John Emmanuel M. Calugay Inspiration in Theology1-MAS August 18, 2010

JEWISH GROUPS AT THE TIME OF JESUS

INTRODUCTION:

Many people used to think of first-century Judaism as a monolithic block, a solidly unified religion, from which Christianity split off as a new religion. In contrast, we now know that there were many different sub-groups within ancient Judaism, and that the early "Jesus Movement" was just one of many different Jewish groups. Moreover, the separation of Christianity from Judaism was not sudden, but happened gradually over several generations.

Judaism at the time of Jesus was both unified and divided, much like Christianity is today. All Jews believed and practiced some core aspects of their religion (Monotheism, the Law of Moses, Circumcision, etc. -- see Covenants and Pillars of Ancient Judaism), but different Jewish groups debated and disagreed with each other about many details (expectations of the Messiah, ritual and purity laws, how to live under foreign domination, etc.). Similarly all Christians today agree on certain core items (Jesus is the Son of God, the NT has 27 books, etc.) but disagree on many details (the number of sacraments, forms of worship, role of faith and good works, etc.).

To understand the separation of Christianity from Judaism, consider the analogy of parents and teenagers. Sometimes tensions within a family cause a separation; but do the parents throw the teenagers out, or do the teenagers run away from home? Sometimes it is the parents, sometimes the teens, and sometimes both! The religious situation in the first century was similar: sometimes a local group of Christians were ostracized or forced to leave Judaism; in other cases Christians chose to separate themselves from their Jewish heritage.

Also, whose "fault" is it when parents and teenagers separate? Usually at least a little of both! Rarely do parents kick well-behaved children out of the house, and rarely do teens run away from parents who are not overly harsh or demanding. Similarly in the first century, certain factors on both sides caused those Jews who believed in Jesus as the Messiah (later called "Christians") to separate from the majority of Jews who thought believing in Jesus was wrong and potentially harmful to their religion.

While some of the later writings of the NT show great hostility and nasty polemics between Jews and Christians, most of the arguments between Jesus and his contemporaries should be seen as inner-Jewish controversies. Not only did Jesus and his disciples disagree with and argue against various groups of other Jews, but these other groups also had major disagreements and arguments with each other on a whole variety of topics.

To understand the New Testament properly, especially the life of Jesus as presented in the Gospels, we need to learn about the wide variety of different Jewish groups that existed in the first century. Josephus, the first-century Jewish historian, describes three major Jewish groups and their "philosophies" or ways of life: Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. He also mentions various other political and revolutionary groups of Jews active in the first century CE, especially during the first War against Rome. The New Testament mentions Pharisees and Sadducees (but not Essenes) in addition to various other identifiable groups, the most important of which are described below:

1. PHARISEES - a group of influential Jews active in Palestine from 2nd century BCE through 1st century CE; they advocated and adhered to strict observance of the Sabbath rest, purity rituals, tithing, and food restrictions based on the Hebrew Scriptures and on later traditions.

"Pharisees" probably means "separated ones" in Hebrew, referring to their strict observance of laws and traditions (Luke 18:10-12).

Long-time political and religious rivals of the Sadducees, vying for influence among the rulers and the people.

Mostly laymen, but possibly also some priests (from the tribe of Levi) or even members of the Sanhedrin (Acts 5:34).

Followed not only the laws of the Hebrew Bible, but also the "traditions of the elders" (Mark 7:1-13; Matt 15:1-20).

Leaders were called "rabbis" or "teachers", such as Nicodemus (John 3:1-10; 7:50; 19:39) and Gamaliel (Acts 5:34; 22:3).

Also had trained "scribes" (Mark 2:16; Acts 23:9) and "disciples" (Mark 2:18; Matt 22:16; Luke 5:33). NT Gospels portray them mainly as opponents of Jesus (Mark 8:11; 10:2), who conspire with the

Herodians to kill Jesus (Mark 3:6). Some of Jesus' harshest polemics are directed against the "hypocrisy" and "blindness" of the Pharisees

(Matt 23; John 9). In contrast to Sadducees (Mark 12:18-27), Pharisees believed in the resurrection of the dead (Acts 23:1-

8). Paul himself was a Pharisee (Phil 3:5; Acts 23:6; 26:5), as were some other early Christians (Acts 15:5).

2. SADDUCEES - another prominent group of Jews in Palestine from 2nd century BCE through 1st century CE; they were probably smaller "elite" group, but even more influential than the Pharisees; they followed the laws of the Hebrew Bible (the Torah), but rejected newer traditions.

"Sadducees" comes from the Hebrew tsaddiqim ("righteous ones"), which may refer to the way they wished to live their lives.

The name may also derive from Zadok, the high priest under King David (1 Kings 1:26), since many Sadducees were priests.

Long-time political and religious rivals of the Pharisees, although their influence was more with the wealthy ruling elites.

Probably also rivals of the Herodians, since they had supported the Hasmonean Jewish rulers against King Herod.

Closely associated with the Jerusalem Temple and with the ruling council ("Sanhedrin") of the Jews (Acts 4:1; 5:17; 23:6).

