ter thescienti?c revolution o4 the 8orld o4 the si>th o4 the tenth 5onth, the <hiloso<hy o4 thenatural and o4 the history o4 a <art o4 <hiloso<hy 8as indistin;uisha$le 4ro5 thenatural, to;ether 8ith the che5istry, 4or certain $ranches o4 5athe5atics, and

$iolo;y% "inally, in the nineteenth century, these studies are indistin;uisha$le 4ro5the various s<eciali#ed disci<lines today% Nihili5inus, even today, ne8 conce<ts in<hysics o4ten e><lain the 4unda5ental 5echanis5s o4 other sciences are o<en to ne8ideas, research e%;% in 5athe5atics and <hiloso<hy%

In the <hysical 8orld, es<ecially $ene?cial 4or the develo<5ent o4 technolo;ies thatarise 4ro5 theoretical discoveries% "or e>a5<le, in the +no8led;e o4 the <ro;ress o4nuclear <hysics to the develo<5ent o4 ne8 8or+s, and 8ent strai;ht 4ro5electro5a;netis5i, $y the societies o4 today, 5uch has chan;ed, as the television,the co5<uter, a<<aratus o4 the household, and the ar5s +ernel and ;rain% He also

advanced to the evolution o4 the industriali#ation and $rou;ht hi5 inther5odyna5ics, and a <ro;ress in the develo<5ent o4 the calculus o4 5echanicalstirred%

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History o4 Physics

ncient History

Ble5ents o4 8hat $eca5e <hysics 8ere dra8n <ri5arily 4ro5 the ?elds o4 astrono5y,o<tics, and 5echanics, 8hich 8ere 5ethodolo;ically united throu;h the study o4;eo5etry% These 5athe5atical disci<lines $e;an in antiuity 8ith the @a$yloniansand 8ith Hellenistic 8riters such as rchi5edes and Ptole5y% ncient <hiloso<hy,5ean8hile includin; 8hat 8as called <hysics 4ocused on e><lainin; naturethrou;h ideas such as ristotle3s 4our ty<es o4 cause%

% ncient *reece

 The 5ove to8ards a rational understandin; o4 nature $e;an at least sincethe rchaic <eriod in *reece )!K0GL0 @CB7 8ith the PreMSocratic <hiloso<hers% The<hiloso<her Thales o4 =iletus )th and !th centuries @CB7, du$$ed the "ather o4Science 4or re4usin; to acce<t various su<ernatural, reli;ious or 5ytholo;icale><lanations 4or natural <heno5ena, <roclai5ed that every event had a naturalcause%92: Thales also 5ade advance5ents in KL0 @CB $y su;;estin; that 8ater is the$asic ele5ent, e><eri5entin; 8ith the attraction $et8een 5a;nets andru$$ed a5$er and 4or5ulatin; the ?rst recorded cos5olo;ies% na>i5ander, 4a5ous4or his <rotoMevolutionary theory, dis<uted the Thales3 ideas and <ro<osed that rather

than 8ater, a su$stance called apeiron 8as the $uildin; $loc+ o4 all 5atter% roundK00 @CB, Heraclitus <ro<osed that the only $asic la8 ;overnin; the niverse 8as the<rinci<le o4 chan;e and that nothin; re5ains in the sa5e state inde?nitely% Thiso$servation 5ade hi5 one o4 the ?rst scholars in ancient <hysics to address the roleo4 ti5e in the universe, a +ey and so5eti5es contentious conce<t in 5odern and<resentMday <hysics% The early <hysicist Eeuci<<us )% ?rst hal4 o4 the Kth century@CB7 ada5antly o<<osed the idea o4 direct divine intervention in the universe,<ro<osin; instead that natural <heno5ena had a natural cause% Eeuci<<us and hisstudent De5ocritus 8ere the ?rst to develo< the theory o4 ato5is5, the idea thateverythin; is co5<osed entirely o4 various i5<erisha$le, indivisi$le ele5entscalled ato5s%

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 Aristotle(384–322 BCE )

Durin; the classical <eriod in *reece )!th, Kth and Gth centuries @CB7 andin Hellenistic ti5es, natural <hiloso<hy slo8ly develo<ed into an e>citin; andcontentious ?eld o4 study% ristotle )*ree+A Ἀ/.QRQU, Aristotélēs7 )VLG V22@CB7, a student o4 Plato, <ro5oted the conce<t that o$servation o4 <hysical<heno5ena could ulti5ately lead to the discovery o4 the natural la8s ;overnin;the5% ristotle3s 8ritin;s cover<hysics, 5eta<hysics, <oetry, theater, 5usic,lo;ic, rhetoric, lin;uistics, <olitics, ;overn5ent, ethics, $iolo;y and #oolo;y% He 8rote the ?rst 8or+ 8hich re4ers to that line o4 study as Physics in the Gth century @CB, ristotle 4ounded the syste5 +no8nas ristotelian <hysics% He atte5<ted to e><lain ideas such as 5otion )and ;ravity78ith the theory o4  4our ele5ents% ristotle $elieved that all 5atter 8as 5ade u< o4aether, or so5e co5$ination o4 4our ele5entsA earth, 8ater, air, and ?re% ccordin; to

ristotle, these 4our terrestrial ele5ents are ca<a$le o4 interMtrans4or5ation and5ove to8ard their natural <lace, so a stone 4alls do8n8ard to8ard the center o4 thecos5os, $ut a5es rise u<8ard to8ard the circu54erence% Bventually,ristotelian $eca5e enor5ously <o<ular 4or 5any centuries in Buro<e, in4or5in; thescienti?c and scholastic develo<5ents o4 the =iddle ;es% It re5ained the5ainstrea5 scienti?c <aradi;5 in Buro<e until the ti5e o4 *alileo *alilei and IsaacNe8ton%

Barly in Classical *reece, +no8led;e that the Barth is s<herical )round7 8asco55on% round 2G0 @CB, as the result a se5inal e><eri5ent, Bratosthenes )2!WG @CB7 accurately esti5ated its circu54erence% In contrast to ristotle3s ;eocentricvie8s, ristarchus o4 Sa5os )*ree+A ἈX.QZR[ c%V0 c%2V0 @CB7 <resented an

e><licit ar;u5ent 4or a heliocentric 5odel o4 the Solar syste5, i%e% 4or <lacin;the Sun, not the Barth, at its Centre% Seleucus o4 Seleucia, a 4ollo8er o4 ristarchus3heliocentric theory, stated that the Barth rotated around its o8n a>is, 8hich, inturn, revolved around the Sun% Thou;h the ar;u5ents he used 8erelost, Plutarch stated that Seleucus 8as the ?rst to <rove the heliocentric syste5throu;h reasonin;%

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The ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes !amo"s !or his ideas re#ardin# $"idmechanics and %"o&anc& '

In the Vrd century @CB, the *ree+ 5athe5atician rchi5edes o4Syracuse )*ree+A ἈZ/\]^U )2L22 @CB7 ;enerally considered to $e the ;reatest5athe5atician o4 antiuity and one o4 the ;reatest o4 all ti5e laid the 4oundationso4 hydrostatics, statics and calculated the underlyin; 5athe5atics o4 the lever% leadin; scientist o4 classical antiuity, rchi5edes also develo<ed ela$orate syste5so4 <ulleys to 5ove lar;e o$_ects 8ith a 5ini5u5 o4 e`ort% The rchi5edes3scre8 under<ins 5odern hydro en;ineerin;, and his 5achines o4 8ar hel<ed to hold$ac+ the ar5ies o4 &o5e in the "irst Punic 'ar% rchi5edes even tore a<art the

ar;u5ents o4 ristotle and his 5eta<hysics, <ointin; out that it 8as i5<ossi$le tose<arate 5athe5atics and nature and <roved it $y convertin; 5athe5atical theoriesinto <ractical inventions% "urther5ore, in his 8or+ n loatin# Bodies, around 2K0@CB, rchi5edes develo<ed the la8 o4  $uoyancy, also +no8n as rchi5edes3Princi<le% In 5athe5atics, rchi5edes used the 5ethod o4 e>haustion to calculatethe area under the arc o4 a <ara$ola 8ith the su55ation o4 an in?nite series, and;ave a re5ar+a$ly accurate a<<ro>i5ation o4 <i% He also de?ned the s<iral $earin;his na5e, 4or5ulae 4or the volu5es o4 sur4aces o4 revolution and an in;enious syste54or e><ressin; very lar;e nu5$ers% He also develo<ed the <rinci<les o4 euili$riu5states and centers o4 ;ravity, ideas that 8ould inuence the 8ellM+no8n scholars,*alileo, and Ne8ton%

Hi<<archus )W020 @CB7, 4ocusin; on astrono5y and 5athe5atics, usedso<histicated ;eo5etrical techniues to 5a< the 5otion o4 the stars and <lanets,even <redictin; the ti5es that Solar ecli<ses 8ould ha<<en% In addition, he addedcalculations o4 the distance o4 the Sun and =oon 4ro5 the Barth, $ased u<on hisi5<rove5ents to the o$servational instru5ents used at that ti5e% nother o4 the5ost 4a5ous o4 the early <hysicists 8as Ptole5y )W0!L CB7, one o4 the leadin;5inds durin; the ti5e o4 the &o5an B5<ire% Ptole5y 8as the author o4 severalscienti?c treatises, at least three o4 8hich 8ere o4 continuin; i5<ortance to laterIsla5ic and Buro<ean science% The ?rst is the astrono5ical treatise no8 +no8n as

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the  Alma#est  )in *ree+, Ἡ bU 6fQg/, The *reat Treatise, ori;inallyU\Q/ὴ    6fQg/, =athe5atical Treatise7% The second is the Geo#raph& , 8hichis a thorou;h discussion o4 the ;eo;ra<hic +no8led;e o4 the *recoM&o5an 8orld%

2% India and China

I5<ortant <hysical and 5athe5atical traditions also e>isted in ancientChinese and Indian sciences%

*tar maps %& the ++th,cent"r& Chinese pol&math *" *on# are the oldest kno-n -ood%lock,printed star maps to ha.e s"r.i.ed to the present da&' This e/ample dated

+012 emplo&s c&lindrical proection'

In Indian <hiloso<hy, =aharishi anada 8as the ?rst to syste5atically develo< atheory o4 ato5is5 around 200 @CB thou;h so5e authors have allotted hi5 an earlierera in the !th century @CB% It 8as 4urther ela$orated $y the @uddhistato5ists Dhar5a+irti and Di;nj;a durin; the st 5illenniu5 CB% Pa+udha accayana,a !thMcentury @CB Indian <hiloso<her and conte5<orary o4 *auta5a @uddha, had

also <ro<ounded ideas a$out the ato5ic constitution o4 the 5aterial 8orld% These<hiloso<hers $elieved that other ele5ents )e>ce<t ether7 8ere <hysically <al<a$leand hence co5<rised 5inuscule <articles o4 5atter% The last 5inuscule <article o45atter that could not $e su$divided 4urther 8as ter5ed Par5anu% These <hiloso<hersconsidered the ato5 to $e indestructi$le and hence eternal% The @uddhists thou;htato5s to $e 5inute o$_ects una$le to $e seen to the na+ed eye that co5e into $ein;and vanish in an instant% The Faisheshi+a school o4 <hiloso<hers $elieved that anato5 8as a 5ere <oint in s<ace% Indian theories a$out the ato5 are ;reatly a$stractand en5eshed in <hiloso<hy as they 8ere $ased on lo;ic and not on <ersonale><erience or e><eri5entation% In Indian astrono5y, rya$hata3s Ar&a%hati&a)GWWCB7 <ro<osed the Barth3s rotation, 8hile Nila+antha So5aya_i )GGGKGG7 o4the erala school o4 astrono5y and 5athe5atics <ro<osed a se5iMheliocentric 5odel

rese5$lin; the Tychonic syste5% The study o4  5a;netis5 in ncient China dates $ac+ to the Gth century @CB% )inthe Book o! the e.il alle& 5aster 7, 5ain contri$utor to this ?eld 8as Shenuo )0V0WK7, a <oly5ath and states5an 8ho 8as the ?rst to descri$ethe 5a;neticMneedle co5<ass used 4or navi;ation, as 8ell as esta$lishin; theconce<t o4 true north% In o<tics, Shen uo inde<endently develo<ed a ca5erao$scura%

