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Running head: MEDIA PORTRAYAL OF ADOPTION AND FOSTER CARE ISSUES
Media Portrayal of Adoption and Foster Care Issues: A Content Analysis Examining Use
of Episodic and Thematic Frames
By
Elizabeth Hogan
A thesis submitted to The Johns Hopkins University
in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts
COMMUNICATIONWashington, DC
June 2010
Elizabeth Hogan
All rights reserved
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MEDIA PORTRAYAL OF ADOPTION AND FOSTER CARE ISSUES
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Abstract
This study used a content analysis of major local newspapers from diverse geographic
areas to examine the print medias portrayal of adoption and foster care issues to
determine if news media use episodic or thematic frames more often when reporting on
adoption issues. The study also sought to determine what types of adoption and foster
care stories were covered most frequently in episodic or thematic ways and to examine
what relevant issues the media chose not to address. The study revealed that the majority
of the stories (60%) were episodic and only a small portion (12%) used both episodic and
thematic frames. The highest percentage of story themes focused on changes in
adoption/foster care programs and budgets (27%). The three themes with the highest
percentage of episodic coverage included profiles of adoption and foster care advocates,
difficulties of and barriers to domestic adoptions, and crimes and adopted/foster children.
Thesis Readers:
Dr. Erika Falk
Paula Weissman, M. A.
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Preface
Acknowledgements
Since I began the Communication graduate program at Johns Hopkins University
roughly three years ago, I have feared the arrival of my thesis semester. However, Paula
Weissman eased my anxieties with her helpful feedback and encouragement throughout
this process.
My parents, Kathy and Griff Hogan, deserve special thanks for repeatedly
emphasizing the importance of education by sitting by my side while solving geometry
problems and staying up late to edit a term paper. I would also like to thank my aunt,
Grace Hogan, who has taught me that you are never too old to stop learning, and my
brother, Tom Hogan, who proves that some of the most effective teachers work outside of
the classroom. Thank you also to my generous grandmother, Patience Hogan, for helping
to make my education possible.
I am forever in debt to my sister, Mame Hogan, who overachieves in all things,
especially her duty as my role model. She completed her dissertation during the naptimes
of her two children both under the age of two. This thesis looked like a piece of cake next
to that accomplishment.
Finally, this thesis would not have been possible without the unwavering support
of my best friend, John Stauffer. Not only did he graciously volunteer to drive me to
Saturday morning classes, but he also never let me lose sight of the big picture.
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Table of Contents
Abstract . . . . . . . . . ii
Preface. . . . . . . . . iii
List of Tables . . . . . . . . v
Introduction . . . . . . . . 01
Purpose of Research
Literature Review . . . . . . . 03
Media & Framing Effects . . . . . . 03
Framing Political and Social Issues . . . . 06
Adoption and Foster Care Perception and Portrayal . . 08
Summary . . . . . . . . 10Research Questions . . . . . . 12
Method . . . . . . . . 13
Data Selection . . . . . . . 13
Coder Training . . . . . . . 14Intercoder Reliability . . . . . . 15
Data Analysis . . . . . . . 15
Results . . . . . . . . . 17
Discussion . . . . . . . . 25
Recommendations . . . . . . . 29
Study Limitations & Future Research . . . . 32
Appendix. . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . 38
Curriculum Vitae . . . . . . . 41
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List of Tables
Table 1:Frequency & Percent of Articles by Source
Table 2: Theme Descriptions and Prevalence
Table 3: Topical Themes by Type of Portrayal
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the numbers gap is not due to systemic problems, but rather an insufficient number of
individuals ready and able to adopt deserving children. These media-driven
misperceptions of the adoption system inhibit the necessary awareness to stimulate
policymaking and other systemic changes needed to streamline the adoption process.
This study examines news media portrayal of adoption and foster care issues, and
specifically seeks to determine whether newspapers use episodic or thematic frames more
often when reporting on adoption issues. Episodic frames tend to humanize an issue by
focusing on a specific example or case study. Conversely, thematic frames present an
issue within its larger context. Stories that use thematic frames often address societal
implications, and include research, statistics, and social commentary (Iyengar, 1991).
This study also seeks to determine what types of adoption and foster care stories were
covered most frequently in episodic or thematic ways and to examine what relevant
issues the media choose not to address. This will provide insight into the type of
information the public receives about adoption and foster care issues. Adoption advocates
can use the results of this study to learn how to work with the media to generate news that
would more effectively advocate for change in the adoption system.
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Literature Review
This literature review discusses framing effects and provides research to
demonstrate how a storys frame can influence emotions, thoughts, and decisions. This
section also examines the different types of frames used in stories about political and
social issues and explains how these portrayals affect policymaking and public
perception. Finally, the review of the literature provides evidence to suggest that the
media, a main source of information about adoption and foster care, often fails to report
on systemic problems and frames stories relating to these issues in a problematic way.