Did not believe in life after death (Mark 12:18-27; Luke 20:27) or in angels or spirits (Acts 23:8). NT Gospels portray them (often together with the Pharisees) mainly as opponents of Jesus (Matt 16:1-

12; Mark 18:12-27). But they also rejected the teachings of the Pharisees, esp. their oral traditions and newer innovations.

3. ESSENES - a smaller group or "sect" that lived a communal "monastic" lifestyle at Qumram (near the Dead Sea) from 2nd century BCE through 1st century CE; the "Dead Sea Scrolls" found in this location in 1947 are usually associated with them.

Originally a group of priests, founded and/or led by a "Teacher of Righteousness" during the early Maccabean/Hasmonean era.

They regarded the Jerusalem priests as illegitimate, since those were not Zadokites (from the family of the high priest Zadok).

They rejected the validity of the Temple worship, and thus refused to attend the festivals or support the Jerusalem Temple.

They expected God to send a great prophet and two different "Messiahs" (anointed leaders), one kingly and one priestly.

They live a communitarian life with strict membership requirements, rules, and rituals; they probably also practiced celibacy.

Mentioned by Josephus, but not in the NT (although some scholars think the "Herodians" in the NT refer to Essenes).

Some scholars think John the Baptist (also Jesus?) was closely associated with the Essenes, but a direct connection is unlikely.

Monastery destroyed by the Roman Army ca. 68 AD, during the Jewish War against Rome, which Essenes probably considered the final battle between the forces of good (the true Israelites) and evil (the Romans and their collaborators).

Dozens of complete scrolls and thousands of written fragments were discovered from 1947 to mid-1950's in caves near Qumran.

The Scrolls contain copies of almost the entire Hebrew Bible, some older non-canonical texts, and dozens of the Essenes own writings.

Herodians - probably a faction that supported the policies and government of the Herodian family, especially during the time of Herod Antipas, ruler over Galilee and Perea during the lifetimes of John the Baptist and of Jesus.

Mentioned only twice in Mark and once in Matthew, but never in Luke, John, or the rest of the NT. In Mark 3:6 they conspire with the Pharisees to kill Jesus, still fairly early during Jesus' ministry in Galilee. In Mark 12:13-17 and Matt 22:16 they join some Pharisees in trying to trap Jesus with a question about

paying taxes to Caesar. See also the possibly related references to the friends and court officials of Herod (Mark 6:21, 26; Matt

14:1-12; Luke 23:7-12).

4. HIGH PRIEST, CHIEF PRIESTS, PRIESTS, AND LEVITES - members of the tribe of Levi who were responsible for the temple and its sacrifices, and thus were the religious and social leaders of the Jewish people.

Priests and Levites in ancient Israel had to be men from the tribe of Levi; any Jews from the eleven other tribes could not be priests.

Levites (members of the tribe of Levi who were not priests) assisted in the practical operation of the temple as guards, musicians, etc. (Luke 10:32; John 1:19; Acts 4:36; cf. Num 3, 8; etc.).

Priests offered the sacrifices and took care of other cultic/ritual concerns in the temple (Mark 1:44; Matt 12:4-5; Luke 1:5-23; etc.).

The same Greek word is translated "High Priest" (sg.) and "Chief Priests" (pl.) in most English Bibles; they were in charge of the Temple in Jerusalem and thus were the most important religious leaders in ancient Israel, at least prior to the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE.

The High Priest was appointed annually, but members of the family of Annas and Caiaphas were often reappointed in the first century (Matt 26:3, 57; Luke 3:2; John 11:49; 18:12-28; Acts 4:6).

The Gospels portray the chief priests (often with the scribes and elders) as members of the ruling authorities who opposed Jesus, long sought to arrest and kill him, and eventually condemned him to death (in cooperation with the Roman governor).

5. SCRIBES - men specially trained in writing, and thus influential as interpreters and teachers of the Law, and agents of the rulers.

"Scribes" did not form their own party, but could belong to other groups (e.g. "the scribes of the Pharisees" in Mark 2:16; Acts 23:9).

Most of their duties involved writing, e.g. producing legal documents, recording deeds, copying scriptures, teaching people, etc.

Since they specialized in the interpretation of the Jewish Law (Torah), "scribes" are sometimes translated and regarded as "lawyers".

But only Luke uses the technical term for "lawyer" (nomikos; 7:30; 10:25; etc.) in some passages where Mark and Matthew have "scribe" (grammateus).

The Gospels usually portray scribes (along with chief priests, elders, and/or Pharisees) as opponents of Jesus who actively sought his death (Mark 11:27).

The Acts of the Apostles also portrays them as opponents of the early Christians (Acts 4:5; 6:12). But there are a few exceptions: some scribes are neutral (Matt 13:52), or even praised by Jesus (Mark

12:28-34), or rise to defend Paul (Acts 23:9).

THE PHARISEES, SADDUCEES, AND ESSENES

Of the various factions that emerged under Hasmonean rule, three are of particular interest: the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.