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The 6ind",Ara%ic n"meral s&stem' The inscriptions on the edicts o! Ashoka (3rdcent"r& BCE) displa& this n"m%er s&stem %ein# "sed %& the 7mperial 5a"r&as'

V% =usli5 scientists

In the Kth to Kth centuries, scienti?c <ro;ress occurred in the =usli5 8orld% =anyclassic 8or+s in Eatin and *ree+ 8ere translated into ra$ic% I$n Sknj )WL00V7,+no8n as vicenna, 8as a <oly5ath 4ro5 @u+hara )no8 in <resentMday #$e+istan7res<onsi$le 4or i5<ortant contri$utions to <hysics, o<tics, <hiloso<hy and 5edicine%He is 5ost 4a5ous 4or 8ritin; The Canon o! 5edicine, a te>t that 8as used to teachstudent doctors in Buro<e until the !00s%

830 CE the A%%asid Caliphate at its hei#ht'

I5<ortant contri$utions 8ere 5ade $y I$n alMHaytha5 )W!K0G07, a 5athe5atician

4ro5 @asra )in <resentMday Ira7 considered one o4 the 4ounders o4 5odern o<tics%Ptole5y and ristotle theori#ed that li;ht either shone 4ro5 the eye to illu5inateo$_ects or that li;ht e5anated 4ro5 o$_ects the5selves, 8hereas alMHaytha5 )+no8n$y the Eatin na5e lha#en7 su;;ested that li;ht travels to the eye in rays 4ro5di`erent <oints on an o$_ect% The 8or+s o4 I$n alMHaytha5 and $ &ayhjn@krnk eventually <assed on to 'estern Buro<e 8here they 8ere studied $y scholarssuch as &o;er @acon and 'itelo% O5ar hayym5 )0GLV7, a Persian scientist,calculated the len;th o4 a solar year and 8as only out $y a 4raction o4 a second 8hen

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co5<ared to our 5odern day calculations% He used this to co5<ose a calendarconsidered 5ore accurate than the *re;orian calendar that ca5e alon; K00 yearslater% He is classi?ed as one o4 the 8orld3s ?rst ;reat science co55unicators, said, 4ore>a5<le to have convinced a Su? theolo;ian that the 8orld turns on an a>is%

7%n al,6a&tham (9Alha:en9)(1;<–+031)

 A pa#e !rom al,=h->ri:m? @s Al#e%ra'

Nasir alMDin alMTusi )202G7, an astrono5er and 5athe5atician 4ro5 @a;hdad,authored the Treas"r& o! Astronom& , a re5ar+a$ly accurate ta$le o4 <lanetary5ove5ents that re4or5ed the e>istin; <lanetary 5odel o4 &o5an astrono5er

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Ptole5y $y descri$in; a uni4or5 circular 5otion o4 all <lanets in their or$its% This8or+ led to the later discovery, $y one o4 his students, that <lanets actually have anelli<tical or$it% Co<ernicus later dre8 heavily on the 8or+ o4 alMDin alMTusi and hisstudents, $ut 8ithout ac+no8led;5ent% The ;radual chi<<in; a8ay o4 the Ptole5aicsyste5 <aved the 8ay 4or the revolutionary idea that the Barth actually or$ited the

Sun )heliocentris57%

G% =edieval Buro<e

8areness o4 ancient 8or+s reMentered the 'est throu;h translations 4ro5 ra$ic toEatin% Their reMintroduction, co5$ined 8ith JudeoMIsla5ic theolo;ical co55entaries,had a ;reat inuence on 5edieval <hiloso<hers such as Tho5as uinas% ScholasticBuro<ean scholars, 8ho sou;ht to reconcile the <hiloso<hy o4 the ancient classical<hiloso<hers 8ith Christian theolo;y, <roclai5ed ristotle the ;reatest thin+er o4 theancient 8orld% In cases 8here they didn3t directly contradict the @i$le, ristotelian<hysics $eca5e the 4oundation 4or the <hysical e><lanations o4 the Buro<eanChurches% uanti?cation $eca5e a core ele5ent o4 5edieval <hysics%

@ased on ristotelian <hysics, Scholastic <hysics descri$ed thin;s as 5ovin;accordin; to their essential nature% Celestial o$_ects 8ere descri$ed as 5ovin; incircles, $ecause <er4ect circular 5otion 8as considered an innate <ro<erty o4 o$_ectsthat e>isted in the uncorru<ted real5 o4 the celestial s<heres% The theory o4 i5<etus,the ancestor to the conce<ts o4 inertia and 5o5entu5, 8as develo<ed alon; si5ilarlines $y 5edieval <hiloso<hers such as John Philo<onus and Jean @uridan% =otions$elo8 the lunar s<here 8ere seen as i5<er4ect, and thus could not $e e><ected toe>hi$it consistent 5otion% =ore ideali#ed 5otion in the su$lunary real5 could only$e achieved throu;h arti?ce, and <rior to the th century, 5any did not vie8arti?cial e><eri5ents as a valid 5eans o4 learnin; a$out the natural 8orld% Physicale><lanations in the su$lunary real5 revolved around tendencies% Stones contained

the ele5ent earth, and earthly o$_ects tended to 5ove in a strai;ht line to8ard thecentre o4 the earth )and the universe in the ristotelian ;eocentric vie87 unlessother8ise <revented 4ro5 doin; so%

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Scienti?c revolution

Durin; the !th and th centuries, a lar;e advance5ent o4 scienti?c <ro;ress+no8n as the Scienti?c revolution too+ <lace in Buro<e% Dissatis4action 8ith older<hiloso<hical a<<roaches had $e;un earlier and had <roduced other chan;es insociety, such as the Protestant &e4or5ation, $ut the revolution in science $e;an8hen natural <hiloso<hers $e;an to 5ount a sustained attac+ onthe Scholastic <hiloso<hical <ro;ra5 and su<<osed that 5athe5atical descri<tivesche5es ado<ted 4ro5 such ?elds as 5echanics and astrono5y could actually yielduniversally valid characteri#ations o4 5otion and other conce<ts%

The olish astronomer icola"s Copernic"s (+43–+<43) is remem%ered !or hisde.elopment o! a heliocentric model o! the *olar s&stem'

$rea+throu;h in astrono5y 8as 5ade $y Polish astrono5er NicolausCo<ernicus )GVKGV7 8hen, in KGV, he <ro<osed a heliocentric 5odel o4 the Solarsyste5, ostensi$ly as a 5eans to render ta$les chartin; <lanetary 5otion 5oreaccurate and to si5<li4y their <roduction% In heliocentric 5odels o4 the Solar syste5,the Barth or$its the Sun alon; 8ith other $odies in Barth3s ;ala>y, a contradictionaccordin; to the *ree+MB;y<tian astrono5er Ptole5y )2nd century CB[ see

a$ove7, 8hose syste5 <laced the Barth at the center o4 the niverse and had $eenacce<ted 4or over ,G00 years% The *ree+ astrono5er ristarchus o4 Sa5os )c%V0 c%2V0 @CB7 had su;;ested that the Barth revolves around the Sun, $ut Co<ernicus3theory 8as the ?rst to $e acce<ted as a valid scienti?c <ossi$ility% Co<ernicus3 $oo+<resentin; the theory )e re.ol"tioni%"s or%i"m coelesti"m, On the &evolutions o4the Celestial S<heres7 8as <u$lished _ust $e4ore his death in KGV and, as it is no8;enerally considered to 5ar+ the $e;innin; o4 5odern astrono5y, is also consideredto 5ar+ the $e;innin; o4 the Scienti?c revolution% Co<ernicus3 ne8 <ers<ective, alon;8ith the accurate o$servations 5ade $y Tycho @rahe, ena$led *er5an

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astrono5er Johannes e<ler )K!V07 to 4or5ulate his la8s re;ardin; <lanetary5otion that re5ain in use today%

Galileo Galilei earl& proponent o! the modern scientiDc -orld.ie- and method(+<;4–+;42)

 The Italian 5athe5atician, astrono5er, and <hysicist *alileo *alilei )K!G!G27 8asthe central ?;ure in the Scienti?c revolution and 4a5ous 4or his su<<ort 4orCo<ernicanis5, his astrono5ical discoveries, e5<irical e><eri5ents and hisi5<rove5ent o4 the telesco<e% s a 5athe5atician, *alileo3s role inthe university culture o4 his era 8as su$ordinated to the three 5a_or to<ics o4 studyAla8, 5edicine, and theolo;y )8hich 8as closely allied to <hiloso<hy7% *alileo,ho8ever, 4elt that the descri<tive content o4 the technical disci<lines 8arranted<hiloso<hical interest, <articularly $ecause 5athe5atical analysis o4 astrono5icalo$servations nota$ly, Co<ernicus3 analysis o4 the relative 5otions o4 the Sun, Barth,

=oon, and <lanets indicated that <hiloso<hers3 state5ents a$out the nature o4 theuniverse could $e sho8n to $e in error% *alileo also <er4or5ed 5echanicale><eri5ents, insistin; that 5otion itsel4 re;ardless o4 8hether it 8as <roducednaturally or arti?cially )i%e% deli$erately7 had universally consistentcharacteristics that could $e descri$ed 5athe5atically%

*alileo3s early studies at the niversity o4 Pisa 8ere in 5edicine, $ut he 8as soondra8n to 5athe5atics and <hysics% t W, he discovered )and, su$seuently,veri?ed7 the isochronal nature o4 the <endulu5 8hen, usin; his <ulse, he ti5ed theoscillations o4 a s8in;in; la5< in Pisa3s cathedral and 4ound that it re5ained thesa5e 4or each s8in; re;ardless o4 the s8in;3s a5<litude% He soon $eca5e +no8nthrou;h his invention o4 a hydrostatic $alance and 4or his treatise on the center o4

;ravity o4 solid $odies% 'hile teachin; at the niversity o4 Pisa )KLWW27, he initiatedhis e><eri5ents concernin; the la8s o4 $odies in 5otion that $rou;ht results socontradictory to the acce<ted teachin;s o4 ristotle that stron; anta;onis5 8asaroused% He 4ound that $odies do not 4all 8ith velocities <ro<ortional to their 8ei;hts% The 4a5ous story in 8hich *alileo is said to have dro<<ed 8ei;hts 4ro5 the Eeanin; To8er o4 Pisa is a<ocry<hal, $ut he did ?nd that the <ath o4 a <ro_ectile isa <ara$ola and is credited 8ith conclusions that antici<ated Ne8ton3s la8s o45otion )e%;% the notion o4 inertia7% 5on; these is 8hat is no8 called *alilean

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relativity, the ?rst <recisely 4or5ulated state5ent a$out <ro<erties o4 s<ace and ti5eoutside threeMdi5ensional ;eo5etry%

 A composite monta#e comparin# "piter  (le!t,hand side) and its !o"r Galileanmoons (top to %ottom 7oE"ropa Gan&mede Callisto )'

*alileo has $een called the 4ather o4 5odern o$servational astrono5y, the 4athero4 5odern <hysics, the 4ather o4 science, and the 4ather o4 5odernscience% ccordin; to Ste<hen Ha8+in;, *alileo, <erha<s 5ore than any othersin;le <erson, 8as res<onsi$le 4or the $irth o4 5odern science% s reli;iousorthodo>y decreed a ;eocentric or Tychonic understandin; o4 the Solar syste5,*alileo3s su<<ort 4or heliocentris5 <rovo+ed controversy and he 8as tried $ythe Inuisition% "ound vehe5ently sus<ect o4 heresy, he 8as 4orced to recant ands<ent the rest o4 his li4e under house arrest%

 The contri$utions that *alileo 5ade to o$servational astrono5y include thetelesco<ic con?r5ation o4 the <hases o4 Fenus[ his discovery, in !0W, o4 Ju<iter3s4our lar;est 5oons )su$seuently ;iven the collective na5e o4 the *alilean 5oons7[and the o$servation and analysis o4 suns<ots% *alileo also <ursued a<<lied scienceand technolo;y, inventin;, a5on; other instru5ents, a 5ilitary co5<ass% Hisdiscovery o4 the Jovian 5oons 8as <u$lished in !0 and ena$led hi5 to o$tain the<osition o4 5athe5atician and <hiloso<her to the =edici court% s such, he 8as

e><ected to en;a;e in de$ates 8ith <hiloso<hers in the ristotelian tradition andreceived a lar;e audience 4or his o8n <u$lications such as the isco"rses and