Media & Framing Effects
Scholars who study framing effects examine how exposure to media frames can
lead to shifts in individuals perceptions and attitudes. While agenda-setting theory
(McCombs & Shaw, 1972) explores how media influence public perception ofwhat
issues are most important, framing goes beyond perceptions of importance to explore
howpeople think about an issue. Entman (1993) argued that to frame is to select some
aspects of perceived reality and make them more salient in communicating text, in such a
way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation
and/or treatment recommendation for the item described (p. 52). In order to understand
how the media frames the news, an individual must observe how the reporter conveys the
slant, structure, emphasis, selection, word choice, and context of the story (Cappella &
Jamieson, 1997). Framing research also suggests that individuals perceive the same
information differently depending on how the reporter conveys it to the audience.
Journalists often use episodic frames to engage individuals on an emotional level
(Gross, 2008). Gross sought to explore how the use of episodic and thematic frames in a
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persuasive message affect emotional response and opinion change by conducting two
experiments with 163 undergraduate students. Two weeks after completing a pretest
questionnaire to measure their opinions on mandatory minimum sentencing and other
policy and demographic variables, participants were randomly assigned to read one of
three articles that argued against mandatory minimum sentencing for drug offenses or
participate in the control condition by reading a story on voting rights. The thematically-
framed article argued the case against minimum sentencing by discussing the guidelines
that determine if an individuals case is eligible for minimal sentencing, the exploding
prison population, and the high costs of incarceration. The two episodic articles featured
the story of an individual, along with comments from an interest group representative and
Supreme Court Justice, to present the case against minimum sentencing. The results
showed that in both experiments, episodic frames had a greater emotional impact on the
reader than the thematic frame. Individuals who read articles that featured an episodic
frame were significantly more likely to express emotions like pity or anger. While
episodic frames influenced emotion, they did little to move opinion. Hence, the
thematically framed column more effectively shifted opinions about minimum
sentencing.
Similarly, Price, Tewksburgy, and Powers (1997) investigated how frames used
by journalists can affect the thoughts and feelings of the audience by conducting two
experiments with 278 undergraduate students. Participants read a fictitious story about
possible reductions in state funding of their university. Researchers randomly assigned
individuals to one of four groups. Three of the groups read a story with a frame and the
fourth group read a story with no frame. The three frames employed were: human
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interest, conflict, and personal consequences. The story utilizing a human interest frame
emphasized a personal angle; the conflict framed story portrayed the facts as a game
where individuals were pit against each other; and the personal consequence framed story
addressed how the issue affected the audience. All of the stories included the same
information, with the exception of the first and last paragraphs, which researchers altered
according to the frame. The first study asked each participant to list their thoughts
immediately after reading the story; the second study evaluated participants opinions.
The results showed that the stories frames did not affect the total number of thoughts,
but they did have an impact on the substantive focus of the thoughts. Participants in the
three treatment conditions had fewer thoughts about the funding decrease than
individuals in the control condition. In addition, the participants cognitive responses
were directed towards ideas related to the frame they were exposed to.
Levin, Schnittjer, and Thee (1987) executed an experiment examining how
message framing affects social and moral decisions. In the first experiment,
undergraduate students were asked three questions about cheating. The first related to the
probability of someone else cheating; the second asked about the likelihood of the
participant turning in a cheater; and the third asked about the possibility of them cheating.
Researchers developed two versions of the survey; in the 65% cheated frame,
participants were told that 65% of graduating seniors had admitted to cheating. In the
35% never cheated frame, individuals were informed that 35% of graduating seniors
said they never cheated. Researchers randomly assigned students to each group so that
both groups contained an equal number of individuals. Students had to rate the
probability of cheating incidence on a scale of one to ten. The results indicated that
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episodic framing of poverty increased perceptions of individual responsibility, while
thematic framing increased attributions of societal responsibility.
Lawrence (2004) also sought to determine how certain types of frames used by
the media influence the perception of individual or societal accountability by executing a
content analysis of newspaper articles on obesity. The researcher selected 136 articles
that addressed the issue and appeared on page one of any section in theNew York Times
from 1985-2003. This specific outlet was chosen because the author was interested to
learn how the press frames issues for more educated members of the population. Page
one articles were selected because of their prominence in the paper. The results showed
that the episodic or an individual responsibility frame was less likely to promote
change in public policy than a frame that highlighted environmental factors like excessive
marketing of junk food in schools. The public was more likely to respond when the
distribution of risk was widespread or universal rather than contained to one segment of a
population.
Similarly, Ott and Aoki (2002) looked at 71 news stories to determine how the
Washington Post, theNew York Times,Los Angeles Times, Time, and The Advocate
covered thedeath of Matthew Shepard, a gay college student murdered in 1998. The
authors found that the majority of stories focused solely on one individual rather than
describing the event as a hate crime in which Shepard was the latest victim. These
episodic frames downplayed societal causes and implications and placed blame solely on
the two individuals who committed the crime.
Nelson and Clawson (1997) examined how television news outlets framed a Ku
Klux Klan (KKK) demonstration and rally in a small Ohio city. Researchers randomly
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assigned over two hundred undergraduate students to watch different news stories about
KKK activities. The students had to express their tolerance for KKK rallies after viewing
the stories. The stories utilized either the free speech frame or public order frame.