The Pharisees

The most important of the three were the Pharisees because they are the spiritual fathers of modern Judaism. Their main distinguishing characteristic was a belief in an Oral Law that God gave to Moses at Sinai along with the Torah. The Torah or Written Law was akin to the U.S. Constitution in the sense that it set down a series of laws that were open to interpretation. The Pharisees believed that God also gave Moses the knowledge of what these laws meant and how they should be applied. This oral tradition was codified and written down roughly three centuries later in what is known as the Talmud.

The Pharisees also maintained that an afterlife existed and that God punished the wicked and rewarded the righteous in the world to come. They also believed in a messiah who would herald an era of world peace.

Pharisees were in a sense blue-collar Jews who adhered to the tenets developed after the destruction of the Temple; that is, such things as individual prayer and assembly in synagogues.

The Sadducees

The Sadducees were elitists who wanted to maintain the priestly caste, but they were also liberal in their willingness to incorporate Hellenism into their lives, something the Pharisees opposed. The Sadducees rejected the idea of the Oral Law and insisted on a literal interpretation of the Written Law; consequently, they did not believe in an afterlife, since it is not mentioned in the Torah. The main focus of Sadducee life was rituals associated with the Temple.

The Sadducees disappeared around 70 A.D., after the destruction of the Second Temple (see below). None of the writings of the Sadducees survived, so the little we know about them comes from their Pharisaic opponents.

These two "parties" served in the Great Sanhedrin, a kind of Jewish Supreme Court made up of 71 members whose responsibility was to interpret civil and religious laws.

The Essenes

A third faction, the Essenes, emerged out of disgust with the other two. This sect believed the others had corrupted the city and theTemple. They moved out of Jerusalem and lived a monastic life in the desert, adopting strict dietary laws and a commitment to celibacy.

The Essenes are particularly interesting to scholars because they are believed to be an offshoot of the group that lived in Qumran, near the Dead Sea. In 1947, a Bedouin shepherd stumbled into a cave containing various ancient artifacts and jars containing manuscriptsdescribing the beliefs of the sect and events of the time.

The most important documents, often only parchment fragments that had to be meticulously restored, were the earliest known copies of the Old Testament. The similarity of the substance of the material found in the scrolls to that in the modern scriptures has confirmed the authenticity of the Bible used today.

Summary of Disputes Among the Three Parties

Sect: Sadducees Pharisees Essenes

Social Class: Priests, aristocrats Common people ?

Figures of Authority:

Priests "Disciples of the Wise" "Teacher of Righteousness"

Attitude to Hellenism:

For Selective Against

Attitide to Hasmoneans:

Opposed usurpation of priesthood by non-

Zadokites

Varied?

Opposed usurpation of monarchy?

Varied?

Personally opposed to Jonathan ("Wicked Priest")?

Theology:

Free will

Angels

Afterlife

Yes

No

None

Mostly

Yes

Resurrection

No

?

Spiritual Survival (?)

Attitude to Bible: Literalist Sophisticated scholarly interpretations

"Inspired Exegesis"

Attitude to Oral Torah:

No such thing Equal to Written Torah "Inspired Exegesis"

Practices: Emphasis on priestly obligations (for priests)

Application of priestly laws to non-priests (tithes and purity rules)

"Inspired Exegesis"

Calendar:

?

Luni-solar (perhaps only under popular pressure?)

Luni-solar Solar: 364-day year

Other Groups:

1. SAMARITANS - The Samaritans are anethnoreligious group of the Levant. Religiously, they are the adherents to Samaritanism, anAbrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Based on the Samaritan Torah, Samaritans claim their worship is the true religion of the ancient Israelites prior to the Babylonian Exile, preserved by those who remained in the Land of Israel, as opposed to Judaism, which they assert is a related but altered and amended religion brought back by the exiled returnees.

Ancestrally, they claim descent from a group of Israelite inhabitants who have connections to ancient Samaria from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile up to the birth of Christ.

In the Talmud, a central post-exilic religious text of Judaism, their claim of ancestral origin is disputed, and in those texts they are called Cutheans (Hebrew: כותים, Kuthim), allegedly from the ancient city of Cuthah (Kutha), geographically located in what is today Iraq. Modern genetics has suggested some truth to both the claims of the Samaritans and Jewish accounts in the Talmud.

Although historically they were a large community — up to more than a million in late Roman times, then gradually reduced to several tens of thousands up to a few centuries ago — their unprecedented demographic shrinkage has been a result of various historical events, including most notably the bloody repression of the Third Samaritan Revolt (529 CE) against the Byzantine Christian rulers and the mass conversion to Islam in the Early Muslim period of Palestine. According to their tally, as of November 1, 2007, there were 712 Samaritans living almost exclusively in two localities, one in Kiryat Luza on Mount Gerizimnear the city of Nablus (Shechem) in the West Bank, and the other in the Israeli city ofHolon. There are, however, followers of various backgrounds adhering to Samaritan traditions outside of Israel especially in the United States.