5athematical emonstrations Concernin# T-o e- *ciences )<u$lished a$road4ollo8in; his arrest 4or the <u$lication o4 ialo#"e Concernin# the T-o Chie! Forld

*&stems7 and The Assa&er % *alileo3s interest in e><eri5entin; 8ith and 4or5ulatin;5athe5atical descri<tions o4 5otion esta$lished e><eri5entation as an inte;ral <arto4 natural <hiloso<hy% This tradition, co5$inin; 8ith the nonM5athe5atical e5<hasison the collection o4 e><eri5ental histories $y <hiloso<hical re4or5ists such

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as 'illia5 *il$ert and "rancis @acon, dre8 a si;ni?cant 4ollo8in; in the years leadin;u< to and 4ollo8in; *alileo3s death, includin; Bvan;elista Torricelli and the<artici<ants in the ccade5ia del Ci5ento in Italy[ =arin =ersenne and @laisePascal in "rance[ Christiaan Huy;ens in the Netherlands[ and &o$ert Hoo+e and&o$ert @oyle in Bn;land%

ené escartes(+<1;–+;<0)

 The "rench <hiloso<her &en Descartes )KW!!K07 8as 8ellMconnected to, andinuential 8ithin, the e><eri5ental <hiloso<hy net8or+s o4 the day% Descartes had a5ore a5$itious a;enda, ho8ever, 8hich 8as ;eared to8ard re<lacin; the Scholastic<hiloso<hical tradition alto;ether% uestionin; the reality inter<reted throu;h thesenses, Descartes sou;ht to reMesta$lish <hiloso<hical e><lanatory sche5es $yreducin; all <erceived <heno5ena to $ein; attri$uta$le to the 5otion o4 an invisi$lesea o4 cor<uscles% )Nota$ly, he reserved hu5an thou;ht and *od 4ro5 his sche5e,holdin; these to $e se<arate 4ro5 the <hysical universe7% In <ro<osin; this<hiloso<hical 4ra5e8or+, Descartes su<<osed that di`erent +inds o4 5otion, such asthat o4 <lanets versus that o4 terrestrial o$_ects, 8ere not 4unda5entally di`erent, $ut8ere 5erely di`erent 5ani4estations o4 an endless chain o4 cor<uscular 5otionso$eyin; universal <rinci<les% Particularly inuential 8ere his e><lanations 4or circularastrono5ical 5otions in ter5s o4 the vorte> 5otion o4 cor<uscles in s<ace )Descartesar;ued, in accord 8ith the $elie4s, i4 not the 5ethods, o4 the Scholastics, thata vacuu5 could not e>ist7, and his e><lanation o4  ;ravity in ter5s o4 cor<uscles<ushin; o$_ects do8n8ard%

Descartes, li+e *alileo, 8as convinced o4 the i5<ortance o4 5athe5aticale><lanation, and he and his 4ollo8ers 8ere +ey ?;ures in the develo<5ent o45athe5atics and ;eo5etry in the th century% Cartesian 5athe5atical descri<tions

o4 5otion held that all 5athe5atical 4or5ulations had to $e _usti?a$le in ter5s o4direct <hysical action, a <osition held $y Huy;ens and the *er5an<hiloso<her *ott4ried Eei$ni#, 8ho, 8hile 4ollo8in; in the Cartesian tradition,develo<ed his o8n <hiloso<hical alternative to Scholasticis5, 8hich he outlined in hisG 8or+, The 5onadolo#& % Descartes has $een du$$ed the 3"ather o4 =odernPhiloso<hy3, and 5uch su$seuent 'estern <hiloso<hyis a res<onse to his 8ritin;s,8hich are studied closely to this day% In <articular, his 5editations on irst

hilosoph&  continues to $e a standard te>t at 5ost university <hiloso<hy

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de<art5ents% Descartes3 inuence in 5athe5atics is eually a<<arent[ the Cartesiancoordinate syste5 p allo8in; al;e$raic euations to $e e><ressed as ;eo5etricsha<es in a t8oMdi5ensional coordinate syste5 p 8as na5ed a4ter hi5% He iscredited as the 4ather o4  analytical ;eo5etry, the $rid;e$et8een al;e$ra and ;eo5etry, i5<ortant to the discovery o4 calculus and analysis%

*ir  7saac e-ton(+;42–+2)

 The late th and early Lth centuries sa8 the achieve5ents o4 the ;reatest ?;ure o4 the Scienti?c revolutionA Ca5$rid;e niversity <hysicist and 5athe5atician Sir IsaacNe8ton )!G2M27, considered $y 5any to $e the ;reatest and 5ost inuentialscientist 8ho ever lived% Ne8ton, a 4ello8 o4 the &oyal Society o4 Bn;land, co5$inedhis o8n discoveries in 5echanics and astrono5y to earlier ones to create a sin;lesyste5 4or descri$in; the 8or+in;s o4 the universe% Ne8ton 4or5ulated three la8s o4

5otion and the la8 o4 universal ;ravitation, the latter o4 8hich could $e used toe><lain the $ehavior not only o4 4allin; $odies on the earth $ut also <lanets and othercelestial $odies in the heavens% To arrive at his results, Ne8ton invented one 4or5 o4an entirely ne8 $ranch o4 5athe5aticsA calculus )also invented inde<endently$y *ott4ried Eei$ni#7, 8hich 8as to $eco5e an essential tool in 5uch o4 the laterdevelo<5ent in 5ost $ranches o4 <hysics% Ne8ton3s ?ndin;s 8ere set 4orth inhis hilosophiH at"ralis rincipia 5athematica )=athe5atical Princi<les o4 NaturalPhiloso<hy7, the <u$lication o4 8hich in !L 5ar+ed the $e;innin; o4 the 5odern<eriod o4 5echanics and astrono5y%

Ne8ton 8as a$le to re4ute the Cartesian 5echanical tradition that all 5otions should$e e><lained 8ith res<ect to the i55ediate 4orce e>erted $y cor<uscles% sin; his

three la8s o4 5otion and la8 o4 universal ;ravitation, Ne8ton re5oved the idea thato$_ects 4ollo8ed <aths deter5ined $y natural sha<es and instead de5onstrated thatnot only re;ularly o$served <aths, $ut all the 4uture 5otions o4 any$ody could $ededuced 5athe5atically $ased on +no8led;e o4 their e>istin; 5otion, their 5ass,and the 4orces actin; u<on the5% Ho8ever, o$served celestial 5otions did not<recisely con4or5 to a Ne8tonian treat5ent, and Ne8ton, 8ho 8as also dee<lyinterested in theolo;y, i5a;ined that *od intervened to ensure the continuedsta$ility o4 the solar syste5%

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Gott!ried Iei%ni:(+;4;–++;)

Ne8ton3s <rinci<les )$ut not his 5athe5atical treat5ents7 <roved controversial 8ith

Continental <hiloso<hers, 8ho 4ound his lac+ o4 5eta<hysical e><lanation 4or5ove5ent and ;ravitation <hiloso<hically unacce<ta$le% @e;innin; around 00, a$itter ri4t o<ened $et8een the Continental and @ritish <hiloso<hical traditions, 8hich8ere sto+ed $y heated, on;oin;, and viciously <ersonal dis<utes $et8een the4ollo8ers o4 Ne8ton and Eei$ni# concernin; <riority over the analytical techniueso4 calculus, 8hich each had develo<ed inde<endently% Initially, the Cartesian andEei$ni#ian traditions <revailed on the Continent )leadin; to the do5inance o4 theEei$ni#ian calculus notation every8here e>ce<t @ritain7% Ne8ton hi5sel4 re5ained<rivately distur$ed at the lac+ o4 a <hiloso<hical understandin; o4 ;ravitation, 8hileinsistin; in his 8ritin;s that none 8as necessary to in4er its reality% s the Lthcentury <ro;ressed, Continental natural <hiloso<hers increasin;ly acce<ted theNe8tonians3 8illin;ness to 4or;o ontolo;ical 5eta<hysical e><lanations 4or

5athe5atically descri$ed 5otions%

Ne8ton $uilt the ?rst 4unctionin; reectin; telesco<e and develo<ed a theory o4color, <u$lished in pticks, $ased on the o$servation that a <ris5 deco5<oses 8hiteli;ht into the 5any colours 4or5in; the visi$le s<ectru5% 'hile Ne8ton e><lainedli;ht as $ein; co5<osed o4 tiny <articles, a rival theory o4 li;ht 8hich e><lained its$ehavior in ter5s o4 8aves 8as <resented in !W0 $y Christiaan Huy;ens% Ho8ever,the $elie4 in the 5echanistic <hiloso<hy cou<led 8ith Ne8ton3s re<utation 5eant thatthe 8ave theory sa8 relatively little su<<ort until the Wth century% Ne8ton also4or5ulated an e5<irical la8 o4 coolin;, studied the s<eed o4 sound,investi;ated <o8er series, de5onstrated the ;enerali#ed $ino5ial theore5 anddevelo<ed a 5ethod 4or a<<ro>i5atin; the roots o4 a 4unction% His 8or+ on in?nite

series 8as ins<ired $y Si5on Stevin3s deci5als% =ost i5<ortantly, Ne8ton sho8edthat the 5otions o4 o$_ects on Barth and o4 celestial $odies are ;overned $y the sa5eset o4 natural la8s, 8hich 8ere neither ca<ricious nor 5alevolent% @y de5onstratin;the consistency $et8een e<ler3s la8s o4 <lanetary 5otion and his o8n theory o4;ravitation, Ne8ton also re5oved the last dou$ts a$out heliocentris5% @y $rin;in;to;ether all the ideas set 4orth durin; the Scienti?c revolution, Ne8ton e`ectivelyesta$lished the 4oundation 4or 5odern society in 5athe5atics and science%

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Other achieve5ents

Other $ranches o4 <hysics also received attention durin; the <eriod o4 the Scienti?crevolution% 'il$ert *il$ert, court <hysician to ueen Bli#a$eth I, <u$lished ani5<ortant 8or+ on 5a;netis5 in !00, descri$in; ho8 the earth itsel4 $ehaves li+e a;iant 5a;net% &o$ert @oyle )!2W7 studied the $ehavior o4 ;ases enclosed in acha5$er and 4or5ulated the ;as la8 na5ed 4or hi5[ he also contri$uted to<hysiolo;y and to the 4oundin; o4 5odern che5istry% nother i5<ortant 4actor in thescienti?c revolution 8as the rise o4 learned societies and acade5ies in variouscountries% The earliest o4 these 8ere in Italy and *er5any and 8ere shortMlived% =oreinuential 8ere the &oyal Society o4 Bn;land )!!07 and the cade5y o4 Sciences in"rance )!!!7% The 4or5er 8as a <rivate institution in Eondon and included suchscientists as John 'allis, 'illia5 @rounc+er, Tho5as Sydenha5, John =ayo8,and Christo<her 'ren )8ho contri$uted not only to architecture $ut also to astrono5yand anato5y7[ the latter, in Paris, 8as a ;overn5ent institution and included as a

4orei;n 5e5$er the Dutch5an Huy;ens% In the Lth century, i5<ortant royalacade5ies 8ere esta$lished at @erlin )007 and at St% Peters$ur; )2G7% Thesocieties and acade5ies <rovided the <rinci<al o<<ortunities 4or the <u$lication anddiscussion o4 scienti?c results durin; and a4ter the scienti?c revolution% In!W0, Ja5es @ernoulli sho8ed that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone<ro$le5[ and the 4ollo8in; year, in !W, Johann @ernoulli sho8ed that a chain 4reelysus<ended 4ro5 t8o <oints 8ill 4or5 a catenary, the curve 8ith the lo8est<ossi$le center o4 ;ravity availa$le to any chain hun; $et8een t8o ?>ed <oints% Hethen sho8ed, in !W!, that the cycloid is the solution to the $rachistochrone <ro$le5%