The theme of the free speech frame was that KKK members and those individuals who
protested their appearance were determined to make their message known, while the
theme of the public order frame was that KKK rallies could promote disorder and
physical violence between KKK supporters and those who oppose the organization.
Immediately after participants viewed the stories, researchers asked them if they support
or oppose allowing members of the KKK to hold public rallies in the city, and if they
support or oppose allowing members of the KKK to make a speech in the city.
Participants in the free speech framing condition were more tolerant of KKK speeches
than individuals assigned to the public order frame.
These studies suggest that the way in which the media frames a story has the
potential to shift responsibility from society to the individual (Iyengar, 1991). This
perception of accountability hinders changes in public policy and fails to convey greater
societal problems (Lawrence, 2004; Nelson & Clawson, 1997; Ott & Aoki, 2002).
Adoption and Foster Care Perception and Portrayal
Adoption and foster care are two social issues depicted by the media; one fact not
often reported is that there are more people who want to adopt than there are children to
be adopted. Research shows that the media is a major source of information about
adoption and foster care. However, studies focusing on media coverage have found that
the media often reports on adoption or foster care stories in problematic ways.
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Katz (2005) conducted a study that involved four research methods including an
analysis of data from the federal Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting
System; a national survey of state adoption directors; case studies of adoption practices;
and an analysis of adoption applicant case record abstraction. He found that over
240,000 Americans call social service agencies for information about adopting a child
from foster care each year. However, only one in 28 people who call for information
about adopting a child actually do so. Katz identified several reasons for this
discrepancy. Many parents who seek information about adopting a child are dismayed by
how the current system treats them; individuals felt that the focus of the initial call was to
screen out inappropriate applicants rather than welcome prospective adoptive parents.
Callers also reported having difficulty reaching the appropriate person and being
transferred from one person to another. However, individuals who made a positive initial
connection with the agency worker were more tolerant of frustrations encountered later
on in the process. When asked about general barriers to the adoption of children from
foster care, the primary concerns mentioned by individuals were childrens problems
(21%), length of the process (18%), and role of the birth families (15%).
In 2007, the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption commissioned a national
market research company to execute the National Foster Care Adoption Attitudes Survey
of 1,600 adults between April 12 and May 1, 2007. Individuals were selected from a
database of people who agreed to participate in research studies. The survey found that
three in ten Americans have or are considering adoption. The results also showed that
individuals do not have a clear understanding of the 114,000 eligible children in the U.S.
foster care system who are waiting to be adopted, and that 67% of participants do not
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understand the U.S. foster care adoption process. Two-thirds of individuals surveyed
thought that society should be doing more to encourage and support adoption. Finally,
the survey results showed that 43% of people get their information about adoption from
television, newspapers, magazines, or the radio. Twenty-eight percent of individuals
thought that media coverage of adoption is somewhat favorable.
Kline, Karel, and Chatterjee (2006) found that the majority of media coverage of
adoption is not favorable. The researchers conducted a content analysis of 292 news
stories relating to adoption that appeared on major broadcast networks between 2001 and
2004 to determine if the media depicts adoption participants and their families in
problematic or stigmatizing ways. To be coded problematic, stories must explicitly
create a sense of separation and devalue others (p. 489). The coding instrument
included two sections: the first focused on adoption-relevant content or actions, and the
second included categories for discussion of changing family ideology by coding for birth
family reunions. The results showed that problematic depictions occurred in 56% of the
stories coded. These stories portrayed adoptees as having identity problems or emotional,
social, or health issues. Forty-one percent of stories portrayed adoptees in socially
desirable ways. Adoptive parents were also frequently depicted in news stories, as were
their reasons for adopting. Unlike adoptees, the majority of stories portrayed adoptive
parents in a positive way. Overall, 91% of stories utilized a human interest news frame to
portray adoptive family interactions.
Summary
These studies show that there are more people interested in adopting a child than
there are children to be adopted (Katz, 2005). The information also indicates that many
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people receive information about adoption and foster care issues from the media, and that
media portrayal is often problematic. Problematic or unfavorable stories portray adoptees
as having identity problems or emotional, social, or health issues. Finally, the majority of
stories examined utilized a human interest news frame (Dave Thomas Foundation for
Adoption, 2007; Kline, Karel, & Chatterjee, 2006).
The literature reviewed demonstrates that compared to thematically-framed
articles, stories utilizing an episodic frame have greater impact on a persons emotions,
but little effect on an individuals opinion (Gross, 2008). In addition, when used in stories
discussing social and moral issues, episodic frames increase perceptions of individual
responsibility, while thematic frames increase attributions of societal responsibility
(Iyengar, 1991). An episodic or individual responsibility frame is less likely to promote
change in public policy than a frame that highlights societal responsibility.
Forty-three percent of people get their information about adoption from
television, newspapers, magazines, or the radio. The majority of individuals do not have a
clear understanding of the eligible children in the U.S. foster care system, or of foster
care and adoption processes (Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption, 2007). By
examining the news media portrayal of adoption and foster care issues, and specifically
determining if newspapers use episodic or thematic frames more often when reporting on
adoption issues, this study will be able to determine if the way in which news media
report on adoption and foster care issues contributes to misperceptions of the adoption
system and inhibits policymaking and other systemic changes needed to streamline the
adoption process. Finally, this study will also examine story themes and topics to
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determine if news media have reported on problems in the adoption and foster care
system that have been identified by advocates.