With the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language by Jewish immigrants to Ottoman andMandate Palestine, and its growth and officialization following the establishment of the state, most Samaritans today speak Modern Hebrew, especially in Israel. As with their counterpartMuslim, Christian, Druze and other Israeli religious communities, the most recent spokenmother tongue of the Samaritans was Arabic, and it still is for those in the West Bank city ofNablus. For liturgical purposes, Samaritan Hebrew, Samaritan Aramaic, and Samaritan Arabic are used, all of which are written in the Samaritan alphabet, a variant of the Old Hebrew alphabet, distinct from the so-called square script "Hebrew alphabet" of Jews and Judaism, which is a stylized form of the Aramaic alphabet. Hebrew, and later Aramaic, were languages in use by the Israelites of Judea prior to the Roman exile, and beyond.

2. HERODIANS - The Herodians were a sect or party mentioned in the New Testament as having on two occasions — once in Galilee, and again in Jerusalem— manifested an unfriendly disposition towards Jesus.

In each of these cases their name is coupled with that of the Pharisees. According to many interpreters the courtiers or soldiers of Herod Antipas ("Milites Herodis," Jerome) are intended; but more probably the Herodians were a public political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great historical parties of post-exilian Judaism (Pharisees and Sadducees) by the fact that they were and had been sincerely friendly to Herod the Great, the King of the Jews, and to his dynasty (cf. such formations as "Caesariani," "Pompeiani").

It is possible that, to gain adherents, the Herodian party may have been in the habit of representing that the establishment of a Herodian Dynasty would be favourable to the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may account for pseudo Tertullian's (Adversis Omnes Haereses [1,1)) allegation that the Herodians regarded Herod himself as the Messiah. The sect was called by the Rabbis Boethusians as being friendly to the family of Boethus, whose daughter Mariamne was one of Herod the Great's wives.

Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that Paul of Tarsus was a member of the family of Herod the Great. Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman ofAgrippa." Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans 16:11 where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman." This is a minority view in the academic community.

3. PUBLICANS/TAX COLLECTORS - In antiquity, publicans (Latin publicanus (singular); publicani (plural)) were public contractors, in which role they often supplied the Roman legions and military, managed the collection of port duties,

and oversaw public building projects. In addition, they served as tax collectors for the Republic (and later the Roman Empire), bidding on contracts (from the Senate in Rome) for the collection of various types of taxes. Importantly, this role as tax collectors was not emphasized until late into the history of the Republic (c. 1st century BC). The publicans were usually of the class of equites.

At the height of the Republic's era of provincial expansion (roughly the first and second centuries BC until the end of the Republic) the Romantax farming system was very profitable for the publicani. The right to collect taxes for a particular region would be auctioned every few years for a value that (in theory) approximated the tax available for collection in that region. The payment to Rome was treated as a loan and the publicani would receive interest on their payment at the end of the collection period. In addition, any excess (over their bid) tax collected would be pure profit for the publicani. The principal risk to the publicani was that the tax collected would be less than the sum bid.

By New Testament times, publicans were seen chiefly as tax collectors by provincial peoples. It is in this sense that the term is used inJesus' parable of the Pharisee and the Publican. However, their role as public contractors, especially as regards building projects, was still significant.

With the rise of a much larger Imperial bureaucracy, this task of the publicans, as well as their overall importance, declined precipitously. Evidence for the existence of publicans extends as far back as the 3rd century BC, although it is generally assumed that they existed at still earlier times in Roman history. Knowledge of a tentative terminus post quem is taken from the histories of the 1st century AD Imperial historian Livy.

By the time of the Renaissance, the word "publican" meant a tavernkeeper (the licensed landlord of a public house), and by extension a slangterm for a pimp.

In England in the late 12th century there existed a religious sect called the publicani. Among their beliefs was the view that procreation was asin. This sect was thought heretical and was commonly persecuted in the 1180-1190s by Archbishop William of Rheims (reigned 1176-1202). This is mentioned in Banks and Binns' introduction to the Otia Imperialia, a 13th century work by Gervase of Tilbury.

4. ETHNARCH, TETRARCH, PROCURATOR

a. ETHNARCH - the anglicized form of ethnarches (Greek: ἐθνάρχης) refers generally to political leadership over a common ethnic group or heterogeneous kingdom. The word is derived from the Greek words ἔθνος (ethnos, "tribe/nation") and ἄρχων (archon, "leader/ruler").

The title first appears in the Hellenistic Middle East, possibly in Judea.[1] It was used in the region even after it fell under the dominion of Rome, and until the early Roman Empire, to refer to rulers of vassal kingdoms who did not rise to the level of kings. The Romans used the terms natio and gens for a people as a genetic and cultural entity, regardless of political statehood.

The best-known is probably Herod Archelaus, son of Herod the Great, who was ethnarch of Samaria, Judea and Idumea, from the death of his father in 4 BC to AD 6. His brother Philip received the north-east of the realm and was styled Tetrarch (circa 'ruler of a quarter'); and Galilee was given to Herod Antipas, who bore the same title. Consequently, Archelaus' title singled him out as the senior ruler, higher in rank than the tetrarchs and the chief of the Jewish nation; these three sovereignties were reunited under Herod Agrippa from AD 41 to 44.