Barly ther5odyna5ics

<recursor o4 the en;ine 8as desi;ned $y the *er5an scientist Otto von*ueric+e 8ho, in !K0, desi;ned and $uilt the 8orld3s ?rst vacuu5 <u5< and createdthe 8orld3s ?rst ever vacuu5 +no8n as the =a;de$ur; he5is<heres e><eri5ent% He8as driven to 5a+e a vacuu5 to dis<rove ristotle3s lon;Mheld su<<ositionthat 3Nature a$hors a vacuu53% Shortly therea4ter, Irish <hysicist and che5ist @oylehad learned o4 *ueric+e3s desi;ns and in !K!, in coordination 8ith Bn;lishscientist &o$ert Hoo+e, $uilt an air <u5<% sin; this <u5<, @oyle and Hoo+e noticedthe <ressureMvolu5e correlation 4or a ;asA   q k ,8here  is <ressure,   is volu5e and k  is a constantA this relationshi< is +no8nas @oyle3s Ea8% In that ti5e, air 8as assu5ed to $e a syste5 o4 5otionless <articles,and not inter<reted as a syste5 o4 5ovin; 5olecules% The conce<t o4 ther5al 5otion

ca5e t8o centuries later% There4ore, @oyle3s <u$lication in !!0 s<ea+s a$out a5echanical conce<tA the air s<rin;% Eater, a4ter the invention o4 the ther5o5eter, the<ro<erty te5<erature could $e uanti?ed% This tool ;ave *ayMEussac the o<<ortunityto derive his la8, 8hich led shortly later to the ideal ;as la8% @ut, already $e4ore theesta$lish5ent o4 the ideal ;as la8, an associate o4 @oyle3s na5ed Denis Pa<in $uilt in!W a $one di;ester, 8hich is a closed vessel 8ith a ti;htly ?ttin; lid that con?nesstea5 until a hi;h <ressure is ;enerated%

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Eater desi;ns i5<le5ented a stea5 release valve to +ee< the 5achine 4ro5e><lodin;% @y 8atchin; the valve rhyth5ically 5ove u< and do8n, Pa<in conceived o4 the idea o4 a <iston and cylinder en;ine% He did not ho8ever 4ollo8 throu;h 8ith hisdesi;n% Nevertheless, in !W, $ased on Pa<in3s desi;ns, en;ineer Tho5asSavery $uilt the ?rst en;ine% lthou;h these early en;ines 8ere crude and inecient,

they attracted the attention o4 the leadin; scientists o4 the ti5e% Hence, <rior to !WLand the invention o4 the Savery Bn;ine, horses 8ere used to <o8er <ulleys, attachedto $uc+ets, 8hich li4ted 8ater out o4 ooded salt 5ines in Bn;land% In the years to4ollo8, 5ore variations o4 stea5 en;ines 8ere $uilt, such as the Ne8co5en Bn;ine,and later the 'att Bn;ine% In ti5e, these early en;ines 8ould eventually $e utili#ed in<lace o4 horses% Thus, each en;ine $e;an to $e associated 8ith a certain a5ount o4horse <o8er de<endin; u<on ho8 5any horses it had re<laced% The 5ain <ro$le58ith these ?rst en;ines 8as that they 8ere slo8 and clu5sy, convertin; less than 2o4 the in<ut 4uel into use4ul 8or+% In other 8ords, lar;e uantities o4 coal )or 8ood7had to $e $urned to yield only a s5all 4raction o4 8or+ out<ut% Hence the need 4or ane8 science o4 en;ine dyna5ics 8as $orn%

LthMcentury develo<5entsDurin; the Lth century, the 5echanics 4ounded $y Ne8ton 8as develo<ed $yseveral scientists as 5ore 5athe5aticians learned calculus and ela$orated u<on itsinitial 4or5ulation% The a<<lication o4 5athe5atical analysis to <ro$le5s o4 5otion8as +no8n as rational 5echanics, or 5i>ed 5athe5atics )and 8as laterter5ed classical 5echanics7%

% =echanics

In G, @roo+ Taylor derived the 4unda5ental 4reuency o4 a stretched vi$ratin;strin; in ter5s o4 its tension and 5ass <er unit len;th $y solvin; a di`erentialeuation% The S8iss 5athe5atician Daniel @ernoulli )00L27 5ade i5<ortant5athe5atical studies o4 the $ehavior o4 ;ases, antici<atin; the +inetic theory o4;ases develo<ed 5ore than a century later, and has $een re4erred to as the ?rst5athe5atical <hysicist% In VV, Daniel @ernoulli derived the 4unda5ental 4reuencyand har5onics o4 a han;in; chain $y solvin; a di`erential euation% In VG,@ernoulli solved the di`erential euation 4or the vi$rations o4 an elastic $ar cla5<edat one end% @ernoulli3s treat5ent o4  uid dyna5ics and his e>a5ination o4 uid o88as introduced in his VL 8or+ 6&drod&namica%

&ational 5echanics dealt <ri5arily 8ith the develo<5ent o4 ela$orate 5athe5aticaltreat5ents o4 o$served 5otions, usin; Ne8tonian <rinci<les as a $asis, ande5<hasi#ed i5<rovin; the tracta$ility o4 co5<le> calculations and develo<in; o4le;iti5ate 5eans o4 analytical a<<ro>i5ation% re<resentative conte5<oraryte>t$oo+ 8as <u$lished $y Johann @a<tiste Horvath% @y the end o4 the centuryanalytical treat5ents 8ere ri;orous enou;h to veri4y the sta$ility o4 the solarsyste5 solely on the $asis o4 Ne8ton3s la8s 8ithout re4erence to divine interventionpeven as deter5inistic treat5ents o4 syste5s as si5<le as the three $ody<ro$le5 in ;ravitation re5ained intracta$le% In 0K, Bd5ond Halley <redicted the<eriodicity o4 Halley3s Co5et, 'illia5 Herschel discovered ranus in L,and Henry Cavendish 5easured the ;ravitational constant and deter5ined the

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5ass o4 the Barth in WL% In LV, John =ichell su;;ested that so5e o$_ects 5i;ht$e so 5assive that not even li;ht could esca<e 4ro5 the5%

In VW, Eeonhard Buler solved the ordinary di`erential euation 4or a 4orcedhar5onic oscillator and noticed the resonance <heno5enon% In G2, Colin

=aclaurin discovered his uni4or5ly rotatin; sel4M;ravitatin; s<heroids% In G2,@en_a5in &o$ins <u$lished his e- rinciples in G"nner& , esta$lishin; the science o4aerodyna5ics% @ritish 8or+, carried on $y 5athe5aticians such as Taylor and=aclaurin, 4ell $ehind Continental develo<5ents as the century <ro;ressed%=ean8hile, 8or+ ourished at scienti?c acade5ies on the Continent, led $y such5athe5aticians as @ernoulli, Buler, Ea;ran;e, Ea<lace, and Ee;endre% In GV, Jeanle &ond d3le5$ert <u$lished hisTraite de &namiJ"e, in 8hich he introduced theconce<t o4 ;enerali#ed 4orces 4or acceleratin; syste5s and syste5s 8ith constraints,and a<<lied the ne8 idea o4 virtual 8or+ to solve dyna5ical <ro$le5, no8 +no8nasD3le5$ert3s <rinci<le, as a rival to Ne8ton3s second la8 o4 5otion% InG, Pierre Eouis =au<ertuis a<<lied 5ini5u5 <rinci<les to 5echanics% In KW,

Buler solved the <artial di`erential euation 4or the vi$ration o4 a rectan;ular dru5%In !G, Buler e>a5ined the <artial di`erential euation 4or the vi$ration o4 a circulardru5 and 4ound one o4 the @essel 4unction solutions% In !, JohnS5eaton <u$lished a <a<er on e><eri5ents relatin;<o8er, 8or+, 5o5entu5 and +inetic ener;y, and su<<ortin; the conservation o4ener;y% In LL, Jose<h Eouis Ea;ran;e <resented Ea;ran;e3s euations o45otion in 5écaniJ"e Anal&tiJ"e, in 8hich the 8hole o4 5echanics 8as or;ani#edaround the <rinci<le o4 virtual 8or+% In LW, ntoine Eavoisier states the la8o4 conservation o4 5ass% The rational 5echanics develo<ed in the Lth centuryreceived a $rilliant e><osition in $oth Ea;ran;e3s LL 8or+ and the Celestial

5echanics )WWL2K7 o4 PierreMSi5on Ea<lace%

2%  Ther5odyna5icsDurin; the Lth century, ther5odyna5ics 8as develo<ed throu;h the theories o48ei;htless i5<ondera$le uids, such as heat )caloric7, electricity,and <hlo;iston )8hich 8as ra<idly overthro8n as a conce<t4ollo8in; Eavoisier3s identi?cation o4 o>y;en ;as late in the century7% ssu5in; thatthese conce<ts 8ere real uids, their o8 could $e traced throu;h a 5echanicala<<aratus or che5ical reactions% This tradition o4 e><eri5entation led to thedevelo<5ent o4 ne8 +inds o4 e><eri5ental a<<aratus, such as the Eeyden Jar[ andne8 +inds o4 5easurin; instru5ents, such as the calori5eter, and i5<roved versionso4 old ones, such as the ther5o5eter% B><eri5ents also <roduced ne8 conce<ts,such as the niversity o4 *las;o8 e><eri5enter Jose<h @lac+3s notion o4 latent

heat and Philadel<hia intellectual @en_a5in "ran+lin3s characteri#ation o4 electricaluid as o8in; $et8een <laces o4 e>cess and de?cit )a conce<t later reinter<reted inter5s o4 <ositive and ne;ative char;es7% "ran+lin also sho8ed that li;htnin; iselectricity in K2%

 The acce<ted theory o4 heat in the Lth century vie8ed it as a +ind o4 uid,called caloric[ althou;h this theory 8as later sho8n to $e erroneous, a nu5$er o4scientists adherin; to it nevertheless 5ade i5<ortant discoveries use4ul indevelo<in; the 5odern theory, includin; Jose<h @lac+ )2LWW7 and Henry

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Cavendish )VL07% O<<osed to this caloric theory, 8hich had $een develo<ed5ainly $y the che5ists, 8as the less acce<ted theory datin; 4ro5 Ne8ton3s ti5e thatheat is due to the 5otions o4 the <articles o4 a su$stance% This 5echanical theory;ained su<<ort in WL 4ro5 the cannonM$orin; e><eri5ents o4 Count &u54ord)@en_a5in Tho5<son7, 8ho 4ound a direct relationshi< $et8een heat and5echanical ener;y%

'hile it 8as reco;ni#ed early in the Lth century that ?ndin; a$solute theories o4electrostatic and 5a;netic 4orce a+in to Ne8ton3s <rinci<les o4 5otion 8ould $e ani5<ortant achieve5ent, none 8ere 4orthco5in;% This i5<ossi$ility only slo8lydisa<<eared as e><eri5ental <ractice $eca5e 5ore 8ides<read and 5ore re?ned inthe early years o4 the Wth century in <laces such as the ne8ly esta$lished &oyalInstitution in Eondon% =ean8hile, the analytical 5ethods o4 rational 5echanics$e;an to $e a<<lied to e><eri5ental <heno5ena, 5ost inuentially 8ith the "rench5athe5atician Jose<h "ourier3s analytical treat5ent o4 the o8 o4 heat, as <u$lishedin L22% Jose<h Priestley <ro<osed an electrical inverseMsuare la8 in !,and CharlesMu;ustin de Coulo5$ introduced the inverseMsuare la8o4 electrostatics in WL%

t the end o4 the century, the 5e5$ers o4 the "rench cade5y o4 Sciences hadattained clear do5inance in the ?eld% t the sa5e ti5e, the e><eri5ental traditionesta$lished $y *alileo and his 4ollo8ers <ersisted% The &oyal Society and the "renchcade5y o4 Sciences 8ere 5a_or centers 4or the <er4or5ance and re<ortin; o4e><eri5ental 8or+% B><eri5ents in 5echanics, o<tics, 5a;netis5, staticelectricity, che5istry, and <hysiolo;y 8ere not clearly distin;uished 4ro5 eachother durin; the Lth century, $ut si;ni?cant di`erences in e><lanatory sche5esand, thus, e><eri5ent desi;n 8ere e5er;in;% Che5ical e><eri5enters, 4or instance,de?ed atte5<ts to en4orce a sche5e o4 a$stract Ne8tonian 4orces onto che5ical

aliations, and instead 4ocused on the isolation and classi?cation o4 che5icalsu$stances and reactions%