Research Questions
RQ1: Do newspapers more often use episodic or thematic frames when
reporting on adoption and foster care stories?
RQ2: What are the main topics addressed in adoption and foster care
stories?
RQ2a: What topics were covered most often in an episodic
manner?
RQ2b: What topics were covered most often in a thematic
manner?
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Method
I conducted a content analysis of major national and regional newspaper coverage
of adoption and foster care issues that appeared during the time period of April 9, 2009 -
April 9, 2010. A year provided sufficient time for a substantial amount of issue coverage
to appear.
Weber (1990) provided a list of purposes for which to conduct a content analysis.
By using this method, I was able to reveal the focus of individual, group, institutional, or
societal attention; and describe trends in communication content (p. 9). This method
allowed me to make reliable, reproducible conclusions about the way major national and
regional newspapers cover adoption and foster care issues.
According to Poindexter and McCombs (2000) a content analysis looks solely at
the content and not the authors intentions. A content analysis was an appropriate
research tool for this study because I was not attempting to gauge the knowledge or
motivation of individuals who report on adoption and foster care issues. Conversely, the
goal of my research was to discover how news media use frames to report on these
subjects.
Data Selection
To select sources for this study, I selected the top circulating newspapers from
2008-2009 from the Audit Bureau of Circulations. I selected major newspapers from
various regions to ensure geographically comprehensive coverage. The eight sources I
chose arethe Plain Dealer, TheAtlanta Journal-Constitution, The Houston Chronicle,
The Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, The Philadelphia
Inquirer, and the Chicago Sun Times.
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I used the Lexis-Nexis database and the search string adoption or foster care
AND child to search for articles in these publications that contained the words
adoption, or foster care and child in the story. I selected these terms after
reviewing many articles about adoption and foster care and determining that these words
were almost always apparent in each of the stories; therefore, I felt confident that this
search string would retrieve most of the articles written on this topic. These search strings
yielded 893 articles. For the purposes of this study, in order to be classified as an article,
a story must have been written by an individual representing the media outlet, or an
adoption advocacy group or organization. The piece also needed to focus on real-life
adoption and foster care issues, and discuss adoption and foster care as they relate to
human beings in the United States. The following are examples of items that were
excluded from the sample: movie reviews, articles discussing the adoption or foster care
of pets or human beings from other countries, volunteer advertisements, and Letters to
the Editor. After omitting those articles from my research, I ended up with 220 articles.
Next, I randomly shuffled the remaining 220 articles and removed every tenth article. My
final sample was comprised of 200 articles.
Codebook. The codebook contained three variables that were examined,
including the geographic scope of the article, whether an episodic or thematic frame was
used in the article, and the articles topical focus or theme (See Appendix for codebook).
Coder training & intercoder reliability. I trained one additional coder for this
study. The second coder was trained on articles that met the search criteria for this study,
but were gathered from coverage during the year prior to the studys timeframe. I trained
the coder on how to identify episodic and thematic elements of a story. I also defined
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each one of the eight topical themes and provided examples of stories depicting these
themes.
After the coder was trained and had participated in several practice sessions, I
conducted a reliability test prior to beginning the coding process. I randomly selected 20
articles or ten percent of the total sample size from the actual dataset, and both coders
independently coded these articles. Since both coders applied the codebook for each
variable, I assessed each one for percent agreement. I used the following formula for this
calculation (Holsti, 1969, as cited in Poindexter & McCombs, 2000, p. 203):
Coefficient of Reliability = 2M/(N1 + N2)
M = Number of coding decision agreed on
N1 = Total number of coding decisions by the first coder
N2 = Total number of coding decisions by the second coder
After the first intercoder reliability test, we discussed disagreements that had
arisen as a result of confusing language in the codebook, and I revised the codebook
accordingly. I also provided the second coder with additional training. We then tested a
second sample of 20 randomly selected articles. The coefficient of reliability was as
follows for the three variables coded: 84% for episodic frames, 91% for thematic frames,
and 90% for topical themes. All of these were above the 80% minimum needed to
proceed. After the reliability test was complete, the author coded all of the remaining
data.
Data Analysis
To answer research question one, which asks if newspapers more often use
episodic or thematic frames when reporting on adoption and foster care stories, I reported
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the percent of articles that utilized episodic frames and the percent of articles that
contained thematic frames. To be coded as episodic, an article must profile an individual,
a group of individuals, or discuss a case study. An article was coded as thematic if the
author provided statistics in addition to survey results or expert interviews. This coding
system was selected because Iyengar (1991) said that thematic frames apply a wide-
angle lens to the coverage of the issue (p. 13). Providing statistics in addition to other
qualitative data was sufficient evidence of portrayal of a larger issue. I also included the
percent of articles that used both episodic and thematic frames, and the percent of articles
that did not use either type of frame.