Previously, Hyrcanus II, one of the later Hasmonean rulers of Judea, had also held the title of ethnarch, as well as that of High Priest.

b. TETRARCH – was a short-lived emperor whose empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, Germany and Spain.

c. PROCURATOR - A procurator was the title of various officials of the Roman Empire, posts mostly filled by equites (Roman knights, the second order of nobility). A procurator Augusti was the governor of the smaller imperial provinces (i.e. those provinces whose governor was appointed by the emperor, rather than elected by the Roman Senate). The same title was held by the chief financial officers of provinces, who assisted governors of the larger imperial provinces (known as a legatus Augusti pro praetore,

always a senator, who ranked above a knight). In addition, procurator was the title given to various other officials in Rome and Italy.

Places:

1. TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM - he Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple (Hebrew: ש ד� ק מ� ית־ה Beit ,ב� HaMikdash ;

"House of the Holy"; Biblical: Beith HaMiqdash), refers to one of a series of structures located on the Temple

Mount in the old city of Jerusalem. Historically, two temples stood at this location and functioned as the centre

of ancient Jewish worship. According to classical Jewish belief, the Temple acted as the figurative "footstool"

of God's presenceand a Third Temple will be built there in the future.

According to the Hebrew Bible, the First Temple was built in 957 BC by King Solomon(reigned c.970-

c.930 BC). As the sole place of Jewish sacrifice, the Temple replaced the portable sanctuary constructed in

the Sinai Desert under the auspices of Moses, as well as local sanctuaries, and altars in the hills. [3] The First

Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BC when they sacked the city.

Construction of the Second Temple began in 538 BC, and it was dedicated 23 years later, in 515.

According to the Book of Ezra, rebuilding of the Temple was authorized by Cyrus the Great and ratified by Darius

the Great. The Second Temple suffered desecration by Antiochus Epiphanes in 167 BC but was rededicated

under Judas Maccabaeus in 164 BC. Centuries later in around 20 BC, the building was renovated by Herod the

Great, and became known as Herod's Temple. During the Roman occupation of Judah, the Temple remained

under control of the Jewish High Priest. It was later destroyed by the Romans in 70 A.D. during the Siege of

Jerusalem. It is believed that only part of the Western Wallof the complex remains standing. During the last

revolt of the Jews against the Romans in 132-135 A.D.,Simon bar Kokhba and Rabbi Akiva wanted to rebuild the

Temple, but bar Kokhba's revolt failed and the Jews were banned from Jerusalem by the Roman Empire.

An Islamic shrine, the Dome of the Rock, has stood on the site of the Temple since the late 7th Century

CE, and the al-Aqsa Mosque, from roughly the same period, also stands on the Temple courtyard. The mount

bears significance in Islam as it acted as a sanctuary for many Biblical prophets. Islamic tradition says that a

Temple was first built on the Temple Mount by Jacob and later renovated by Solomon, son of David.

2. SYNAGOGUE - A synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer. (it might also be of interest that the word when broken

down could mean, "learning together" (syn - gr. together and aghoghei gr. learning or training)

Synagogue is commonly spoken of as a "shul" by Orthodox Jews, "synagogue" by Conservative, and

"Temple" by Reform. "Synagogue" is a good all-around word to cover the preceding three possibilities.

Synagogues usually have a large hall for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study and

sometimes a social hall and offices. Some have a separate room for Torah study, called the beth midrash—בית

.("House of Study") מדרש

Synagogues are not consecrated spaces, nor is a synagogue necessary for worship. Jewish worship can

be carried out wherever ten Jews (a minyan) assemble. Worship can also be carried out alone or with fewer than

ten people assembled together. A synagogue is not in the strictest sense a temple; it does not replace the long-

since destroyed Temple in Jerusalem.

In colloquial speech, Israelis use the term bet knesset (assembly house). Jews of Ashkenazi descent have

traditionally used the Yiddish term "shul" (cognate with the German schule, school) in everyday speech. Spanish

and Portuguese Jews call the synagogue an esnoga. Persian Jews and Karaite Jewsuse the term Kenesa, which is

derived from Aramaic, and some Arabic-speaking Jews use knis. Some Reform and Conservative Jews use the

word "temple".

Jewish Feast Days:

1. Rosh Hashanah – The Jewish New Year

According to the Talmud and oral tradition, Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish new year, day of memorial and the day

of judgment, in which Godjudges each person individually according to their deeds, and makes a decree for the

following year. The holiday is characterized by the special mitzvah of blowing the shofar. According to the Torah,

however, this is the first day of the seventh month of the calendar year that marks the beginning of a ten day count to

Yom Kippur.

For a variable number of days before Rosh Hashanah among Ashkenazim, and the entire month of Elul

among Sephardim, special additional morning prayers are added known as Selichot.

Erev Rosh Hashanah (evening of the first day) — 29 Elul

Rosh Hashanah ( השנה ראש ) 1 – 2 - Tishrei

Rosh Hashanah is set aside by the Mishna as the new year for calculating calendar

years, shmita and jubilee years, vegetable tithes, and tree-planting (determining the age of a tree).

According to an opinion in Jewish oral tradition, the creation of the world was completed on Rosh Hashanah.

The recitation of Tashlikhoccurs during the afternoon of the first day. Officially North American Reform Judaism

celebrates two days of Rosh Hashanah,[2] but a significant number of Reform congregations and members celebrate only

one day; the non-Reform branches of Judaism celebrate it as a two-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries

of Israel. The two days are considered together to be a yoma arichta, a single "long day".