Wth century develo<5ents

In L00, lessandro Folta invented the electric $attery )+no8n o4 the voltaic <ile7and thus i5<roved the 8ay electric currents could also $e studied% yearlater, Tho5as Youn; de5onstrated the 8ave nature o4 li;htp8hich received stron;e><eri5ental su<<ort 4ro5 the 8or+ o4 u;ustinMJean "resnelpand the <rinci<le o4inter4erence% In LV, Peter B8art su<<orted the idea o4 the conservation o4 ener;yin his <a<er on the meas"re o! mo.in# !orce% In L20, Hans Christian rsted 4oundthat a currentMcarryin; conductor ;ives rise to a 5a;netic 4orce surroundin; it, and8ithin a 8ee+ a4ter rsted3s discovery reached "rance, ndrM=arie5<re discovered that t8o <arallel electric currents 8ill e>ert 4orces on each other%In L2, 'illia5 Ha5ilton $e;an his analysis o4 Ha5ilton3s characteristic 4unction% InL2, =ichael "araday $uilt an electricityM<o8ered 5otor, 8hile *eor; Oh5 statedhis la8 o4 electrical resistance in L2!, e><ressin; the relationshi< $et8een volta;e,current, and resistance in an electric circuit% year later, $otanist &o$ert@ro8n discovered @ro8nian 5otionA <ollen ;rains in 8ater under;oin; 5ove5entresultin; 4ro5 their $o5$ard5ent $y the 4astM5ovin; ato5s or 5olecules in the

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liuid% In L2W, *as<ard Coriolis introduced the ter5s o4 8or+ )4orce ti5es distance7and +inetic ener;y 8ith the 5eanin;s they have today%

In LV, "araday )and inde<endently Jose<h Henry7 discovered the reverse e`ect,the <roduction o4 an electric <otential or current throu;h 5a;netis5 +no8n

as electro5a;netic induction[ these t8o discoveries are the $asis o4 the electric5otor and the electric ;enerator, res<ectively% In LVG, Carl Jaco$i discovered hisuni4or5ly rotatin; sel4M;ravitatin; elli<soids% In LVG, John &ussell o$served anondecayin; solitary 8ater 8ave )soliton7 in the nion Canalnear Bdin$ur;h andused a 8ater tan+ to study the de<endence o4 solitary 8ater 8ave velocities on 8avea5<litude and 8ater de<th% In LVK, 'illia5 Ha5ilton stated Ha5ilton3s canonicaleuations o4 5otion% In the sa5e year, *as<ard e>a5ined theoretically the5echanical eciency o4 8ater8heels, and deduced the Coriolis B`ect% InLG, Julius &o$ert von =ayer, an a5ateur scientist, 8rote a <a<er on theconservation o4 ener;y $ut his lac+ o4 acade5ic trainin; led to its re_ection% InLG2, Christian Do<<ler <ro<osed the Do<<ler B`ect% In LG, Her5ann von

Hel5holt# 4or5ally stated the la8 o4 conservation o4 ener;y% In LK, Eon"oucault sho8ed the Barth3s rotation 8ith a hu;e <endulu5 )"oucault <endulu57%

 There 8ere i5<ortant advances in continuu5 5echanics in the ?rst hal4 o4 thecentury, na5ely 4or5ulation o4  la8s o4 elasticity 4or solids and discovery o4 NavierSto+es euations 4or uids%

Ea8s o4 ther5odyna5ics

Filliam Thomson (Iord =el.in)(+824–+10)

In the Wth century, the connection $et8een heat and 5echanical ener;y 8asesta$lished uantitatively $y  Julius &o$ert von =ayer and Ja5es Prescott Joule, 8ho5easured the 5echanical euivalent o4 heat in the LG0s% In LGW, Joule <u$lishedresults 4ro5 his series o4 e><eri5ents )includin; the <addle8heel e><eri5ent7 8hich

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sho8 that heat is a 4or5 o4 ener;y, a 4act that 8as acce<ted in the LK0s% Therelation $et8een heat and ener;y 8as i5<ortant 4or the develo<5ent o4 stea5en;ines, and in L2G the e><eri5ental and theoretical 8or+ o4 Sadi Carnot 8as<u$lished% Carnot ca<tured so5e o4 the ideas o4 ther5odyna5ics in his discussion o4the eciency o4 an ideali#ed en;ine% Sadi Carnot3s 8or+ <rovided a $asis 4or the4or5ulation o4 the ?rst la8 o4 ther5odyna5icspa restate5ent o4 the la8 o4conservation o4 ener;yp8hich 8as stated around LK0 $y 'illia5 Tho5son, later+no8n as Eord elvin, and &udol4 Clausius% Eord elvin, 8ho had e>tended theconce<t o4 a$solute #ero 4ro5 ;ases to all su$stances in LGL, dre8 u<on theen;ineerin; theory o4  Ea#are Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and 5ile Cla<eyronas 8ell asthe e><eri5entation o4 Ja5es Prescott Joule on the interchan;ea$ility o4 5echanical,che5ical, ther5al, and electrical 4or5s o4 8or+pto 4or5ulate the ?rst la8%

elvin and Clausius also stated the second la8 o4 ther5odyna5ics, 8hich 8asori;inally 4or5ulated in ter5s o4 the 4act that heat does not s<ontaneously o8 4ro5a colder $ody to a hotter% Other 4or5ulations 4ollo8ed uic+ly )4or e>a5<le, thesecond la8 8as e><ounded in Tho5son and Peter *uthrie Tait3s inuential8or+ Treatise on at"ral hilosoph& 7 and elvin in <articular understood so5e o4 thela83s ;eneral i5<lications% The second Ea8 8as the idea that ;ases consist o45olecules in 5otion had $een discussed in so5e detail $y Daniel @ernoulli in VL,$ut had 4allen out o4 4avor, and 8as revived $y Clausius in LK% In LK0, Hi<<olyte"i#eau and Eon "oucault 5easured the s<eed o4 li;ht in 8ater and ?nd that it isslo8er than in air, in su<<ort o4 the 8ave 5odel o4 li;ht% In LK2, Joule and Tho5sonde5onstrated that a ra<idly e><andin; ;as cools, later na5ed the JouleTho5sone`ector Jouleelvin e`ect% Her5ann von Hel5holt# <uts 4or8ard the idea o4the heat death o4 the universe in LKG, the sa5e year that Clausius esta$lished thei5<ortance o4 dKLT  )Clausius3s theore57 )thou;h he did not yet na5e the uantity7%

 ames Clerk 5a/-ell

(+83+–+81)

In LKW, Ja5es Cler+ =a>8ell discovered the distri$ution la8 o4 5olecular velocities%=a>8ell sho8ed that electric and 5a;netic ?elds are <ro<a;ated out8ard 4ro5 theirsource at a s<eed eual to that o4 li;ht and that li;ht is one o4 several +inds o4electro5a;netic radiation, di`erin; only in 4reuency and 8avelen;th 4ro5 the

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others% In LKW, =a>8ell 8or+ed out the 5athe5atics o4 the distri$ution o4 velocitieso4 the 5olecules o4 a ;as% The 8ave theory o4 li;ht 8as 8idely acce<ted $y the ti5eo4 =a>8ell3s 8or+ on the electro5a;netic ?eld, and a4ter8ard the study o4 li;ht andthat o4 electricity and 5a;netis5 8ere closely related% In L!G Ja5es =a>8ell<u$lished his <a<ers on a dyna5ical theory o4 the electro5a;netic ?eld, and stated

that li;ht is an electro5a;netic <heno5enon in the LV <u$lication o4 =a>8ell3s Treatise on Blectricity and =a;netis5% This 8or+ dre8 u<on theoretical 8or+ $y*er5an theoreticians such as Carl "riedrich *auss and 'ilhel5 'e$er% Theenca<sulation o4 heat in <articulate 5otion, and the addition o4 electro5a;netic4orces to Ne8tonian dyna5ics esta$lished an enor5ously ro$ust theoreticalunder<innin; to <hysical o$servations%

 The <rediction that li;ht re<resented a trans5ission o4 ener;y in 8ave 4or5 throu;h alu5ini4erous ether, and the see5in; con?r5ation o4 that <rediction 8ith Hel5holt#student Heinrich Hert#3s LLL detection o4 electro5a;netic radiation, 8as a 5a_or

triu5<h 4or <hysical theory and raised the <ossi$ility that even 5ore 4unda5entaltheories $ased on the ?eld could soon $e develo<ed% B><eri5ental con?r5ation o4=a>8ell3s theory 8as <rovided $y Hert#, 8ho ;enerated and detected electric 8avesin LL! and veri?ed their <ro<erties, at the sa5e ti5e 4oreshado8in; theira<<lication in radio, television, and other devices% In LL, Heinrich Hert# discoveredthe <hotoelectric e`ect% &esearch on the electro5a;netic 8aves $e;an soon a4ter,8ith 5any scientists and inventors conductin; e><eri5ents on their <ro<erties% In the5id to late LW0s *u;liel5o =arconi develo<ed a radio 8ave $ased 8irelesstele;ra<hy syste5%

 The ato5ic theory o4 5atter had $een <ro<osed a;ain in the early Wth century $ythe che5ist John Dalton and $eca5e one o4 the hy<otheses o4 the +ineticM5oleculartheory o4 ;ases develo<ed $y Clausius and Ja5es Cler+ =a>8ell to e><lain the la8s o4 ther5odyna5ics% The +inetic theory in turn led to the statistical 5echanics o4 Eud8i;@olt#5ann )LGGW0!7 and Josiah 'illard *i$$s )LVWW0V7, 8hich held thatener;y )includin; heat7 8as a 5easure o4 the s<eed o4 <articles% Interrelatin; thestatistical li+elihood o4 certain states o4 or;ani#ation o4 these <articles 8ith theener;y o4 those states, Clausius reinter<reted the dissi<ation o4 ener;y to $e thestatistical tendency o4 5olecular con?;urations to <ass to8ard increasin;ly li+ely,increasin;ly disor;ani#ed states )coinin; the ter5 entro<y to descri$e thedisor;ani#ation o4 a state7% The statistical versus a$solute inter<retations o4 thesecond la8 o4 ther5odyna5ics set u< a dis<ute that 8ould last 4or several decades

)<roducin; ar;u5ents such as =a>8ell3s de5on7, and that 8ould not $e held to $ede?nitively resolved until the $ehavior o4 ato5s 8as ?r5ly esta$lished in the early20th century% In W02, Ja5es Jeans 4ound the len;th scale reuired 4or ;ravitational<ertur$ations to ;ro8 in a static nearly ho5o;eneous 5ediu5%

20th centuryA $irth o4 5odern <hysics

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5arie *kModo-ska,C"rie

(+8;–+134)

t the end o4 the Wth century, <hysics had evolved to the <oint at8hich classical 5echanics could co<e 8ith hi;hly co5<le> <ro$le5s involvin;5acrosco<ic situations[ ther5odyna5ics and +inetic theory 8ere 8ellesta$lished[ ;eo5etrical and <hysical o<tics could $e understood in ter5s o4electro5a;netic 8aves[ and the conservation la8s 4or ener;y and 5o5entu5)and 5ass7 8ere 8idely acce<ted% So <ro4ound 8ere these and otherdevelo<5ents that it 8as ;enerally acce<ted that all the i5<ortant la8s o4<hysics had $een discovered and that, hence4orth, research 8ould $e concerned8ith clearin; u< 5inor <ro$le5s and <articularly 8ith i5<rove5ents o4 5ethodand 5easure5ent% Ho8ever, around W00 serious dou$ts arose a$out the

co5<leteness o4 the classical theoriespthe triu5<h o4 =a>8ell3s theories, 4ore>a5<le, 8as under5ined $y inadeuacies that had already $e;un to a<<earpand their ina$ility to e><lain certain <hysical <heno5ena, such as the ener;ydistri$ution in $lac+$ody radiation and the <hotoelectric e`ect, 8hile so5e o4 thetheoretical 4or5ulations led to <arado>es 8hen <ushed to the li5it% Pro5inent<hysicists such as Hendri+ Eorent#, B5il Cohn, Brnst 'iechert and 'ilhel5'ien $elieved that so5e 5odi?cation o4 =a>8ell3s euations 5i;ht <rovide the$asis 4or all <hysical la8s% These shortco5in;s o4 classical <hysics 8ere never to$e resolved and ne8 ideas 8ere reuired% t the $e;innin; o4 the 20th century a5a_or revolution shoo+ the 8orld o4 <hysics, 8hich led to a ne8 era, ;enerallyre4erred to as 5odern <hysics%