To answer research question two, which asks what are the main topics addressed
in adoption and foster care stories, I reported the number and percentage of stories that
were categorized under each of the eight themes.
To answer research question two a, which asks what topics were covered most
often in an episodic manner, I reported on the percent of each of the eight themes present
in each of the articles coded as utilizing an episodic frame.
To answer research question two b, which asked what topics were covered
most often in a thematic manner, I reported on the percent of each of the eight themes
present in each of the articles coded as utilizing a thematic frame.
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Results
This study analyzed newspaper coverage of adoption and foster care issues that
appeared during the time period of April 9, 2009 - April 9, 2010. All eight of the outlets
were represented, with most of the articles coded from The Washington Postand theLos
Angeles Times, at 23.5% and 17% respectively. The least of amount of articles, 5.5%,
were from thePlain Dealer(See Table 1 for a full breakdown of the amount of articles
from each newspaper present in the study). Eighty-two percent of the articles discussed
adoption locally in the context of community, county or state, and 6% of the articles
discussed adoption locally and nationally.
Table 1
Frequency & Percent of Articles by Source
NewspaperFrequency & Percentof Articles By Source
The Washington Post (47) 23.5%
Los Angeles Times (34) 17%
The New York Times (30) 15%
The Philadelphia Inquirer (26)13%
The Houston Chronicle (22) 11%
TheAtlanta Journal-Constitution(18) 9%
Chicago Sun Times (12) 6%
Plain Dealer (11) 5.5%
Total (N) (200) 100%
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The results of the content analysis of these articles are presented below by
research question:
RQ1: Do newspapers more often use episodic or thematic frames when reporting on
adoption and foster care stories?
The first research question asked if newspapers more often use episodic or
thematic frames when reporting on adoption and foster care stories. Stories coded as
episodic had to profile an individual or group of individuals or discuss a case study. To
be coded thematic, a story had to include two of the following: statistics, survey/data
results, and interviews with individuals who work for adoption organizations or social
service agencies. The majority of the stories, 60% (n=118), were coded episodic,
compared with 7% (n=14) that were coded thematic. Twelve percent (n=25) of stories
utilized both episodic and thematic frames. Twenty-one percent (n=43) of stories did not
use either of the frames.
Frames Used in Stories
An example of a story that contained both an episodic and thematic frame was an
April 2010 feature story in TheNew York Times that discussed the disadvantages many
children experience when they age out of the foster care system at 18 years old. The
Times covered the issue with a thematic frame by providing statistics about the number of
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removed from their home because of the coupless sexuality. These two individuals hired
an attorney and eventually regained custody of and finalized the adoption of the baby, but
their experience left them financially and emotionally drained.
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Table 2
Theme Descriptions and Prevalence
Theme/Story Topic Description Frequency
& Percentof Stories
Changes in Adoption/FosterCare Programs/Budgets
Stories discuss increases, cuts, or changesin adoption or foster care system programs
and/or budgets.
(54) 27%
Crimes and Adopted/FosterChildren
Stories provide details about crimescommitted against or by an adoptive or
foster child. If crime was committed
against a foster child, the crime musthappen while they were in foster care.
(52) 26%
Insufficient System Stories depict an adoption or foster caresystem that is not working. These articles
could discuss how the system is notworking for the children, for the birth
parents, or for the adoptive parents.
(36) 18%
Adoption/Foster CareAdvocate Profile
Stories highlight the contributions of anadoption/foster care advocate or adoptive
parent.
(23) 11%
Unique Adoption Stories Stories describe unique circumstances in
adoption placements.
(17) 8%
Commemorative Events Stories may discuss events surroundingNational Adoption Day, Adoption
Awareness Month activities or
anniversaries of adoption legislation.
(11) 5%
Community Service Activities Stories may describe holiday events or
programs designed to benefit individuals
in the adoption or foster care system.
(10) 5 %
Difficulty of/ Barriers to
Domestic Adoptions
Stories discuss barriers to domestic
adoptions. Examples include financial,geographical, and systemic obstacles.
Another example would be a gay parent
family who encountered problems when
adopting in the United States.
(8) 4%
Note: Percentages total to more than 100% because an article could include more than
one theme.
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RQ2a & RQ2b: What topics were covered most often in an episodic manner? What topics
were covered most often in a thematic manner?
Research question two a, asked what topics were covered most often in an
episodic manner. As demonstrated in Table 3, the majority of coverage for each one of
the eight themes was episodic. However, the three topics with the highest percentage of
episodic coverage were Adoption/Foster Care Advocate Profile, which profiled the
contributions of adoption and foster care advocates and parents; Barriers to Adoption,
which focused on financial, geographical, and other systemic barriers potential adoptive
parents face when trying to adopt domestically; and Crimes and Adopted/Foster Child,
which focused on crimes committed against or by an adopted foster child. Crimes and
Adopted/Foster Care Children was the second largest driver of adoption/foster care
news coverage overall, and 65% of those articles were coded episodic. As noted before, a
main driver of these stories was about a Maryland foster mother who had abused her
three foster children. A portion of the coverage focused on this individuals criminal trial
and testimony from the victims.