2. Aseret Yemei Teshuva – Ten Days of Repentance

The first ten days of seventh month of the Jewish year (from the beginning of Rosh Hashana until the end of

Yom Kippur) are known as the Aseret Yemei Teshuva. During this time it is "exceedingly appropriate" for Jews to practice

"Teshuvah", which is examining one's deeds and repenting for sins committed against both God and one's fellow man in

anticipation of Yom Kippur. This repentance can take the form of additional supplications, confessing one's deeds before

God, fasting, and self-reflection. On the third day, the Fast of Gedalia is celebrated

3. Yom Kippur – Day of Atonement

Erev Yom Kippur — 9 Tishrei

Yom Kippur ( כיפור יום ) — 10 Tishrei

Yom Kippur is considered by Jews to be the holiest and most solemn day of the year. Its central theme

is atonement and reconciliation. Eating, drinking, bathing, anointing with oil, and marital relations are

forbidden. Fasting begins at sundown, and ends after nightfall the following day. Yom Kippur services begin with the

prayer known as "Kol Nidrei", which must be recited before sunset. (Kol Nidrei, Aramaic for "all vows," is a public

annulment of religious vows made by Jews during the preceding year. It only concerns unfilled vows made between a

person and God, and does not cancel or nullify any vows made between people.)

A Tallit (four-cornered prayer shawl) is donned for evening prayers; the only evening service of the year in which

this is done. The Ne'ilahservice is a special service held only on the day of Yom Kippur, and deals with the closing of the

holiday. Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the shofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast. It is always

observed as a one-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries of the land of Israel.

Yom Kippur is considered, along with 15th of Av, as the Happiest days of the year (Talmud Bavli - Tractate

Ta'anit).

4. Sukkot — Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)

Sukkot (סוכות or כות sukkōt) or Succoth is a 7-day festival, also known as the Feast of Booths, the Feast of ס�

Tabernacles, or just Tabernacles. It is one of the three pilgrimage festivals mentioned in the Bible. The word sukkot is the

plural of the Hebrew word sukkah, meaning booth. Jews are commanded to "dwell" in booths during the holiday. This

generally means taking meals, but some sleep in thesukkah as well. There are specific rules for constructing a sukkah.

The seventh day of the holiday is called Hoshanah Rabbah.

Erev Sukkot — 14 Tishrei

Sukkot ( הסוכות חג ) — 15–21 Tishrei (22 outside Israel)

5. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah

Simchat Torah ( תורה שמחת ) means "rejoicing with the Torah". It actually refers to a special ceremony which

takes place on the holiday ofShemini Atzeret. This holiday immediately follows the conclusion of the holiday of Sukkot.

In Israel, Shemini Atzeret is one day long and includes the celebration of Simchat Torah. Outside Israel, Shemini Atzeret

is two days long and Simchat Torah is observed on the second day, which is often referred to by the name of the

ceremony.

The last portion of the Torah is read, completing the annual cycle, followed by the first chapter of Genesis.

Services are especially joyous, and all attendees, young and old, are involved.

6. Hanukkah — Festival of Lights

Erev Hanukkah — 24 Kislev

Hanukkah (חנוכה) — 25 Kislev – 2 or 3 Tevet

The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees. These books are not part of

the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), they are apocryphal books instead. The miracle of the one-day supply of oil miraculously

lasting eight days is first described in the Talmud.

Hanukkah marks the defeat of Seleucid Empire forces that had tried to prevent the people of Israel from practicing

Judaism. Judah Maccabeeand his brothers destroyed overwhelming forces, and rededicated the Temple in Jerusalem.

The eight-day festival is marked by the kindling of lights — one on the first night, two on the second, and so on — using

a special candle holder called a Chanukkiyah, or a Hanukkah menorah.

There is a custom to give children money,also known as "gelt" on Hanukkah to commemorate the learning of Torah in

guise of Jews gathering in what was perceived as gambling at that time since Torah was forbidden. Because of this, there

is also the custom to play with the dreidel(called a sevivon in Hebrew).

7. Tenth of Tevet

This minor fast day marks the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem as outlined in 2 Kings 25:1

And it came to pass in the ninth year of his reign, in the tenth month, in the tenth day of the month, that

Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came, he and all his army, against Jerusalem, and encamped against it; and

they built forts against it round about.

As a minor fast day, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not observed. A Torah

reading and Haftorah reading, and a special prayer in the Amidah, are added at

both Shacharit and Mincha services.

8. Tu Bishvat — New Year of the Trees

Tu Bishvat ( בשבט ו"ט - האילנות חג ) — 15 Shevat

Tu Bishvat is the new year for trees. According to the Mishnah, it marks the day from which fruit tithes are counted

each year, and marks the timepoint from which the Biblical prohibition on eating the first three years of fruit and

the requirement to bring the fourth year fruit to theTemple in Jerusalem were counted. In modern times, it is

celebrated by eating various fruits and nuts associated with the Land of Israel. During the 1600s, Rabbi Yitzchak

Luria of Safed and his disciples created a short seder, called Hemdat ha-Yamim, reminiscent of the seder that Jews

observe on Passover, that explores the holiday's Kabbalistic themes.