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&adiation e><eri5ents

 ' ' Thomson (+8<;–+140) disco.ered the electron and isotop& and also in.entedthe mass spectrometer ' 6e -as a-arded the o%el in +10;'

In the Wth century, e><eri5enters $e;an to detect une><ected 4or5s o4radiationA 'ilhel5 &wnt;en caused a sensation 8ith his discovery o4 xMrays inLWK[ in LW! Henri @ecuerel discovered that certain +inds o4 5atter e5itradiation on their o8n accord% In LW, J% J% Tho5son discovered the electron, andne8 radioactive ele5ents 4ound $y =arie and Pierre Curie raised uestions a$out

the su<<osedly indestructi$le ato5 and the nature o4 5atter% =arie and Pierrecoined the ter5 radioactivity to descri$e this <ro<erty o4 5atter, and isolatedthe radioactive ele5ents radiu5 and <oloniu5% Brnest &uther4ord and "rederic+Soddy identi?ed t8o o4 @ecuerel3s 4or5s o4 radiation 8ith electrons and theele5ent heliu5% &uther4ord identi?ed and na5ed t8o ty<es o4 radioactivity andin W inter<reted e><eri5ental evidence as sho8in; that the ato5 consists o4a dense, <ositively char;ed nucleus surrounded $y ne;atively char;ed electrons%Classical theory, ho8ever, <redicted that this structure should $e unsta$le%Classical theory had also 4ailed to e><lain success4ully t8o other e><eri5entalresults that a<<eared in the late Wth century% One o4 these 8as thede5onstration $y l$ert % =ichelson and Bd8ard '% =orleyp+no8n asthe =ichelson=orley e><eri5entp8hich sho8ed there did not see5 to $e a<re4erred 4ra5e o4 re4erence, at rest 8ith res<ect to the hy<othetical lu5ini4erousether, 4or descri$in; electro5a;netic <heno5ena% Studies o4 radiation andradioactive decay continued to $e a <ree5inent 4ocus 4or <hysical and che5icalresearch throu;h the WV0s, 8hen the discovery o4 nuclear ?ssion o<ened the8ay to the <ractical e><loitation o4 8hat ca5e to $e called ato5ic ener;y%

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l$ert Binstein3s theory o4 relativity

In W0K a youn;, 2!MyearMold *er5an <hysicist )then a @ern <atent cler+7na5ed l$ert Binstein )LWWKK7, sho8ed ho8 5easure5ents o4 ti5e ands<ace are a`ected $y 5otion $et8een an o$server and 8hat is $ein; o$served%

 To say that Binstein3s radical theory o4 relativity revolutioni#ed science is noe>a;;eration% lthou;h Binstein 5ade 5any other i5<ortant contri$utions toscience, the theory o4 relativity alone re<resents one o4 the ;reatest intellectualachieve5ents o4 all ti5e% lthou;h the conce<t o4 relativity 8as not introduced$y Binstein, his 5a_or contri$ution 8as the reco;nition that the s<eed o4 li;ht in avacuu5 is constant, i%e% the sa5e 4or all o$servers, and an a$solute <hysical$oundary 4or 5otion% This does not i5<act a <erson3s dayMtoMday li4e since 5osto$_ects travel at s<eeds 5uch slo8er than li;ht s<eed% "or o$_ects travellin; nearli;ht s<eed, ho8ever, the theory o4 relativity sho8s that cloc+s associated 8iththose o$_ects 8ill run 5ore slo8ly and that the o$_ects shorten in len;thaccordin; to 5easure5ents o4 an o$server on Barth% Binstein also derived the

4a5ous euation, E qmc2

, 8hich e><resses the euivalence o4 5ass and ener;y%% S<ecial relativity

 Al%ert Einstein (+81–+1<<) proposed that  #ra.itation -as a res"lt o!  masses (or their  eJ"i.alent ener#ies ) c"r.in# (9%endin#9)the space time in -hich the& e/istalterin# the paths the& !ollo- -ithin it'

Binstein ar;ued that the s<eed o4 li;ht 8as a constant in all inertial re4erence4ra5es and that electro5a;netic la8s should re5ain valid inde<endent o4re4erence 4ra5epassertions 8hich rendered the ether su<eruous to <hysicaltheory, and that held that o$servations o4 ti5e and len;th varied relative to ho8the o$server 8as 5ovin; 8ith res<ect to the o$_ect $ein; 5easured )8hat ca5e

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to $e called the s<ecial theory o4 relativity7% It also 4ollo8ed that 5ass andener;y 8ere interchan;ea$le uantities accordin; to the euation Eqmc2% Inanother <a<er <u$lished the sa5e year, Binstein asserted that electro5a;neticradiation 8as trans5itted in discrete uantities )uanta7, accordin; to aconstant that the theoretical <hysicist =a> Planc+ had <osited in W00 to arriveat an accurate theory 4or the distri$ution o4 $lac+$ody radiationpan assu5<tionthat e><lained the stran;e <ro<erties o4 the <hotoelectric e`ect%

 The s<ecial theory o4 relativity is a 4or5ulation o4 the relationshi< $et8een<hysical o$servations and the conce<ts o4 s<ace and ti5e% The theory arose outo4 contradictions $et8een electro5a;netis5 and Ne8tonian 5echanics and had;reat i5<act on $oth those areas% The ori;inal historical issue 8as 8hether it 8as5eanin;4ul to discuss the electro5a;netic 8aveMcarryin; ether and 5otionrelative to it and also 8hether one could detect such 5otion, as 8asunsuccess4ully atte5<ted in the =ichelson=orley e><eri5ent% Binsteinde5olished these uestions and the ether conce<t in his s<ecial theory o4

relativity% Ho8ever, his $asic 4or5ulation does not involve detailedelectro5a;netic theory% It arises out o4 the uestionA 'hat is ti5e( Ne8ton, inthe rincipia )!L!7, had ;iven an una5$i;uous ans8erA $solute, true, and5athe5atical ti5e, o4 itsel4, and 4ro5 its o8n nature, o8s eua$ly 8ithoutrelation to anythin; e>ternal, and $y another na5e is called duration% Thisde?nition is $asic to all classical <hysics%

Binstein had the ;enius to uestion it, and 4ound that it 8as inco5<lete% Instead,each o$server necessarily 5a+es use o4 his or her o8n scale o4 ti5e, and 4ort8o o$servers in relative 5otion, their ti5eMscales 8ill di`er% This induces arelated e`ect on <osition 5easure5ents% S<ace and ti5e $eco5e intert8inedconce<ts, 4unda5entally de<endent on the o$server% Bach o$server <resides

over his or her o8n s<aceMti5e 4ra5e8or+ or coordinate syste5% There $ein; noa$solute 4ra5e o4 re4erence, all o$servers o4 ;iven events 5a+e di`erent $uteually valid )and reconcila$le7 5easure5ents% 'hat re5ains a$solute is statedin Binstein3s relativity <ostulateA The $asic la8s o4 <hysics are identical 4or t8oo$servers 8ho have a constant relative velocity 8ith res<ect to each other%

S<ecial &elativity had a <ro4ound e`ect on <hysicsA started as a rethin+in; o4 thetheory o4 electro5a;netis5, it 4ound a ne8 sy55etry la8 o4 nature, no8called oincaré s&mmetr&  that re<laced the old *alilean )see a$ove7 sy55etry%

S<ecial &elativity e>erted another lon;Mlastin; e`ect on dyna5ics% lthou;hinitially it 8as credited 8ith the uni?cation o4 5ass and ener;y, it $eca5eevident that relativistic dyna5ics esta$lished a ?r5 distinction $et8een rest5ass, 8hich is an invariant )o$server inde<endent7 <ro<erty o4 a <article orsyste5 o4 <articles, and the ener;y and 5o5entu5 o4 a syste5% The latter t8oare se<arately conserved in all situations $ut not invariant 8ith res<ect todi`erent o$servers% The ter5 mass in <article <hysics under8ent a se5anticchan;e, and since the late 20th century it al5ost e>clusively denotes the rest)or in.ariant 7 5ass% See 5ass in s<ecial relativity 4or additional discussion%

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2% *eneral relativity

@y W!, Binstein 8as a$le to ;enerali#e this 4urther, to deal 8ith all states o4

5otion includin; nonMuni4or5 acceleration, 8hich $eca5e the ;eneral theory o4relativity% In this theory Binstein also s<eci?ed a ne8 conce<t, the curvature o4s<aceMti5e, 8hich descri$ed the ;ravitational e`ect at every <oint in s<ace% In4act, the curvature o4 s<aceMti5e co5<letely re<laced Ne8ton3s universal la8 o4;ravitation% ccordin; to Binstein, ;ravitational 4orce in the nor5al sense is a+ind o4 illusion caused $y the ;eo5etry o4 s<ace% The <resence o4 a 5ass causesa curvature o4 s<aceMti5e in the vicinity o4 the 5ass, and this curvature dictatesthe s<aceMti5e <ath that all 4reelyM5ovin; o$_ects 5ust 4ollo8% It 8as also<redicted 4ro5 this theory that li;ht should $e su$_ect to ;ravity M all o4 8hich8as veri?ed e><eri5entally% This as<ect o4 relativity e><lained the <heno5ena o4li;ht $endin; around the sun, <redicted $lac+ holes as 8ell as <ro<erties o4the Cos5ic 5icro8ave $ac+;round radiation p a discovery renderin;4unda5ental ano5alies in the classic SteadyMState hy<othesis% "or his 8or+ onrelativity, the <hotoelectric e`ect and $lac+$ody radiation, Binstein received theNo$el Pri#e in W2%

 The ;radual acce<tance o4 Binstein3s theories o4 relativity and the uanti#ednature o4 li;ht trans5ission, and o4 Niels @ohr3s 5odel o4 the ato5 created as5any <ro$le5s as they solved, leadin; to a 4ullMscale e`ort to reesta$lish <hysicson ne8 4unda5ental <rinci<les% B><andin; relativity to cases o4 acceleratin;re4erence 4ra5es )the ;eneral theory o4 relativity7 in the W0s, Binstein<osited an euivalence $et8een the inertial 4orce o4 acceleration and the 4orce o4 ;ravity, leadin; to the conclusion that s<ace is curved and ?nite in si#e, and the

<rediction o4 such <heno5ena as ;ravitational lensin; and the distortion o4 ti5ein ;ravitational ?elds%

uantu5 5echanics

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5a/ lanck(+8<8–+14)

lthou;h relativity resolved the electro5a;netic <heno5ena conictde5onstrated $y =ichelson and =orley, a second theoretical <ro$le5 8as the

e><lanation o4 the distri$ution o4 electro5a;netic radiation e5itted $y a $lac+$ody[ e><eri5ent sho8ed that at shorter 8ave len;ths, to8ard the ultravioletend o4 the s<ectru5, the ener;y a<<roached #ero, $ut classical theory <redictedit should $eco5e in?nite% This ;larin; discre<ancy, +no8n as the ultravioletcatastro<he, 8as solved $y the ne8 theory o4 uantu5 5echanics% uantu55echanics is the theory o4 ato5s and su$ato5ic syste5s% <<ro>i5ately the ?rstV0 years o4 the 20th century re<resent the ti5e o4 the conce<tion and evolutiono4 the theory% The $asic ideas o4 uantu5 theory 8ere introduced in W00 $y =a>Planc+ )LKLWG7, 8ho 8as a8arded the No$el Pri#e 4or Physics in WL 4or hisdiscovery o4 the uanti?ed nature o4 ener;y% The uantu5 theory )8hich<reviously relied in the corres<ondence at lar;e scales $et8een the uanti#ed8orld o4 the ato5 and the continuities o4 the classical 8orld7 8as acce<ted

8hen the Co5<ton B`ect esta$lished that li;ht carries 5o5entu5 and canscatter o` <articles, and 8hen Eouis de @ro;lie asserted that 5atter can $e seenas $ehavin; as a 8ave in 5uch the sa5e 8ay as electro5a;netic 8aves $ehaveli+e <articles )8ave<article duality7%

Ferner 6eisen%er#(+10+–+1;)

In W0K, Binstein used the uantu5 theory to e><lain the <hotoelectric e`ect,and in WV the Danish <hysicist Niels @ohr used the sa5e constant to e><lainthe sta$ility o4 &uther4ord3s ato5 as 8ell as the 4reuencies o4 li;ht e5itted $yhydro;en ;as% The uanti#ed theory o4 the ato5 ;ave 8ay to a 4ullMscaleuantu5 5echanics in the W20s% Ne8 <rinci<les o4 a uantu5 rather than aclassical 5echanics, 4or5ulated in 5atri>M4or5 $y 'erner Heisen$er;, =a>@orn, and Pascual Jordan in W2K, 8ere $ased on the <ro$a$ilistic relationshi<$et8een discrete states and denied the <ossi$ility o4 causality% uantu5

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5echanics 8as e>tensively develo<ed $y Heisen$er;, 'ol4;an; Pauli, Paul Dirac,and Br8in Schrwdin;er, 8ho esta$lished an euivalent theory $ased on 8aves inW2![ $ut Heisen$er;3s W2 uncertainty <rinci<le )indicatin; the i5<ossi$ilityo4 <recisely and si5ultaneously 5easurin; <osition and 5o5entu57 and theCo<enha;en inter<retation o4 uantu5 5echanics )na5ed a4ter @ohr3s ho5ecity7 continued to deny the <ossi$ility o4 4unda5ental causality, thou;ho<<onents such as Binstein 8ould 5eta<horically assert that *od does not <laydice 8ith the universe% The ne8 uantu5 5echanics $eca5e an indis<ensa$letool in the investi;ation and e><lanation o4 <heno5ena at the ato5ic level% lsoin the W20s, the Indian scientist Satyendra Nath @ose3s 8or+ on <hotons anduantu5 5echanics <rovided the 4oundation 4or @oseBinstein statistics, thetheory o4 the @oseBinstein condensate%

 The s<instatistics theore5 esta$lished that any <article in uantu5 5echanics5ay $e either a $oson )statistically @oseBinstein7 ora 4er5ion )statistically "er5iDirac7% It 8as later 4ound that

all 4unda5ental $osons trans5it 4orces, such as the <hoton that trans5its li;ht%"er5ions are <articles li+e electrons and nucleons and are the usualconstituents o4 5atter% "er5iDirac statistics later 4ound nu5erous other uses,4ro5 astro<hysics )see De;enerate 5atter7 to se5iconductor desi;n%

Conte5<orary and <article <hysics

uantu5 ?eld theory

 "eyn5an dia;ra5 re<resentin; )le4t to ri;ht7 the <roduction o4 a <hoton )$lue sine8ave7 4ro5 the annihilation o4 an electron and its co5<le5entary anti<article,the <ositron% The <hoton $eco5es a uar+antiuar+ <air and a ;luon );reen s<iral7 isreleased%

s the <hiloso<hically inclined continued to de$ate the 4unda5ental nature o4 theuniverse, uantu5 theories continued to $e <roduced, $e;innin; 8ith PaulDirac3s 4or5ulation o4 a relativistic uantu5 theory in W2L% Ho8ever, atte5<tsto uanti#e electro5a;netic theory entirely 8ere sty5ied throu;hout the WV0s

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$y theoretical 4or5ulations yieldin; in?nite ener;ies% This situation 8as notconsidered adeuately resolved until a4ter 'orld 'ar II ended, 8hen JulianSch8in;er, &ichard "eyn5an and SinMItiro To5ona;a inde<endently <osited thetechniue o4 renor5ali#ation, 8hich allo8ed 4or an esta$lish5ent o4 aro$ust uantu5 electrodyna5ics )BD7%

=ean8hile, ne8 theories o4 4unda5ental <articles <roli4erated 8ith the rise o4 theidea o4 the uanti#ation o4 ?elds throu;h e>chan;e 4orces re;ulated $y ane>chan;e o4 shortMlived virtual <articles, 8hich 8ere allo8ed to e>ist accordin;to the la8s ;overnin; the uncertainties inherent in the uantu5 8orld%Nota$ly, Hide+i Yu+a8a <ro<osed that the <ositive char;es o4 the nucleus 8ere+e<t to;ether courtesy o4 a <o8er4ul $ut shortMran;e 4orce 5ediated $y a <article8ith a 5ass $et8een that o4 the electron and <roton% This <article, the <ion,8as identi?ed in WG as <art o4 8hat $eca5e a sle8 o4 <articles discovered a4ter'orld 'ar II% Initially, such <articles 8ere 4ound as ioni#in; radiation le4t$y cos5ic rays, $ut increasin;ly ca5e to $e <roduced in ne8er and 5ore

<o8er4ul <article accelerators%

Outside <article <hysics, si;ni?cant advances o4 the ti5e 8ereA

 The invention o4 the laser )W!G No$el Pri#e in Physics7[

the theoretical and e><eri5ental research o4  su<erconductivity, es<ecially theinvention o4 a uantu5 theory o4 su<erconductivity $y Fitaly *in#$ur; and EevEandau )2002 No$el Pri#e in Physics7 and, later, its e><lanation via Coo<er<airs )W2 No$el Pri#e in Physics7% The Coo<er <air 8as an early e>a5<leo4  uasi<articles%

ni?ed ?eld theoriesBinstein dee5ed that all 4unda5ental interactions in nature can $e e><lained in asin;le theory% ni?ed ?eld theories 8ere nu5erous atte5<ts to 5er;e severalinteractions% One o4 4or5ulations o4 such theories )as 8ell as ?eld theories in;eneral7 is a #a"#e theor& , a ;enerali#ation o4 the idea o4 sy55etry% Bventuallythe Standard =odel )see $elo87 succeeded in uni?cation o4 stron;, 8ea+, andelectro5a;netic interactions% ll atte5<ts to uni4y ;ravitation 8ith so5ethin;else 4ailed%

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Standard =odel

The *tandard 5odel'

 The interaction o4 these <articles $y scatterin; and decay <rovided a +ey to ne84unda5ental uantu5 theories% =urray *ellM=ann and  Yuval Ne3e5an $rou;htso5e order to these ne8 <articles $y classi4yin; the5 accordin; to certainualities, $e;innin; 8ith 8hat *ellM=ann re4erred to as the Bi;ht4old 'ay% 'hileits 4urther develo<5ent, the uar+ 5odel, at ?rst see5ed inadeuate todescri$e stron; nuclear 4orces, allo8in; the te5<orary rise o4 co5<etin; theoriessuch as the SM=atri>, the esta$lish5ent o4  uantu5 chro5odyna5ics in theW0s ?nali#ed a set o4 4unda5ental and e>chan;e <articles, 8hich allo8ed 4orthe esta$lish5ent o4 a standard 5odel $ased on the 5athe5atics o4  ;au;einvariance, 8hich success4ully descri$ed all 4orces e>ce<t 4or ;ravitation, and8hich re5ains ;enerally acce<ted 8ithin its do5ain o4 a<<lication%

 The Standard =odel ;rou<s the electro8ea+ interaction theory and uantu5

chro5odyna5ics into a structure denoted $y the ;au;e ;rou< S )V7 zS )27 z)7% The 4or5ulation o4 the uni?cation o4 the electro5a;netic and 8ea+ in thestandard 5odel is due to $dus Sala5, Steven 'ein$er; and,su$seuently, Sheldon *lasho8% Blectro8ea+ theory 8as later con?r5ede><eri5entally )$y o$servation o4  neutral 8ea+ currents7, and distin;uished $ythe WW No$el Pri#e in Physics%

Since the W0s, 4unda5ental <article <hysics has <rovided insi;hts into earlyuniverse cos5olo;y, <articularly the @i; @an; theory <ro<osed as a conseuenceo4 Binstein3s ;eneral theory o4 relativity% Ho8ever, startin; in the WW0s,astrono5ical o$servations have also <rovided ne8 challen;es, such as the need4or ne8 e><lanations o4 ;alactic sta$ility )dar+ 5atter7 and the a<<arent

acceleration in the e><ansion o4 the universe )dar+ ener;y7%

'hile accelerators have con?r5ed 5ost as<ects o4 the Standard =odel $ydetectin; e><ected <article interactions at various collision ener;ies, no theoryreconcilin; ;eneral relativity 8ith the Standard =odel has yet $een 4ound,althou;h su<ersy55etry and strin; theory 8ere $elieved $y 5any theorists to$e a <ro5isin; avenue 4or8ard% The Ear;e Hadron Collider, ho8ever, 8hich

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$e;an o<eratin; in 200L, has 4ailed to ?nd any evidence 8hatsoever that issu<<ortive o4 su<ersy55etry and strin; theory%

Cos5olo;y

Cos5olo;y 5ay $e said to have $eco5e a serious research uestion 8ith the<u$lication o4 Binstein3s *eneral Theory o4 &elativity in W! althou;h it did notenter the scienti?c 5ainstrea5 until the <eriod +no8n as the *olden a;e o4;eneral relativity%

$out a decade later, in the 5idst o4 8hat 8as du$$ed the *reatDe$ate, Hu$$le and Sli<her discovered the e><ansion o4 universe in the W20s5easurin; the redshi4ts o4  Do<<ler s<ectra 4ro5 ;alactic ne$ulae% sin;Binstein3s ;eneral relativity, Ee5a{tre and *a5o8 4or5ulated 8hat 8ould$eco5e +no8n as the $i; $an; theory% rival, called the steady state theory 8asdevised $y Hoyle, *old, Narli+ar and @ondi%

Cos5ic $ac+;round radiation 8as veri?ed in the W!0s $y Pen#ias and 'ilson,and this discovery 4avored the $i; $an; at the e><ense o4 the steady statescenario% Eater 8or+ 8as $y S5oot et al% )WLW7, a5on; other contri$utors, usin;data 4ro5 the Cos5ic @ac+;round e><lorer )Co@B7 and the 'il+inson =icro8avenisotro<y Pro$e )'=P7 satellites that re?ned these o$servations% The WL0s)the sa5e decade o4 the CO@B 5easure5ents7 also sa8 the <ro<osal o4  inationtheory $y *uth%

&ecently the <ro$le5s o4 dar+ 5atter and dar+ ener;y have risen to the to< o4the cos5olo;y a;enda%

Hi;;s $oson

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ne possi%le si#nat"re o! a 6i##s %oson !rom a sim"lated proton–proton collision' 7t deca&s almost immediatel& into t-o ets o! hadrons and t-o electrons .isi%le as lines'

On July G, 202, <hysicists 8or+in; at CB&N3s Ear;e Hadron Collider announcedthat they had discovered a ne8 su$ato5ic <article ;reatly rese5$lin; the Hi;;s

$oson, a <otential +ey to an understandin; o4 8hy ele5entary <articles have5ass and indeed to the e>istence o4 diversity and li4e in the universe% "or no8,so5e <hysicists are callin; it a Hi;;sli+e <article%  Joe Incandela, o4the niversity o4 Cali4ornia, Santa @ar$ara, said, It3s so5ethin; that 5ay, in theend, $e one o4 the $i;;est o$servations o4 any ne8 <heno5ena in our ?eld in thelast V0 or G0 years, ;oin; 8ay $ac+ to the discovery o4  uar+s, 4ore>a5<le% =ichael Turner, a cos5olo;ist at the niversity o4 Chica;o and thechair5an o4 the <hysics center $oard, saidA

This is a %i# moment !or particle ph&sics and a crossroads N -ill this %e the

hi#h -ater mark or -ill it %e the Drst o! man& disco.eries that point "s to-ard

sol.in# the reall& %i# J"estions that -e ha.e posedO

N 5ichael T"rner  Pni.ersit& o! Chica#o

Peter Hi;;s 8as one o4 si> <hysicists, 8or+in; in three inde<endent ;rou<s, 8ho,in W!G, invented the notion o4 the Hi;;s ?eld )cos5ic 5olasses7% The others8ere  To5 i$$le o4  I5<erial Colle;e, Eondon[ Ha;en o4 the niversity o4&ochester[ *erald *uralni+ o4  @ro8n niversity[ and "ranois Bn;lert and &o$ert@rout, $oth o4  niversit li$re de @ru>elles%

lthou;h they have never $een seen, Hi;;sli+e ?elds <lay an i5<ortant role intheories o4 the universe and in strin; theory% nder certain conditions, accordin;to the stran;e accountin; o4 Binsteinian <hysics, they can $eco5e su`used 8ith

ener;y that e>erts an antiM;ravitational 4orce% Such ?elds have $een <ro<osed asthe source o4 an enor5ous $urst o4 e><ansion, +no8n as ination, early in theuniverse and, <ossi$ly, as the secret o4 the dar+ ener;y that no8 see5s to $es<eedin; u< the e><ansion o4 the universe%

Physical sciences

'ith increased accessi$ility to and ela$oration u<on advanced analytical techniuesin the Wth century, <hysics 8as de?ned as 5uch, i4 not 5ore, $y those techniuesthan $y the search 4or universal <rinci<les o4 5otion and ener;y, and the4unda5ental nature o4 5atter% "ields such

as acoustics, ;eo<hysics, astro<hysics, aerodyna5ics, <las5a <hysics, lo8Mte5<erature <hysics, and solidMstate <hysics  _oined o<tics, uiddyna5ics, electro5a;netis5, and 5echanics as areas o4 <hysical research% In the20th century, <hysics also $eca5e closely allied 8ith such ?eldsas electrical, aeros<ace and 5aterials en;ineerin;, and <hysicists $e;an to 8or+ in;overn5ent and industrial la$oratories as 5uch as in acade5ic settin;s% "ollo8in;'orld 'ar II, the <o<ulation o4 <hysicists increased dra5atically, and ca5e to $e

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centered on the nited States, 8hile, in 5ore recent decades, <hysics has $eco5e a5ore international <ursuit than at any ti5e in its <revious history%

Se5inal <hysics <u$lications

 Author Dates Contribution

 Aristotle384 –

322 BCEPhysicae Auscultationes

 Archimedes287 – 212

BCEOn Floating Bodies

Ptolemy 9 – 1!8

 Almagest 

Geographia

 Apotelesmatika

 Alha"en 9!# – 14 Book of Optics

Co$ernicus 1473 – 1#43 On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres 1#43

%alilei 1#!4 – 1!42Dialogue Concerning the !o Chief "orld

Systems1!32

Descartes 1#9! – 1!# #editations on First Philosophy  1!41

&e'ton 1!43 – 1727 Philosophi$ %aturalis Principia #athematica 1!87

(araday 1791 – 18!7&'perimental Researches in &lectricity  )Pro*ect

%utenber+,

1839 -

1844

.a/'ell 1831 – 1879  A reatise on &lectricity and #agnetism 1873

Einstein 1879 – 19##  Annus #ira(ilis $a$ers 19#

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"ield o4 Study in Physics

I% coustics M the study o4 sound } sound 8avesII% strono5y M the study o4 s<aceIII% stro<hysics M the study o4 the <hysical <ro<erties o4 o$_ects in s<aceIF% to5ic Physics M the study o4 ato5s, s<eci?cally the electron <ro<erties o4 the

ato5F% @io<hysics M the study o4 <hysics in livin; syste5s

FI% Chaos M the study o4 syste5s 8ith stron; sensitivity to initial conditions, so asli;ht chan;e at the $e;innin; uic+ly $eco5e 5a_or chan;es in the syste5

FII% Che5ical Physics M the study o4 <hysics in che5ical syste5s

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FIII% Co5<utational Physics M the a<<lication o4 nu5erical 5ethods to solve<hysical <ro$le5s 4or 8hich a uantitative theory already e>ists

Ix% Cos5olo;y M the study o4 the universe as a 8hole, includin; its ori;ins andevolution

x% Cryo<hysics ~ Cryo;enics ~ Eo8 Te5<erature Physics M the study o4 <hysical

<ro<erties in lo8 te5<erature situations, 4ar $elo8 the 4ree#in; <oint o4 8aterxI% Crystallo;ra<hy M the study o4 crystals and crystalline structuresxII% Blectro5a;netis5 M the study o4 electrical and 5a;netic ?elds, 8hich are t8o

as<ects o4 the sa5e <heno5enonxIII% Blectronics M the study o4 the o8 o4 electrons, ;enerally in a circuitxIF% "luid Dyna5ics ~ "luid =echanics M the study o4 the <hysical <ro<erties o4

uids, s<eci?cally de?ned in this case to $e liuids and ;asesxF% *eo<hysics M the study o4 the <hysical <ro<erties o4 the Barth

xFI% Hi;h Bner;y Physics M the study o4 <hysics in e>tre5ely hi;h ener;y syste5s,;enerally 8ithin <article <hysics

xFII% Hi;h Pressure Physics M the study o4 <hysics in e>tre5ely hi;h <ressuresyste5s, ;enerally related to uid dyna5ics

xFIII% Easer Physics M the study o4 the <hysical <ro<erties o4 lasersxIx% =athe5atical Physics M a<<lyin; 5athe5atically ri;orous 5ethods to solvin;

<ro$le5s 8ithin <hysicsxx% =echanics M the study o4 the 5otion o4 $odies in a 4ra5e o4 re4erencexxI% =eteorolo;y ~ 'eather Physics M the <hysics o4 the 8eatherxxII% =olecular Physics M the study o4 <hysical <ro<erties o4 5oleculesxxIII% Nanotechnolo;y M the science o4 $uildin; circuits and 5achines 4ro5 sin;le

5olecules and ato5sxxIF% Nuclear Physics M the study o4 the <hysical <ro<erties o4 the ato5ic nucleusxxF% O<tics ~ Ei;ht Physics M the study o4 the <hysical <ro<erties o4 li;ht

xxFI% Particle Physics M the study o4 4unda5ental <articles and the 4orces o4 theirinteraction

xxFII% Plas5a Physics M the study o4 5atter in the <las5a <hase

xxFIII% uantu5 Blectrodyna5ics M the study o4 ho8 electrons and <hotons interactat the uantu5 5echanical levelxxIx% uantu5 =echanics ~ uantu5 Physics M the study o4 science 8here the

s5allest discrete values, or uanta, o4 5atter and ener;y $eco5e relevantxxx% uantu5 O<tics M the a<<lication o4 uantu5 <hysics to li;htxxxI% uantu5 "ield Theory M the a<<lication o4 uantu5 <hysics to ?elds, includin;

the 4unda5ental 4orces o4 the universexxxII% uantu5 *ravity M the a<<lication o4 uantu5 <hysics to ;ravity and

uni?cation o4 ;ravity 8ith the other 4unda5ental <article interactionsxxxIII% &elativity M the study o4 syste5s dis<layin; the <ro<erties o4 Binstein3s theory

o4 relativity, 8hich ;enerally involves 5ovin; at s<eeds very close to thes<eed o4 li;ht

xxxIF% Statistical =echanics M the study o4 lar;e syste5s $y statistically e><andin;

the +no8led;e o4 s5aller syste5sxxxF% Strin; Theory ~ Su<erstrin; Theory M the study o4 the theory that all

4unda5ental <articles are vi$rations o4 oneMdi5ensional strin;s o4 ener;y, in ahi;herMdi5ensional universe

xxxFI%  Ther5odyna5ics M the <hysics o4 heat

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Careers &elated to Physics

coustics eronautical Bn;ineer ;ricultural Bn;ineer ir Trac Controller irline Pilot rchaeolo;ist rchitect strono5er udio Bn;ineer @roadcastin;

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Carto;ra<her Chartered Surveyor Civil Bn;ineer Cli5atolo;ist Clinical Scientist

Co5<utin; Desi;ner Doctor Blectrical Bn;ineer Bner;y Bn;ineerin; Bnviron5ent Bnviron5ental Scientist "orensic Scientist *as Bn;ineer *eolo;ist Health Services

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Civil Dra4ters Civil Bn;ineerin; Technicians Civil Bn;ineers Co55ercial and Industrial Desi;ners Construction and @uildin; Ins<ectors

Blectrical Bn;ineerin; Technicians

<<lication o4 Physics in Our Daily Ei4e

5otion can %e e/plained "sin# ph&sics as part o! the la-s o! mechanics and

thermod&namics' Fhen -e eat -e con.ert !ood to mechanical ener#&' Fhile this is a ph&sics

concept eatin# is also chemistr& %eca"se the !ood is di#ested "nder a

chemical reaction that is then a%le to prod"ce ener#& and

th"s mechanical ener#&' 7tems that &o" "se at home can %e the -ork o! ph&sics like press"re cookers

-ashin# machines !rid#es tele.ision stereos comp"ters and cars' The& are

all desi#ned -ith principles !rom ph&sics' *peakin# is another st"d& o! ph&sics since pitch and intensit& is part o! so"nd

and so"nd is ph&sics' Cars can %e mentioned a#ain since the& are an important aspect o! ph&sics

that -e "se in o"r dail& li!e' Fhen dri.in# &o" "se %rakes to stop the #as !or

#oin# !or-ard or %ack-ardQ the entire en#ine is %ased on ph&sics' Electricit& incl"des man& aspects o! science #i.en that -e "se it to po-er

thin#s' ne o! the Drst lessons most o! "s are #i.en in ph&sics is ho- a

%atter& can %e "sed to li#ht a %"l%'

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e-ton@s Ia-s are "sed in practicall& e.er&thin# &o" see in the -orld aro"nd

 &o"' 5a/-ell@s eJ"ations are "sed e.er&-here as -ell' or e/ample 3 #lasses

and transmission o! cell"lar si#nals' Chip desi#n also relies on 5a/-ell@s

eJ"ations especiall& to de.elop transmission line theor&'  The %alance o! a car chan#es as the car accelerates decelerates or t"rns' To

keep the car on the road the dri.er m"st anticipate these !orces actin# on

the car and make ad"stments' B& "sin# a simple machine s"ch as an inclined plane or a le.er an indi.id"al

can make the load easier to li!t' h&sicists st"d& simple machines e/tensi.el&

and "se the lessons the& learn to make increasin#l& eRcient tools' To sta& -arm in the -inter people "p t"rn the heat "p or "se the principles o!

 ph&sics to "nderstand ho- to make %etter "se o! the heat that is alread& in

their homes' 6eat $o-s .ia cond"cti.e radiant and con.ecti.e meansQ

"nderstandin# the diSerences %et-een the three !orms -ill allo- an

indi.id"al to ins"late a ho"se %etter' or e/ample %& "sin# ceilin# !ans

intelli#entl& someone can make the con.ecti.e heat $o- in a ho"se -ork to

their ad.anta#e' Fhen &o"@re #ettin# do-n !rom a mo.in# .ehicle !or instance &o" tend to

r"n in little steps a!ter &o"r !eet comes in contact -ith the #ro"nd %e!ore &o"

come to a halt' That@s e-ton@s la- o! inertia !or &o"' Fh& is one al-a&s care!"l a%o"t not to"chin# electrical -ires and connections

-ith -et handsO Beca"se -et hands ha.e a drasticall& lo- resistance to

electric $o- as compared to dr& hands (imp"re -ater %ein# a #ood cond"ctor

o! electricit&)' 6o- do &o" think the micro-a.e is a%le to cookLheat "p the !ood !or &o"O 7t

makes the -ater molec"les in &o"r !ood .i%rate and a%sor% the radiation' All

the electronic de.ices &o" "se ha.e principles o! ph&sics "nderl&in# their

operation'

7n !act none o! the miracles o! modern,da& electronics -o"ld ha.e %een possi%le i! people didn@t kno- a%o"t J"ant"m mechanics' The photoelectric

eSect is responsi%le !or the -orkin# o! ni#ht,.ision #o##les (the one -hose

e/planation "sin# the J"ant"m theor& o! radiation earned Einstein the o%el

ri:e)'