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Table 3
Topical Themes by Type of Portrayal
Research question two b, asked what topics were covered most often in a
thematic manner. Table 3 shows that, among the eight themes, Changes in
Adoption/Foster Care Programs/Budgets, which focused on increases, cuts, or changes
in adoption or foster care system programs and/or budgets, and Insufficient System,
which focused on how the system is not working for the children, for the birth parents, or
for the adoptive parents, had the highest percent of thematic coverage at 15% and 11%
respectively. Five of the eight themes never appeared in the coded sample with a solely
thematic portrayal (Adoption Advocate/Parent Profile, Unique Adoption Stories,
Barriers to Adoption, Commemorative Events, and Community Service
Activities), but four of those five themes did appear with a combined episodic and
Theme/Topic Episodic
Portrayal
Thematic
Portrayal
Both
Frames
Neither
Frame
Total
Crimes andAdopted/Foster
Child
(34) 65% (2) 4% (5) 10% (11) 21% (n=52)100%
Changes inPrograms/Budgets
(23) 42% (8) 15% (7) 13% (16) 30% (n=54)100%
Adoption
Advocate/ParentProfile
(18) 78% (0) 0% (0) 0% (5) 22% (n=23)
100%
Unique Adoption
Stories
(10) 59% (0) 0% (3) 18% (4) 23% (n=17)
100%
Barriers toAdoption (6) 75% ()) 0% (1) 12% (1) 12% (n=8)100%
Insufficient
System
(17) 47% (4) 11% (6) 17% (9) 25% (n=36)
100%Commemorative
Events
(5) 45% (0) 0% (3) 27% (3) 27% (n=11)
100%
CommunityService Activities
(5) 50% (0) 0% (4) 40% (1) 10% (n=10)100%
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thematic portrayal (Unique Adoption Stories, Barriers to Adoption, Commemorative
Events, and Community Service Activities).
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Discussion
In 2002, Americans adopted more than 20,000 children from foreign countries.
That number is three times as many as were adopted in 1992. This growing number of
foreign adoptions may be partly explained by inherent flaws in the domestic adoption and
foster care process, including poor customer care and the length of the process (Katz,
2005). This research demonstrated that the media does not adequately report on these
systemic problems. Of the 200 articles examined, only eight mentioned the difficulty of
and barriers to domestic adoptions. The majority of story themes centered on Crimes
and Adoption/Foster Care Children or Changes in Adoption/Foster Care
Programs/Budgets.
The first research question sought to determine if news media more often use
episodic or thematic frames when reporting on stories relating to adoption and foster care.
The results demonstrated that the majority of newspaper coverage, 60%, was episodic,
compared with 7% of the results coded as solely containing thematic frames. The second
research question, which asked what topics were covered most often in an episodic
manner, concluded that Adoption/Foster Care Advocate Profile and Difficulty of/
Barriers to Domestic Adoptions topped the list. While these two themes accounted for a
small percentage of total percentage of topics portrayed, the second largest theme-driver
Crimes and Adopted/Foster Care Children used an episodic frame 65% of the time. The
results of research question two b, which showed that the highest percentage of stories
coded as thematic was only 15%, highlighted just how little reporters solely utilize
thematic frames when reporting on adoption and foster care issues.
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The goal of this research was to determine how the news media reports on
adoption and foster care issues. However, after reviewing the results, perhaps the
research should have focused on what types of adoption and foster care issues are of
interest to the news media. More than a quarter of the stories coded depicted crimes
committed against adopted or foster children or crimes committed by adopted or foster
children. Stories that discussed crimes committed against foster children by their foster
parents often cited faults in the foster parent recruitment process or necessary systematic
changes needed to be made by adoption and foster care workers. Several stories noted
that for some of the foster parents who abused or neglected their foster children, this was
not their first time doing so. One question remains unasked by reporters: Why, with so
many individuals who want to foster or adopt children, are some children continuing to
be placed in dangerous environments or with abusive individuals?
Additionally, many of the stories that depicted crimes committed by foster care
children also described how these individuals had aged out of the system. By the time
they had turned 18 years old, they were no longer in the custody of the state and were
therefore released on their own without the safety net of a family. Rather than
investigating why these kids hadnt been adopted when the statistics show that there are
people wanting to adopt individuals in this age demographic, the reporters chose to focus
on the details of the crime. While not every crime story warrants an explanation of the
perpetrators background, a reporter who acknowledges an individuals background and
felt compelled to note that they were at one time in the foster care system also has the
responsibility to explain to the audience why this tidbit of information is relevant to the
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In his 2005 study, Katz found that over 240,000 Americans call social service
agencies for information about adopting a child from foster care each year. However,
only one in 28 people who call for information about adopting a child actually do so.
Katz analyzed this data and found that many people who seek information about adopting
a child are dismayed by how the system treats them. Despite these documented internal
flaws in the system that discourage would-be foster parents, each year child welfare
agencies spend tens of millions of dollars to recruit families to adopt children from foster
care.
In an attempt to encourage the news media to cover these pressing problems, an
article was published in September 2005 in theNeiman Watchdog: Questions the Press
Should Ask, a report published on behalf of the Neiman Foundation for Journalism at
Harvard University. The article, entitled Overcoming the Barriers to the Adoption of
Foster Children, provided questions that reporters should be asking at the state and
federal levels. These inquiries relate to the training of individuals who answer the initial
telephone call from people interested in becoming foster parents; attrition rates for people
interested in adopting a child from foster care; methods the state uses to measure
customer satisfaction among prospective adoptive parents; steps the federal government
is taking to force states to measure parent satisfaction with the adoption process; and
incentives that federal and state governments can create for individual workers to
facilitate adoptions for children on their caseload. Although some adoption advocates
have created resources like this to assist the media in addressing barriers in the adoption
and foster care system, the results of the content analysis show that the news media has
yet to utilize these tools.
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The results of this study are consistent with research that shows that the media use
episodic frames when reporting on social issues such as adoption and foster care
(Iyengar, 1991). The results also echo a research finding that episodic frames downplay
societal causes and implications and hold individuals accountable (Ott & Aoki, 2002).
Since over a quarter of the articles coded addressed Crimes Committed by or Against
Adoption/Foster Children, one could conclude that a large portion of newspaper
coverage of adoption and foster care is not favorable and depicts adoption participants
and their families in problematic or stigmatizing ways (Kline, Karel & Chatterjee, 2006).
Recommendations
Members of the news media have the opportunity to investigate barriers that
prevent children from being adopted and to raise awareness of these issues among
individuals who have the power to make necessary systemic changes. These types of
stories should include both episodic and thematic frames that highlight the numbers
disparity but also attach a personal face to the issue. However, in order to accurately
report on these systemic problems, adoption and foster care advocates must inform
members of the media of these issues and also provide examples of how they are
affecting individuals trying to adopt children.
The following steps must be taken by adoption and foster care advocates and
organizations to ensure that members of the news media accurately report on adoption
and foster care issues:
Develop a media toolkit for individuals who report on foster care and adoption
issues. Adoption and foster care organizations such as the Evan B. Donaldson Adoption
Institute and the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption have resources available for
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research projects designed to raise awareness about adoption and foster care issues. These
organizations should work with a media relations consultant to develop a toolkit for
members of the news media who report on issues relating to adoption and foster care.
Print and broadcast journalists who focus on these issues could be identified by executing
a Lexis-Nexis search on national coverage relating to adoption and foster care, and by
researching local media outlets that have weekly or monthly adoption feature pieces such
as Wednesdays Child. Items in this toolkit should include: DVD and CD-ROM with
sample broadcast and print stories highlighting barriers in the domestic adoption process
that use both episodic and thematic frames; a one-pager that compares adoption and
foster care myths versus the realities and cites statistics; and a sheet providing contact
information for adoption advocates, experts and individuals who are willing to share their
experiences about encountering barriers to domestic adoptions.
Organize desk-side briefings with members of the media. Adoption and foster care
advocates should organize desk-side briefings with broadcast and print journalists
mentioned above to inform these individuals of the availability of the media toolkit.
These meetings would provide an opportunity to answer any questions that these
journalists have about the information provided. Since research shows that journalists
often use episodic frames when reporting on adoption issues, individuals who have
encountered these obstacles and who are willing to share their personal stories and
experiences can attend these meetings with adoption advocates to help facilitate accurate
coverage.
Publicize barriers to domestic adoptions and availability of toolkit at journalism
conferences and colleges. Adoption advocates can increase awareness of barriers to
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domestic adoptions and availability of the media toolkit by scheduling speaking
engagements or requesting exhibition spaces at professional journalism conferences,
including Society of Professional Journalists and National Journalism Conference and the
Allied Media Conference. In addition, adoption advocates and representatives from
adoption organizations should also contact journalism professors and ask to lead a guest
lecture on media portrayal of adoption and foster care issues. Top journalism schools in
the United States include the University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia University in
New York, and Northwestern University in Chicago.
Capitalize on Media Opportunities for National Adoption Awareness Month.
Adoption advocates must take advantage of opportune events such as National Adoption
Awareness Month in November. Communications professionals who represent adoption
agencies and advocacy organizations should recognize this as a time of celebrating new
families, but also as a time to recognize individuals who are trying to adopt a child.
Working with members of the media, communications professionals could propose
stories that profile families waiting to adopt children instead of solely focusing on
children waiting to be adopted. These types of stories will shift responsibility from the
individual to the system and initiate important dialogue about why children and parents
must both await a family.
Respond to inaccurate portrayals of adoptions and foster care issues. Finally,
adoption advocates must respond to stories that do not accurately portray adoption and
foster care issues. For example, if a reporter covers a crime committed by or against a
foster child, adoption advocates should respond by supplying the storys missing
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information through op-eds, letters to the editor, e-mails to the reporter, and statements
on their organizations website.
Study Limitations & Future Research
This study is not without flaws. There was no definition of or formula for what
constituted a story focusing on adoption. The method section noted that to be classified as
an article, a story must be written by an individual representing the media outlet, or an
adoption advocacy group or organization. The piece must have also focused on real-life
adoption and foster care issues or discussed adoption and foster care as they related to
human beings in the United States. Items that were excluded from the sample included,
movie reviews, articles discussing the adoption of foster care of pets or human beings
from other countries, volunteer advertisements, and Letters to the Editor. However, even
after omitting these pieces, several stories still remained that only briefly discussed
adoption or foster care. The subject matter would have been more relevant had the search
time period been expanded and had it specified that articles had to include the words
adoption or foster care in the headline or lead paragraph.
While the coefficient of reliability for each variable was above 80%, several of
the thematic categories could still be considered subjective. The codebook provided
examples of how each theme may be depicted in stories, but it could be argued that the
themes are broader or more defined than what was represented.
Future research is needed to determine how the medias coverage of adoption and
foster care affects public perception of these issues. The eight media outlets that were the
sources of the 200 articles coded were larger, geographically diverse newspapers.
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However, future researchers should consider examining small media outlets since
domestic adoptions are often completed at the local level.
Researchers should also investigate how adoption features both on television and
in newspapers affect rates of adoption. Every Wednesday the NBC affiliate in
Washington, DC, features a child who needs to be adopted. It would be helpful to not
only examine the content of these segments, but to also interview adoption agencies and
organizations regarding the effectiveness of stories like these. Finally, media who cover
adoption and foster care as well as issue advocates would benefit from learning about the
results of an experiment measuring individuals attitudes and knowledge of adoption and
foster care prior to and after being exposed to episodic and thematic-framed articles that
discuss these issues.
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Appendix
Codebook for Newspaper Articles on Adoption and Foster Care
A.
Article Number:
B.Newspaper:1= Cleveland Plain Dealer
2= Atlanta Journal and Constitution
3= Houston Chronicle
4= Washington Post5= Los Angeles Times
6= New York Times
7= Philadelphia Inquirer8= Chicago Sun Times
Answer: _______
C. Year:1= 2009
2= 2010
Answer: _______
D.NATLOCALLocal scope
Article discusses adoption in the context of community, county, or state
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
National scope
Article discusses adoption in the context of country
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
E. EPINFO
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Does the article profile an individual or group of individuals or discuss a case
study? An example of this would be a story discussing adoption that profiles achild who has been in the adoption or foster care system.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
F. THEMINFO
Does the article include any statistics relating to adoption and foster care?
Example of statistics would be the number of children currently in the foster caresystem, the number of children adopted during a specific time period, the number
of adults seeking to adopt children, etc.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
If yes, how many statistics are mentioned?
Circle one:
1 (one statistic)
2 (two statistics)3 (three statistics)
4 (four or more statistics)
Does the article include any survey data/results relating to adoption and foster
care? Example of survey data/results includes studies with adoption workers,adoptive children, or adoptive parents?
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
Does the article include interviews with individuals who work for adoption
organizations or social service agencies?
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
G. STORYTHEME:
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Please read each of the descriptions below and circle 0 if the article does not
include this theme or 1 if the article does include this theme.
Crimes and Adopted/Foster Care Children:
These stories may provide details about crimes committed against or by an adoptiveor foster child. If the crime was committed against a foster child, the crime must
happen while they were in foster care. Stories that are not included in this theme areones that discuss a crime committed against a child and then mention that the child
was put in foster care or child protective services. If a crime was committed by a
foster child, it does not have to have been committed while they were in a foster care
environment. The article just must note that at one point they were in the foster caresystem.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
Changes in Adoption/Foster Care Programs/Budgets:
These stories discuss increases or cuts in adoption or foster care system programs
and/or budgets.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
Adoption/Foster Care Advocate Profile
These stories highlight the contributions of an adoption/foster care advocate oradoptive parent.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
Unique Adoption Stories:These stories describe unique circumstances in adoption placements. Examples
include profiling older children, children whose ethnicity differed from their adoptive
parents or siblings adopted together.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
Difficulty of/ Barriers to Domestic Adoptions:
These stories discuss barriers to domestic adoptions. Examples include financial,
geographical, and systemic obstacles. Another example would be a gay parent familywho encountered problems when adopting in the United States.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
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Insufficient System:These stories depict an adoption or foster care system that is not working. These
articles could discuss how the system is not working for the children, for the birth
parents, or for the adoptive parents.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
Commemorative Events
These stories may discuss events surrounding National Adoption Day, Adoption
Awareness Month activities or anniversaries of adoption legislation.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
Community Service Activities
These stories may describe holiday events or programs designed to benefitindividuals in the adoption or foster care system.
Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)
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Curriculum Vitae
Elizabeth Hogan received a B.A. in Communication from Saint Louis University.
Elizabeth currently serves as the Communications Manager at the Trust for Americas
Health, a non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicated to saving lives by protecting the
health of every community and working to make disease prevention a national priority.
Elizabeth developed a strong interest in health communication while enrolled in the
Communication graduate program at Johns Hopkins University. Elizabeths related
academic interests include health psychology, stigmatization of mental health issues, and
disease prevention.