Traditionally, trees are planted on this day. Many children collect funds leading up to this day to plant trees in

Israel. Trees are usually planted locally as well.

9. Purim — Festival of Lots

Erev Purim and Fast of Esther known as "Ta'anit Ester" — 13 Adar

Purim (פורים) — 14 Adar

Shushan Purim 15 Adar

In leap years on the Hebrew calendar, Purim is observed in the Second Adar (Adar Sheni).

Purim commemorates the events that took place in the Book of Esther. It is celebrated by reading or acting out the

story of Esther, and by making disparaging noises at every mention of Haman's name. In Purim it is a tradition to

masquerade around in costumes and to giveMishloakh Manot (care packages, i.e. gifts of food and drink) to the

poor and the needy. In Israel it is also a tradition to arrange festive parades, known as Ad-D'lo-Yada, in the town's

main street. Sometimes the children dress up and act out the story of Esther for their parents.

10. New Year for Kings

New Year for Kings — 1 Nisan.

Although Rosh Hashanah marks the change of the Jewish calendar year, Nisan is considered the first month of

the Hebrew calendar. TheMishnah indicates that the year of the reign of Jewish kings was counted from Nisan

in Biblical times. Nisan is also considered the beginning of the calendar year in terms of the order of the holidays.

In addition to this New Year, the Mishnah sets up three other legal New Years:

1st of Elul, New Year for animal tithes,

1st of Tishrei (Rosh Hashanah), the New Year for the calendar year and for vegetable tithes

15th of Shevat (Tu B'Shevat), the New Year for Trees/fruit tithes

11. Pesach — Passover

Erev Pesach and Fast of the Firstborn known as "Ta'anit Bechorim" — 14 Nisan

Passover (Hebrew: Pesach, פסח) (first two days) — 15 and 16 Nisan

The "Last days of Passover", known as Acharon shel Pesach, are also a holiday commemorating K'riat Yam Suf,

the Passage of the Red Sea. — 21 and 22 Nisan

The semi-holiday days between the "first days" and the "last days" of Passover are known as Chol Hamo'ed,

referred to as the "Intermediate days".

Passover commemorates the liberation of the Israelite slaves from Egypt. No leavened food is eaten during the

week of Pesach, in commemoration of the fact that the Jews left Egypt so quickly that their bread did not have

enough time to rise.

The first seder begins at sundown on the 15th of Nisan, and the second seder is held on the night of the 16th of

Nisan. On the second night, Jews start counting the omer. The counting of the omer is a count of the days from the

time they left Egypt until the time they arrived atMount Sinai.

12. Sefirah — Counting of the Omer

Sefirah ( העומר ספירת , Sefirat Ha'Omer) — Counting the Omer

Sefirah is the 49 day ("seven weeks") period between Pesach and Shavuot; it is defined by the Torah as the period

during which special offerings are to be brought to the Temple in Jerusalem. Judaism teaches that this makes

physical the spiritual connection between Pesach and Shavuot.

13. Lag Ba'omer

Lag Ba'omer ( בעומר ג"ל ) is the 33rd day in the Omer count ( ג"ל  is the number 33 in Hebrew). The mourning

restrictions on joyous activities during the Omer period are lifted on Lag Ba'Omer and there are often celebrations

with picnics, bonfires and bow and arrow play by children. In Israel, youth can be seen gathering materials for

bonfires.

14. Shavuot — Feast of Weeks — Yom HaBikurim

Erev Shavuot — 5 Sivan

Shavuot (שבועות) — 7 ,6 Sivan

Shavuot, The Feast of Weeks is one of the three pilgrim festivals (Shalosh regalim) ordained in the Torah, Shavuot

marks the end of the counting of the Omer, the period between Passover and Shavuot. According to Rabbinic

tradition, the Ten Commandments were given on this day. During this holiday the Torah portion containing the Ten

Commandments is read in the synagogue, and the biblical Book of Ruth is read as well. It is traditional to eat dairy

meals during Shavuot.

15. Seventeenth of Tammuz

The 17th of Tammuz traditionally marks the first breach in the walls of the Second Temple during the Roman

occupation.

As a minor fast day, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not observed. A Torah

reading and Haftorah reading, and a special prayer in the Amidah, are added at both Shacharit and

Mincha services.

16. The Three Weeks and the Nine Days

The Three Weeks: Seventeenth of Tammuz, 17 Tammuz – 9 Av (Tisha B'Av)

The Nine Days: 1–9 Av

(See also Tenth of Tevet)

The days between the 17th of Tammuz and the 9th of Av are days of mourning, on account of the collapse

of Jerusalem during the Roman occupation which occurred during this time framework. Weddings and other joyful

occasions are traditionally not held during this period. A further element is added within the three weeks, during

the nine days between the 1st and 9th day of Av — the pious refrain from eating meatand drinking wine, except

on Shabbat or at a Seudat Mitzvah (a Mitzvah meal, such as a Pidyon Haben — the recognition of a firstborn male

child — or the study completion of a religious text.) In addition, one's hair is not cut during this period.

In Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued

several responsa (legal rulings)which hold that the prohibitions against weddings in this timeframe are deeply held

traditions, but should not be construed as binding law. Thus, Conservative Jewish practice would allow weddings

during this time, except on the 9th of Av itself. Reform Judaism andReconstructionist Judaism hold

that halakha (Jewish law) is no longer binding, and rabbis in those movements follow their individual consciences

on such matters; some uphold the traditional prohibitions and some permit weddings on these days. Orthodox

Judaismmaintains the traditional prohibitions.

17. Tisha B'av — Ninth of Av

Tisha B'Av ( באב תשעה צום ) — 9 Av

Tisha B'Av is a fast day that commemorates two of the saddest[citation needed] events in Jewish history that both

occurred on the ninth of Av — the destruction in 586 BCE of the First Temple, originally built by King Solomon, and

destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Other calamities throughout Jewish history are said to have taken place

on Tisha B'Av, including King Edward I's edict compelling the Jews to leaveEngland (1290) and the Jewish

expulsion from Spain in 1492.

18. Tithe of animals

New Year for Animal Tithes (Taxes) — 1 Elul

This commemoration is no longer observed. This day was set up by the Mishna as the New Year for animal tithes,

which is somewhat equivalent to a new year for taxes. (This notion is similar to the tax deadline in the United

States of America on April 15.)

19. Rosh Chodesh — the New Month

The first day of each month and the thirtieth day of the preceding month, if it has thirty days, is (in modern times) a

minor holiday known asRosh Chodesh (head of the month). The one exception is the month of Tishrei, whose

beginning is a major holiday, Rosh Hashanah. There are also special prayers said upon observing the new Moon for

the first time each month.

20. Shabbat — The Sabbath — שבת

Jewish law accords Shabbat the status of a holiday, a day of rest celebrated on the seventh day of each week.

Jewish law defines a day as ending at nightfall, which is when the next day then begins. Thus, Shabbat begins at

sundown Friday night, and ends at nightfall Saturday night.

In many ways halakha (Jewish law) gives Shabbat the status of being the most important holy day in the Jewish

calendar.

It is the first holiday mentioned in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and God was the first one to observe it.

The liturgy treats Shabbat as a bride and queen.

The Torah reading on Shabbat has more sections of parshiot (Torah readings) than on Yom Kippur, the most of

any Jewish holiday.

There is a tradition that the Messiah will come if every Jew observes Shabbat perfectly twice in a row.

21. Acharei hachagim — "after the holidays"

Acharei hachagim (modern Hebrew: החגים אחרי ) Literally: after the holidays. Used in modern Hebrew vernacular

to suggest a delay. Many tasks get postponed until acharei hachagim, regardless of the proximity of the coming

holiday. Acharei hachagim is considered a legitimate target date for the task in question.

New Israeli/Jewish national holidays

Since the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, the Chief Rabbinate of Israel has established four new Jewish

holidays.

Yom Yerushalayim — Jerusalem day

Yom HaShoah — Holocaust Remembrance day

Yom Hazikaron — Memorial Day

Yom Ha'atzmaut — Israel Independence Day

These four days are national holidays in the State of Israel, and in general have been accepted as religious holidays

by the following groups: The Union of Orthodox Congregations and Rabbinical Council of America; The United

Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth (United Kingdom); The Chief Rabbinate of the State of Israel; All of

Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism; The Union for Traditional Judaism and the Reconstructionist

movement.

These four new days are not accepted as religious holidays by Haredi Judaism, which includes Hasidic Judaism.

These groups view these new days as secular innovations, and they do not celebrate these holidays.

Yom HaShoah ( ולגבורה לשואה הזכרון יום ) — 27 Nisan

Yom HaShoah is also known as Holocaust Remembrance Day, and takes place on the 27th day of Nisan. If this date

falls on a Friday, the observance is moved to the previous Thursday. If it falls on a Sunday, observance is moved to

the following Monday.

Yom Hazikaron ( ישראל מערכות לחללי הזכרון יום ) — 4 Iyar

Yom Hazikaron is the day of remembrance in honor of Israeli veterans and fallen soldiers of the Wars of Israel. The

Memorial Day also commemorates fallen civilians, slain by acts of hostile terrorism.

Yom Ha'atzmaut ( העצמאות יום ) — 5 Iyar

Yom Ha'atzmaut is Israel's Independence Day. An official ceremony is held annually on the eve of Yom Ha'atzmaut

at Mount Herzl. The ceremony includes speeches by senior Israeli officials, an artistic presentation, a ritual march

of flag-carrying soldiers forming elaborate structures (such as a Menorah, a Magen David and the number which

represents the age of the State of Israel) and the lighting of twelve beacons (one for each of the Tribes of Israel).

Dozens of Israeli citizens, who contributed significantly to the state, are selected to light these beacons.

Yom Yerushalayim ( ירושלים יום ) — 28 Iyar

Jerusalem Day marks the 1967 reunification of Jerusalem and The Temple Mount under Jewish rule during the Six-

Day War almost 1900 years after the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem.